RURAL YOUTH MIGRATION PLANNING:
THE COMPLEX STORY IN TUMBLER RIDGE, BRITISH COLUMBIA
by
Jessica Froese
B.A., University of Northern British Columbia, 2023

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
IN
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
June 2025
© Jessica Froese, 2025

Abstract
Rural and small-town places across Canada have been undergoing rapid sociodemographic and
economic changes since the early 1980s. These changes are the product of the 1980s recession
which fostered neoliberal public policies that reduced the role of the state and effectively shifted
government initiatives away from community-building. Many communities in northern BC were
originally developed to house the working families of the post-war natural resource economy.
Since then, service infrastructure has aged, the original workforce is retiring, and many youth
and young families have migrated out of these communities. In the context of a changing rural,
out-migration of local youth and little in-migration of young people has long been identified as a
pressing issue. My research explored the migration plans of senior high school students through
a mixed methods exploratory case study of Tumbler Ridge, BC. The focus was exploring senior
high school students’ feelings about staying, leaving, or returning to their community, and what
factors contribute to those decisions. Economic opportunities are often assumed to be the most
significant factor in youth migration planning, but my findings speak to differences in youth’s
priorities. While education and employment were the drivers of youth out-migration, quality of
life and sense of place were the most significant factors in determining where youth planned to
migrate, and why. My research broadens the dialogue on what rural youth are seeking in their
communities.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Youth Migration in a Changing Rural Landscape ................................................................ 2
1.2 Research Objectives and Questions ...................................................................................... 3
1.3 Thesis Outline ....................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Rural Community Context .................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Resource Towns in Northern BC ................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Rural Economic Change ................................................................................................ 7
2.1.3 Rural Service Infrastructure and Provision .................................................................. 10
2.1.4 Rural Community Development .................................................................................. 12
2.1.5 The Future of Rural and Small-Town Places ............................................................... 14
2.2 Resident Recruitment and Retention .................................................................................. 16
2.2.1 Push Factors ................................................................................................................. 17
2.2.2 Mitigating Factors ........................................................................................................ 19
2.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 3: Research Methodology................................................................................................ 22
3.1 Qualitative Research ........................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Community-Based Research ............................................................................................... 24
3.3 Case Study Research ........................................................................................................... 25
3.4 Mixed Methods Research ................................................................................................... 26
3.5 Researcher Positionality...................................................................................................... 28
3.5.1 Insider/Outsider Status of the Researcher .................................................................... 29
3.6 Research Methods ............................................................................................................... 30
3.6.1 Observations and Field Notes ...................................................................................... 31
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3.6.2 Community Visits ........................................................................................................ 32
3.7 Primary Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 33
3.7.1 Key Informant Interviews ............................................................................................ 33
3.7.2 Focus Groups ............................................................................................................... 36
3.7.3 Participant Sampling .................................................................................................... 37
3.8 Secondary Data Collection ................................................................................................. 38
3.8.1 Community Documents ............................................................................................... 39
3.8.2 Quantitative Data ......................................................................................................... 40
3.9 Data Management ............................................................................................................... 41
3.10 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 41
3.11 Methodological Trustworthiness ...................................................................................... 43
3.11.1 Ethics.......................................................................................................................... 44
3.11.2 Rigour ........................................................................................................................ 44
3.11.3 Triangulation .............................................................................................................. 45
3.11.4 Validity ...................................................................................................................... 45
3.11.5 Reliability................................................................................................................... 46
3.12 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 46
Chapter 4: The District of Tumbler Ridge .................................................................................... 47
4.1 Case Study Selection........................................................................................................... 47
4.2 Context and History ............................................................................................................ 47
4.3 Economy and Employment ................................................................................................. 52
4.4 Demography ........................................................................................................................ 56
4.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 5: Results ......................................................................................................................... 66
5.1 Resident Recruitment and Retention Initiatives ................................................................. 66
5.1.1 Current Initiatives ........................................................................................................ 66
5.1.2 Past Initiatives .............................................................................................................. 70
5.2 Education ............................................................................................................................ 73
5.2.1 Education Goals and Plans........................................................................................... 73
5.2.2 Education Linked to Migration .................................................................................... 75
5.2.3 Community Education Support ................................................................................... 77
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5.2.1 Education as a Push Factor .......................................................................................... 81
5.3 Employment ........................................................................................................................ 83
5.3.1 Employment Goals and Plans ...................................................................................... 83
5.3.2 Youth Attitudes Towards Employment ....................................................................... 84
5.3.3 Community Employment Support ............................................................................... 86
5.3.4 Perceptions of Local Employment Opportunity .......................................................... 89
5.4 Community ......................................................................................................................... 91
5.4.1 Housing ........................................................................................................................ 91
5.4.2 Services ........................................................................................................................ 93
5.4.3 Recreation .................................................................................................................... 97
5.4.4 Community Planning, Amenities, and Remoteness ................................................... 103
5.5 Sense of Place ................................................................................................................... 105
5.5.1 Small-Town Lifestyle and Social Connections.......................................................... 105
5.5.3 Natural Environment and Outdoor Recreation .......................................................... 109
5.5.5 Community Culture ................................................................................................... 110
5.5.4 The Influence of Childhood Experiences on Migration Decisions ............................ 118
Chapter 6: Discussion ................................................................................................................. 120
6.1 Youth Sense of Place in Migration Planning .................................................................... 120
6.1.1 Youth Education Goals .............................................................................................. 123
6.1.2 Youth Employment Goals.......................................................................................... 125
6.2 Youth Readiness ............................................................................................................... 126
6.3 Rural Youth Retention ...................................................................................................... 129
6.3.1 Fostering Youth’s Connections to Community ......................................................... 129
6.3.2 Economic and Community Development Gaps ......................................................... 134
6.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 137
Chapter 7: Conclusion................................................................................................................. 139
7.1 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 139
7.2 Lessons Learned................................................................................................................ 142
7.2.1 Recommendations ...................................................................................................... 143
7.2.2 Transferability ............................................................................................................ 145
7.3 Opportunities for Future Research .................................................................................... 146
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7.4 Closing .............................................................................................................................. 148
References ................................................................................................................................... 149
Appendix 1: Research Ethics ...................................................................................................... 169
1.1 Research Ethics Board Project Approval .......................................................................... 169
1.2 Research Ethics Board Amendment Approval ................................................................. 170
1.3 Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans Certificate........................................... 171
1.4 Letter of Permission: School District 59 ........................................................................... 172
1.5 Letter of Permission: District of Tumbler Ridge .............................................................. 173
Appendix 2: Interview Materials ................................................................................................ 174
2.1 Information and Consent Form for Community Organizations ........................................ 174
2.2 Interview Guide for Community Organizations ............................................................... 177
2.3 Information and Consent Form for Teachers .................................................................... 180
2.4 Interview Guide for Teachers ........................................................................................... 183
Appendix 3: Focus Group Materials ........................................................................................... 186
3.1 Recruitment Poster ............................................................................................................ 186
3.2 Information and Consent Form for Youth ........................................................................ 187
3.3 Focus Group Guide ........................................................................................................... 190

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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Interview Participants by Sector ................................................................................... 35
Table 3.2 Focus Group Participants .............................................................................................. 37
Table 3.3 Community Documents Reviewed ............................................................................... 40
Table 4.1 Select Economic Characteristics 1991, 2016, and 2021 ............................................... 56
Table 5.1 List of Community Centre Youth Programs and Special Events, Spring 2024 ............ 98
Table 5.2 List of Community Centre Youth Programs and Special Events, Summer 2024 ......... 98

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List of Figures
Figure 4.1 Map Showing the Location of Tumbler Ridge ............................................................ 49
Figure 4.2 Map Showing the Street Design of Tumbler Ridge .................................................... 51
Figure 4.3 Tumbler Ridge Total Population from 1986 to 2021 .................................................. 57
Figure 4.4 Tumbler Ridge 1991 Population Pyramid ................................................................... 58
Figure 4.5 Tumbler Ridge 2001 Population Pyramid ................................................................... 59
Figure 4.6 Tumbler Ridge 2021 Population Pyramid ................................................................... 60
Figure 4.7 Age Distribution of Tumbler Ridge, 1986 to 2021 ..................................................... 61
Figure 4.8 Highest Level of Education Attained in Tumbler Ridge for the Population Aged 15
Years and Over, 1986 to 2021 ...................................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.9 Highest Level of Education Attained in BC for the Population Aged 15 Years and
Over, 1986 to 2021 ....................................................................................................................... 64

viii

Acknowledgements
This research inspired and challenged me in more ways than I had imagined, and I am not
emerging from this experience the same as when I began – this is the beauty of graduate school.
Thank you to the youth of Tumbler Ridge who shared their perspectives, stories, plans, and
dreams with me. Your knowledge and passion gave this research meaning. Thank you also to the
Tumbler Ridge community members who shared their experiences through interviews and other
conservations. I am grateful for all of those who welcomed me into such a special community.
To Greg, thank you for your unwavering belief in me and this work. Your steady guidance
allowed me to tell this important story. You have instilled a passion in me for places very
different from where I grew up, and I hope to mirror your dedication to northern BC throughout
my life and work.
To Sarah, thank you for seeing my passion and providing me with opportunities outside of this
thesis to explore and develop. I am very grateful for your shared enthusiasm of all things rural –
and your sage advice on navigating NVivo. To Angele, thank you for your kindness and
encouragement, I treasure our conversations on the nuances of identity and sense of place.
I must thank the Geography Department which has been my home for the last six years through
two degrees and the entirety of my twenties thus far. Thank you to the professors, lecturers, and
colleagues that expanded my worldview, complicated my ethics, and made me believe I could do
this. To Cyan, thank you for showing me that empathy is a superpower for Geographers.
To Mackenzie, thank you for cheering the loudest for every success, no matter how small. The
care and dedication that you pour into your research continues to inspire me and I am incredibly
grateful to have navigated this journey alongside you.
To Matt, thank you for your steady encouragement and patience. You supported me through the
happiest and hardest moments of this degree but never let me question it. This success is yours to
share.
To my family, thank you for listening to my excited rambles, triumphs, and moments that felt
like failures. To Katie and Riley, I’m sorry this journey took me away from you; in many ways,
this research was about you, too. To Dad and Rhonda, thank you for showing me how to chase
my dreams and make them happen. To Mom and Mark, thank you for fostering a love and
curiosity for the people and places around me and never making me feel bad when it took me
720 km away. I love you all.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Youth Migration in a Changing Rural Landscape
Rural and small-town places across Canada have been undergoing rapid
sociodemographic and economic changes since the early 1980s (Halseth et al., 2019; Markey et
al., 2008a; Markey et al., 2012). These changes are the product of the 1980s recession which
fostered neoliberal public policies that reduced the role of the state and their public sector
involvement, offloaded government assets, contracted out services, and effectively shifted
government initiatives away from community-building (Markey et al., 2019; Ryser & Halseth,
2014). Many communities in northern British Columbia (BC) were originally developed to house
the working families of the post-war natural resource economy. Since then, service infrastructure
has aged, the original workforce is retiring, and many youth and young families have migrated
out of these communities (Barnes et al., 1999; Halseth & Ryser, 2018; Markey et al., 2008b). At
the same time, significant economic transition is occurring as the natural resource economy
becomes increasingly digitalized, reducing the number of required rural and small-town workers
(Halseth, 2016; Storey & Hall, 2018; Storey, 2023). The changing resource economy combined
with an unsuitable service infrastructure has changed the nature of rural and small-town places
for the young people seeking employment and quality of life within them (Smith & Power, 2021;
Sullivan et al., 2014).
In the context of a changing rural, out-migration of local youth and little in-migration of
young people has long been identified as a pressing issue, contributing to the aging and shrinking
of many rural communities. The most commonly cited reasons for young people to leave their
home community are education and employment opportunities, as well as recreational, social,
and lifestyle factors (Liu, 2015; McLay & Foster, 2023; Robichaud, 2014). However, the

2

majority of literature on rural youth migration in Canada comes from the east coast (e.g., Looker,
2021; MacBride, 2014; McLay & Foster, 2023) and there is a small body of literature from
Ontario (e.g., Avis, 2013; Liu, 2015; Robichaud, 2014). There is little representation of BC, and
even less that focuses on resource towns, outside of declining Atlantic fisheries communities.
My research seeks to fill this gap by exploring the issue of rural youth migration through a
mixed-methods exploratory case study of Tumbler Ridge, BC. The focus was exploring senior
high school students’ feelings about staying, leaving, or returning to their community.
Tumbler Ridge was selected as the case study because the District of Tumbler Ridge
expressed concern about local youth out-migration following high school graduation, a lack of
influx of other youth, and a desire for economic and community development geared towards
young people. Additionally, Tumbler Ridge is a resource town with a significant reliance on their
natural resource economy, has an aging resource workforce, and experiences high levels of
population fluctuation. This research is relevant to Tumbler Ridge to improve their
understanding of local youth migration, relevant to other rural and small-town places across BC
struggling with youth retention, and relevant to the academic literature as an important part of the
rural story.
1.2 Research Objectives and Questions
This research will contribute to the rural community development literature by bringing
the voices of local youth into discussions about how we can re-imagine small places as inclusive
and how we can empower local youth to play a role in the future of their community. In this
research, youth is defined as teens between 15 and 19 years old because their experiences are
unique from those of children and young adults. The objective of this research is to explore
senior high school students’ experiences of being a young person in Tumbler Ridge and how

3

these experiences contribute to their future migration decisions. This research explored youth’s
feelings about staying, leaving, or returning to their community following high school
graduation, and what aspects of Tumbler Ridge push or pull those decisions. As my research was
designed to amplify the voices of current Tumbler Ridge youth, local youth retention rather than
recruitment was the focus.
Following conversations with community stakeholders in Tumbler Ridge during my
initial visit in early April 2024, my three research questions are:
1. What are the push/pull factors of Tumbler Ridge for young people?
2. What are the future education, employment, and migration goals of youth in Tumbler
Ridge?
3. How is Tumbler Ridge supporting local youth (or not)?
1.3 Thesis Outline
This thesis is organized into seven chapters. Following this introduction, the second
chapter reviews the relevant literatures that frame this research, including rural community
change, resident recruitment and retention, and youth sense of place. The third chapter describes
the research methodologies and methods from guiding frameworks to data collection and
analysis. The fourth chapter provides a case study overview, discussing the history, economy,
and demography and Tumbler Ridge. The fifth chapter presents the results of the interviews and
focus groups. The sixth chapter discusses the research results in the context of the literature and
presents recommendations for Tumbler Ridge and other rural communities. Finally, the seventh
chapter provides a summarized response to each research question, considers the lessons learned
from this research, and presents opportunities for future research.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
My research explores community change and rural youth migration in Tumbler Ridge to
better understand what aspects of community matter most to senior high school students. To
accomplish this research, two bodies of literature have been reviewed in-depth to build
contextual knowledge for the study. First, theoretical and empirical research on the social,
cultural, political, and economic context of northern BC was reviewed, including literature on
rural community development. The second body of literature focuses on resident recruitment and
retention in rural and small-town places in Canada, with a special focus on youth, including rural
youth’s sense of place.
2.1 Rural Community Context
2.1.1 Resource Towns in Northern BC
The rural landscape of Canada prior to the Second World War was sporadic with uneven
levels of community development and service availability. Following the major highs and lows
of the 1920s to the 1950s, Canada entered an era of ‘nation-building’ characterized by Keynesian
public policy approaches that allowed the state to be heavily involved in economic and
community development (Gibson & Barrett, 2018). In the early 1950s, the political goal of these
policies was to address two imperatives: 1) the re-employment of millions of soldiers, and 2)
addressing the massive infrastructure deficits to transition from wartime industrial production to
consumer goods (Halseth et al., 2019). In BC, the goal was accomplished through a model of
industrial resource development, resulting in a 25-to-30-year period (1950s to 1980s) of rapid
economic and community growth (Halseth et al., 2019; Markey et al., 2008a). Under this setting,
many new resource towns were created across the northern BC landscape under the Instant
Towns Act (1965), the most recent being Tumbler Ridge, constructed in 1981 to accommodate a

5

locally based mining workforce (Storey & Hall, 2018). These resource towns were developed to
build both the natural resource economy and the provincial population.
The development of resource towns in northern BC and continued reliance of the region
on the natural resource economy has many theoretical explanations, including staples theory and
evolutionary economic geography. Staples theory, first developed by Harold Innis in the early
1900s (Hayter & Barnes, 1990), and then adapted by Watkins (1963), describes patterns of
uneven economic development over space and time, and the “peripheral role extraction
economies assume within the global economy” (Markey et al., 2019, p.26). According to Argent
(2017), Innis’s staples theory includes three major elements: 1) geography, which shapes the
development fortunes of staples-dependent areas through the physical resource base and broader
physical environment which determines access to those resources; 2) institutions, which
determine access to natural resources and provide the large initial investment for resource
development to take place; and 3) technology, which controls the demand and supply of staples
commodities and the transport of the resources.
Staples regions are prone to volatility because they are vulnerable to external forces,
characterized by what the literature calls, the staples ‘trap’ (Argent, 2017; Ryser et al., 2019).
This trap exists because of the inherent dependence of staples regions upon the demand of
external markets, embedding a certain level of economic vulnerability. Staples regions also
experience dependence on external sources for the large capital investment required to fund the
high costs of natural resource development (Markey & Halseth, 2017). This funding is often in
the form of foreign investment, stripping local autonomy over resource economies and
contributing to what Innis coined as ‘truncated development’ (Markey et al., 2008a). Building
off this issue of control, Ryser et al. (2019) state that natural resource development activities

6

typically occur on Crown land governed by the provincial government. Under this model, local
governments have no access or control over the fiscal resources to address the social and
infrastructure pressures of resource development, including its boom-bust cycles, or to chart new
development pathways (Ryser et al., 2019). Powerful structural and behavioural processes
produce and reproduce the staples trap as it becomes part of the rural local identity, impacting
local cultural practices and politics (Argent, 2017).
Evolutionary economic geography (EEG) builds off staples theory but allows more space
for human agency in the discussion of rural restructuring (Markey & Halseth, 2017). While
staples theory is concerned with economic relationships, EEG is concerned with analyzing
economic change over space and time (Argent, 2017; Markey et al., 2019). In addition to the
economic relationship of geography, institutions, and technology in staples theory, EEG also
recognizes behavioural factors which impact how economic systems are shaped by actors,
including individuals, companies, and institutions. Like the staples trap, EEG describes the path
dependence faced by resource towns (Ryser et al., 2019), referring to “past applications of
specific technologies, previous rounds of investment, sunk costs, dynamic increasing returns,
historical institutional structures, and social routines” (Argent, 2017, p.24) locking regions into a
particular development trajectory.
2.1.2 Rural Economic Change
The post-war era in northern BC saw the development of many communities to house the
working families of the natural resource economy. This development can be partially accredited
to the election of the WAC Bennett’s conservative Social Credit Party in 1952 with their clear
policies of province building and public investment (Markey et al., 2008a). This period of
economic and community development spurred the creation of many resource industry towns in

7

northern BC (Storey & Hall, 2018; Williston & Keller, 1997). The public investments during this
time were focused on “transforming a sporadically settled hinterland into an integrated economic
and political landscape” (Markey et al., 2008a, p.414). The post-war era of economic and
community growth lasted around 30 years until the early 1980s.
The 1980s marks another development era of considerable economic restructuring. The
pressures of an increasingly globalized economy, on-going trade disputes, and a global recession
contributed to the adoption of a neoliberal public policy approach (Ryser et al., 2021). This
approach liberalized property rights and market regulations, reduced barriers for the mobility of
natural resource companies, and increased access to natural resources across the world (Halseth
et al., 2019). While the state still pursued natural resource development in northern BC, the focus
shifted from community-building to lowering costs of production, resulting in state withdrawal
in both social and economic terms (Gibson & Barrett, 2018; Halseth & Ryser, 2018).
The restructuring of the natural resource economy in the 1980s contributed to layoffs and
closures, altering employment patterns, and replacing the post-war industry experience of growth
and stability with intense economic fluctuations known as boom-bust cycles (Markey et al.,
2008a). The post-1980s also saw changes in the demands for the availability and mobility of
labour as companies transitioned from single industry towns to relying on mobile drive-in/driveout or fly-in/fly-out workforces (Storey & Hall, 2018). As a result, northern BC began losing
rural population for the first time since the Second World War, impacting the region’s age
structure with aging adults and the net loss of youth, a challenge that rural communities are still
grappling with today. More recently, the natural resource economy is becoming increasingly
digitalized reducing the number of required rural and small-town workers (Halseth, 2016; Storey
& Hall, 2018). While digitalization can contribute to increased worker safety, increased

8

productivity, and cost savings, the impacts on rural and small-town places are significant. Not
only will many jobs become remote and re-locate to major cities, but many entry level jobs,
primarily located where the resource extraction takes place, will be lost (Storey, 2023).
Reduced financial support and increased downloading of government responsibilities
through state downloading of service and infrastructure responsibilities further impacts rural and
small-town places in northern BC (Ryser et al., 2019; Markey et al., 2008a). Increased
responsibility for local governments to provide community infrastructure and service needs
requires a robust local economy, but the significant economic changes occurring in the natural
resource economy inhibit this. Further, the revenues of resource development are isolated from
the costs associated with its success in the areas where natural resource extraction occurs. Senior
government and natural resource companies acquire revenue while local governments bear the
cost of the ongoing instability of boom-bust cycles (Ryser et al., 2021). Development costs for
natural resource communities can be exacerbated by a mobile workforce which can strain
services such as housing and healthcare without contributing to the local tax base. Moreover, it is
difficult for local governments to recoup the costs of natural resource development with capped
municipal property taxes and reduced corporate tax rates. This applies if resource development
activities even occur within municipal boundaries or if there is a benefit agreement in place
(Gunton & Markey, 2021; Ryser et al., 2019). The changing resource economy combined with
state downloading of responsibility to local governments has transformed the nature of rural and
small-town places for the people seeking employment and quality of life within them (Smith &
Power, 2021; Sullivan et al., 2014).

