University of Northern British Columbia

The three western Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan) are responsible for more than 90 % of the 2017 national total fugitive methane (CH4) emissions from the oil and gas sector. Several survey-based previous studies demonstrated that government estimated CH4 emissions from western Canada’s oil and gas sector are significantly underestimated due to large methodological uncertainties. Most of these survey-based studies were conducted for a limited number of days in a small area; scaling up the short-term results over a larger area for the whole year might lead to emission estimation errors. However, accurate quantification is required to inform effective emission reduction policies in Canada. To improve our understanding of CH4 emissions from the oil and gas sector in western Canada, this Ph.D work has addressed the above problem by using a combination of long-term satellite XCH4 data sets (SCIAMACHY and GOSAT; 2003-2017) and NOAA/ESRL aircraft CH4 measurements, as well as GEOS-Chem CH4 simulation (2010-2017). The overall XCH4 enhancement trend was found to be 6.71 ±4.84 %/yr in western Canada during 2009-2017, which is likely influenced by local oil and gas development activities. The oil and gas CH4 emissions estimation using an ensemble of GOSAT XCH4 data products in a mass balance method demonstrated a fluctuating pattern of emissions in these three provinces during 2009-2017, largely due to diminished oil and gas development activities particularly during 2014-2016. The satellite-based estimated oil and gas CH4 emissions in British Columbia and Saskatchewan are higher than the government inventory by ~200 %, but only higher by ~50 % in Alberta. Although the GOSAT products are suitable for quick and reasonably accurate annual CH4 emissions quantification in western Canada, the GOSAT product is limited in its ability to detect monthly emissions, which is required considering the seasonality of CH4 emissions from major sources. Therefore, further studies particularly with TROPOMI is strongly suggested. Furthermore, the GEOS-Chem based numerical experiments identified emissions from major sources such as wetlands and oil and gas sector are spatially overlapped in the oil and gas dominated areas, particularly during summer, suggesting further oil and gas CH4 emission studies should be carefully conducted.

This practicum report is an integration of self-reflection, current literature, research, theory, and knowledge, based on my Master of Social Work field practicum with the Youth services Team at Carrier Sekani Family Services located in Prince George, British Columbia. This report focuses on the significance of systemic, social, economic, and cultural barriers and the ongoing consequences these obstacles have on the life outcomes for Indigenous youth aging out of care. This report identifies the population currently accessing services at Carrier Sekani Family Services and provides statistical evidence to highlight the significance of this social phenomenon. Furthermore the integration of social work practice with theoretical approaches combined with academic literature relevant to my practicum placement is discussed. Finally, the report concludes with a discussion on relevant learning experiences and the implications certain events can have on personal and professional development.

The purpose of this project was to facilitate Portfolio-Based Language Assessment (PBLA) implementation in the context of government-funded Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) programs through a documentary analysis of four PBLA guiding documents. There are five chapters in this project: Chapter one provided an introduction to PBLA, significance and background of the project, researcher’s personal location, and purpose of the study. Chapter two shed light on some relevant literature on the topic. Three major themes were discussed which include the history of assessment and the gradual shift from summative to formative assessment in language instruction in recent years; the second theme explained PBLA and its salient benefits for learners while the last theme covered theoretical foundations of PBLA and discussed how principles of Assessment for Learning (AFL), principles of classroom-based instruction, and the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) interact to define classroom instruction and assessment. Chapter three discussed research methodology based on qualitative orientation and documentary research design, which reviewed and analyzed four PBLA guidelines text documents. Chapter four presented a teacher-learner friendly action plan for PBLA implementation in the classroom through two sample teaching units, instructional materials and assessment tasks. Chapter five is the summary, conclusion and researcher’s reflections.

Glaciers hold 1.7% of the Earth's total water supply, but they contain 68.7% of its freshwater. Given the global warming trend, accurate and recent inventory is necessary to assess glacial changes over time. However, frequent cloud and debris cover often make it difficult to determine the glacier's exact edge. Multispectral Landsat 8 imagery along with data from the Global Land Ice Velocity Extraction (GoLIVE) project are combined to to create a Bayesian multivariate general additive model of the glaciers surrounding Mount Rainier, with Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) and Gaussian processes used to model the temporal and spatial autocorrelations. Using root mean square error and Watanabe-Akaike information criterion, all 42 combinations of ARMA models up to 4 total parameters and exponential, Matérn 1/2 and spherical covariance kernels were compared. The ARMA(3,1) processes with the exponential Gaussian process kernel was determined to be the best fit model. Gaussian mixture models, hierarchical clustering, hard and soft K-means clustering, and support vector machines are used to classify the posterior distribution. The hard K-means algorithm was the best classifier, and it accurately predicted 85.1% of the glaciers, compared to 68.8% from a univariate classification on the Red/SWIR band ratio.