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2.1.3 Rural Service Infrastructure and Provision
Prior to the Second World War, service availability and delivery in rural and small-town
places across Canada was characterized by unevenness. Rural communities were entirely
responsible for infrastructure and service provision, aside from major state infrastructure such as
railroads. As a result, wealthier communities could provide better services, including healthcare
and education, which led to better community futures than those of less wealthy communities
(Halseth et al., 2019). This unequal service pattern was restructured following the Second World
War through extensive welfare state service investments in areas such as health, education,
transportation, and recreation (Gibson & Barrett, 2018; Halseth & Williams, 1999; Ryser &
Halseth, 2014).
Since the 1980s however, rural and small-town places across Canada have been
undergoing rapid sociodemographic and economic changes (Halseth et al., 2019; Markey et al.,
2008a; Markey et al., 2012). These changes are the product of the 1980s global recession which
fostered neoliberal public policies under the false assumption that economic and social goals
could be separated (Gibson & Barrett, 2018). The transition from a Keynesian to neoliberal
public policy approach reduced the role of the state and their public sector involvement,
offloaded government assets, contracted out services, and effectively shifted government
initiatives away from community-building (Markey et al., 2019; Ryser & Halseth, 2014; Ryser et
al., 2018). From a service provision perspective, neoliberalism increased the role of the market
and encouraged entrepreneurial leadership in public services, offloaded service delivery to the
local level, and enhanced state focus on financial efficiencies rather than the quality or outcomes
of services. These trends accelerated through the 1990s in rural Canada, increasing pressure on
local organizations to respond, and contributing to the “fragmentation and erosion of the public

10

sector” (Ryser et al., 2021, p.1624). While the private sector often picks up much of the
infrastructure and service responsibility in urban areas, rural communities are often left without
support due to small population size and large distances between communities, making them
unfavourable for private service providers (Kelly & Hynes, 2018). Instead, rural communities are
forced to seek creative service arrangements or withdraw services altogether (Halseth & Ryser,
2018; Ryser & Halseth, 2014).
The downloading of state responsibility to the local level without the downloading of
jurisdiction or fiscal resources has resulted in increasing pressure on the non-profit sector to
become service providers, “a role that was once played by government” (Gibson & Barrett,
2018, p.111). While service provision by local non-profit organizations and volunteers may
increase the relevance of services, major challenges impede their success, including attitudinal,
operational, communication, financial, human resource, infrastructure, and policy barriers (Ryser
& Halseth, 2014). New models of rural service delivery that provide a foundation to create social
capital, provide flexible and innovative services, support regional connections, recognize placebased solutions, and encourage collaborative approaches are required (Halseth & Ryser, 2006;
Halseth et al., 2019; Sullivan et al., 2014). One of these innovative responses is shared service
and infrastructure arrangements, which “pool financial resources and expand infrastructure
capable of supporting local government and community service initiatives” (Ryser et al., 2018,
p.162). Overall, the literature states that a solution to the challenges of rural service provision is
increased synergies between all levels of government, with top-down actors and agencies
alongside bottom-up communities and regions to co-create initiatives that are place-based and
sustainable.

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2.1.4 Rural Community Development
Local governments are responsible for building local capacity in the context of state
withdrawal and downloading of service and infrastructure responsibilities (Nel & Connelly,
2018; Ryser et al., 2019). Pertinent to this capacity building is the development of social capital
and social cohesion (Halseth et al., 2017; Ryser & Halseth, 2014), which directly impacts local
resilience to economic, political, and social pressures (Halseth & Ryser, 2006). Markey et al.
(2008b) describe building social capital as creating social assets, which in economic terms, can
be understood as stock (levels of trust) and flow (collective action). Bonding activities between
group members and bridging activities with new group members build collective trust which can
be called upon for collective action (Markey et al., 2008b). With local governments facing
greater responsibility to provide services, new models of rural service delivery must provide a
foundation to create social capital to support flexible and innovative bottom-up approaches
(Halseth & Ryser, 2006). Similarly, new models of community service provision “recognize the
important role that social capital and social cohesion play in the capacity of small communities”
(Sullivan et al., 2014, p.235).
Despite the withdrawal of the state from rural and small-town community development,
the literature asserts that successful community development initiatives must be co-constructed
with top-down government actors and agencies and bottom-up communities and regions (Halseth
et al., 2019; Ryser et al., 2018). The limited jurisdiction and authority of local governments
requires partnerships with senior levels of government; however, local control of community
development initiatives is still critical (Halseth & Williams, 1999; Markey et al., 2008b). This
call for collaboration requires local government models to transition to ‘governance’ models
(Ryser et al., 2021; Zirul et al., 2015). Ryser et al. (2021) describe the transition from

12

government to governance as “the shift from formal structures and responsibilities of
government to cross-sectoral partnerships and networks with private sector and civil society
stakeholders that become more integrated with the state and engaged in flexible decision making
and implementation of strategies” (p.1620). The shift to governance relies on the development of
social capital and cohesion as it is dependent on the trust and collective capacity of the
community (Ryser et al., 2021). Furthermore, Markey et al. (2008a) explain that shifting to local
governance fosters regional dialogue and cooperation, and local participation in governance
fosters a sense of ownership over community development initiatives and outcomes.
Community development initiatives have often undervalued the potential contributions of
youth (Theodori & Theodori, 2015). However, political and economic restructuring provides an
opportunity to engage youth in the development process and make targeted investments to
improve youth’s human and social capital that could ‘spiral up’ to other forms of capital (Ryser
et al., 2012). Youth engagement in community development fosters empowerment which is
linked to local resiliency, “youth are empowered to the extent that they are able, and allowed, to
make contributions to the community, seen by others as resources, and feel free of threats to
participation” (Brennan et al., 2017, p.15). Youth that are engaged in community development
are more invested in the long term outcomes of the community, fostering a local sense of place.
For community development to effectively engage top-down and bottom-up actors in
governance models, it must also recognize the importance of place and be grounded in an
understanding of the region (Halseth et al., 2017; Hayter, 2017; Ryser et al., 2019; Sullivan et
al., 2014). The literature discusses the importance of a place-based approach to community
development which understands local context and capacity. Sullivan et al. (2014) argue that new
models of community development must address place-based differences “with regards to

13

governance, identifying priorities, and optimizing strengths and assets” for new models to “fill
gaps in a neoliberal era” (p.237). This place-based perspective must also understand the context
of the wider region, described in the literature as ‘new regionalism’ (Markey et al., 2008a).
Including a new regionalist perspective in rural and small-town community development
includes scaling-up and working in partnership across the region to address the structural
conditions which hinder rural community development (Halseth et al., 2019; Zirul et al., 2015).
In addition to developing regional capacity, a new regionalist perspective also requires
communities to situate themselves within the “broader (even global) context of resources,
competition, and patterns of change” (Markey et al., 2008b, p.348) to create contextually
appropriate development activities that can be sustained.
2.1.5 The Future of Rural and Small-Town Places
While Canadian public policy still fits under the neoliberal approach, some scholars
argue that we have entered a new era characterized by economic collapse, the unevenness of
globalization, and the reactionary incoherence of public policy (Halseth et al., 2019; Markey et
al., 2019; Ryser et al., 2021). This policy incoherence is caused by reduced state investments in
community development with no change to the authority of the state, thus increasing the
responsibility of local governments but not their jurisdiction, authority, or access to fiscal
resources. This relationship between upper level and local governments further exacerbates
policy incoherence as federal and provincial governments try to set a policy agenda and be in
control while downloading the responsibility to execute the agenda and allowing flexibility of
the market. The result of this chaotic public policy approach for rural and small-town places is
the lack of a coherent vision for rural development and constraints on an ability to set their own
vision. This lack of vision has enabled state response to rural issues being to revert to old

14

economic models of chasing natural resource development rather than strategically investing in
the future of communities (Halseth et al., 2019; Markey et al., 2012). Halseth et al. (2018) do
argue however, that this era is also marked by a willingness for innovation and experimentation
in community development.
The rate of sociodemographic and economic changes in rural and small-town places have
accelerated over recent decades, requiring new visions for the future of these places (Markey et
al., 2012). However, this pace of change also challenges the responsiveness of large institutions
such as senior government, thus bottom-up community development that builds on local capacity
is critical. A major challenge facing rural and small-town places is the need to recreate
themselves in the context of significant economic and sociodemographic change. The changing
nature of the natural resource economy combined with state withdrawal from community
development is forcing rural and small-town places to attract residents, especially youth, for
reasons other than traditional employment (Connelly & Nel, 2017). Hayter (2017) explains this
shift in rural community identity as moving from a ‘workplace’ to a ‘homeplace.’ This
reorientation requires local governments to shift from a managerial role to an entrepreneurial
role, requiring flexibility, a willingness to take risks, and the ability to stay focused on the future
(Halseth et al., 2019; Hayter, 2017; Sorensen, 2017). This shift will not look the same in every
community as some communities have the resources to provide high-level amenities and services
and others do not (Connelly & Nel, 2017). Overall, rural and small-town places must take
ownership of their future, forging a new path that it is different from their resource-dependent
history.

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2.2 Resident Recruitment and Retention
Sociodemographic change has been a constant in rural communities since the economic and
service restructuring of the early 1980s. Since then, service infrastructure has aged, the original
workforce is retiring, and many youth and young families have migrated out of these
communities (Barnes et al., 1999; Halseth & Ryser, 2018; Markey et al., 2008b). The most
pressing issue for rural communities is not only that youth are leaving following high school
graduation, but that many are not returning at all, and other young people are not migrating in.
This issue of youth out-migration and a lack of in-migration of young people is exacerbated by
the aging population of residents who do stay in rural communities. Rural resident recruitment
and retention must then target all age groups, from youth to seniors, and be tailored to their
needs and general trends. However, there is evidence of rising migration to some rural areas in
Canada, largely due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Breen & Robison, 2021; McLay & Foster,
2023; School of Environmental Design and Rural Development, 2023).
The other side of youth out-migration is the aging of the population that stays, discussed in
the literature as ‘aging in place’ (Halseth & Ryser, 2018; McQuillan & Laszlo, 2022; Ryser &
Halseth, 2014), and in northern BC’s resource towns specifically, ‘resource frontier aging’
(Halseth et al., 2019; Ryser et al., 2012; Ryser et al., 2018). Since resource towns were
originally built to house the working families of the natural resource economy, many lack
appropriate infrastructure and services to support aging in place (Sullivan et al., 2014; Winterton
et al., 2018). The lack of physical and social infrastructure for seniors is exacerbated by the
distance of rural communities from urban service centres.

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2.2.1 Push Factors
There is a vast literature on rural out-migration, and the out-migration of youth to urban areas
is a prominent concern. The most cited reason for youth to leave rural areas is employment and
education opportunities (Avis, 2013; Demi et al., 2009; Stalker & Phyne, 2014; Looker, 2021;
MacMichael et al., 2015). These studies do reference other quality of life factors, such as social
opportunities, but education and employment opportunities are regarded as the most pertinent
aspect of youth migration planning. However, McLay and Foster (2023) note that migration “is a
subjective process that is influenced as much by perceptions and discourses that link success
with big cities as by actual job opportunities” (p.24). The economic restructuring of rural places
has impacted job stability and availability for local youth, prompting out-migration to more
economically diversified locations. Many scholars recommend linking education and local
employment in rural communities to address youth out-migration (Foster & Main, 2018; Stalker
& Phyne, 2014; Robichaud, 2014; Schafft, 2016; Theodori & Theodori, 2015). For example,
Avis (2013) recommends promoting summer student and co-op opportunities to connect high
school graduates with local employers.
In addition to the lack of post-secondary institutions, readiness for post-secondary has
been identified as a push factor for youth in rural and small-town places. Rural high schools face
challenges with limited course offerings, including lower access to Advanced Placement (AP)
courses (Anderson & Chang, 2011; Gagnon & Mattingly, 2016). As a result of poor access and
low teaching capacity, rural students are less likely to enroll in science, technology, engineering,
and math (STEM) courses (Nielsen & Nashon, 2007; Saw & Agger, 2021). There is not a robust
body of contemporary literature on student readiness in the northern and rural BC context; most
of the literature is based in the rural US. These studies found that rural high schools are under-

17

resourced with low teaching capacity and high levels of poverty (Bouck, 2004; Morton et al.,
2018), contributing to lower academic outcomes for rural students compared to national statistics
for college readiness (Corley, 2018). While the Canadian context differs in some ways, one study
of rural BC high schools also reported high turnover rates of teachers which affected course
availability, staffing stability, and student success (Neilsen and Nashon, 2007). Research from
both Canada and the US found that students from families with high socioeconomic status are
the most likely to pursue post-secondary education and aspire to leave their rural communities
(Bouck, 2004; Corley, 2018; Sherman & Sage, 2011).
Researchers have also made connections between rural out-migration and demographic
factors, including gender and socioeconomic status. McLay and Foster (2023) found that parents’
education and socioeconomic capital influenced youth’s chances of out-migration and the
benefits they gained from leaving, including pursuing higher levels of education. Additionally,
more young women than men leave their rural communities for education as well as more
diversified labour markets (McLaughlin, 2014). While rural communities are encouraged to
improve education and employment opportunities for all youth, it is critical to consider whether
these opportunities cater more to certain demographics, such as men. Gender may also influence
youth’s sense of place and feelings about community life. Young rural women often express
more discontentment and feelings of constraint in their home community than men (Donkersloot,
2011; Glendinning et al., 2003). However, Robichaud (2014) found that more women returned to
their rural communities later in life than men, often to raise families.
Quality of life factors have also been shown to influence youth out-migration, including
the prevalence and diversity of recreational, social, and lifestyle opportunities (Liu, 2015). For
example, MacMichael et al. (2015) found that quality of life factors were the main motivator for

18

out-migration for rural youth, and some youth were willing to trade economic stability for their
desired lifestyle. To address this gap in rural communities, the literature recommends youthfocused planning (Anderson, 2015) and involving youth in community development (Eacott &
Sonn, 2006; Foster & Main, 2018; Robichaud, 2014; Theodori & Theodori, 2015). Community
development that focuses on social and recreational opportunities for young people requires a
reorientation of rural communities from supporting working families to supporting quality of life
and amenity migration. This reorientation is closely related to employment and educational
opportunities as the literature is recognizing the changing nature and mobility of work (Markey
et al., 2012; McQuillan & Laszlo, 2022).
2.2.2 Mitigating Factors
A growing body of literature explores the relationship between youth migration and
feelings of belonging, place attachment, and sense of place (Choi & Kramer, 2024; Demi et al.,
2009; MacBride, 2014). Place attachment is understood as the positive emotional bond between
individuals and their environment (Bernsen et al., 2022), a concept that reflects how youth relate
to their environment and community. Sense of place builds on place attachment as a
“multidimensional concept that includes identity, attachment, and dependence” (Bernsen et al.,
2022, p.568). While tangible factors, such as employment opportunities, are important drivers of
youth migration, it is sense of place factors that primarily influence where youth migrate,
including whether they return to their home communities. Stough-Hunter and Lekies (2020)
found that the strongest predictor of rural youth returning to their home communities following
post-secondary graduation was place attachment, defined by Bernsen et al. (2022) as the
inherently emotional positive bond between individuals and their environment. However, place
attachment was closely linked to community satisfaction which refers to physical community

19

aspects, demonstrating that place connections are not only emotional. In other studies, strong
sense of place among rural youth was linked to higher levels of community engagement
(Brennan et al., 2007). Similarly, Eacott and Sonn (2006) note, youth that feel accepted by their
community are more likely to access the resources and opportunities afforded to them, thus
increasing their community engagement. Therefore, engaging youth in the community and
fostering their sense of belonging is community development.
Place connections begin early in life, so it is critical that youth are engaged in their
community from a young age (Theodori & Theodori, 2015). As Robichaud (2014) argues, “the
more young people like their environment and get involved in their community, the more they
want to live there” (p.75). In many rural communities, place connections are built through the
natural environment. Mc Laughlin et al. (2014) found that rural youth who valued outdoor
recreation and a clean natural environment were more likely to stay in or return to their home
community. Due to the connection between the natural environment and rural sense of place,
Foster and Main (2018) and Robichaud (2014) recommend promoting outdoor recreation,
environmental appreciation, and the small-town lifestyle for rural resident recruitment and
retention. For some rural residents, place connections established during childhood extend
through the life course. Casey (2021) and Porter (2022) both found that many residents chose to
migrate to rural communities because they believed that it was best for their children. These
beliefs were often based on positive associations with their own rural childhoods. The influence
of positive childhood experiences illustrates the importance of quality of life factors that begin
early in life for community development.

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2.3 Conclusion
Following the major highs and lows of the 1920s to the 1950s, Canada entered another
era of “nation-building” characterized by interventionist and Keynesian public policy
approaches. In BC, the goal was accomplished through a model of industrial resource
development, resulting in a 25-to-30-year period of rapid economic and community growth to
build the natural resource economy and to increase the provincial population. This era of
development continued until the 1980s when economic and political restructuring stimulated
intense economic fluctuations and downloaded senior government responsibility for public
services and infrastructure to the municipal level. Since then, service infrastructure has aged, the
original workforce is retiring, and many youth and young families have migrated out of these
communities. Rural youth are pushed from their communities due to a lack of economic
diversification, few opportunities for post-secondary education, and quality of life factors, such
as social and recreational opportunities. However, feelings of belonging and attachment mitigate
this pattern of out-migration as youth with a strong sense of place are the most likely to return.
To facilitate community connection, rural community development must engage local youth and
focus on building their human capital.

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Chapter 3: Research Methodology
The issues of rural community change and youth migration are complex, therefore, this
research required flexible and adaptable methodologies. My research was grounded in qualitative
and community-based research (CBR) methodologies with an exploratory case study design and
employed a mixed methods research (MMR) approach. The nature of this research aligns with
qualitative and CBR methodologies because it is interested in lived experiences, connects
academic interests with community interests, and produced useful results grounded in local
knowledge. The case study and MMR design allowed me to capture youth experiences and
perspectives alongside sociodemographic and economic data for Tumbler Ridge (see Chapter 4
for case study details). By including a greater breadth and diversity of data, MMR provides a
greater depth of understanding. Channeling this MMR through a case study approach enabled the
research results to be detailed and context-specific, providing both a deep understanding of youth
perspectives in Tumbler Ridge and a nuanced understanding of the broader topics of rural youth
experiences and migration planning. Each of these methodologies informed the research
methods, including a content analysis of community documents and plans, a review of Statistics
Canada and BC Stats data, key informant interviews with community stakeholders, and focus
groups with local youth.
3.1 Qualitative Research
Hay and Cope (2021) describe qualitative research as research focusing on real-world,
empirical data and deeper insights on relationships, connections, processes, and theories through
researcher interpretation. Qualitative research epistemologies are often rooted in critical theory
perspectives and value human experiences, perspectives, emotions, relationships, differences,
and cultural practices (Hay & Cope, 2021). By its nature, qualitative research is flexible, cutting

22

across disciplines and subject matter to include a complex and interconnected family of terms,
concepts, and assumptions (Denzin & Lincoln, 2021). From a Geography discipline perspective,
qualitative research is concerned with the human production of place, and how people and place
shape and are shaped by each other.
While quantitative research is concerned with numerical and statistical data which shows
the extent of a phenomenon and correlations between forces, there are always gaps and outliers
leaving room for deeper understanding. Qualitative research methodologies can fill these gaps;
however, Hay and Cope (2021) warn against describing qualitative research as simply a counter
to quantitative research because it asks fundamentally different questions. Instead of the
quantitative approach of measuring and analyzing relationships between variables, qualitative
research emphases processes and meanings that cannot be measured in terms of quantity or
frequency (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Further, qualitative research typically functions under the
paradigm that reality is socially constructed and that there are multiple truths. Denzin and
Lincoln (2011) argue that qualitative research is a “situated activity that locates the observer in
the world,” (p.3) encouraging an interpretive and naturalistic research approach.
A qualitative approach lends itself well to case study research (Creswell, 2014) allowing
me to focus on the relationships between youth and place, processes of community change, and
connections to youth migration decisions. Despite my use of mixed methods, this research is still
primarily qualitative as I drew upon the real-world experiences and stories of Tumbler Ridge
youth to develop deeper insights on relationships, connections, processes, and theories through
my own interpretation. Careful attention to rigour, trustworthiness, and objectivity was necessary
as qualitative research required personal interpretation and ‘meaning making’ of data (Creswell,
2014; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Additionally, qualitative research is designed to be intensive

23

rather than extensive, so some aspects of the study may be case-specific while others are
generalizable and transferable.
3.2 Community-Based Research
This research was grounded in a CBR methodology which connects academic interests
with community interests (Kindon, 2021). CBR is rooted in participatory action research (PAR)
(Halseth et al., 2016), a combination of participatory research (PR), with its epistemology
grounded in local struggles and knowledge, and action research (AR), which informs change
through testing theory (Kindon, 2021). Halseth et al. (2016) explain that PAR and CBR seek to
create change through research rather than simply studying events; in this way, CBR is more
than a methodology, it is a form of activism (Breitbart, 2016). Traditional research approaches
stress the objectivity of the researcher, but CBR advocates that community connections enhance
reliability by grounding the research in local context and generating findings that are more useful
to the community (Halseth et al., 2016). Further, CBR is informed and shaped by the context of
place and motivated by place-based development which prioritizes the assets and aspirations of
the community as a focus for the development process of the research and its outcomes. The goal
of CBR is to collaboratively produce new knowledge that can support change in communities.
Kindon (2010) emphasizes the three critical elements of PAR as participation, colearning, and collective action. Rather than informing community development through rigid
theoretically informed academic perspectives, CBR allowed this research to value local
knowledge through community participation and the meaningful integration of local knowledge.
As Halseth et al. (2016) explain, “those who experience phenomena are well positioned to
understand it and by virtue, contribute to theory” (p.30). Integrating local knowledge through
CBR increased both the relevance of my research to Tumbler Ridge and the likelihood that

24

results are implemented. Participation and co-learning throughout the data collection and
analysis phases of research enabled the co-creation of knowledge which leads to more informed
local decision-making and more equitable and sustainable research outcomes.
Kindon (2021) states that participatory research techniques must be accompanied by
more in-depth social research methods to ensure rigour. Halseth et al. (2016) add that
participatory research requires a deep understanding and inclusion of the social and cultural
context of the places they study to ensure rigour, validity, and to contribute to meaningful
community change. Moreover, as Denzin and Lincoln (2011) state, “all research has political
implications. There is no value-free science” (p.5), so while the non-neutral stance of CBR may
be critiqued as a weakness, I argue that no mode of human inquiry is objective.
While my research is not true PAR due to the need to balance expectations and time, I
was committed to participation, collaboration, and the usability of research results. My research
focus and potential research outcomes were discussed with local stakeholders prior to formal
data collection. This engagement continued throughout the project with processes of participantchecking following data collection and analysis, and the co-mobilization of research results.
3.3 Case Study Research
With its focus on Tumbler Ridge, this research adopts a case study approach. While there
is no one agreed upon definition for case study research, Yin (2014) has developed a twofold
definition: 1) an empirical inquiry that explores a phenomenon in depth and within its real-world
context; 2) an inquiry that copes with many more variables of interest than data points, relies on
multiple sources of evidence and the need to triangulate data, and benefits from prior theoretical
propositions to guide data collection and analysis (p.16-17). Therefore, case study research is an

25

all-encompassing methodology that can be integrated with many other methodologies and
employ a variety of research methods.
The strength of case study research is its ability to provide detailed and context-specific
data to generate a place-based explanation and insights for further research. Implementing a case
study research approach began prior to fieldwork with a review of the academic and community
literature on Tumbler Ridge and rural youth issues (Yin, 1994). While internal validity was
determined through analyzing causal relationships, external validity was dependent upon the
document analysis of academic literature and community documents, and its generalizability and
replicability to other cases (Yin, 1994).
Case study research is challenged by a perceived lack of rigour and generalizability due
to its focus on one specific case (Yin, 2014). However, Baxter (2021) argues that ‘good’ case
studies “are so richly described (theorized) that one generally finds it quite easy to draw parallels
with contexts outside the case” (p.112). If the case study is designed appropriately, the analysis is
attentive to both concrete and abstract concepts, and systematic procedures are followed (Baxter,
2021; Yin, 2012), case studies can provide both a deep understanding of a case and a nuanced
understanding of a broader topic. The case study selection process is described in section 4.1.
3.4 Mixed Methods Research
This research employed a MMR approach. According to Plano Clark and Ivankova
(2017), MMR indicates the process of integrating quantitative and qualitative methods of data
collection and analysis to understand a research problem. MMR not only requires the use of
multiple methods of data collection and analysis, but the mixing or integration of multiple
methods throughout the entire research process, from developing research questions to drawing
conclusions (Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017). While definitions of MMR in the literature vary,

26

I use the definition presented by Creswell et al. (2011, p.218) as cited in Plano Clark and
Ivankova (2017), “mixed methods research comprises a participant-centered, culturally grounded
set of techniques that employ, in tandem, methodologically rigourous quantitative and qualitative
approaches in an integrated, theory driven manner” (p.15).
Rather than focused on theory, MMR is a concrete and practical approach to research
(Plano Clark & Ivankova, 2017) that provided greater breadth and depth of understanding. MMR
also heightened the validity of the research through increasing methodological triangulation by
gleaning the best of each research approach while simultaneously offsetting their weaknesses
(Schoonenboom & Johnson, 2017). Moreover, Halseth et al. (2016) state that utilizing mixed
methods of data collection in CBR captures a wider range of experiences and facilitates
“broader, inclusive, and long-term engagement” (p.221).
An argument against the use of MMR is presented by Plano Clark and Johnson (2017)
who state that triangulating quantitative and qualitative data is not a viable option due to inherent
differences in the types of data. Additionally, Schoonenboom and Johnson (2017) present the
argument that quantitative and qualitative methods can never study the same phenomenon
because each is backed by fundamentally different assumptions. My research is rooted in
qualitative methodology and the assumption that there are multiple socially constructed realities.
However, I also see value in the quantitative measurement and analysis of social phenomena to
illustrate specific areas of importance, such as the economy (see section 4.3) and demography
(see section 4.4) of Tumbler Ridge. MMR adds to the value of both forms of data rather than
diminishing it.

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3.5 Researcher Positionality
Trustworthiness is increased through transparent and reflexive qualitative research,
requiring the researcher to acknowledge and confront bias rather than strive for objectivity. As
much of the feminist, postcolonial, and post-Marxist literature asserts, all knowledge is produced
in specific circumstances which shape it in some way; therefore, knowledge must be situated
through examinations of positionality (Rose, 1997) and critical reflexivity (Catungal & Dowling,
2021). Further, Soedirgo and Glas (2020) assert that researcher positionality cannot be reduced
to demographic characteristics because it is inherently contextual, as well as informed by our
experiences, political stances, and other aspects of our “social biography” (p.528). While much
of the literature focuses on the importance of positionality or critiques of positionality
statements, there is little direction on how to effectively address researcher positionality
throughout the research process. Nevertheless, I will ensure careful consideration of my
intersectional positionality as the researcher.
I am a 25-year-old white woman and fourth generation Canadian born and raised in BC
and am currently pursuing a master’s degree. Each of these aspects of my identity potentially
contribute to power imbalances with participants in Tumbler Ridge. As a young adult, I am close
in age to the senior high school students I was engaging with, but I am not their peer.
Additionally, my gender may have influenced the comfort levels of youth who engaged with me,
with potentially higher comfort levels for female youth and lower levels for male youth. My
educational level may have also contributed to asymmetrical power relations and intimidation
with some participants, particularly interviewees who may not have post-secondary education. I
anticipate that my education level, age, and gender will not be intimidating to the high school
teachers and staff, rather the power imbalance may be reversed as asymmetrical power relations

28

also exist when research participants hold positions of influence in comparison to the researcher
(Dowling, 2005).
My life experiences also contribute to my positionality and will impact my research. I
was born and raised in Abbotsford, BC and migrated to Prince George, BC when I was twenty
years old. Therefore, I recently made the migration decision that I discussed with senior high
school students in Tumbler Ridge, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of their
migration planning processes. However, this relatability may also contribute to the
misinterpretation of their perspectives because I may assume that they are like me. Addressing
the impacts of my positionality on the research requires ongoing critical reflexivity through
acknowledging biases and maintaining an open mind during fieldwork. England (1994) also
recommends adopting a supplicant position when the researcher’s positionality is intimidating to
participants, described as the explicit acknowledgement by the researcher of their “unequivocal
acceptance that the knowledge of the person being researched (at least regarding the particular
questions being asked) is greater than that of the researcher” (p.82). Adopting this position will
aid in addressing the impacts of my positionality.
3.5.1 Insider/Outsider Status of the Researcher
Power relations between the researcher and participants can also depend on the
insider/outsider status of the researcher which is directly related to their positionality and the
extent to which positionality serves as a barrier or bridge to the research depends on this insider
or outsider status (O’Connor, 2004). An insider is similar to and accepted by the participants
while an outsider is less similar and may not be accepted by participants (Acker, 2000).
Advantages of being an insider include greater ease in establishing rapport with participants and
a greater reliability in data interpretation because of shared knowledge. However, O’Connor

29

(2004) also warns that insider status also necessitates caution because it can diminish the
researcher’s interpretive ability by making presumptions rather than clarifying participants’
contributions. Outsider status can also be advantageous because participants may articulate
concepts more clearly to an outsider because they do not assume pre-existing knowledge and an
outsider is less likely to miss nuances of everyday life in an unfamiliar setting (Acker, 2000;
Dowling, 2000).
I am an outsider in this research because I am not a youth living in Tumbler Ridge;
however, I am also an insider as a young person who made the migration decision to leave her
hometown. My personal experiences of leaving my urban hometown to move to a smaller city in
northern BC provided my initial interest in youth migration decisions. As a result, this research
was born out of dual insider and outsider northern and rural identity, and a desire to understand
what matters to youth in rural and small-town places. My insider status as a young resident of
northern BC is contested because I am not a resident of Tumbler Ridge, and I have never been a
resident of a remote resource town. Similarly, my insider status as a relatively recent high school
graduate is contested because I did not graduate from Tumbler Ridge Secondary School.
Moreover, as someone interested in the future of rural youth, I had some level of insider status
with the community members I interviewed. The duality of my positionality as both an insider
and outsider in this research is important as it impacted the research and required ongoing
reflexivity and acknowledgement.
3.6 Research Methods
Data collection began with a review of the academic literature on the themes of
community change, rural service provision, community development, resident recruitment and
retention, and rural youth sense of place. A review of municipal plans, community newspapers,

30

and quantitative demographic, economic, and labour data from Statistics Canada and BC Stats
provided important community context. Key informant interviews were conducted with
organizations that provide programs, services, supports, or employment to youth in Tumbler
Ridge. Focus groups were conducted with Tumbler Ridge youth between the ages of 15 and 19.
All research, including primary and secondary methods, were reviewed by UNBC’s Research
Ethics Board (file # 6009548; see Appendix 1.1 and 1.2).
3.6.1 Observations and Field Notes
Community observations and field notes served as informal research methods to build an
in-depth understanding of Tumbler Ridge and its residents. While the data generated through
community observation and fieldnotes was not formally analyzed, it was critical to gain and
maintain contextual knowledge and allowed me to reflexively examine my observations. Halseth
et al. (2016) assert that active participation in community events, such as community dinners,
helps to gather additional perspectives and enhance the reliability of the research. During my
time in Tumbler Ridge, I attended the Spring Registration event at the Community Centre in
May 2024, participated in the Geopark Fishing Derby in June 2024, attended the Canada Day
celebrations at the Community Centre in July 2024, and attended the Tumbler Ridge Fall Fair in
September 2024. Observation is an active choice that includes immersion in community events
and active listening in order to “become attuned to what matters in a particular time, place, and
social setting” (Kearns, 2005, p.202). Community observations and informal conversations with
residents increased my contextual understanding of the community and visibility as a researcher
and allowed me to better understand the place-specific experiences shared by research
participants.

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An important product of community observation was the recording of field notes.
According to Phillippi and Lauderdale (2018), field notes are essential to rigourous qualitative
research to enhance data, provide context for analysis, and improve the depth of qualitative
findings. Field notes taken during or immediately after the interview and focus group processes
were also used to add important nonverbal content into transcripts. Field notes provided a
detailed record of my experiences while conducting fieldwork and encouraged me to be reflexive
about myself and my research while in the field.
3.6.2 Community Visits
I made initial community visits to Tumbler Ridge in April and May 2024 prior to formal
data collection to familiarize myself with the community and introduce myself to potential
participants and other community stakeholders. These initial community visits were vital to both
gain contextual knowledge of the community and to develop relationships with community
stakeholders. My first visit to Tumbler Ridge was from April 8th to 11th, 2024 to familiarize
myself with the community and hold informal meetings with interested community stakeholders.
During these four days, I met with senior staff at the Geopark, Public Library, Community
Centre, Youth Centre, and the District of Tumbler Ridge’s Economic Development Office. I also
attended the Community Centre’s Spring Registration Event on April 10th and interacted with
many volunteer organizations, including the Lions Club, Community Gardens Society, Public
Library, Youth Soccer, and Mental Health Support Group in addition to Community Centre staff.
My second visit to Tumbler Ridge was from May 13th to 15th, 2024 to build on the connections
that I had made in my previous visit and to develop new relationships in the community. During
these three days, I met with the Museum Foundation of Tumbler Ridge, the Fire Hall, and the
Youth Centre.

32

Formal data collection began during my stay in Tumbler Ridge from June 10th to July 3rd,
2024, during which interviews with staff of community organizations and SD 59 were
conducted. During this time, I rented a room from a local Tumbler Ridge resident whose family
has lived in the area since before the town was created, allowing me to immerse myself in the
community and gain greater local knowledge. Additional visits to the community were made on
July 16th and 24th, 2024 to conduct focus groups with youth. I returned to Tumbler Ridge after
the start of the new school year, from September 8th to 13th, 2024, to conduct the final youth
focus groups and interview education providers at Tumbler Ridge Secondary School (TRSS).
During this fall visit, I rented a room from another Tumbler Ridge resident, making additional
community connections.
Research results were checked by interested participants over Zoom between February
24th and 26th, 2025. I invited all interview and focus group participants to meet and discuss the
research results to ensure that the findings resonated with them and reflected their perspectives.
My final visit to Tumbler Ridge was from May 20th to 23rd to disseminate the final results and
recommendations for the community. I developed a community report with the key findings and
recommendations for the District, service providers, and TRSS. The report was shared with all
research participants, Town Council, and any other interested community members. I presented
at the Town Council meeting on May 20th and held a public presentation on May 22nd. Copies of
the thesis will also be donated to Town Hall and the Library.
3.7 Primary Data Collection
3.7.1 Key Informant Interviews
Key informant interviews comprised the primary method of data collection with
participants outside of local youth. Key informant interviews are advantageous because of their

33

ability to provide nuanced and detailed explanations of community change and youth issues. I
employed semi-structured interviews, which have some degree of predetermined order to the
questions and topics but are also conversational and flexible (Dunn, 2021; Longhurst, 2010). The
interview questions were content-focused and dealt with topics and issues based on the literature
to be important and relevant but also allowed for open responses to discover what was relevant to
the interviewee about the topics and issues discussed (see Appendix 2.3 and 2.4).
Babbie (2013) defines an informant as someone who is well-versed in the social
phenomenon being studied and is willing to share what they know about it. In this research, ‘key
informants’ included the staff of community organizations in Tumbler Ridge that provide
programs, services, or employment to local youth, as well as teachers and staff at TRSS, and SD
59 administration. A total of 19 interviews with 21 participants were conducted in June, July, and
September 2024 (Table 3.1). Due to the small size of Tumbler Ridge’s institutions and
organizations, all relevant decision-makers and providers were invited to participate (26 total
invitations). While not all those who were invited participated, all relevant sectors are
represented in the data. Participants ranged in age from 25 to 56, with four men and 17 women1,
and 17 of the interviewees were parents at the time of their interview2. Interviews lasted between
45 minutes and two hours and were conducted in-person at a location in Tumbler Ridge
determined by each participant.

1
2

The gender of participants was assumed by the researcher. It was not a specific question in the interviews.
The parental status of participants was asked by the researcher.

34

Table 3.1
Interview Participants by Sector
Sector
Local government
Recreational service providers
Community service providers
Youth service providers
Education administration
Education providers
Total

Total Number of Participants
5
3
5
2
2
4
21

The strength of key informant interviews is their detailed and exploratory nature to
collect a diversity of individual meanings, opinions, and experiences and investigate complex
motivations and perspectives (Dunn, 2021). Interviews can also show respect for and empower
interviewees through using personal experiences, perspectives, and meanings to inform research
findings. Key informant interviewees can push these benefits even further as their knowledge or
expertise on a particular topic can offer a deeper understanding and explanation of issues
(Ritchie & Lewis, 2003).
Key informant interviews required critical reflexivity due to the differential power
dynamics in play. A good rapport was established with many interviewees prior to the interview
through informal meetings to increase comfort and level of understanding. As recommended by
Dunn (2021), a ‘warm-up’ period before the formal interview began was also created to allow
the interviewee and I to connect and settle in prior to official data collection. Key informant
interviews can be criticized for generating biased findings if interviewees are not carefully
selected, and if too few interviewees are included, the validity of findings may be further
affected. These potential issues were addressed through a broad sampling of community
organizations and the inclusion of more than one interviewee from most organizations. Key
35

informant interviews are one of few ways to gain detailed knowledge from those on the ‘inside’
of a community issue.
3.7.2 Focus Groups
This research utilized focus groups with youth between the ages of 15 and 19 as the
primary data collection method to explore youth migration in Tumbler Ridge. Focus groups are
defined as a small group of research participants discussing a topic or issue defined by a
researcher (Cameron, 2021). The job of the researcher is to facilitate the conversation and keep
the group on-topic, but otherwise is non-directive, allowing participants to explore and discuss
the subject as they please (Longhurst, 2010). Focus groups were exploratory rather than
descriptive to gather information and collect insights the issue of rural youth migration (Babbie,
2013).
Interaction between participants is a key part of focus groups, stimulating a synergistic
effect that can generate far more information than other oral research methods, including aspects
of the topic not anticipated by the researcher (Babbie, 2013). Additionally, participants are likely
to be more candid among others who have had similar experiences. Focus groups also provide
opportunities for participants to explore different points of view and reconsider their own ideas,
potentially transforming knowledges and understandings (Cameron, 2021). Employing a group
oral research method is important because youth issues do not exist in a vacuum, and the
relationships between people and place are the basis of this research.
Two focus groups were conducted in July 2024 and two more were conducted in
September 2024. Focus group participants were between the ages of 15 and 19 and resided in
Tumbler Ridge at the time of the focus group (Table 4.2). The first focus group took place at the

36

Tumbler Ridge Youth Centre and the rest took place in a meeting room at the Tumbler Ridge
Community Centre. A dinner of pizza, chips, fruit, and juice was provided for each focus group.
Table 3.2
Focus Group Participants
Focus Group Demographics
Men
Women
Total
15 years
16 years
17 years
18 years
19 years
Total

Total Number of Participants
6
7
13
3
5
2
1
2
13

The literature discusses the importance of the size of the focus groups as too few
participants limits discussion, and too many restricts full participation (Cameron, 2021). Focus
groups were capped at 8 participants. The composition of the focus group is another point of
consideration as discussions of sensitive or controversial topics may arise and confidentiality
cannot be guaranteed (Longhurst, 2010). To address this confidentiality issue, I discussed the
issue of ‘over-disclosing’ with participants. This confidentiality issue can also contribute to
generating data of questionable merit as it is difficult to discern when participants are speaking
honestly or are being influenced to speak or stay silent on contentious topics. I addressed these
potential limitations by discussing them with participants before the focus group and providing
the option for individual or small group interviews for youth.
3.7.3 Participant Sampling
All interview and focus group participants were recruited through non-probability and
purposive sampling techniques as participants with specific characteristics and experiences were
37

required for this research (Babbie, 2013; Yegidis et al., 1999). Focus group participants were
recruited through criterion sampling (Stratford & Bradshaw, 2021) of Tumbler Ridge youth
between the ages 15 and 19 years. Posters were displayed around the community, including at
the Community Centre, Library, Youth Centre, grocery store, and coffee shop (see Appendix
3.1). The same poster was also posted in community Facebook groups. This sample is nonrepresentative of all youth in Tumbler Ridge or youth in other rural communities
Similarly, criterion sampling was used to recruit community members that are important
in the context of rural youth for key informant interviews. These key informants included the
staff of community organizations in Tumbler Ridge that provide programs, services, or
employment to local youth, as well as teachers and staff at TRSS, and SD 59 administration.
Sampling criteria for these participants included engagement in education, services,
programming, or employment for Tumbler Ridge youth. I also asked participants to suggest
other potential participants based on these criteria to ensure a representative and inclusive
sample, which generated three of the 21 interviewees. Snowball sampling was beneficial because
it provided an immediate platform for building rapport with the potential participant through our
shared contact (O’Connor, 2004). However, caution was exercised as snowball sampling tends to
reproduce ‘like’ participants and information. Due to the small population of Tumbler Ridge, I
believe a robust and diverse sample of individuals that engage with local youth was generated.
3.8 Secondary Data Collection
To support my mixed methods case study, a range of secondary data collection methods
were employed. A content analysis of community documents and plans was conducted as well as
a review of select sociodemographic and economic data from Statistics Canada and BC Stats to
provide important contextual information. These documents and data were also used to

38

triangulate the qualitative data gathered through key informant interviews and youth focus
groups. Including quantitative and other secondary data was important for this research to
understand how the statistics and community reports compared to individual’s experiences and
perceptions.
3.8.1 Community Documents
To ground this research, community documents and the academic literature were
reviewed. CBR demands both historic and contemporary knowledge (Halseth et al., 2016). Not
only does this knowledge give the researcher important contextual information about the
community, reviewing local context enables the researcher to ask better questions, demonstrates
good preparation and capacity, ensures that the researcher does not waste people’s time, and
builds a positive reputation in the community (Halseth et al., 2016). Community documents
included municipal plans and reports, external reports, books, and articles from the local
newspaper, Tumbler RidgeLines. The community documents that were reviewed are presented in
Table 3.3. Careful attention to the perspectives from which these documents were written was
critical to prevent unintentionally biased research. The value of these community literatures is
immense, from getting to know the community and learning about past projects and events to
identifying potential participants.

39

Table 3.3
Community Documents Reviewed
Municipal Reports
Tumbler Ridge Visitor and Relocation Guide
(2022-2023 & 2023-2024)
Community Centre Youth Survey (2023)
District of Tumbler Ridge Annual Report (2022 &
2023)
District of Tumbler Ridge Statement of Financial
Information (2022)
Tumbler Ridge Housing Needs Assessment (2021)
A Guide to Moving to Tumbler Ridge (2018 &
2019)

Municipal Plans
Tumbler Ridge Official Community Plan (2023)
District of Tumbler Ridge Design Guidelines (2022)
Tumbler Ridge Tourism Strategy (2020)
Tumbler Ridge Investment Readiness and Economic
Development Plan (2018-2020)
Tumbler Ridge Sustainability Plan (2014)

3.8.2 Quantitative Data
Quantitative community data was also collected to understand the issues of community
change and youth recruitment and retention. This quantitative data included demographic and
economic data from Statistics Canada and BC Stats, as demonstrated in Chapter 4. Collecting
this data contributed to my contextual and historical community knowledge, enabled me to
provide a richer description of place characteristics, and helps demonstrate the merit of this
research. As White (2010) warned, I remained critical when using secondary quantitative data
because the information was collected by someone else, for another purpose, and may have been
manipulated. ‘Big data’ such as that produced by Statistics Canada also has significant
limitations for rural places such as Tumbler Ridge due to the small population size. Specifically,
data is suppressed to ensure anonymity and Census data is only presented in five-year snapshots.
Nevertheless, the population data available through Statistics Canada and BC Stats provided a
perspective on community change and youth retention that I would have been unable to generate
myself. When utilized alongside the qualitative data, this demographic data helps create a more

40

holistic understanding of community change and youth recruitment and retention in Tumbler
Ridge.
3.9 Data Management
During focus groups and key informant interviews, data was audio recorded with
participant consent. This audio data was then uploaded to an encrypted online storage program
(UNBC’s Microsoft OneDrive). Following this file transfer, the files were deleted from the audio
recorder. The audio files were transcribed and manually verified for accuracy, and both versions
of each file (audio and transcribed) are stored on UNBC’s Microsoft OneDrive. All participants
consented to an audio recording. Interview and focus group transcripts were then uploaded to
NVivo for analysis. To ensure confidentiality, the raw data will be destroyed two years after the
completion of this thesis (September 2027), including the paper shredding, deletion of data
stored on hard-drives, and destruction of audio recordings.
3.10 Data Analysis
The first step of data analysis was to transcribe all the interview and focus group audio
recordings into verbatim written texts, these were done within one week of completion of the
interviews and focus groups. Transcribing allowed me to immerse myself in the data and develop
deeper comprehension of the material (Vanover, 2022). Following the transcription of interview
and focus group recordings into a written text, I created separate documents for each interview
and focus group summarizing the main themes and points. These documents were ‘checked’ by
participants to ensure that I understood their perspective and gave them the opportunity to add or
retract any information. Following the participant checking, I read and re-read the transcripts and
summary documents to gain a deep understanding of what participants discussed and made notes
of my initial reflections.