Understanding forest growth and resilience under global climate change is crucial for forest management, to maintain wood supply for future. In this research, I focused on the response and resilience of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nut)) growth to climate variables and severe drought events at five stands located along northern slopes of the Rockies in northern BC, Canada. Results revealed that temperature (especially summer and previous fall) was the most important climate factor controlling growth of subalpine fir trees at study sites. The lower the latitude, the more summer temperature negatively effected tree growth. Also, results showed that subalpine fir trees were resilient to very dry conditions at study sites, when considering the growth recovery period to drought was between 1 to 2 years. The lower the latitude, the faster the trees recovered from drought. However, subalpine fir trees located at higher latitudes were more resistant to the effects of drought.

This dissertation investigates winter accumulation and snow cover change in the Columbia Mountains of British Columbia. In chapter 1, I start with an introduction that describes the study area, and then outlines the objectives and structure of this dissertation. In chapter 2, I examine the performance of two snow evolution models with different complexities (SnowModel and Alpine3D) at simulating winter glacier mass balance on four individual glaciers using two different forcing datasets, the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) outputs and the North American Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS). My results show that both models can simulate winter accumulation with less than 20% bias for each glacier, with SnowModel forced by WRF yielding the least overall bias. In chapter 3, I study the effect of wind on snow patterns to determine the impact of snow redistribution by wind in terms of erosion, deposition, and sublimation on winter mass balance estimation. The results demonstrate that modelled redistribution of snow by wind produces a visually realistic pattern of snow accumulation when compared to observed snow depth, but its impact on the glacier-averaged winter mass balance estimation is negligible (< 4%). The results also suggest that drifting snow sublimation is highly time and space dependent. Considering the model performance from previous chapters, in chapter 4, I analyzed the future snow cover change over the upper Columbia Basin under the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) climate scenario by the end of the 21st century. I used downscaled climate projections of the Community Earth System Model (CESM1) by WRF, along with statistically downscaled data provided from the Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium (PCIC) to force SnowModel. The simulated snow maps represent a higher dynamically downscaled mean snow water equivalent (SWE) reduction – reaching up to 30% by the end of the century - than the statistically downscaled SWE reduction. While SWE reduction of more than 60% happens at lower and mid-elevations, altitudes higher than 2000 m are less vulnerable to climate change. I conclude this dissertation (Chapter 5) with a summary of the progress gained, study limitations, suggestions for future research, and research implications.

This qualitative inquiry focuses on Canada’s environmental assessment (EA) of the controversial—now defunct—Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipeline as a case study. Adapting Fairclough’s (1992) approach to critical discourse analysis (CDA) as a methodological framework, I investigated how Northern Gateway’s environmental effects were discursively framed and rationalized in relation to climate change, and how these discourses are connected to statutory interpretations and institutional norms. Using frame analysis and argumentation analysis as methods, I examined a corpus of publicly available Joint Review Panel (JRP) documents, federal statutes and official decision statements related to Northern Gateway’s EA. Findings suggest that the convergence of particular discourses, ideologies, institutional power relations, and entrenched discretionary practices tended to marginalize and depoliticize climate change considerations in Northern Gateway’s EA. These dynamics provided a foundation to rhetorically legitimate contentious project-related governance decisions, and arguably expose areas of potential concern in the contemporary EA and climate change context.

This Indigenous-led master’s thesis re-search focuses on my journey of Skidegate Haida language revitalization through Traditional storytelling. Framed by my Skidegate Haida conceptual framework, Ts’uu K’waayGa – “Cedar Sister”, I draw from Jo-Ann Archibald’s (2008) Storywork methodology with the methods of autoethnography and the Mentor Apprentice (MAP) guidelines to articulate my journey. From this, thirteen audio recorded stories (five in my Nanaay’s – Grandmother’s – voice and eight in my own voice) have come from my re-search. These stories are restricted to members of my Skidegate Haida community. Through this reflective re-search, four key themes emerged: “Language Learning is Hard” is an Understatement; Displacement, Discomfort, Relentless Questioning, and Self-Discovery; Your Mind and Spirit Need Time Alone to Reflect; and It is your Responsibility to Fight for your Ancestors

Self-insight has been identified as an important predictor of psychological well-being, and it is commonly believed that self-insight is achieved through self-reflection. However, findings regarding the relationship between self-reflection and self-insight remain largely inconsistent warranting further examination of the determinants of the outcomes of self-reflection. This thesis examined the relationship between self-reflection, self-insight, and psychological wellbeing as a function of individual differences in identity styles, while also considering the roles of rumination and self-compassion. Two hundred and twenty-six emerging adult women (N = 165) and men (N = 61) completed self-report measures of identity styles, self-reflection, self-insight, psychological well-being, rumination, and self-compassion via the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC) Psychology Research Participation System in the time from September 2020 until April 2021. Self-insight and self-compassion partially mediated the positive relationship between informational identity processing and psychological well-being. For users of the diffuse-avoidant and normative identity styles, rumination negatively predicted psychological well-being. This relationship was fully mediated by self-insight and self-compassion. The results are discussed in terms of the roles of self-reflection, self-insight, and self-compassion in fostering psychological well-being. Findings highlight the importance of self-compassion as a precedent in order to adaptively self-reflect, gain self-insight and increase psychological well-being. Any attempts at increasing self-insight that are not done in a self-compassionate way pose a risk to an individual’s psychological well-being; this risk is especially high when diffuse-avoidant or normative identity processing is used. The primary implication is that a consideration of self-compassion is warranted in therapy and other practices relying on self-reflection.

Autonomous Vehicles are the future of road transportation where they can increase safety, efficiency, and productivity. In this thesis, we address a new edge case in autonomous driving when one autonomous vehicle is approached by an emergency vehicle and needs to make the best decision. To achieve the desired behavior and learn the sequence decision process, we trained our autonomous vehicle with the help of Deep Reinforcement Learning algorithms and compared the results with rule-based algorithms. The driving environment for this study was developed by using Simulation Urban Mobility as an open-source traffic simulator. The proposed solution based on Deep Reinforcement Learning has a better performance compared to the rule-based solution as a baseline both in normal driving situations and when an emergency vehicle is approaching.

Oil was discovered in Nigeria in1956 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta Region after almost 50 years of exploration. Shell-BP at that time, was the sole concessionaire because non-British companies were not given exploration license to operate in Nigeria. After Nigerian Independence in 1960, exploration rights were extended to other multinational oil companies. More than 16 multinational oil companies were in operation with little or no supervision from the Nigerian Government, which created significant environmental, political,and social impact in the region. A critical discourse analysis of documents from Shell, Amnesty International, THISDAY Newspaper revealed that the Nigerian government has failed to safeguard the environment and the lives of the people. On the basis of evidence presented on this research, in addition to literature, it can be argued that oil has turned out to be a curse to the Niger Delta Region and Nigeria in general.

Demystifying the story of food – from seed to store to stomach and how that cycle perpetuates – is a core tenet of food literacy and the central aim of this project. While exposure to environmental issues is critical to developing awareness, young learners are often burdened with crisis-laden facts about the state of our world and our food systems. Approaching difficult subjects using a narrative approach is one way to mitigate this burden. In this project, children’s literature that centres on farms and food production/food gathering in settler and Indigenous contexts is used as a launching pad for discussions about food security. Food is an enduring theme in children’s and young adult literature, and is particularly prevalent in narratives from the past, where food gathering and production are often rooted in their environmental contexts. These food narratives provide a pathway for young readers to critically investigate contemporary environmental concerns from a safe space. This project investigates how children’s literature can be used as part of a critical food pedagogy to enhance the food literacy of young learners and encourage them to find common ground between the physical world and the worlds they read. In locating, analyzing, and experiencing food environments in literature via an affective, indirect approach, food literacy - which is foundational to the development of environmentally responsible behaviour – is enhanced.

Despite the existence of universal health care for Canadians, health inequalities persist. Those residing in rural regions of Canada may be at a disadvantage for accessing appropriate services. To enhance access, a teletrauma program was implemented in the Robson Valley, connecting rural clinicians during emergency cases. This study was undertaken to better understand the experiences of teletrauma users and why teletrauma is utilized. Data were gathered from 14 interviews with clinicians, health administrators, a researcher, and a health executive. Guided by interpretive description methodology, four major themes emerged, including: teletrauma affects the entire system of care; teletrauma enables a network of care built on interprofessional relationships; reasons clinicians use teletrauma are multifaceted and interrelated; and, interconnectedness of the healthcare system. Information from this study provides insight into the role and function of teletrauma in northern British Columbia and how it may better serve the needs of rural clinicians.