41

After familiarizing myself with the large body of data, I began content analysis of the
primary data through coding, a process of thoughtful data reduction by coalescing the data into
categories by common themes and patterns (Richards, 2022). All interview, focus group, and
written data was analyzed through content analysis techniques, specifically, latent content
analysis. Through content analysis, researchers “analyze relatively unstructured data in view of
the meanings, symbolic qualities, and expressive contents they have and of the communicative
roles they play in the lives of the data’s sources” (Krippendorff, 2018, p.51). Latent content
analysis identified the underlying, implied, or inferred meaning of participant responses rather
than only what was explicitly stated. Data was not changed during the process of content
analysis, allowing the process to be repeated and checked for consistency (Babbie, 2004). The
first round of coding was deductive to ensure the research questions were answered and
following rounds were inductive to edit the list of codes and build nuance. All data analysis was
conducted using the NVivo software.
I began by coding the interview data; the first round was inductive as I organized the data
into nuanced and detailed codes with the intention of bringing them together into broader
categories later (Richards, 2022). However, I struggled to organize these detailed codes into
cohesive categories and themes that answered the research questions. This first round was
documented but then deleted. The second round of coding was deductive; interview data was
organized into categories with descriptive codes based on alignment with the three research
questions. Subsequent rounds of coding were inductive to describe the interview data, make
meaning, develop detailed codes and themes, and identify representative data to support the
findings (Bingham & Witowsky, 2022). Two rounds of inductive coding were conducted on the
interview data. The focus group data was then analyzed with one round of deductive coding

42

followed by three rounds of inductive coding. Interview and focus group data was kept separate
to facilitate comparison between adult and youth perspectives. The codebooks from each round
of analysis are included in Appendices 4 and 5.
Qualitative content analysis depends on my personal interpretation of the themes which
stems from my values, theoretical orientations, and personal experiences with the subject
(Richards, 2022). As a result, themes did not emerge from the data, my critical thinking made
meaning from the data. Understanding this role, I exercised critical reflexivity throughout the
analysis process and kept a record of all coding decisions, including of code criteria and the
rationale behind choosing to delete, combine, or divide codes. A limitation of my analysis is that
it was only conducted by one person, making the analysis potentially biased (Cope, 2021). , To
overcome this challenge, participants reviewed their engagement summary notes, I maintained a
codebook that tracked categories and criteria, and multiple rounds of analysis were conducted.
3.11 Methodological Trustworthiness
For research to be trustworthy, it must be rigourous, valid, replicable, and reliable,
however, traditional definitions of trustworthy research do not necessarily align with qualitative
research (Golafshani, 2003). Quantitative measures of trustworthiness are often not compatible
with qualitative research because qualitative data is personal and context-specific. Therefore, the
trustworthiness of my research must be measured with different metrics. Hay and Cope (2021)
argue that the trustworthiness of qualitative research requires attention to ethics, the
establishment and continued monitoring rigorous practices, acknowledgement of biases, and the
maintenance of transparency.

43

3.11.1 Ethics
To ensure ethical research, I completed the ‘Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical
Conduct for Research Involving Humans’ training (see Appendix 1). Additionally, all research
activities followed UNBC’s Research Ethics Board requirements. Ethical conduct was further
informed by the CBR methodology, which required my attention to positionality and power
relations throughout the research process, participant-checking of data, and approval of results
from the community (Halseth et al., 2016). I also ensured informed and ongoing consent of
research participants by providing full, open, and detailed information about the nature of the
research and requiring that participants voluntarily agree to participate (Christians, 2011).
Privacy and confidentiality of participants was safeguarded through careful data storge and
ensured anonymity. Ethical considerations contributed to the trustworthiness of this research
through its critical role in building and maintaining trust with research participants and the
broader community (Hay, 2010).
3.11.2 Rigour
Rigour refers to the quality and consistency of the research process, including data
collection, analysis, and results. Stratford and Bradshaw (2021) assert that rigourous qualitative
research must establish strategies for ensuring accuracy, credibility, and trustworthiness early
and apply them throughout the research process. The research was carefully documented through
field notes which were referred to for clarification throughout the analysis and synthesis
processes. All interview summaries and initial research results were checked by participants.
Methodological triangulation, and the triangulation of data sources, also increased rigour through
the mixed methods case study design.

44

3.11.3 Triangulation
Triangulation refers to the use of diverse information sources and methods in research
and helps to ensure research trustworthiness by increasing the confirmability and dependability
of results (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Hay & Cope, 2021). MMR lends itself well to triangulation
because it requires the interpretation and integration of multiple sources of data. There are four
major types of triangulation, as stated by Stratford and Bradshaw (2021), including sources,
methods, investigators, and theories. Due to the nature of this research as a graduate thesis, I
cannot triangulate research investigators, however, the data analysis was checked by my
supervisor, committee, and community collaborators. I triangulated research sources, methods,
and theories. My sources of data included a variety of academic and community documents,
Statistics Canada and BC Stats demographic data, and focus group and interview data from a
diverse selection of community stakeholders. Additionally, I employed rigourous triangulation
through multiple strategies of inquiry, including case study and CBR methodologies, and
qualitative content analysis.
3.11.4 Validity
Golafshani (2003) describes validity as whether the research measured what it was
intended to and if the means of measurement were accurate. Much like rigour, triangulation of
data sources and research methods increases research validity, achieved through the research
design as a mixed methods case study grounded in CBR. Guion et al. (2011) caution against
attempting to arrive at consistency across data because inconsistencies may provide an
“opportunity to uncover deeper meaning in the data” (p.1) rather than weakening the evidence.
Due to the qualitative nature of this research, the researcher was the primary tool of data
collection, analysis, and conclusions. The validity of research is affected by the researcher’s

45

perception of validity in their study (Golafshani, 2003), and therefore, validity was an ongoing
discussion in the research process. Participant checking and reviews by my supervisory
committee also contributed to greater validity in this research.
3.11.5 Reliability
Research reliability refers to the extent to which findings are true and certain, which
Guion et al. (2011) describe as findings that are supported by evidence and accurately reflect the
situation being researched. Replicability and consistency of this research is difficult due to its
qualitative and place-based nature, but transparency in the research process through detailed
recording of all steps was used to increase over reliability. Transparency was achieved through
careful documentation of all data collection and analysis, and explicit references to data sources
(Yin, 2009). Participant checking of the interview data and of initial findings also increased the
reliability of this research (Halseth et al., 2016; Stratford & Bradshaw, 2021).
3.12 Conclusion
This research is a mixed methods case study that draws primarily on key informant
interviews and focus groups to explore the experiences and migration planning of Tumbler Ridge
youth. A total of 19 interviews with 21 participants and four focus groups with 13 participants
were conducted between June and September 2024. Interview and focus group data was analyzed
using latent content analysis with deductive and inductive coding. Secondary data collection
included a review of Statistics Canada and BC Stats sociodemographic and economic data as
well as various community documents. Exploring individual experiences and perceptions of
youth issues alongside quantitative descriptions of community change allowed insight into rural
youth issues and the impacts on youth migration planning. Steps were taken throughout the
entire research process to ensure rigour, validity, and increase reliability of the research.

46

Chapter 4: The District of Tumbler Ridge
My research explores issues of rural community change and youth migration planning
through a mixed methods case study of Tumbler Ridge, BC. A description of the history,
geography, demography, and economy of Tumbler Ridge is necessary to provide a foundation
for the study of youth experiences and migration planning. The historical development of
Tumbler Ridge and its changes over time, are presented with a specific focus on population and
demographic change.
4.1 Case Study Selection
Tumbler Ridge was selected as the case study community following a document search
of all communities in northern BC with at least 1,500 residents to ensure an adequate number of
youth residents. Community documents, such as Official Community Plans, were searched for
their mention of youth, young people, or resident recruitment and/or retention. Based on this
search criteria, 14 communities were identified as potential case studies. This number was
narrowed down based on the level of detail surrounding their discussion of resident recruitment
and retention needs. I contacted three potential case study communities (the City of Quesnel, the
District of Kitimat, and the District of Tumbler Ridge); the District of Tumbler Ridge (the
District) expressed interest and a desire to collaborate. Additionally, the District had expressed
specific interest in local youth recruitment and retention in their Official Community Plan
(District of Tumbler Ridge, 2023), Investment Readiness and Economic Development Plan
(District of Tumbler Ridge, 2018), and Tourism Strategy (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2020).
4.2 Context and History
Tumbler Ridge is a remote instant town located on the eastern foothills of the Rocky
Mountains on the traditional territories of the Kelly Lake Cree First Nation, Kelly Lake Metis

47

Settlement Society, McLeod Lake Indian Band, Saulteau First Nation, and West Moberly First
Nation (see Figure 4.1). Tumbler Ridge is one of seven communities and four electoral districts
in the Peace River Regional District3 and BC’s newest resource town, incorporated in 1981 and
officially opened in 1986 to retain a local coal mining workforce (Halseth & Sullivan, 2002).
Located 120 km southwest of Dawson Creek and 92 km southeast of Chetwynd, Tumbler Ridge
is politically linked to BC but functionally linked to Alberta with Grande Prairie being the
closest urban centre (Gill, 2002). The location of metallurgical coal reserves around what is now
Tumbler Ridge was well-known, but when combined with high global prices and demand for
metallurgical coal in the 1970s, more than 15 coal claims from national and multi-national firms
were staked in the area (Halseth & Sullivan, 2003/2004). Out of this scramble, two mines
proceeded, Quintette (operated by Denison Mines) and Bullmoose (operated by Teck), leading to
the creation of a new resource town. The development of Tumbler Ridge followed the postSecond World War development strategy of public investment to facilitate the private export of
‘staples’ resources (Gill, 2002).

3

Regional districts are a federation composed of municipalities, electoral areas, and treaty First Nations which each
have representation on the regional district board (Government of BC, 2025)

48

Figure 4.1
Map Showing the Location of Tumbler Ridge

Map Credit. Kyle Kusch.
Tumbler Ridge was the last instant town to be incorporated in BC under Letters Patent
which granted legal establishment of the town as part of this provincial resource development
plan (Gill, 1991; Halseth & Sullivan, 2002). In 1981, representatives of Denison Mines, Teck
Corporation, the Government of BC, and the Japanese Steel Industry signed the Northeast Coal
Development agreement for Tumbler Ridge to proceed (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2024). The
mining companies committed to the delivery of the Japanese coal contract while the provincial
government assumed responsibility for the community planning and infrastructure, and funding
was provided by the federal and provincial governments as well as future property taxes (Jackson
49

& Illsley, 2006). A persistent problem with earlier resource towns was the high levels of
population turnover. Recognizing that married men would stay longer than single men, the
townsite was carefully planned with extensive effort paid to the design, layout, and servicing of
the town to attract families (Gill, 1991; Gill, 2002).
Five main social design principles underlay the design of Tumbler Ridge: commitment,
challenge, self-reliance, choice, and participation to achieve three goals: high social cohesion,
low labour turnover, and high residential satisfaction (Gill, 2002; Jackson & Illsley, 2006). The
focus on creating an environment to retain the workforce of Tumbler Ridge followed in the
footsteps of Kitimat, a resource town on BC’s northwest coast developed in the 1950s to support
aluminum smelting. Kitimat was the first resource town in BC to be developed by the planner,
Clarence Stein, whose ‘new town’ planning models were inspired by the European ‘garden city’
movement (Halseth & Sullivan, 2003/2004). The three design principles that guided Kitimat’s
development were:
1) use site planning to separate land uses, this meant grouping uses such as residential
and commercial, and separating uses such as industrial from residential;
2) use neighbourhood design to create function housing areas, this meant designing for
the target population of young families with small children and included elementary
schools, ample parks and playgrounds, and neighbourhood walkways separated from
roads;
3) use economic principles to ensure built-in diversity, this meant adding other industries
and economic sectors to avoid the pitfalls of single-industry dependence (Halseth &
Sullivan, 2003/2004, p.20).

50

The planning of Tumbler Ridge included the first two principles with clearly organized land
uses, ample green space, extensive recreation facilities, and crime prevention through winding
streets, street-facing infrastructure, and no alleys (see Figure 4.2). However, Tumbler Ridge
failed to build in economic diversity, an ongoing community development issue.
Figure 4.2
Map Showing the Street Design of Tumbler Ridge

Source. Adapted from Grand Lodge (2023)
Unfortunately, economic diversification initiatives are seldom developed until after a
local economic collapse (Illsley et al., 2010). The Quintette Mine closed in 2000, and the
Bullmoose Mine closed in 2003 (Gill, 2002; Jackson & Illsley, 2006). These actions prompted
the development of the Tumbler Ridge Revitalization Task Force by the Tumbler Ridge
Diversification Society, the Chamber of Commerce, and the District of Tumbler Ridge. The goal
of the Task Force was to develop diversification and transition plans following the closure of the
major industry, leading to a wide range of activities (Halseth & Sullivan, 2002). Critical to this
51

demonstration of community resilience were the well-established local community networks and
bonds. Despite the three issues of not being located on a through highway, little economic
diversification, and retail leakage to neighbouring towns, Tumbler Ridge was able to draw upon
its social cohesion and social capital to secure funding for healthcare and education from the
provincial government, sell the company-owned houses to create a local property tax base, and
support new economic development initiatives.
A unique opportunity for tourism development was presented with the discovery of
dinosaur tracks by two local children, Mark Turner and Daniel Helm, in 2000 (Helm, 2004;
Tumbler Ridge UNESCO Global Geopark, 2024). The Tumbler Ridge Museum Foundation and
the Peace Region Palaeontology Research Centre collaborated to develop a broader tourism
strategy around the discovery, securing UNESCO Global Geopark status in 2014 and developing
a palaeontology research centre in Tumbler Ridge. Additionally, Tumbler Ridge is now home to
one of BC’s largest wind turbine farms and has a booming outdoor tourism industry with
amenities from snowmobile trails and wilderness adventure tours to arts and culture experiences.
The original purpose of the townsite for retaining a local mining workforce has shifted, but the
townsite planning with its excellent amenities have created a culture that continues today.
4.3 Economy and Employment
The economy of Tumbler Ridge is still characterized by the volatile boom-bust pattern of
resource-dependent places, despite their economic diversification efforts. The Quintette Mine,
operated by Denison Mines, and the Bullmoose Mine, operated by Teck Corporation, sent their
first shipment of coal to the Japanese steel market in 1983 (Halseth & Sullivan, 2002). In 1991,
Teck Corporation assumed management of the Quintette Mine as well, laying off many local
workers (Halseth & Sullivan, 2002). Following the closures of the Quintette and Bullmoose

52

Mines in 2000 and 2003 respectively, coal prices picked up again in 2004, prompting Western
Canadian Coal to develop the Dillon Mine, the Brule Mine, and the Wolverine Mine (Halseth et
al., 2017). In 2010, these mines were acquired by Walter Energy, but world coal prices dropped
the following year, prompting the closure of the mines in 2014, and laying off nearly 700 people
(Halseth et al., 2017). Since then, Conuma Resources has become the most active company in
the area, acquiring the Brule and Wolverine Mines in 2016 and the Quintette Mine in 2023
(Conuma Resources, 2024). The Brule Mine is currently operational, closure of the Wolverine
Mine began in April 2024 (Ernst, May 2024), and work is currently in progress to bring the
Quintette Mine back into operation (Conuma Resources, 2024).
Local diversification efforts are challenging the resource-based economy of Tumbler
Ridge, although coal mining persists. Year-round tourism is a focus of local economic
development efforts, with all-terrain vehicle and snowmobile trails supplementing summer
hiking (Invest Tumbler Ridge, 2024d). Two key tourism companies currently operate in the
community (Invest Tumbler Ridge, 2024d), Wild River Adventure Tours, offering jet boat tours
and outdoor equipment rentals (Wild River Adventure Tours, 2024), and Ridge Rotors, offering
helicopter tours (Ridge Rotors, 2024). The star of Tumbler Ridge’s tourism industry, however, is
the dinosaur tracks and fossil beds, situated within 8,478 km2 of international geological
significance with 34 accessible geosites across 21 destination areas (Invest Tumbler Ridge,
2024e). Since achieving UNESCO Global Geopark status in 2014, local tourism has grown by
almost 700% (Invest Tumbler Ridge, 2024d). Additionally, the Economic Development Office
also markets Tumbler Ridge as a destination for meetings, incentive tourism, conferences, and
exhibitions (Invest Tumbler Ridge, 2024b). Tumbler Ridge’s emerging conferencing sector is
connected to tourism with unique local experiences, including riverboat trips and dinosaur track

53

tours, marketed alongside the Trend Mountain Conference Centre and golf course venues (Invest
Tumbler Ridge, 2024b). Recently hosted events included the Northeast BC Coal and Energy
Forum, the Community Forest Association of BC, the BC Ornithologists Association, and the
Tumbler Ridge Medical Conference.
Beyond tourism, Tumbler Ridge has also developed some of BC’s largest wind turbine
farms, including the Meikle Wind Farm operated by Pattern Energy and the Quality Wind
Project operated by Capital Power (Invest Tumbler Ridge, 2024c). The District’s Economic and
Community Development Office has also expressed interest in developing their local forest and
liquefied natural gas (LNG) sectors (Invest Tumbler Ridge, 2024c). The document, Forestry in
Tumbler Ridge! (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2022) states that the forestry sector in Tumbler
Ridge is underrepresented but has the potential for many sub-sector businesses, manufacturing
opportunities, and employment possibilities. The Tumbler Ridge Community Forest received a
harvest volume expansion in 2017 and advertises opportunities in recreation and wildlife and
watershed management (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2022). The Northern BC LNG pipeline
approval is also highlighted on the District’s Economic Development Office website, stating that
this project “will provide enormous additional economic and employment opportunities for
Tumbler Ridge” (Invest Tumbler Ridge, 2024c). While these diversification efforts likely
contributed to the increased population stability in recent years, tourism, forestry, and LNG are
all cyclical industries like coal mining.
Alongside a desire to attract development in specific industries, the Economic
Development Office also markets targeted resident recruitment. Medical and alternative health
care workers have their own page on the Economic Development website (Invest Tumbler
Ridge, 2024a), including a description of the Tumbler Ridge Community Health Centre and

54

testimonials from current and past local healthcare professionals. Virtual workers are also
specifically sought after according to the Economic Development Office website (Invest
Tumbler Ridge, 2024f) that highlights the low cost of living, small-town lifestyle, and outdoor
recreation opportunities afforded by a remote working lifestyle in Tumbler Ridge. Planned
upgrades and expansions to the fibre optic network are also described on the website, a necessity
to attract remote workers. These efforts illustrate that the District is trying to economically
diversify, including into other cyclical sectors as well as those that are less volatile.
Despite diversification efforts, the volatile but persistent coal mining legacy of Tumbler
Ridge continues to dominate the local economy with a significant proportion of the local
population employed in mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction (see Table 4.1). The
second largest employment sector in Tumbler Ridge is retail trade. Local employment in
tourism, which was interpreted as the ‘accommodation, food, and other services’ sector in the
Canadian Census, is significant when compared to the Peace River Regional District. When
employment trends are compared over time however, the picture is less clear. The tourism
economy in Tumbler Ridge has fluctuated significantly over time, with levels of employment in
the accommodation, food, and services industry in 2021 lower than 1991 levels, and 3.4% lower
than in 2016 (see Table 4.1), while the COVID-19 pandemic also likely impacted this decline.
However, the percentage of the population employed in the industry does not necessarily reflect
the economic health of the industry. Nevertheless, these statistics are important when discussing
resident recruitment and retention because employment opportunities and stability are a pertinent
aspect of migration planning.

55

Table 4.1
Select Economic Characteristics 1991, 2016, and 2021
Employment Industry
Mining, quarrying, and
oil and gas extraction
Accommodation, food,
and other services
Retail trade
Labour force
participation rate
Average full-time
employment income

1991 Census
TR %
PPRD
BC %
%
59.7
11.1
1.1

2016 Census
TR %
PRRD
BC %
%
14.0
10.7
1.0

2021 Census
TR %
PRRD
BC %
%
36.5
6.2
0.9

10.5

12.6

15.4

11.5

12.7

12.9

8.1

3.7

11.1

7.5
78.2

11.3
74.4

12.7
67.6

5.5
64.1

10.2
72.8

11.4
63.9

10.5
65.3

10.4
70.4

11.3
63.3

N/D

N/D

N/D

$73,109

$75,303

$64,625

$98,000

$81,900

$77,700

Sources. Statistics Canada (1991, 2016, 2021)
The average employment income in Tumbler Ridge in 2021 was significantly higher than
both the regional and provincial average (see Table 4.1), potentially challenging economic
diversification efforts as sectors outside of mining are likely lower paying. This assertion is
supported when compared to 2016 which shows employment in mining, quarrying, and oil and
gas as half as much, and the average employment income as less than the regional average.
These economic trends are relevant to this research because they illustrate an economy with high
average incomes, but one that is not diversifying in any meaningful way. Moreover, these highpaying jobs are reserved to specific industries and employers, and few of these opportunities are
available to local high school students and recent graduates.
4.4 Demography
The 2021 Census reports the population of Tumbler Ridge as 2,399. To update this
number because this research takes place between census years, BC Stats estimates the 2023
population of Tumbler Ridge as 2,613. Figure 4.3 illustrates the fluctuations in the total
population of Tumbler Ridge since the first census in 1986. The total population of Tumbler
Ridge was at its highest in 1991, one decade after the town’s creation, credited primarily to the
56

booming coal economy. The total population reached it lowest in 2001 following the closure of
the Quintette Mine the year before. The population began to increase again in 2006, following
the development of the Dillon, Brule, and Wolverine Mines. All three of these mines were closed
in 2014, the impacts of which are reflected in the decrease in total population in 2016. However,
according to BC Stats, the total population of Tumbler Ridge has grown every year since 2016,
likely reflecting increased economic stability.
Figure 4.3
Tumbler Ridge Total Population from 1986 to 2021
5,000
4,500

4,387

4,650
3,775

Total Population

4,000

3,500
3,000

2,454

2,500

2,710

1,851

2,000

2,399
1,987

1,500
1,000

500
0
1986

1991

1996

2001

2006

2011

2016

2021

Census Year

Source. Statistics Canada (1986, 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2021)
In addition to changes in the total population, there have been changes to the
demographic structure of the population. Figure 4.4 demonstrates the population demographics
of Tumbler Ridge in 1991. The working age population made up the majority of the total
population followed by children, demonstrating a population of mainly young working families.
This population distribution reflects a pattern that is typical of a booming resource town.