Diabetes mellitus is an international epidemic affecting millions of individuals worldwide. In Canada, an estimated 3.4 million individuals are living with diabetes mellitus— approximately 9.3 percent of the total population (Canadian Diabetes Association, 2018). A high prevalence of diabetes mellitus comes with a substantial cost; the direct annual cost associated with diabetes mellitus is expected to reach 3.1 billion dollars by 2020 (Bilandzic & Rosella, 2017). The Canadian Pediatric Society recognizes that there are currently 33,000 children and adolescents aged 5-18 years old living with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) (as cited in the Diabetic Children’s Foundation, 2018). As children and adolescents with T1DM are in the process of developing physically and psychologically, they are at an increased risk of developing complications of diabetes that require short to long term attention and monitoring. The utilization of mobile technology to provide healthcare services is commonly referred to as mHealth. Such technology offers an opportunity to address the challenges of chronic disease management with this technology- intelligent population (Kitsiou, Paré, Jaana, & Gerber, B. 2017). As a component of the Master of Science in Nursing- Nurse Practitioner program at the University of Northern British Columbia, the following is an integrative review to answer the research question: Can mHealth, when monitored by a primary care provider, maintain hemoglobin A1c values in target range with adolescents between the ages of 10-19 diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus?

This practicum report explores a social work role at the Ministry of Children and Family Development’s Youth Forensic Psychiatric Services (YFPS), located at the North Region Outpatient Clinic in Prince George, British Columbia. YFPS receives referrals through court orders and probation officers to offer comprehensive assessment and treatment services to youth who are involved with the youth criminal justice system. Youth may become involved with the justice system for various reasons and, once involved with the justice system, have multiple options for treatment and/ or rehabilitation. This report explores some of the resources youth may become involved with and how social workers through YFPS play a role in supporting youth in the justice system. The main goal of my graduate practicum was to broaden my social work skills by exposing myself to a new social work field and client population. Within this larger goal, my learning objectives focused on increasing knowledge and skills in conducting and writing assessments and broadening my clinical knowledge, as well as focusing on how my work at YFPS fit into Trauma-Informed and Anti-Oppressive lenses. Overall, I was able to develop new skills and work collaboratively to offer comprehensive services to youth who were involved in the justice system.

This report summarizes my practicum experience at Aatse Davie School in Fort Ware, British Columbia, on the traditional territory of the Kwadacha Nation. This K-12 school is located in one of the most remote areas in British Columbia and has approximately 100 students. I expanded and developed senior and junior boys’ groups, while also exploring program development as a social worker in a remote school location. My practicum firstly introduced electronics to these students as part of a STEM extracurricular activity and secondly explored areas of Indigenous masculinity. This report explores my practicum goals, accomplishments, and learnings, and then concludes with suggestions for future social workers and contributions to social work practice which emerged from my learning as part of my practicum experience.

A Master of Social Work practicum at Walmsley and Validity Counselling was completed in support of my desire to advance my general clinical skills and integrate Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) into my personal practice model. This report begins with a placing of self and localization of practice considerations to northern British Columbia. A literature review on DBT is provided as context for reflection on my learning goals, which explore topics of professional drift, private versus non-profit organization models, northern practice considerations, component versus comprehensive DBT practice, and the cultural safety of mindfulness and acceptance-based therapies. The wisdom and skills gained from this experience, particularly the integration of DBT-informed therapy into my personal practice model, are reviewed in chapters on learning outcomes and implications for practice. This practicum resulted in a strong desire to continue to practice emotion and family focused social work in Prince George, British Columbia.

Through my practicum, I explored the role of a child and youth mental health clinician (CYMH) while also expanding and adapting my clinical skills and therapeutic modalities. Early childhood development and trauma have shown to have tremendous influence over the onset of future mental health concerns, while epigenetics and biology also play a key role in the development of potential neurological disorders. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Mindfulness and Expressive Arts Therapy were investigated within the realm of mental health. These modalities are actively used as therapeutic tools within CYMH. This practicum report expands on the role of trauma within mental health, exploring holistic approaches such as Expressive Arts Therapy and meditation in concurrence with CBT and MBSR to facilitate deeper understanding of a person’s narrative through their own creative and subjective experience. While pharmacology helps keep symptomology at a baseline, it is the coping and regulation tools that are needed to help a person navigate their own internal processes and stress modulation in order to achieve post-traumatic growth.