57

Figure 4.4
Tumbler Ridge 1991 Population Pyramid
75 and over
65-74
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49

Age

40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29

20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
15%

10%

5%

0%

5%

10%

15%

Percentage of Population
Male

Female

Source. Statistics Canada (1991)
The population demographics of Tumbler Ridge in 2001 illustrate the impacts of the
Quintette Mine closure in 2000 beyond the decrease in population (see Figure 4.5). Two changes
are clear. First, there was a decline in young working age people from 20 to 39 years. The largest
decline was in the 30 to 34 age category which made up 8% of the total population in 2001 (see
Figure 4.5) compared to almost 14% in 1991 (see Figure 4.4). Change also occurred in the
youngest age groups with a decline in the number of residents between zero and nine years,
demonstrating a transition from a town of young families to an older population. These changes
likely reflect the out-migration of young working families due to the Quintette Mine closure.
Secondly, there was a population increase in retirement aged and senior residents from 55 to 75
years and over, likely reflecting that the original workforce has aged in place. The increase in
58

seniors may also indicate an in-migration of retirees and seniors, potentially because of the low
cost of living in Tumbler Ridge at the time due to the declining coal mining industry.
Figure 4.5

Age

Tumbler Ridge 2001 Population Pyramid
75 and over
65-74
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
15%

10%

5%

0%

5%

10%

15%

Percentage of Population
Male

Female

Source. Statistics Canada (2001)
The 2021 population pyramid of Tumbler Ridge illustrates an aging resource community
(see Figure 4.6). The largest portion of the population being retirement age and senior residents
between 60 and 74 years and the smallest portion of the population being teens and young adults
between 15 and 24 years. Comparing the 2021 population pyramid with 2001 illustrates
continued out-migration of teens and young adults, a small amount of in-migration of young
working families, and a workforce that has continued to age in place. The total population has
increased since 2001 but has never rebounded to the pre-closure levels in 1991. This population
distribution reflects an aging resource town that lacks meaningful economic diversification to
attract young professionals and families.
59

Figure 4.6
Tumbler Ridge 2021 Population Pyramid
75 and over
65-74
60-64

55-59
50-54
45-49

Age

40-44
35-39
30-34

25-29
20-24
15-19

10-14
5-9
0-4

15%

10%

5%

0%

5%

10%

15%

Percentage of Population
Male

Female

Source. Statistics Canada (2021)
The aging of the original workforce and out-migration of young people is also evident
through further examination of the age distribution of Tumbler Ridge since 1986 (see Figure
4.7). While the percentage of the population over the age of 65 has grown substantially, the
percentage of the population between the ages of 15 and 24 has slowly decreased. This
population distribution reflects the impacts of economic and political restructuring on resource
towns. Economic restructuring contributed to layoffs and closures, altered employment patterns,
and introduced intense fluctuations in the natural resource industries. At the same time, political
restructuring downloaded senior government responsibilities for public services and
infrastructure onto the municipality without increasing jurisdiction or fiscal resources. The result
is aging service infrastructure, a retiring workforce, and the out-migration of young people
60

without compensatory in-migration of other young people, all of which are demonstrated in
Tumbler Ridge. However, the percentage of the population under the age of 15 appears to have
levelled out around 20% since 2001, suggesting a relatively stable population of young families.
Figure 4.7
Age Distribution of Tumbler Ridge 1986 to 2021

1986

1991

0.3%

0.4%

1996

Census Year

17.5%

2001

13.7%

0.7%

31.0%

14.1%

5.1%

11.4%
11.2%

2016

10.0%

2021

9.7%

5.0%

28.7%

12.9%

2006

0.0%

30.4%

10.0%

21.0%

17.9%

13.6%
20.0%
15.4%
20.0%
15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

Percentage of Total Population
Over 65 years

15-24 years

Under 15 years

Source. Statistics Canada (1986, 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2021)
Pertinent to the discussion of youth migration planning is an understanding of local levels
of education attainment, as many youth leave to pursue post-secondary education. The
percentage of the population aged 15 years and over with any level of education has steadily
61

increased from 1986 to 2021 in Tumbler Ridge, demonstrated by the decrease in the percentage
of the population with no certificate or diploma, from 34% in 1986 to 18% in 2021 (see Figure
4.8). The percentage of the BC population with no certificate or diploma followed a similar
pattern, dropping from 41% in 1986 to 13% in 2021 (see Figure 4.9). The Tumbler Ridge data
also shows an increase in the percentage of the population with a high school diploma as their
highest level of education attained, from 13% in 1986 to 36% in 2021. Again, the percentage of
the BC population with a high school diploma as their highest level of education attained
followed a similar pattern, increased from 12% in 1986 to 29% in 2021.
The median levels of educational attainment in Tumbler Ridge do not follow a clear
pattern, and do not clearly correspond with employment statistics. The percentage of the
Tumbler Ridge population with a university degree has fluctuated over time, from 7% in 1986 to
5% in 2006 and 13% in 2021 (see Figure 4.8). In contrast, the percentage of the BC population
with a university degree has steadily increased from 9% in 1986 to 29% in 2021 (see Figure 4.9).
Comparatively, Tumbler Ridge attracts fewer university-educated residents than the provincial
average. The percentage of the Tumbler Ridge population with a trades certificate or diploma
was between 3 and 6% until it peaked in 2006 at 22%; the percentage has now fallen to 15% in
2021. It is impossible to know if the same residents have gained higher levels of education or if
residents with these levels of education have migrated out of Tumbler Ridge overtime. The BC
population followed a similar pattern from 3 to 4% until it peaked at 11% in 2006 and then fell to
8% in 2021. However, the percentage of Tumbler Ridge residents with a trades certificate or
diploma is still above provincial averages, illustrating the importance of trades to the local
economy. However, levels of educational attainment do not necessarily correspond to
employment industries as the percentage of Tumbler Ridge residents employed in mining,

62

quarrying, and oil and gas more than doubled from 2016 to 2021 (see Table 4.1), but the
percentage of the population with a trades certificate or diploma remained the same (see Figure
4.8). Despite the push for post-secondary education in Tumbler Ridge, especially in trades, it is
difficult to see a clear connection between local education and employment. Nevertheless, the
educational attainment of the Tumbler Ridge population has increased overall, demonstrating an
increasing ability to attract educated professionals.
Figure 4.8
Highest Level of Education Attained in Tumbler Ridge for the Population Aged 15 Years and

Highest Level of Education Attained

Over, 1986 to 2021
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%

36%

34%
30%

29%

32%

31%

27%

27%

26%
24%
22%
20%

25%
20%
15%

14%

13%

10%
5%
0%

16%

7%

3%

6%

10%
6%

6%

0%
1986

1991

5%
3%

5%
3%

1996

2006

23%
18%

17%
17%

17%
15%
13%

9%
4%
2016

1%
2021

Census Year
No certificate or diploma

High school diploma or equivalent

Trades certificate or diploma

Non-university certificate or diploma

University certificate or diploma

University degree

Source. Statistics Canada (1986, 1991, 1996, 2006, 2016, 2021)

63

Figure 4.9
Highest Level of Education Attained in BC for the Population Aged 15 Years and Over, 1986 to

Highest Level of Education Attained

2021
50%
45%

41%

40%

34%

35%

31%

25%
20%
15%

16%
12%

10%
5%

11%
9%

20%

18%
14%

11%
6%

3%

3%

1986

1991

14%

13%
4%

29%

25%
17%

19%
16%

11%

6%

29%

29%

28%

27%

30%

5%

18%
13%
9%

17%
8%
4%

4%

0%
1996

2006

2016

2021

Census Year
No certificate or diploma

High school diploma or equivalent

Trades certificate or diploma

Non-university certificate or diploma

University certificate or diploma

University degree

Source. Statistics Canada (1986, 1991, 1996, 2006, 2016, 2021)
The population and demography of Tumbler Ridge has fluctuated since the town’s
creation. The patterns of an aging workforce and the out-migration of high school graduates
familiar to rural communities across Canada (Stalker & Phyne, 2014; McLay & Foster, 2023;
Ryser et al., 2012) are also present in Tumbler Ridge. However, the story of resident recruitment
and retention in Tumbler Ridge is complicated, with an exodus of youth and young adults
between the ages of 15 and 24 and the in-migration of adults between the ages of 25 and 39,
alongside an increase in educational attainment. Therefore, Tumbler Ridge is attracting young
families and educated professionals while failing to retain its youth.

64

4.5 Conclusion
Tumbler Ridge was created to support a local coal mining workforce to fulfill a
provincial development strategy. Despite its industrial beginnings, Tumbler Ridge has survived
the turmoil of its mining economy. Strong social capital and cohesion have bonded residents
together, illustrating the positive impact of community planning that focuses on recreation, low
labour turnover, and residential satisfaction. However, the focus on supporting a coal mining
workforce and subsequent lack of planning for economic diversity has impacted the recruitment
and retention of youth and young professionals and families. As such, this research explored the
experiences of local youth, and their migration plans to help inform future community
development in Tumbler Ridge.

65

Chapter 5: Results
This chapter presents the research findings from my fieldwork and is divided into five
main sections. The first section presents the results of the community document review on youth
recruitment and retention initiatives in Tumbler Ridge. Interview and focus group findings4 are
then presented to explore the topic of migration planning among senior high school students. As
my research involved current Tumbler Ridge youth, the findings connect to issues of local youth
retention or their potential return to the community later in life. While the academic and gray
literature describe both recruitment and retention topics, my sample provides a focus upon
retention. These findings are reviewed across the main themes of education, employment,
community, and sense of place. Each research question is addressed through these themes.
5.1 Resident Recruitment and Retention Initiatives
Resident recruitment and retention are pressing issues in many rural communities with
concerns of an aging workforce and the out-migration of youth and young families (Halseth &
Ryser, 2018; McQuillan & Laszlo, 2022; Ryser et al., 2012). This topic is discussed by the
District of Tumbler Ridge in multiple municipal plans and commissioned reports, including from
as early as 2001 following the first major loss of population due to mine closures.
5.1.1 Current Initiatives
The District of Tumbler Ridge has indicated an interest in resident recruitment and
retention in multiple municipal documents, including the Official Community Plan (District of
Tumbler Ridge, 2023) and Tourism Strategy (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2020). The District’s
interest in better understanding youth in the context of resident recruitment and retention is
discussed in the Investment Readiness and Economic Development Plan (District of Tumbler

4

‘I’ or ‘FG’ followed by the participant number are used to differentiate quotes from interview and focus group
participants. Examples include ‘(I5)’ or ‘(FG23)’.

66

Ridge, 2018). The plan recognizes that their young workforce “is looking for areas to live where
[they] can combine recreation, important services, and affordable residential and available
amenities” (p.7), illustrating their holistic approach to economic development and attention to
young people. Further recommendations include making Tumbler Ridge “an attractive place to
live” (Strategy 5.0) and to “Track Youth Leaving Town” (Strategy 5.2) (p.18). These strategies
describe the challenge of youth out-migration while also recognizing that youth leaving their
home community has many benefits, including “experiencing ideas and cultures that increase
perspective and can lead to product or service improvement” (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2018,
p. 43). Specifically, the District expressed a desire for an ‘exit survey’ of local youth upon their
high school graduation,
The survey can include questions asking if they are staying the community, why they
are leaving the community, will they come back to the community and what would entice
them to return. The survey could ask youth to rank specific topics including quality of
life, amenities, job opportunities, etc. The survey should end with an ask for contact
information (i.e. email) to allow the District to keep in touch with the individual and
provide ongoing information on the community (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2018, p. 43).
According to the District’s Economic and Community Development Office, the exit survey was
never implemented and concerns around youth out-migration are less severe now than when the
plan was developed in 2018. As one local government interviewee expressed,
this was when the mines had closed, and I think there was a lot more worry about people
not coming back… I think there’s less worry overall now. I don’t know, it just popped
into my head that I wonder how many parents, if their kids decided to leave, if the parents
would decide to leave to be closer, so that could have been part of this as well (I5).

67

While there are many discussions of youth in relation to other development priorities
throughout the Investment Readiness and Economic Development Plan, “Strategy 5.2: Track
Youth Leaving Town” (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2018) is the only strategy that specifically
addresses youth issues. For example, under the section, “Tumbler Ridge has a workforce for the
future” (p.54), suggestions include the development of curriculum for training that can be
delivered to local high school students. These initiatives attempt to link youth to training for
local employment following high school graduation. These goals have been achieved through
experiential learning, work experience opportunities, and dual credit programs at Tumbler Ridge
Secondary School (TRSS). These initiatives were developed through collaborations between the
District, TRSS, Northern Lights College, and Tumbler Ridge businesses and institutions to
empower local youth as well as build social cohesion and community capacity.
According to my meeting with the District’s Community and Economic Development
Office in April 2024, the District’s involvement with local youth includes operating the
Community Centre, providing operational funding for the Youth Centre, financially supporting
the TRSS Conuma Challenge Go-Kart Race (Government of BC, 2023), and offering summer
student jobs (28 positions in 2024). The District does not have any documents, or plans to
develop new documents, focused on youth or resident recruitment and retention (personal
communication, August 12th, 2024). Multiple factors contribute to the District’s hesitancy to
develop a resident recruitment plan, most notably, the limited housing stock and lack of highspeed Internet combined with the high number of transient workers due to the re-starting of the
Quintette Mine. A local government interviewee explained,

68

right now, we don’t have any specific plans out. Right now is kind of a weird time
because the town is so full, but it’s always something that I want to have on all of our
projects. Even if we’re promoting tourism, we’re also promoting our community as a
good place to live (I5).
The District’s document, A Guide to Moving to Tumbler Ridge (2018) markets the
lifestyle, amenities, and quality of life in Tumbler Ridge alongside opportunities for economic
development in technology, retail, resource development, and tourism. Under “Youth &
Education,” the guide describes the local public school system, childcare options, and
Community Centre offerings for youth. The section also highlights Northern Lights College, the
skateboard and bike parks, as well as the surrounding landscape for outdoor recreation
opportunities. The updated 2019 version highlights opportunities for children and young adults
(p.14) but appears to have less focus on teens. A formal guide has not been created since 2019,
instead the District’s tourism website, Visit Tumbler Ridge has a webpage titled, “Moving to
Tumbler Ridge” (Visit Tumbler Ridge, 2024) and includes the same information from 2019.
Finally, the Tumbler Ridge Global Geopark 2022-2023 Visitor & Relocation Guide
describes the Youth Centre as an amenity for local youth. Post-secondary courses at Northern
Lights College are the only amenity highlighted for young adults in Tumbler Ridge and ‘teens’
are not mentioned in the guide. Instead, a section titled “10 Fun Things To Do With Kids”
features amenities including the golf course, swimming pool, skateboard park, and fishing lakes
and rivers, all of which could also be marketed toward teens. Resident recruitment is discussed
once in the guide where it states a desire to attract “more health care providers, including but not
limited to dentists, more nurses, counsellors, and paramedics, physiotherapists, occupational
therapists, chiropractors, and naturopaths” (p.65). Neither the Geopark or the Museum currently

69

has documents or plans to develop documents related specifically to local youth (personal
communication, August 12th, 2024).
5.1.2 Past Initiatives
Past attention to resident recruitment and retention by the District of Tumbler Ridge is
illustrated by the Tumbler Ridge Community Transition Survey 2001: Report on Perceptions of
Community, Services, and Programming Needs by Halseth and Ryser (2002), developed directly
after the Quintette Mine closure. Socioeconomic profiles of the town are presented in addition to
identification of program and activity needs for the Community Centre and other local service
providers. According to surveyed residents and property owners, youth and teen activities were a
key concern for the community. The report finds that new residents were more likely to be
satisfied with opportunities for youth than long-term residents (p.13). “Youth boredom” (p.18)
was also identified as an issue. More teen and youth programs were one of the key
recommendations to improve local programming, including the development of a Youth Centre,
which has since been created. The report also recommended a youth mentor program and a youth
drug and alcohol program. A lack of entertainment options and employment opportunities for
youth were also identified in the report. Based on formal and informal conversations with
community stakeholders, these issues are still prevalent in Tumbler Ridge, and neither a youth
mentor program or youth drug and alcohol program were created.
Halseth and Ryser (2002) also developed a list of local clubs and organizations for youth
and children, these include: Beavers, Busy Bee, Cadets, Child Care Centre Organization, Cubs,
Day Care Board, Gymnastics, Kids’ Club, Minor Hockey, PAC group, Rangers, School Board,
Tumbler Ridge Youth Soccer, Youth Board, and Youth Group. Many of these youth initiatives
exist today and others have been added. Recommendations for needed clubs and organizations

70

for youth and children included: 4-H, Brownies, Cadets, Scouts, Duke of Edinburgh Award for
Young Canadians Challenge, Girl Guides, Kids’ Club, Motor-Cross, Paintball, Pathfinders,
Sparks, Venturers, Youth Centre, ballet, figure skating, youth development services, as well as
Big Brothers/Big Sisters. Many of the recommendations from the report have been met,
including the development of an ATV Club, horseback riding, Chamber of Commerce, Arts
Council, drama program, snowmobile club, and Youth Centre, demonstrating a local
commitment to youth-focused community development.
The Tumbler Ridge Sustainability Plan: Strategies for Resilience (Morris et al., 2014),
provides a vision for the future and plan to achieve this vision. One strategy directly addresses
youth and falls under the Citizen Engagement goal that “residents of all ages are informed and
involved in the civic institutions, organizations, and events that contribute to the sustainability,
quality of life and well-being of Tumbler Ridge” (Morris et al., 2014, p.40). The strategy is to
“work with youth in the community to build awareness and appreciation of and involvement in
the volunteer sector” (Morris et al., 2014, p.47). Building numbers and capacity in the volunteer
sector through youth involvement is a key part of this strategy, also providing benefits to youth
including encouraging a sense of responsibility and development of social skills. Included in this
strategy is the suggestion to reach out to local youth to inquire about volunteer opportunities that
they may be interested in. Specific tactics to achieve this strategy were: conducting a dialogue
with high school students to identify volunteering opportunities that would interest them,
maintaining and building on successful youth volunteer initiatives (e.g., grade 5/6 iPad
instruction to seniors), re-establishing the position of Youth Council Member on District
Council, and allowing volunteering as a means of satisfying work credit requirements in the high
school curriculum. According to my interviews and informal meetings with community

71

stakeholders in 2024, volunteering is a part of the TRSS graduation requirements, in addition to
work experience, beginning in grade 10. There was also a Youth Council Member in 2015 to
2016 but youth interest in this position fluctuates with different teen cohorts (personal
communication, June 26th, 2024).
Another youth-focused goal is “a diversity of education, training, and lifelong learning
opportunities to equip our children and our adults with the skills they need to succeed in the
future” (Morris et al., 2014, p.20). Strategies under this goal include aligning local training with
the needs of local employers and matching opportunities in the local economy to encourage
linkages. This initiative is being met in Tumbler Ridge through dual credit and work experience
opportunities at TRSS. The goal of sports and recreation is to develop infrastructure, services,
and supports to enhance people’s involvement in sports and recreation activities and includes
strategies such as programs that respond to the needs of residents. This initiative is being
addressed through the Community Centre’s Youth Survey from 2023 which provided direction
to 2024 recreation development. The goal for arts and culture is a vibrant arts community and
range of services to support people’s involvement and the strategies mirror those for sports and
recreation. Current arts and culture initiatives for youth include the drop-in craft program hosted
by the Community Centre, the Tumbler Ridge Young Peoples Drama, and the Rocky Mountain
Dance Company. According to the Community Centre’s Youth Survey from 2023, there appears
to be interest from high school students in increasing these activities.

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5.2 Education
The topic of education was explored at the secondary school level as this contributes to
youth experiences of Tumbler Ridge, and at the post-secondary level as this informs migration
planning. This section explores the education goals of youth, community education supports, and
challenges around education. Education was linked to the out-migration of youth and identified
as a push factor of Tumbler Ridge.
5.2.1 Education Goals and Plans
Perspectives on youth education goals and plans were mixed among participants. For
youth participants, personal education goals directly correlated to their employment goals. Some
youth shared the specific institutions that they were aiming for, but most discussed education as a
stepping stone to their future employment goals.
Interviewees often discussed youth education goals as industry-focused, illustrating the
dominant community perspective that most local youth pursue trades. Many interviewees linked
these industry-focused education goals with youth exposure to trades-focused experiential
learning, work experience, and dual credit opportunities available at TRSS. For example, one
community service provider shared, “there's a huge focus on [trades], kind of a push, and they do
that through partnerships with Northern Lights College because it's affiliated, by location, it's
affiliated to our high school. So, the information is very easy to get there” (I14). Some
interviewees shared that summer job opportunities also influenced the education goals of youth.
However, youth did not discuss these influences on their education goals, education goals were
instead presented as ‘dream jobs’ based on personal interest, fulfillment, or potential for high
incomes.

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The most prominent educational goal pattern among youth was the normalization of
pursuing post-secondary education. Even if youth were not settled on a specific direction, they
knew they would be attending post-secondary. As one youth shared, “I definitely do want to go
to university or college, I just don't know what I want to do” (FG30). Youth were assertive in
their discussions about attending post-secondary, and often expressed excitement at the
opportunity, reflecting genuine interest rather than feelings of being forced. Most interviewees
also shared the perspective that post-secondary pursuits were normal following high school
graduation. According to an education provider, at least five youth from the 2023 TRSS grad
class are in post-secondary and at least half of the 2024 graduating class will be attending postsecondary following graduation. Another interviewee reflected on their own TRSS grad class
from multiple years ago, sharing that “like 90% went on to post-secondary … I think there was
only maybe two people that didn't go to post-secondary, that just went straight to the workforce”
(I6).
Some service providers shared that youth education goals were gendered with males
assumed to pursue trades and females assumed to pursue service industries and higher levels of
education. However, education providers did not share this perspective. Instead, interviewees in
education tended to link education goals with socioeconomic status, peer influences, and youth’s
beliefs in their own academic abilities. For example, an education provider shared,
it really depends on peer groups, like the one coming up right now, a lot of the boys are
looking at university. Or a lot of the ones that are thinking about trades are starting to
think about the capability of being able to do university (I20).

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Another education provider stressed the role of socioeconomics and parental influence,
definitely socioeconomics … kids that have gotten out before, kids who whose parents
have put time, effort, and energy into making sure they have life experiences, that has
more of a play, I think, than gender. … whether they're going off to university or into
trades, I think it's the parents who almost, like, prepped them (I21).
While all the youth participants interested in pursuing industrial trades were male, interest in
medical fields, social services, and technology were mixed between genders. Youth did not
specifically discuss the impact of gender on their education goals.
5.2.2 Education Linked to Migration
Due to the lack of post-secondary opportunities available in Tumbler Ridge, participants
normalize leaving the community to pursue post-secondary. Most interviewees believed that
youth should leave Tumbler Ridge to attend post-secondary, citing increased opportunities and
important life experiences outside of the community. When youth were asked, nearly all
connected migration to their education goals. However, some youth did share migration plans
with the purpose of living in that location rather than suiting the location to their preferred
employment. All youth participants plan to leave Tumbler Ridge, although two plan to return in
less than 10 years. There was no pattern in the geographic direction of migration goals, however,
most youth discussed a preference for small communities in northern BC or Alberta, though not
as small as Tumbler Ridge. Interviewees discussed the migration goals of youth similarly, with
most interviewees connecting youth migration goals with their education and employment goals
rather than lifestyle preferences or cost of living.
Despite the connections made between youth out-migration and the pursuit of postsecondary education, many interviewees expressed that having post-secondary opportunities in

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Tumbler Ridge was either unimportant or not feasible. Only local government interviewees
shared some negative perceptions of the lack of local post-secondary education. As one local
government interviewee shared,
post-secondary education is going to be a big one because that’s one of the main reasons
a lot of people leave. And once they’re gone, at some point they make that decision if
they’re going to come back or not, for all different reasons, could be housing, whatever
field they pursued, if there’s that availability here, maybe they move somewhere else and
fall in love, who knows. I think definitely post-secondary education is huge” (I3).
When youth participants were asked if they would stay and do their post-secondary education in
Tumbler Ridge if their desired program was available, the majority said yes.
A few youth, service providers, and local government interviewees commented on the
need for local post-secondary opportunities due to the financial inaccessibility of leaving
Tumbler Ridge for some young people. As one youth participant shared,
I think it would be nice for people who don't have the funds to move elsewhere, because
people whose parents aren't in the mine, or people who have multiple siblings and only
one parent in the mine, it's really hard for them to be able to afford to go to school
elsewhere or even be able to move out elsewhere. … I think it would be nice for people
with lower income to be able to have the opportunity to go to university or to get postsecondary education without having to move somewhere else and spend all those funds
(FG23).
If youth cannot afford to migrate out of Tumbler Ridge, there are few post-secondary options,
however, online education could provide a solution for rural and remote communities. For online
education to be a real solution in Tumbler Ridge however, better Internet and communication

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technology is required. Despite the normalization of post-secondary education following high
school graduation and the lack of local opportunities, few participants believed that developing
local post-secondary opportunities was necessary for youth retention.
5.2.3 Community Education Support
5.2.3a Experiential Learning
Experiential learning is a strength of many courses at TRSS in addition to two unique
opportunities, the Fish Farm and Go-Kart courses. The Fish Farm has been offered as a senior
science credit for grades 10 to 12 since 2013 where students raise goldfish. The class is
organized like a company, with students fulfilling different roles from public relations and
security to health and animal care (Ernst, 2021). Students are responsible for designing and
maintaining the tanks as well as the care of growing goldfish, learning biology, engineering, art
and design, business management, and other skills.
The Go-Kart course was based off the Fish Farm and first offered as a part of the grade 9
curriculum in 2017. Similar to the Fish Farm, students are assigned to teams that fit their courses
and interests. Representatives from local businesses assist with business models and planning,
and parents and local tradespeople, including the District’s mechanics, mentor students in the
construction of the go-karts. Students purchase go-kart kits, a motor, and parts with their
funding, and utilize metal from the local transfer station to build the go-karts; they also travel to
the Northern Lights College campus in Dawson Creek for a day to learn welding (Olsen, 2019).
The go-kart program culminates with a race at the end of May with awards for the fastest time
and the team that demonstrates the strongest teamwork (Olsen, 2019). The go-kart project was
put on pause during the COVID-19 pandemic but re-started in 2023 for grade 11 and 12 students
with a push from local businesses (personal communication, July 3rd, 2024).

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The benefits of experiential learning opportunities at TRSS are not only increased student
engagement, but also greater preparation for life after high school. As one interviewee explained,
after that first year that program ran, seven of those students went on to the dual credit,
completed, and are still within their trades. So, a big takeaway I had from that, it’s better
the earlier we start and let them try (I17).
The value of experiential learning in high school is that it gives students the opportunity to
exercise different skills and has helped students decide their career paths. While these
opportunities are usually focused on trades, experiential opportunities have been presented in
other classes. A TRSS teacher was able to send five students to the BC Youth Parliament in
Victoria because they displayed an interest in politics and social government.
Student experience is also a priority of School District 59 (SD 59) who started the
Student Voice program in 2022 to better understand student experiences, perspectives, and
expectations. The program recruits students from each high school in SD 59 to create their own
environmental scan process and assess each school across the district based on the criteria they
developed (School District 59, 2024). The accomplishments and future plans of the Student
Voice program are explained in SD 59’s Strategic Plan for 2024 to 2028 (School District 59,
2024). In the second year of the program, the Student Voice team completed an additional
environmental scan in which students from kindergarten through grade 12 were interviewed,
representing approximately 10% of the total student population (School District 59, 2024, p.1).
The Student Voice student team presented their findings to the SD 59 Board of Education for the
2023 to 2024 school year and the Board was receptive and willing to resource solutions to the
issues presented by the student team (personal communication, July 2nd, 2024). According to the

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Strategic Plan (School District 59, 2024), the Student Voice program will be expanded to include
elementary school students and facilitate the creation of Strategic and Operational plans.
5.3.2b Work Experience and Dual Credit
Connection between education and employment is a priority in Tumbler Ridge, illustrated
by dual credit opportunities and work experience requirements at TRSS. Work experience is a
graduation requirement for students in BC, and in Tumbler Ridge it is made possible through
community collaborations. TRSS has relationships with local businesses and institutions to hold
work experience placements, including at Industrial Metal Works and the Tumbler Ridge Health
Centre. In addition to fulfilling graduation requirements, these work experience placements
provide an opportunity for students to trial potential careers and speak with professionals in that
field. Students at TRSS are often connected with work experience opportunities through the high
school’s Career Coordinator, who plays a critical role in bridging local industry needs with youth
entering the workforce. As explained by one interviewee,
it’s a way to go out and try on your career, see if you like it. How do you know, right? It's
either going to affirm that it's something you love or you're going to hate it, now you've
got time to shift. … So, that then became my drive with all of the companies in town,
what do you have to give them the opportunity? Everybody talks about these kids are our
future, well, they're here now, our future is in front of us. Like, if you want to talk about
changing your future, this is how you do it (I17).
Work experience opportunities are also facilitated through the District of Tumbler Ridge.
District work experience placements include the mechanics in Public Works to gain automotive
and heavy-duty mechanic experience, and the pool as lifeguards. If students are interested in
lifeguarding, the District subsidizes their first aid and life guarding courses. A new work

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experience opportunity was developed in 2022 for two students, a Refrigeration Safety Course,
with an instructor provided by the District. The students achieved certification as well as work
experience to support their path to becoming power engineers (personal communication, June
17th, 2024). The work experience placements help address skills gaps and seasonal labour
shortages, and because employment with the District is unionized, students who have worked for
the District previously get priority for later employment opportunities.
Dual credit opportunities at TRSS provide another avenue for youth to try out potential
careers. At TRSS, dual credit opportunities are facilitated through the Northern Opportunities
program, developed in 2012 as a partnership between the School Districts of Fort Nelson, Peace
River North, Peace River South (which includes Tumbler Ridge), Chalo First Nation School,
Northern Lights College, and various industry partners (Enbridge, 2024). Through Northern
Opportunities, grade 11 and 12 students in northeastern BC can gain credits towards their high
school requirements as well as a post-secondary academic course, vocational program, trade, or
apprenticeship (Northern Lights College, 2024). Tuition fees are covered by the high school and
accommodation expenses are subsidized by SD 59 because students are required to commute to
the Northern Lights College campus in Dawson Creek or Fort St John (personal communication,
July 2nd, 2024). The Career Coordinator position at TRSS was created in conjunction with the
dual credit program to get students signed up as apprentices and then into the dual credit program
(personal communication, July 3rd, 2024). However, the Career Coordinator at TRSS offered
additional career counseling services and was an important person for many youth participants.
The dual credit program has some challenges. Because the Tumbler Ridge campus of
Northern Lights College does not offer any trades programs, students are required to relocate to
Dawson Creek or Fort St John from Monday to Friday for the school year. While service

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providers and local government spoke highly of the dual credit program, interviewees in
education were less enthusiastic. For example, one education provider shared,
it's very specific kids that can be successful with dual credit out here because they have to
go into Dawson Creek or into Fort St John to do it. And they're babies, only 17,
sometimes 16, depending on what their birthday is, and they're going off and doing postsecondary level education. … they're doing difficult stuff, especially when you have kids
that might be delayed academically, and then those kids want to get out of school a year
early, and that's how they sell it to the kids is you're going to get out a year early, but are
you going to be successful on this path, right? … And then you're living on your own too.
And the kids that do it tend to be a little less mature as well. And so, it really has to be the
right kid to do it. And there has been some success cases, but there also has been some
not so successful cases (I20).
Another challenge concerning some interviewees was the lack of exposure to career paths
outside of trades. While dual credit programs look different across BC, the focus in northern BC
is on industrial trades (personal communication, July 2nd, 2024). Despite its challenges, the dual
credit opportunities available to students at TRSS are an important mechanism for community
support of local youth.
5.2.4 Education as a Push Factor
When asked to discuss the push factors of Tumbler Ridge for young people, most
participants identified education. Perceptions of important issues related to education differed
between groups with youth and local government identifying the local public education system
while service and education providers identified the lack of local post-secondary education
opportunities. This discrepancy may be explained by personal experiences as youth were

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currently attending or had recently graduated from the public education system. In contrast, few
service providers had attended high school in Tumbler Ridge and were more interested in postsecondary opportunities for youth.
Youth discussed specific issues related to secondary school education, including the lack
of qualified teachers and not feeling prepared for life after high school. Youth participants who
had begun their post-secondary education also shared these struggles, explaining that they did
not feel adequately prepared for their courses. For example, one youth shared,
it was crazy for my profs to be like, ‘oh yeah, as you've already learned in high school’
and then I'm sitting over there like, ‘what? I was supposed to know this already?’. I'm
staring at it, and I've never seen anything like it before. And I was so confused, the
amount of catch up you have to do is crazy (FG23).
Nearly all local government and service providers who had children, or personally knew other
local youth that had attended university, described that they were unable to be successful. Youth
discussed the local public education system as a push factor for raising future families. Youth
were motivated to move to other communities to access a better education experience for their
children. For example, one youth expressed,
that's what drives me away. I don’t want anyone to go through this school system
because, like, going out into the world, I'm scared because I don't feel prepared. … we're
really not set up, so I will not raise anyone here (FG25).
Much like healthcare, education was discussed by some youth and service providers as a tradeoff for other positive aspects of Tumbler Ridge, typically the natural environment. However,
most youth were not willing to sacrifice what they believed to be a better education for their
children for the positive aspects of Tumbler Ridge.

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5.3 Employment
Employment opportunities are often identified as a primary driver of rural youth
migration (Avis, 2013; Looker, 2021). The employment goals of youth and their perceptions of
local employment opportunities are discussed in this section as well as community employment
support. A nuanced theme of youth attitudes towards employment is also included.
5.3.1 Employment Goals and Plans
Service and education providers tended to categorize youth into three broad categories
when discussing their employment goals and plans: those leaving to attend post-secondary, those
staying local to pursue trades, and those unsure of their next steps who often stay in Tumbler
Ridge. While no participants directly stated that youth who stay to work at the mines were
stigmatized, the language surrounding these discussions left evidence. As one education provider
shared,
for students who sometimes struggle with the academics, there is still that belief, ‘the
mines are open, I can get a good paying job at the mine’, but that lends itself to these two
competing dichotomies of almost living in the past in this boom and bust model that was
more of the ‘80s to the ‘90s, as opposed to, I'm going to go out, I'm going to get training,
I'm going to find what I like to do. Down the road, there might be an opportunity to come
back to Tumbler Ridge to do that, but there might not be (I15).
Staying in Tumbler Ridge to work at the mines was often equated by interviewees as not
knowing what else to do, a default decision without sufficient planning. In contrast, interviewees
in local government tended to share that many youth planned to pursue post-secondary
educations that aligned with employment opportunities in the mines or for the District.

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When asked about their employment goals, almost all youth participants shared plans
requiring post-secondary education. Goals ranged from industry trades to technology
development to medical fields. No youth participants expressed a desire to work in the mining
industry, for the District, or to stay in Tumbler Ridge to work following high school graduation.
Interviewees shared that youth employment goals are typically trades-focused, likely
influenced by the context of Tumbler Ridge as a northern resource town. As one service provider
shared,
especially being an industry focused community, there's a lot of talk when it comes to
trades. In the last group of scholarship applications that I saw come through for the one of
the bursaries that puts out of seven, I think six of them are going to trades (I14).
Other interviewees explained that the lack of exposure to industries outside of trades may
influence the trade-focused goals of local youth.
Youth participants did not demonstrate this strong interest in industrial trades, only 33%
shared goals related to industrial trades employment. Additionally, 33% were interested in a
medical field, 16% were interested in technology, 8% were interested in social services, and 8%
were interested in the arts. Of the youth interested in industrial trades, most planned to stay in
northern BC or northern Alberta while the other employment interest categories were not
correlated to a consistent geographic area. However, the youth sample size was small and nonrepresentative, therefore, their perspectives do not disprove the perspectives of interviewees.
5.3.2 Youth Attitudes Towards Employment
Many interviewees discussed youth attitudes towards employment when asked their
perceptions of youth employment goals and plans. The first theme was the ‘money-driven’
attitudes of many youth. Some interviewees perceived monetary motivation as gendered, with

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male youth more driven by employment with high income potential. However, an interviewee in
education explained that gender is no longer playing a strong role in the attitudes of youth
towards high incomes, they shared,
money is a big thing with rising costs in the past couple years, I think that even girls are
looking at trades, especially in grade 12, when they start working and they realize how
expensive things are. They're changing their minds to doing shorter programs and to get
higher paying jobs, unless they're very passionate about what they want to do (I20).
Youth did not explicitly state a desire to earn a high income as part of their employment goals,
however, youth did share desires to earn high levels of certification and work for ‘big
companies’. With the youth not interested in mining employment, they are forced to leave
Tumbler Ridge to pursue other high-earning industries. As one youth explained,
I know we talked about the mines a lot, but I don't know if there's anywhere else to work,
other from like those Meikle Wind or Capital Power, where you could work and make a
lot of money to live comfortably because other than that, it's just, like, the grocery store,
restaurants, and stuff around town (FG22).
A second theme that emerged from interviewee’s discussions around youth attitudes was
that employment needs to be fulfilling. While high incomes are important, service providers
shared that the long-term employment goals of youth are more dependent upon personal
fulfillment. One youth service provider shared,
I think part of the issue is that sort of post-COVID, there's been a bit of a moving away
from jobs that people don’t see as satisfying, that don’t enlighten their soul. So, you
know, I was talking to the folks in the hardware store and finding people to work there is

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always like twisting arms because you’ll get a teen who comes in there, works for six
months, and leaves, goes on to do other stuff (I11).
While youth did not articulate this theme in the same way as interviewees, they shared their
‘dream jobs’ and expressed desires to gain high levels of education or certification. Additionally,
youth who were interested in medical fields were the most likely to express their goal as an
aspect of fulfillment. As one youth shared,
I think it's important to bring stuff back to the north and to have more people in rural
communities, not specifically Tumbler Ridge, but rural in general, and like, keep smalltowns afloat (FG23).
5.3.3 Community Employment Support
5.3.3a Summer Employment
High school students and recent graduates have a number of summer student positions
available to them in Tumbler Ridge. In 2024, the Fire Hall had one summer student, the Library
had one, the Museum had two, the Geopark had four, and the District had 28 (however, not all of
the District’s summer positions were reserved for youth). The District’s summer employment
included positions in Public Works, at the golf course, as lifeguards and summer camp leaders at
the Community Centre, and two specialized positions with the District’s mechanics. Conuma
Resources also offered summer student positions in 2024 for various roles at the Wolverine,
Brule, Willow Creek, and Quintette Mines (although they did not give details of these
opportunities). Summer student employment did not generate significant discussion with youth
participants, but all youth participants expressed satisfaction with the availability and quality of
local summer employment.

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Summer employment can provide a community connection for youth who migrate out of
Tumbler Ridge to pursue post-secondary education. As one service provider expressed,
there’s limited employment for youth, so it's hard to it's hard for us as a community to
retain those youth in transition. So, they're 18, 19, they're starting their first journeys, I
think a lot of people will go out and they'll come back for summers because they have
that summer employment, so they have that connection (I10).
These connections are often well-established as most organizations that routinely hire summer
students were targeting high school students who could return every summer, including after
graduation.
Despite the benefits of summer jobs for youth, many service providers also discussed the
ongoing challenges of providing summer jobs for youth in Tumbler Ridge. Challenges related to
fluctuating expectations for federal funding, the rising cost of the minimum wage, and
competition with the District were commonly cited. For example, one community service
provider discussed the federal summer jobs grants,
funding for [summer students] have been less and less and less in the last like, four years.
So, it's a real challenge to bring in students now because they cost money now, right?
Like, they [the Canadian government] give you like $7.25 an hour and that's not
minimum wage. So, they only give you about half, and so, it's costing the organizations
more money to have them, so they're losing out. We're losing out on jobs for students
because it is becoming more of a financial burden than a blessing (I10).
Longer funding cycles and fully subsidized wages are required for community organizations to
continue providing meaningful summer job opportunities in Tumbler Ridge.

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5.3.3b Part-Time Employment
Most participants were less enthusiastic about part-time employment opportunities for
youth. Interviewees shared that part-time employment was very limited due to the small size of
the community. As one service provider shared,
I was able to get an after-school job really easily because I lived in a large center. Here,
not so much. There's only limited employers for that age group. And I remember at that
age being like, I want to buy a car, I want to start stocking away money for school, and
that's harder for kids here because there are limited opportunities (I16).
Other considerations presented by interviewees included the high cost of the minimum wage,
meaning a reduction of part-time employment opportunities. At the same time, interviewees
shared that youth were generally disinterested in minimum wage jobs. For example, one
interviewee shared,
I don't want to be the guys who’s like, ‘oh the kids today, they just are so entitled’, and I
know so many kids who are solid, reliable, hard working, but at the same time, not really
interested in stocking shelves because ‘give it another four months and I’m working at
the mine’ (I11).
Some interviewees were concerned for youth who may not gain work experience through parttime positions and as a result, may struggle to secure employment in more competitive job
markets outside of Tumbler Ridge.
The youth perspective on part-time employment was mixed. Some youth echoed the
same concerns presented by interviewees, but others had part-time employment positions and did
not believe securing them was difficult. Some youth also discussed informal work opportunities
in Tumbler Ridge, including babysitting, dog walking, and yard work. Overall, while some youth

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acknowledged the limited opportunities for part-time employment, they generally agreed that
part-time employment was available to those who wanted it.
5.3.4 Perceptions of Local Employment Opportunity
In addition to specific youth employment goals and plans, participants were also asked
about employment opportunities and gaps in Tumbler Ridge. Responses among interviewees
varied widely. Interviewees from communities smaller than Tumbler Ridge and interviewees in
senior employment positions (usually in local government) were more likely to perceive good
local employment opportunities than interviewees in entry level jobs. As one interviewee in local
government shared,
the perspective I've seen when I'm talking to a few younger people is that like,
opportunity is kind of a perception. So, maybe shifting that narrative a little bit on the
stereotype of small-town opportunity. If their spouse works here, they can work remotely,
there's a lot of remote options, or a lot of people are doing a lot more work for
themselves, like house cleaning or pet sitting, a lot of entrepreneurs. Real things are
happening (I13).
However, this perception was contradicted by other interviewees who recognized the
inaccessibility of remote work due to poor Internet and communication infrastructure. Youth also
discussed the lack of Internet and communication technology as a push factor; however, the issue
was discussed in the context of amenities rather than employment.
Local government interviewees expressed that the economic diversification of Tumbler
Ridge is providing better employment opportunities for youth. As one interviewee noted,
one of the things that I think we can do better to attract and retain youth is the
diversification that we're working on right now. You know, historically people might just

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think, ‘well, if I come back here, I can work at the mine’, but there's so much opportunity
for tourism businesses, and hopefully technology one day, to support young business
owners (I5).
Additionally, a few participants discussed employment opportunities in Tumbler Ridge as a pull
factor due to the ability to enter many positions with lower qualifications than are required in
bigger centres with more competitive job markets.
None of these perspectives were shared by youth participants. Instead, youth identified
local employment as a pull factor for their families but expressed personal discontent with the
lack of economic diversification. While nearly all youth cited the coal mines as the primary pull
factor of Tumbler Ridge for their families, no youth participants expressed interest in working in
mining, often citing unstable employment as the primary reason for their lack of interest. As one
youth shared,
my dad came up here for the work at the mines. It's a good income and it's small town,
so. It's not stable though, we've moved away twice for a bit because the mines shut down.
And when the mines shut down, this place becomes empty, basically, because there's not
enough to bring people here (FG31).
Most youth explained that they could not pursue their employment goals in Tumbler Ridge
because their field did not relate to mining, and other industries available locally were not large
enough to provide room for advancement. While the mining industry was not explicitly
stigmatized by youth participants, their lack of interest in the industry and negative perceptions
of the local economy does indicate some stigmatization. However, youth interested in other
resource industry trades did not express the same concerns or stigmatization. For example, one

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youth shared, “I would rather just work on a gas plant, like, an oil rig or something like that,
rather than working at a coal mine” (FG24).
5.4 Community
Quality of life factors, including services and social and recreational opportunities,
influence youth migration planning (Eacott & Sonn, 2006; MacMichael, 2015). Housing and
healthcare were identified as important aspects of resident retention and are discussed in this
section. The careful planning of Tumbler Ridge, including its focus on recreation, is also
reflected in this section.
5.4.1 Housing
Low cost of living was identified by interviewees as a pull factor of Tumbler Ridge for
young people, almost always in the context of affordable housing. However, there was a
consensus among interviewees that the affordability of housing had decreased in recent years and
would not be as significant of a pull factor for young people as it had been for many of the
interviewees themselves. As one community service provider shared,
five years ago, it was a lot cheaper to live here. A lot of people that I grew up with
through high school are still here because they got lucky enough where they bought a
house when it was cheaper, rent was cheaper, and now they're in higher up positions, and
they have stayed, and they can actually afford to be here (I7).
While interviewees noted that purchasing a home in Tumbler Ridge is affordable, the types and
number of houses are very limited and many of the houses are outdated. More important to
recent high school graduates is the rental market, which due to the limited housing stock and the
booming coal mining industry, is expensive and competitive. As one education provider
expressed,

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for the young ones, housing right now and where the market is at is a struggle. We're very
limited, especially, of course, as industry increases, supply and demand. As people
realize the demand for rentals are there with industry, they do put those prices up to
coordinate with them, so it is a struggle for them to have accommodations (I17).
The Quintette Mine was in the process of re-opening during this data collection, a stage which
requires more workers than when the mine is operational, meaning an influx of contractors. This
influx of well-paid renters strains the local rental market, making it difficult for youth to secure
rentals.
Youth were aware of the poor housing market conditions and regarded the lack of
housing availability as one of their primary push factors. Like some interviewees, youth
participants often drew connections between the booming mining economy and lack of housing
availability:
the housing crisis right now is based on all of the mines. Like, the miners and the mine
companies are buying all the houses, they are buying all the hotel rooms to put up people
in. So, if the mines shut down, all of those are going to be empty, but there's nobody
coming in, there's no room for anybody coming in that will possibly stay here because it's
just being taken up by miners who are going to leave if the mine shuts down, or when the
mine shuts down (FG23).
Some youth pushed this perspective further and blamed the unstable nature of the mining
economy on the lack of housing stock. As one youth shared,
I feel like no one wants to invest in this town, like build new houses and develop new
areas, because if the mine shut down, that's it, it’s going to become a ghost town. Like, no
one wants to risk that (FG24).