This practicum report describes my experience of working with adults who presented with mental health concerns at the Primary Care Interprofessional Team (PCIPT) at Northern Interior Health Unit, Prince George. Primary care is a relatively new model in health care that seeks to move away from the old practice where treatment of mental illness was mostly provided by the general practitioners. Primary health care relies on the contributions of team members to work collaboratively to address the different needs of the clients. The purpose of my practicum was to find out how clients benefit when different disciplines work together to improve their health outcome. This report described my learning goals and objectives and how they were met through observation, reflection, and practice. The practicum experience also enabled me to further develop my social work skills and have an understanding of how mental health problems affect individual wellbeing.

The goal of this research study was to investigate listening comprehension and demonstrate how a listening comprehension intervention could lead to improvement. This study intended to contribute to the knowledge base of research with elementary-aged students while providing educators with guidance in teaching listening. Two Grade 5 classes comprised of the participant groups; one class served as the intervention group, while the other class served as the control group. This study followed a quantitative research methodology using a quasi-experimental design that included pretesting and posttesting in listening and reading. Statistical analysis using t-tests compared the groups. The findings of this study did not achieve statistical significance but resulted in several educational significances. The implications of this study indicate that the task of designing an age-appropriate course and measuring improvement is challenging. Subsequent research in the area of listening comprehension course development and test development for this age group is recommended.

Developing high school curriculums that promote positive mental health by fostering connection and meaning is an important undertaking. This project explores the role that Nature Therapy and trauma informed practice can play in guiding curriculum development. To do this the contextual realities the Learning Support Center at Prince George Secondary School are explored and a brief literature review on the topics of Nature Therapy and adolescent based Trauma counselling is completed. The final component of this project is the completion of a School District 57 Board Authorized Course Template that integrates elements of Nature Therapy, trauma informed practice and school connectedness with curricular content.

Out of pocket (OOP) healthcare expenditures can be burdening for persons of low socioeconomic status. Little is known about socioeconomic, demographic, and health disparity in OOP healthcare expenditures in Canada. This thesis examines the trends of OOP healthcare expenditures during the 2004-2015 period in Canadian provinces using microdata files from the Canadian Research Data Center through the University of Northern British Columbia, and describes the association of OOP healthcare expenditures with various socioeconomic, demographic, and pre-existing health factors. It also estimates the contribution of these factors to the share of OOP healthcare expenditures to incomes. Regression results reveal that the share of OOP healthcare expenditures to incomes are negatively related to income, but positively related to old age, being married, larger household sizes, and pre-existing health conditions. Also, OOP healthcare expenditures are generally higher for female Canadians, and for persons residing in the provinces of Quebec, Alberta and New Brunswick.

Campus Sport Centres are important for university or college to retain and recruit student body, faculty, staff, and community memberships. It is important for these institutions to implement effective strategic plans that meet the needs of customers and stakeholders while remaining financially independent. The study determines how a campus sport centre can become financially self-sustaining without the need of government funding to support the operations of the facility while delivering value to its customers and stakeholders. The study used the Charles Jago Northern Sport Centre (CJNSC) of the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC) as the case organization. The strategic priority for the CJNSC is to become a financially self-sustaining facility to cover costs associated with its aging facility. Through the review of secondary data and some primary data, the study identified eight key revenue streams that could be implemented by the CJNSC. These include; 1) increases to the percentage of UNBC student recreation and fitness fees that the CJNSC receives, 2) increased fees to programming and memberships, 3) forming strategic alliances, 4) space utilization, 5) sport tourism planning with seasonality of facility booking space, 6) cancellation fees for memberships, 7) a membership pricing strategy, 8) naming rights. It was determined through the case organization that reducing expenses would not have the long-term benefit for the CJNSC and only existing and new revenues would satisfy the goal of being financially self-sustaining. This information is provided through an integrative framework that could be used as a template or tool by other organizations of similar structure and system as the CJNSC to develop their sports centers for successful outcomes.

The purpose of this project is to provide a handbook for classroom and special education teachers. This handbook is to assist teachers helping their students with ASD to develop reading comprehension skills. This project begins with background information regarding ASD and prevalence rates for ASD along with a discussion about reading comprehension. A literature review outlines the difficulties students with ASD have with reading comprehension and examines the specific areas with which students struggle. An outline of how the project is structured is given and finally a handbook is presented that outlines strategies for teachers to use for each area of deficit which students may encounter. The handbook provides a variety of strategies for each area identified.