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Housing is particularly important because commuting to Tumbler Ridge from
neighbouring communities is not a viable long-term option. The closest towns are Chetwynd (96
kms away) and Dawson Creek (118 kms away), but the roads to access Tumbler Ridge have little
to no street lighting and quickly changing weather conditions, exacerbating the issue of
commuting distance. Youth and interviewees across all sectors identified the lack of housing
availability and affordability in Tumbler Ridge as a push factor.
5.4.2 Services
5.4.2a Healthcare
Healthcare was a point of division between interviewees and youth participants as
interviewees generally regarded healthcare services in Tumbler Ridge positively while youth
were more dissatisfied. The lack of specialized or emergency services were discussed by
interviewees as a push factor, but most interviewees explained that they were aware of this gap
when they chose to live in a small remote community in northern BC.
Tumbler Ridge does not have robust mental health services, according to my review of
community documents and interviews with key informants. However, there are some services
available. Community Bridge’s Community Youth Justice Services is located in Dawson Creek
(and Fort St. John) with the purpose to enhance the safety of the community by supporting local
youth involved in the criminal justice system through programs and activities to increase local
connections and promote emotional and physical wellbeing (Community Bridge, 2024). The
program is open to youth between the ages of 12 and 20 years old who live in Fort St. John,
Dawson Creek, Hudson’s Hope, Chetwynd, Tumbler Ridge, and surrounding First Nations
communities. Services include mentoring, role modeling, advocacy, support for life transitions,
life and social skills building, connecting youth with counseling and addictions support,

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supporting restorative justice and reparative conditions of court orders, mentoring and assistance
with educational/career goals, and connecting youth with community supports. The program is
assisted by the BC Ministry of Children and Family Development.
A provincially defined Child and Youth Mental Health (CYMH) intake clinic is located
in Tumbler Ridge with the option for youth (aged 13 and older) to attend the clinic with or
without their parent or caregiver (Government of BC, 2024a). However, the Tumbler Ridge
clinic is located within TRSS, so youth must be students to access this service. Through
interviews with key informants in education, I learned that there is no permanent CYMH
counselor at TRSS, instead a satellite service model is used with a counselor coming to Tumbler
Ridge once or twice per month, making it difficult for youth to access regular services. To fill
this gap, a teacher-counselor at TRSS offers emotional support, coping mechanisms, and
academic counseling in addition to teaching, and students can be virtually connected with
counselors in the region (personal communication, September 12th, 2024). The Mental Health
and Substance Use community program at the Tumbler Ridge Health Centre offers youth
addictions counseling (Northern Health, 2024) as well as a family support worker connected with
the Ministry of Children and Family Development (personal communication, July 2nd, 2024).
TRSS is attempting to fill service gaps with their teacher-counselor position and connections to
remote counselors. Youth in Tumbler Ridge are forced to cope with service gaps that make
accessing mental health support difficult.
The most prominent healthcare concern for all interviewees was the lack of mental health
support, which was cited as a primary push factor for youth, young people, and families with
teenage children. The lack of youth mental healthcare also reflects the challenges of recruiting
and retaining qualified professionals. In addition to the inaccessibility of mental health services,

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community and youth service providers discussed youth mental health as a pressing issue that
they have seen worsen in recent years. Many of these interviewees cited increased bullying and
shaming among youth due to the prevalence of social media. As one community service provider
explained,
I think the youth have less mental health resiliency, not that they're a softer generation,
but I think that people are just getting worse. There’s the bullying that goes on, all of the
online stuff, the shaming, they wear so much more than what we did. There's a certain
amount of pressure that comes from being one screw up away from it affecting your
entire life because once it gets put on social media, it stays with you forever, right? We
never had that. So, I think mental health support, I think it could be more robust when it
comes to that, I think there's a lot of kids that are struggling (I10).
Mental health services did not generate significant discussion among youth participants,
instead, they were concerned with insufficient emergency healthcare services. General
discontentment and feelings of not being cared for were common among youth. As one youth
shared,
if you come in with an emergency, they’ll help you but create a bigger problem, so you
have to go somewhere else to get it fixed … and nothing happens to them, the doctors
never changed. So, never again. If I ever have an emergency, I will drive out an hour. I
will never step foot in there, if it’s my life on the line, never, never, never. I don’t trust
them (FG28).
When asked if the healthcare coverage in Tumbler Ridge influenced their migration planning,
youth responses were mixed. Most youth shared that it would not significantly impact their

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migration decisions because while poor healthcare was identified as a push factor, good
healthcare was not identified as a pull factor.
5.4.2b Filling Service Gaps
As is common in many rural and small-town places, community organizations fill service
gaps through additional programming and volunteer efforts (Gibson & Barrett, 2018; Ryser &
Halseth, 2014). The Tumbler Ridge Public Library regularly brings in Service Canada and
Service BC representatives to assist residents with various needs. The Library has hosted various
emergency preparedness information sessions, and a free snack program for youth during times
of economic downturn (personal communication, July 2nd, 2024). The elementary and high
school in Tumbler Ridge both provide food for students through the provincial Feeding Futures
fund, so youth do not have to go without (personal communication, July 2nd, 2024).
The Tumbler Ridge Lions Club also plays a predominant service role in the community,
particularly around health care support and support for youth organizations including the minor
sports associations and summer reading program. The Tumbler Ridge Youth Services Society
(TRYSS), which directs and operates the Youth Centre, is also run by a board of volunteers.
Community supports are utilized by youth, especially those who leave and return. As one
education provider shared,
What I know of kids who've come back is, they didn't know how to cope outside of
Tumbler. There wasn't the ability to access it. So as much as they say they don't like
Tumbler, they do know it's a place to go and like, someone will be there to help them
when they get back. So, for all their ragging on Tumbler, they do take advantage of its
services (I21).

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Overall, community organizations, local volunteers, and TRSS have stepped up to serve local
youth as best as they can.
5.4.3 Recreation
5.4.3a Infrastructure
Due to the social design principles of its townsite planning (see Figure 4.2), the Tumbler
Ridge community has excellent amenities for residents, including youth. Youth-focused
infrastructure includes the Toboggan Hill, Skateboard Park, ball diamonds, and Pump Track.
Other infrastructure utilized by youth includes the golf course, Nordic Ski Trails, Mountain Bike
Park, playgrounds, and the Community Centre. When asked what infrastructure they utilized
most in the community, youth shared a range, including the weight room, golf course,
playgrounds, pool, basketball courts, and Youth Centre. The hockey and curling arenas were
highly regarded by youth, with one sharing that, “it's the best arena and ice and facility in this
area, in my opinion. Like, it's really, really nice, and they put, like, a lot of work into it” (I23).
5.4.3b Community Centre Programs
The Community Centre is a hub for local youth with a host of facilities including, the
Library, aquatic centre, arena and curling rink, weight room, indoor playground, multipurpose
rooms, Youth Centre, and restaurant. The Community Centre provides a variety of recreation
opportunities for youth through structured and unstructured programs, special events, and
educational courses (see Tables 5.1 and 5.2). However, the Spring 2024 programming included
adult, children, and early years programs, demonstrating a gap for teens. In addition to the
weight room, aquatic centre, and ice arenas, youth can utilize squash and racquetball courts and
multipurpose rooms for various drop-in programming (Visit Tumbler Ridge, 2024). The same
building also hosts the Art Gallery and local Sports Hall of Fame (Visit Tumbler Ridge, 2024).

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Table 5.1
List of Community Centre Youth Programs and Special Events, Spring 2024
Drop-In

Programs

Events

Courses

Pickleball

Floor curling (adult)

Spring registration

Babysitting

Basketball

Line dancing (adult)

Free skate

Stay Safe

Volleyball

CARDS (card game) (adult)

TR Junior Idol

Soccer

Slo pitch (adult)

Racquetball

Yoga (adult)

Rock pit gym

Fibre arts crafts (adult)

Disc golf

After school drop-in (ages 6-18)

Table 5.2
List of Community Centre Youth Programs and Special Events, Summer 2024
Drop-In

Programs

Events

Pickleball

Floor curling (adult)

Free golf (ages 6-18)

Racquetball

Line dancing (adult)

Canada Day Celebration

Rock pit gym

CARDS (card game) (adult)

Picnic in the Park

Disc golf

Slo pitch (adult)

Free swim

Courses
Lifeguard training

Fibre arts crafts (adult)
Hydrobikes (no age)
Aquafit (no age)
Swim lessons (no age)

In October 2023, the Town Council requested District staff to engage with youth to
determine what activities they would like to have available in Tumbler Ridge. In response,
Community Centre staff conducted a survey for TRSS students that ran through October and
November 2023 asking students questions such as what types of programs and activities they
preferred, times of days that worked best, and additions to the Community Centre that they
would like to see (Bento, 2023). The survey received 63 responses from students between the
ages of 13 and 18 (Bento, 2023).
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Some of the survey responses have since been addressed (including installing a slide for
the pool) and some responses were things that the community already offers (such as an all-ages
drama club, video games, and a concession), indicating a disconnect in program marketing. In
response to the survey, TRYSS has assembled a Youth Council to help direct youth recreation
planning for the Community Centre and event planning for the Youth Centre, the Library has
implemented Teen Craft Days in addition to the Teen Summer Reading Club, and the
Community Centre began offering a pre-gym program for youth not currently utilizing the
weight room to be introduced to the facility and learn about body weight workouts (personal
communication, July 31st, 2024). Community Centre Directors also committed to continued
collaboration between facility staff and TRYSS to develop new youth programming and
encourage youth participation (personal communication, July 31st, 2024).
Despite these efforts, youth participants still felt that the majority of programs were
directed to younger age groups. For example, one youth shared,
they don't really put out a lot for this age range. Like, pretty much as soon as you hit 16,
there’s like, nothing … that's when everybody starts going elsewhere for stuff, doing
more outdoor recreation than anything super structured because there just isn't anything
that they put out (FG23).
When asked what types of programs they felt were missing, most youth responded with
organized sports teams, although they acknowledged that many sporting activities were already
offered. The disconnect between what is offered and what youth are requesting seems to be
related to the age of users. Youth do not want to attend programs where children are present, but
many youth were also hesitant to attend adult programs. As one youth shared,

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a lot of my friends try and get me to go, but I feel uncomfortable because there's a lot of
adults, and because I didn't go at the start so then I wasn't really comfortable, and then it’s
just basically just all adults, so I was like, ‘no, I'm not doing that’ (FG28).
The selection of programs was less of a concern for youth than the age group of attendees, with
most youth stating that they would attend programs if other teens they knew were also attending.
Youth engagement is, therefore, difficult in a community with such a small population of teens.
5.4.3c The Library
The Tumbler Ridge Public Library, located within the Community Centre, hosts children,
teen, and adult programs, including the Teen Summer Reading Club, in addition to traditional
library services of book loaning, printing, and computer access. Drop-in teen programs for the
summer and fall 2024 seasons include drop-in Virtual Reality, a video game system, and drop-in
Magic the Gathering (a trading card game) each once per week (Tumbler Ridge Community
Centre, 2024b; Tumbler Ridge Community Centre, 2024c). The Library has also hosted resumé
workshops and interview skills training for youth in collaboration with TRSS, as well as food
literacy workshops that taught teens how to cook basic meals (personal communication, June
25th, 2024). While much of the library programming is directed to children, teens and young
adults are still important users and programs are constantly being developed and adapted.
Some youth participants engage with the library regularly and praised its collection and
youth programming. However, youth generally agreed that the programs were geared towards
younger users as many participants had attended the programs, including the Teen Summer
Reading Club, when they were younger, but it no longer appealed to them as older teens.

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5.4.3d The Youth Centre
The Community Centre also hosts to the Youth Centre, a drop-in facility for youth from
grades five to 12 operated by the Coordinator and directed by the volunteer board, TRYSS. The
Youth Centre provides various unstructured activities, including a rock-climbing wall, foosball,
pool, and ping-pong tables, board games, video games, couches, and a concession. The Youth
Centre operates 25.5 hours per week with afternoon hours for grades five and up and evening
hours for grades seven and up (personal communication, June 29th, 2024). The Youth Centre also
hosts special events such as movie screenings and youth dances. Unlike the Community Centre,
the Youth Centre was designed to be a safe space for youth to gather rather than to provide
structured programming.
Despite the value of the Youth Centre as a safe space for youth, there is tension with the
District who believes that the Centre should be doing more to provide for local youth. This
conflict was openly discussed by local government interviewees as well as various community
and youth service providers. For example, one local government interviewee shared,
we have a Teen Centre, but I don't think it's utilized very well. I think it's sort of been the
same program being offered for years and years and years. … They need more input from
the people of that age that are doing these things. So, I think it would be good for the
community to kind of like hand it over [to the youth] and be like, ‘hey, what are your
interests? What do you want to do?’ (I6).
This perspective was shared by Town Council who did not grant the usual three-year funding
cycle to the Youth Centre in 2024, instead offering one year of operational funding with the
expectation for services to increase. However, when interviewees in local government were

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asked what they would like to see from the Youth Centre, many struggled to articulate a
response.
According to youth service providers who regularly engage with youth, youth request an
unstructured, drop-in space to hang out with their friends, “the big thing that they seem to be
looking for is just a chance to decompress and hang out and visit with friends. And so, not the
not the big grand events” (I11). Rather than recreational programming, the Youth Centre
provides a safe ‘home base’ for youth to meet with their friends, use the washroom, and buy
affordable snacks from the concession while out in the community. Youth participants agreed
with this sentiment, with some participants expressing their regular use of the Youth Centre and
describing it as “always fun” (FG26). However, other youth did not see the Youth Centre as an
important youth space for them, preferring community locations that were less supervised.
5.4.3d Community Programs, Clubs, and Events
Outside of District-sponsored youth programs, Tumbler Ridge also has the Young
People’s Drama, Junior Canadian Rangers, Tumbler Ridge Youth Soccer League, Tumbler
Ridge Minor Hockey Association, Tumbler Ridge Figure Skating Club, Northern Rockies Karate
Dojo, and the Rocky Mountain Dance Company. There are several other local clubs that also
include youth, including the Grizzly Valley Saddle Club, Grizzly Valley ATV Club, Ridge
Riders Snowmobile Club, and the Tumbler Ridge Curling Club. Outside of regular recreational
programs for youth, the 2023 Tumbler Ridge Annual Report highlights numbers of community
events that were hosted (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2023, p.21). Many of these events were
catered to local youth, including Winter Carnival Week, Tumbler Ridge Junior Idol, Take a Kid
to the Golf Course, the Pumpkin Patch, the BC U18 Women’s Hockey Tournament, as well as
monthly free skate and swim nights, and four Youth Black Light Bingo Nights.

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Tumbler Ridge also had a Youth Councillor on the Town Council in 2015 to 2016 after a
teen approached the mayor requesting involvement. While no Youth Councillor positions have
been filled since, the opportunity is available for youth who are motivated to pursue it. The
Youth Centre established the Youth Council in the summer of 2024 to help direct activities and
encourage greater youth involvement (personal communication, September 11th, 2024).
Youth participants generally spoke highly of community events while also identifying
that community events for youth typically target young teens. For example, one youth shared,
they just don’t know what to plan for the teenagers. They’ll plan, like dances and the
movie nights, it's more directed to the kids, because they don't think the teenagers are
going to go to the dance or anything. … the movies have kind of died down a bit, it's
mostly little kids that go anyways. The black light dance was for grades four, five, and
six, a bunch of those kids showed up, but we don’t really get much of our age group
(FG26).
When asked if they would attend a black light dance or movie night geared towards teens, nearly
all youth participants responded positively. Youth expressed that if the events were specifically
catered to older teens and younger ages were not allowed, they would attend more recreation and
social events. Many suggestions were made by youth for community developments and events to
better engage them, but the consensus is best summarized by one youth who stated, “not really
anything specific, but I think anything new that came here would probably be alright” (FG22).
5.4.4 Community Planning, Amenities, and Remoteness
Interviewees and youth participants discussed the planning of Tumbler Ridge as a pull
factor for youth. The walkability of the community was appreciated by youth participants as it
facilitated access to friends’ houses, recreation opportunities, and other amenities. Youth also

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identified the integration of green spaces in the community design as an important aspect. Green
spaces provided attractive youth recreation opportunities outside of designated infrastructure as
well as more privacy. The other aspect of community planning discussed by interviewees and
youth were the recreation amenities, with the most important to youth participants being the
arenas, golf course, weight room, skate park, Pump Track, and Library. Most of these recreation
amenities are in the Community Centre, demonstrating the importance of the community facility
to youth experiences in Tumbler Ridge.
While community planning and recreation amenities were identified as a pull factor by
interviewees and youth, the remoteness and lack of amenities in Tumbler Ridge was identified as
the most significant push factor. In the context of youth and young people, amenities were
typically described by interviewees as places for social interaction and recreation, including
clubs and theatres. Interviewees discussed positive recreation amenities for children and young
families but identified a gap for young adults. As one community service provider expressed,
“there’s no real bar here to go dancing. We don’t have that college scene here, so there’s little
reason for people in that age group who are interested in those things [to stay here]” (I1). Youth
participants were less interested in ‘nightlife’, instead articulating a desire for group recreational
activities, such as a bowling alley, arcade, dance classes, and organized sports with higher age
limits.
The lack of social amenities in Tumbler Ridge was typically discussed by interviewees as
a trade-off for other values, usually outdoor recreation opportunities. While adult and youth
participants who identified with the outdoor recreation culture of Tumbler Ridge were willing to
trade social amenities, participants interested in other cultural activities were pushed from the
community. As one service provider shared,

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for very culturally-inclined [young people] who want to go to concerts or to theatre, like
for us, we still plan those things but they are big excursions, like ‘ok, let’s do a weekend
in Grande Prairie and we’re gonna go to the theatre’, and it’s great because it makes them
more memorable but that easy access to … culture and music and all of that stuff that’s
really important to certain demographics, it was to me, doesn’t exist here (I1).
Many service providers and youth compared the amenities available in Tumbler Ridge to
those available in larger centres in their discussions of remoteness, but local government
interviewees were less likely to share this perspective. Instead, one local government interviewee
expressed that they “think it is all about perspective. Everybody sees that the cities offer so much
more, but once you're actually living there, you don't take advantage of it the same way you
expect that you're going to” (I13).
5.5 Sense of Place
A growing body of literature has identified the impact of sense of place on the migration
planning of rural youth (Bernsen et al., 2022; Choi & Kramer, 2024; Stough-Hunter & Lekies,
2020). This section discusses the social, cultural, and experiential aspects of the Tumbler Ridge
community that influence youth, including the small-town lifestyle, natural environment,
community culture, and influence of childhood experiences.
5.5.1 Small-Town Lifestyle and Social Connections
The small-town lifestyle was the most significant pull factor of Tumbler Ridge for
interviewees and youth participants alike. The close-knit feel and sense of community among
residents were commonly cited reasons by interviewees for living in and loving Tumbler Ridge.
This sentiment was also commonly described by interviewees as a lack of anonymity, which is
ironically also a significant push factor for young people. These perspectives were shared by

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youth, with every youth participant who was raised in Tumbler Ridge expressing that they
enjoyed their childhood in the community. One youth shared, “it was a really good spot to grow
up” (FG22) and another added, “I love small-town life, … and I think Tumbler Ridge
specifically is really unique with how community-oriented it is, how friendly everybody is, and
how open the community is” (FG23). This sense of community was particularly important for
young people who may be struggling with mental health according to interviewees, a previously
identified issue in Tumbler Ridge. While youth participants did not discuss mental health, they
did share feelings of being cared for by the community.
Interviewees and youth participants discussed the sense of safety in Tumbler Ridge as a
pull factor for youth. This sense of safety was often linked to a sense of freedom for youth who
were afforded independence as a product of perceived community safety. As one service
provider who grew up in Tumbler Ridge shared,
that was the best part about growing up in a small-town. You're not restricted, you're free
to go and go explore because it's just small and everybody knows everybody. So, it's a
kind of raise-everybody's-children kind of atmosphere that goes on when you live in a
small community (I4).
The small-town lifestyle of Tumbler Ridge was identified by all participants as the most
significant pull factor for young people. Sense of community, friendliness, and safety were
identified as pertinent aspects of this theme. The alignment of this perspective among all groups
demonstrates its significance to the discussion of resident retention.
While the small-town lifestyle fostered positive social connections, participants also
identified a lack of anonymity and other negative social dynamics. Interviewees who grew up in

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Tumbler Ridge or other small-towns identified the lack of anonymity as a push factor for youth.
As one youth service provider stated,
I didn’t grow up in Tumbler Ridge, but in [my small-town], it was like it was a fishbowl.
You're living in a fishbowl. Everybody knows you. Everybody knows your parents,
anything you do gets back to them. You feel like you can't move (I12).
Many interviewees also discussed how the reputations you build as a child or youth stay with
you in a small-town, making it difficult for youth to grow and change. This challenge was
described by an education provider who stated that:
one of the reasons kids probably want to leave is, once you have a name, it's really hard
to live in small-towns. And I think that's an area where, if I was a kid in Tumbler Ridge, I
would want to see some work done. How do you make sure they're going to be
functioning members of society if you shame them for making small, little errors. … how
do you live in a small-town once you have a name for being a shithead? (I21).
While gender did not influence sense of belonging for interview or focus group
participants, some interviewees shared that sexual orientation and being a visible minority may.
As one education stakeholder shared,
I don’t know that we have a lot of open queer relationships in our community. … So, I
think there’s still a lot of work to be done, but I think that’s worldwide. … I still know
kids in our community who aren’t out to their parents. So, there’s still that stigma (I9).
Diverse identities were generally discussed by interviewees to be more accepted in urban centres
than in rural communities, including Tumbler Ridge. A small number of youth expressed similar
sentiments, although the topic was not a main topic of discussion, perhaps because of the
personal identities of youth participants or because of the taboo nature of the topic.

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Service providers also identified the lack of anonymity as an important issue for youth
accessing services that may be stigmatizing, such as mental health support. As one community
service provider shared,
it's just a vicious cycle. If the kids see you going to see the school counselor, guess what's
happening? As soon as you come back out, all the gossip has spread because you went to
the school counselor. So yeah, that's hard, and it's even worse in a small-town (I14).
An interviewee in education shared concerns around lack of anonymity when accessing some
health products, such as contraception.
These issues were not discussed by youth, although that may be because these issues are
stigmatized and can be awkward to discuss, especially in a focus group setting, but other social
dynamics were identified as a push factor for some. Youth who did not grow up in Tumbler
Ridge often expressed feelings of social isolation and difficulty making friends. Other youth
shared challenges with bullying and exclusion at the high school, noting that,
when it comes to friendships in high school, it’s tough because you only have so many to
choose from … it’s very stressful because people are pretty mean … if you grew up here,
you know how it is, you know how to deal with it, but if you didn’t, if you’re new, you’re
an outsider (FG30).
The small-town lifestyle of Tumbler Ridge was also linked to family connections for
many interviewees. Interviewees expressed that Tumbler Ridge fosters family connections
through a variety of avenues, including opportunities for outdoor recreation as a family.
Fostering family connections does have an impact on retaining young people, as one service
provider shared,

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we spent all our time outside as a family. So yeah, having that at your disposal is what
kind of brought me back here. And then obviously family, friends, the whole kind of
support system that goes with it (I4).
Family connections were a pull factor for some interviewees, however, for adults raised
in Tumbler Ridge, this pull factor was only described after leaving the community. Only two
youth participants discussed family connections, and only one identified it as a reason to return
to Tumbler Ridge. Family connections may not have been an important pull factor for youth
participants because many of them still lived with their families, but its importance may grow as
youth age.
5.5.3 Natural Environment and Outdoor Recreation
Closely connected to the small-town lifestyle of Tumbler Ridge is the natural
environment in and around the community and its opportunities for outdoor recreation. This
sentiment was often the first response from interviewees when asked about the pull factors of
Tumbler Ridge. Opportunities to participate in outdoor recreation and appreciation of the natural
environment were commonly linked to personal identity, with many participants noting that they
shared an innate sense of belonging in the natural environment. As one interviewee shared, “for
me, I'm small-town. I can adapt, I'm sure, wherever I go but I love it here” (I17). Another
interviewee shared a similar sentiment in relation to local youth,
some of them, like the amount they get to go out on ATVs and go dirt biking and go
quadding, they have a playground out there where they just get to be reckless, dangerous
boys. They love it so much, and I think that if you're not into that kind of thing, it makes
it easier to leave. But those kids are going to be looking into going to Northern Lights
College and then coming back to live here. That's the reality, that’s their values (I20).

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Like the interviewees, opportunities for outdoor recreation were often the first pull factor
identified by youth. Many shared specific environmental features and outdoor activities that were
important to them, such as, “the forest is your backyard” (FG33) and “the rivers are good hang
out spots” (FG32). Some youth expressed a deep connection to the natural environment,
including the trade-off of other amenities. As one youth shared,
for me personally, I'm putting the community, the hiking, the outdoors, and like, being
near my waterfalls, and my family, over the healthcare stuff because I can go get
healthcare anywhere, but I can't live in another place like this (FG23).
Most youth were considering the natural environment or outdoor recreation in their migration
plans, although some youth did not, despite identifying it as a pull factor of Tumbler Ridge.
5.5.5 Community Culture
5.5.5a Intangible Youth Support
In addition to the tangible ways Tumbler Ridge supports local youth, many participants
also discussed intangible support. Interviewees often described the local culture as supportive of
youth and shared stories of individuals in the community who make a difference in the lives of
youth. This culture of support is critical in building a sense of belonging and pertains to the issue
of retaining youth in rural communities. However, the culture of Tumbler Ridge is multi-faceted,
and some cultural norms are harmful to local youth, including declining volunteerism, the
prevalence of substances, and a lack of diverse representation. For example, one local
government interviewee shared,

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It [the local culture] is a double-edged sword. You will find some incredibly kind and
positive kids here, but like most cultures, also a lot of at-risk youth making poor choices.
It’s tough to engage them and have a good impact on redirecting behaviours or
encouraging them to try new things (I18).
Youth were particularly concerned with substance use in the community, an issue that few
interviewees discussed. It is unclear if interviewees were unaware of the prevalence of substance
use or were uncomfortable discussing the topic.
A few interviewees also discussed the polarization of the community and difficulty for
some youth to ‘find their place’. While participants discussed how supportive Tumbler Ridge is
of outdoor recreation and family life, if youth’s identities do not align with this picture, they may
struggle. As one service provider shared,
the general culture of Tumbler Ridge is becoming really polarized, like we had those
anti-library protests a couple years ago, we had the anti-pride protest last summer. …
because we're so small, people you see at that protest that are your friend’s parents, it's
your aunt, it's your boss. You're going to know the people in that crowd where you might
not if you're in Vancouver. That's harder. … I remember seeing that and going, ‘I can
never come back here, I need to get out of this town forever’ … it's easier to be like, ‘I'm
leaving’. It's very hard to look at a place and go, ‘oh, I want to stay here and do the hard
work and try and make changes for people that might leave anyway because it's too scary
to be here’ (I19).
Despite the cultural challenges that some residents face in Tumbler Ridge, nearly all
interviewees and youth participants spoke positively about the local culture. Youth shared that
they felt supported and cared for by members of the community, evidenced by high community

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engagement in social events, such as the Fall Fair and Christmas Market. Tumbler Ridge also has
high engagement in volunteerism, despite recent declines in many other rural communities
(Ryser et al., 2012). Building from this culture, interviewees shared how the community comes
together in times of need, such as opening the Community Centre for residents to sleep in during
a multi-day power outage one winter (I19).
The supportive culture of Tumbler Ridge specifically relating to youth was discussed by
interviewees through the community coming together. Education providers shared the
willingness of local businesses and institutions to participate in teaching at TRSS or provide
donations and expertise for various projects. Local government providers shared how most of the
sports teams are run by parent volunteers. Service providers shared that every child in Tumbler
Ridge receives a present from Santa on Christmas through a Geopark initiative, and when a
group of youth developed their own clothing brand, they sold out at a local market.
5.5.5b The Inevitability of Youth Out-Migration
When discussing the migration goals and plans of youth, many interviewees normalized
youth out-migration from Tumbler Ridge following high school graduation. Local government
did not identify significant patterns of youth out-migration, but service and education providers
did and described it as inevitable. Few push factors for this out-migration were discussed, it was
just assumed that youth would leave. For example, a youth service provider shared,
doesn't every kid from a small-town, I don't even think it matters if they're from a smalltown or a big one, ‘I'm graduating and getting the hell out of here’, right? It's that, I want
to assert my independence, I want to be away from my parents, I want to be away from
my family, I want to go to the other side of the country to go to university, or whatever
(I12).

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The belief that youth out-migration was inevitable seemed to override the push and pull factors
identified by interviewees. Instead, these factors were believed to encourage youth to return
rather than to keep them in the community following high school graduation.
The youth perspective aligned with this culture of out-migration as ‘inevitable’. Although
youth articulated specific reasons, they also expressed out-migration as an inevitable next step of
life. For example, one youth shared,
I love the town, and I'll always love the town. I can't wait to leave, but it was a great place
to grow up, and I really do appreciate it, but I'm ready for change now. It's just where I'm
at (FG22).
Additionally, youth generally shared the perspective that young people raised in small-towns
should experience living elsewhere. While the reasons and desired locations for their outmigration differed, nearly all youth participants expressed an inevitable need to leave Tumbler
Ridge following high school graduation.
5.5.5c Desire of (and for) Youth to Return
Despite the perceived inevitability of youth out-migration, interviewees expressed a
strong desire for youth to return to Tumbler Ridge. Most interviewees encouraged youth to leave
Tumbler Ridge following high school graduation to pursue ‘bigger opportunities’ with the desire
to bring those experienced young people back later. As one community service provider shared,
I really like when I see them succeed in those bigger centers, and I think it’s really
important that they do take those jobs in bigger centers and see how things are done in
other places. We are a very insular community and the more that people can go out and
see how things are done in other places and then bring that back, just enriches our
community here (I1).

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Interviewees generally felt strongly that youth would return to Tumbler Ridge out of a genuine
desire to work and raise families in the community. Interestingly, no interviewees discussed a
desire or need to attract youth from other communities to Tumbler Ridge, they only discussed the
return of local youth. This culture of returning young people was not lost on the youth
participants. As one youth shared,
I don't really think there's anything that Tumbler Ridge can do to bring people back. I
think it's more that if you've lived here your whole life, you're going to come back. That's
how it is. Like a lot of the adults that live here, they've lived here their whole lives, or
most of their lives, and they came back. And I think that's because they're used to the
small-town, and then when they go out to the big city, it's like, ‘okay, whoa, I don't know
any of this’, so I think that's more it (FG30).
Youth were asked if there is anything that Tumbler Ridge could do to attract them back
and most participants responded quickly and negatively to the question. While many of the youth
participants normalized out-migration following high school graduation, they had difficulty
articulating anything that Tumbler Ridge could do to attract them back. They cited a lack of local
employment opportunities and social amenities as reasons for leaving. Additionally, a few
participants alluded to the importance of a youth sense of belonging. While youth who expressed
strong connections to the natural environment and outdoor recreation were the most likely to
share an interest in returning. Youth who were more interested in organized sports or the arts
shared a strong interest in migrating to urban centres. One interviewee was more explicit in their
discussion of sense of belonging, sharing that “the ones that I'm thinking about are, like, gay or
neurodivergent teenagers. So, it's very like, I'll go somewhere where this is totally fine and
normal and there’s not going to be any people that suck” (I19). While the amenities and

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employment opportunities in Tumbler Ridge play a role in youth migration decisions, so does
culture in shaping young people’s sense of belonging.
5.5.5d External Influences on Youth’s Goals
Youth migration decisions are not made in a vacuum, and understanding the nuanced
pressures that influence youth employment, education, and migration goals is critical to
understanding rural youth retention. Education providers shared that youth employment and
education goals are greatly influenced by peers, families, and community culture. Interviewees
shared that goals have trended towards trades in recent years, influenced by the booming mining
industry as well as other institutions. As one education provider shared,
it's very influenced. There is definitely a big trade push, and there's just a big trade push
being in Tumbler Ridge, right? Because our businesses want us to push trades because
they want people, and our schools, like Northern Lights College, they want us to push
trades because we need red seals5 (I20).
Equally influential for youth is the local mining culture. As a service provider who grew
up in Tumbler Ridge shared,
employment was a huge one, especially growing up. Like, summer jobs or career
aspirations like, ‘oh, I'm going to be, you know, creating my own business’, it wasn't
really focused on. It was just kind of a small-town mining community with, you know,
you go into the mines and do all those things. So that kind of altered my perspective of,
you know, leaving and not coming back. … The [mining] culture is definitely strong (I4).
The influence of the local mining culture also manifests in the ways youth in Tumbler Ridge are
exposed to specific occupations and industries, and not others. The influence of the local mining
5

The Red Seal Program sets common standards for skilled tradespeople in Canada including apprenticeship training
and trade certifications (Red Seal, 2025).

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culture can also have the opposite effect on youth, as no youth participants expressed a desire to
work in mining. Additionally, youth with very different employment goals than the options they
see in Tumbler Ridge may not feel represented in their community, driving more out-migration.
5.5.5e Ambition Linked to Out-Migration
Interviewees often connected the out-migration of youth from Tumbler Ridge to
ambition. While this theme was not prompted in the interview or focus group guide, and
interviewees rarely addressed the theme directly, it was alluded to in many interviews with
service and education providers. The consensus was that ambitious youth will leave Tumbler
Ridge, often to pursue post-secondary education, and that youth who stay, and often to work in
the coal mines, are less ambitious. For example, one service provider commented, “anybody
that's got any type of ambition wants to leave Tumbler Ridge, right? I think that they get that,
and they want to go into post-secondary education” (I14). A few interviewees addressed the
stigmatization of youth who do not have migration goals of leaving the community, including an
education provider who said, “I think there probably is [a stigma], I think there is – that you
haven't done anything with your life, and the concept that if we do something with our life, we
have to do it somewhere else” (I21). However, the stereotyping of leavers as ambitious and
stayers as unambitious is further complicated in Tumbler Ridge with discussions of returning
youth, which was expected and often praised.
Interviewees who described youth leavers as ambitious also tended to connect staying
away from Tumbler Ridge with success. This finding is connected to youth feeling unprepared
for life after high school, as youth who returned to Tumbler Ridge before completing their
original education goals were stigmatized. Reasons for returning to Tumbler Ridge were often
presented as an inability to succeed in other communities. As one education provider shared,

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I can't teach every kid how to read a bus schedule, but like, that's where I see the
difference, kids who are going to be successful in the world or not. That's a big one, ‘how
do I navigate a world that doesn't exist where I grew up?’ … like, how do you use a
subway system? What is a streetcar system? If you don't know what that stuff is, you're
going to get bounced back to your home community pretty quick because that is scary …
that kind of stuff is probably what keeps kids from getting bounced back and having that
high ‘return to sender’ (I21).
This quote demonstrates two key points, first, that a lack of comfortability with urban life pushes
youth back to Tumbler Ridge, and second, that youth who return to Tumbler Ridge were
‘bounced back’ by outside forces or because of fear.
The stigmatization of stayers was less prevalent among youth with few participants
commenting on other youth who have stayed or left Tumbler Ridge. However, all youth
participants planned to leave Tumbler Ridge following high school graduation and only one
youth in each focus group expressed a desire to return. Reasons for these migration goals were
often linked to the lack of economic diversification and disinterest in working in coal mining.
When youth were asked if they believed that youth who stayed in Tumbler Ridge or worked in
the coal mines were stigmatized, most did not have an answer. However, one youth did share,
I think that's true, because there’s a few people that I know, but I feel like it's more the
people who fall into the bad things. Like, who skip school and smoke weed, not saying
that's necessarily a bad thing, but who do it too much to the point where they skip school
and throw their life away. I feel like it's more of those people, and they never really go
out of town to go do anything. But I don't think that's just like a small-town thing, I feel

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like that's anywhere… people who do leave town and go study somewhere, yeah, I'd say
they're like, more successful (FG30).
Due to the negative perception of the local mining industry among youth and their migration
goals of leaving Tumbler Ridge, it can be assumed that youth who stay in Tumbler Ridge are
stigmatized as less ambitious. However, this connection was clearer to service and education
providers than to youth.
5.5.4 The Influence of Childhood Experiences on Migration Decisions
An unexpected finding was the influence of childhood experiences on the migration
decisions of interviewees. While employment opportunities and cost of living were often listed
as the primary drivers when directly asked, most interviewees also described their connection to
Tumbler Ridge in relation to childhood experiences. These experiences related to the natural
environment, small-town lifestyle, and outdoor recreation opportunities. As one local
government interviewee shared,
I did my first two years of college in the town I grew up in and then you couldn't finish
your degree there, so I left. But I liked the small-town feel of knowing everybody, the
little bit of safety feeling, the nature. They were all draws for me (I13).
Many interviewees remarked how Tumbler Ridge reminded them of the communities that they
grew up in or associated aspects of positive childhood experiences. These sentiments were
expressed by most interviewees with children who wanted their children to grow up in Tumbler
Ridge to experience similar things to what they enjoyed in their childhood. Similarly, some
interviewees had grown up in or around large urban centres and disliked their experiences,
encouraging them to seek out small-town living. For example, a service provider expressed,

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I grew up just outside of [a large urban centre], so I had access to pretty much everything.
I didn’t really particularly like living there as a teenager. It was a hard-core hockey town,
all the boys played rep hockey, and I just didn’t have anything to do with it, they were all
partying on weekends, and I just wasn’t interested. I was career-focused already at that
young age and it just didn’t have anything for me (I1).
This quote illustrates the importance of a sense of belonging in how childhood experiences shape
migrations decisions.
Youth participants expressed many of the same sentiments. For youth who grew up in
Tumbler Ridge, some expressed a desire to return, typically to raise families in the small-town
lifestyle, and others were interested in other small communities. These youth cited their own
positive childhood experiences in Tumbler Ridge as the pull factor for their eventual return or
their desire to live in another small-town. For example, one youth shared,
I loved growing up here, and I want to raise a family here because I think that my
childhood was amazing. And I do think that kids that grew up here should leave here and,
like, see other places and go out and explore … but I think that being raised here was
really awesome for me as a kid, and so I want to raise my kids here (FG23).
For youth who had moved to Tumbler Ridge in the last five years, most expressed a desire to
return to their hometowns or to move where other family lived. For example, one youth shared,
“I want to buy the house my great grandfather used to own because that house holds a lot of
memories” (FG31). When asked about their migration planning, many youth expressed a desire
to move to places that held positive childhood memories, even if these were not Tumbler Ridge.

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Chapter 6: Discussion
My research explored senior high school students’ experiences of being a young person
in Tumbler Ridge and how those experiences contributed to future migration decisions. This
Discussion chapter is divided into sections based on meta-themes determined in the latent
content analysis that connect to the literature: youth sense of belonging in migration planning
(section 6.1), youth readiness (section 6.2), and rural youth retention (section 6.3). Each of the
research questions are discussed through these meta-themes, including the push and pull factors
of Tumbler Ridge, aspects of community support, and youth goals. Supportive youth-related
recommendations for Tumbler Ridge and other rural communities in BC are also provided.
6.1 Youth Sense of Place in Migration Planning
The connection between youth’s migration plans and their education and employment
goals is well established in the literature, and the youth in Tumbler Ridge were no exception.
When youth were asked where they wanted to migrate and why, nearly all participants named the
municipality in which they planned to attend post-secondary, and many named a second
municipality in which they planned to begin their careers. Interestingly, none of youth’s
education, employment, or migration plans were gendered, despite gender being a prominent
theme in the rural youth migration literature (McLaughlin, 2014; McLay & Foster, 2023;
Robichaud, 2014). On the surface, youth migration planning appears to simply be a product of
education and employment goals, but a critical examination of these goals revealed an interesting
pattern. Youth who displayed a strong sense of place to Tumbler Ridge either planned to return
to Tumbler Ridge following post-secondary graduation or planned to move to similar
communities (e.g., rural and/ or northern) while youth who displayed weak sense of place to
Tumbler Ridge planned to move further away to less similar communities (e.g., urban and/ or

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southern). Level of place connection among youth was assessed through my interpretation of
focus group discussions on topics including sense of belonging, identity, community satisfaction,
and place attachment. Unlike the literature (e.g., Donkersloot, 2011; Glendinning et al., 2003),
youth’s sense of belonging in Tumbler Ridge was not higher among young men than young
women. The education, employment, and migration goals of youth in Tumbler Ridge reveal an
important connection between youth’s sense of place and the desire to stay rural. Therefore, I
argue that youth fit their employment and education goals within their geographic and cultural
preferences (sense of place) rather than fitting their sense of place into their employment and
education goals.
The literature on rural youth migration planning is robust with a multitude of priorities
discussed and debated. Many scholars argue that education and employment opportunities, or
perceptions of opportunities, outweigh sense of place or quality of life factors in youth migration
planning (Avis, 2013; Demi et al., 2009; Stalker & Phyne, 2014; Looker, 2021; MacMichael et
al., 2015). However, a growing body of literature supports that sense of place actually plays a
more significant role (Choi & Kramer, 2024; Liu, 2015; Sowl et al., 2022; Stough-Hunter &
Lekies, 2020). This discrepancy may illustrate a cultural shift in the priorities of young people or
a difference in the way research questions are asked and analyzed. Eacott and Sonn (2006)
recognize the importance of education and employment in youth migration planning but argue
that other sociocultural factors can “provide insight into opportunities for initiatives aimed at
maintaining the viability of rural communities” (p.200). Similarly, McLay and Foster (2023)
argue that even employment migration cannot be reduced to macroeconomic conditions or job
availability as economic priorities are often intertwined with quality of life priorities. My
findings echo this literature as the community’s remoteness and lack of amenities were identified

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as the primary push factor for youth, rather than a lack of employment opportunities. While
education and employment opportunities were important to youth and may initiate the desire to
migrate, sense of place was the driver of residential aspirations and significantly influenced
youth’s plans to return to Tumbler Ridge, stay rural, or move south/ urban.
It is well understood that place connections begin early in life, so if place attachment and
sense of belonging is critical for youth retention then youth community engagement should be
encouraged from a young age and supported through adolescence (Foster & Main, 2018;
McLaughlin et al., 2014; Theodori & Theodori, 2015). These assertions relate to a finding from
interviews, that childhood experiences inform migration decisions. Many interviewees cited their
enjoyment of growing up in a small-town or spending time with their family and friends
outdoors as key reasons for returning or migrating to Tumbler Ridge, often because they wanted
the same experiences for their children. Casey (2021) and Porter (2022) reported similar findings
with participants explaining their reasons for living and raising their families rurally through
their own childhood experiences. It can then be posited that youth with a strong place attachment
to other rural communities would consider migrating to Tumbler Ridge, an assumption
confirmed by many key informant interviewees who had moved from other small-towns in
Canada. Therefore, community development that focuses on supporting youth place attachment
and sense of belonging is both a youth retention and recruitment strategy.
Engaging youth in their community to foster place attachment and sense of belonging can
be facilitated through inclusion in community planning and development (Robichaud, 2014). As
Theodori and Theodori (2015) assert, young people are too often overlooked in community
development, “yet rural communities striving to maintain population must see youth as partners
in community development, offering young citizens the opportunity to be engaged, active

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participants in community matters” (p.388). Recommendations from the literature include the
development of a Youth Council to provide a youth perspective on local decision-making. A
Youth Councillor position was developed in 2015 to 2016 for a high school student who offered
a youth perspective to City Council. Unfortunately, there was no interest in taking the position
over at the end of the term, and it has not been offered to any youth since. I recommend the
formal re-development of a Youth Councillor (or Youth Council), with opportunities to engage
with the community on local issues, as a method of engaging youth in community development
and fostering sense of place. There is potential to collaborate with TRSS on this initiative as the
relationship is well established. The Youth Centre reinstated their Youth Steering Committee in
2024 which is made up of a number of youths who direct the activities, plan events, and decide
how fundraised money is spent. Perhaps the Youth Centre’s Steering Committee could serve as a
model for other community organizations, including Town Council.
6.1.1 Youth Education Goals
The pursuit of post-secondary education following high school graduation was
normalized for youth in Tumbler Ridge. Nearly all youth participants expressed a desire to attend
a post-secondary institution, reflecting an established pattern for TRSS graduates according to
many interviewees. This normalization of post-secondary education is not common among other
rural communities in the literature, instead, rural youth often have less educational aspirations
and attainments than urban youth (Andres & Looker, 2001; Gabriel, 2006; Theodori & Theodori,
2015). This difference may be partially explained by the affluence of many Tumbler Ridge
residents, evidenced by average employment incomes above provincial averages, as well as the
experiential learning, dual credit, and work experience opportunities at TRSS. Additionally,

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there may be a temporal difference as most of the literature on rural youth education aspirations
were published ten or more years ago.
The out-migration of high-competence rural youth to pursue education goals and lack of
in-migration of other educated young people is a prominent theme in the literature, often
described as the ‘brain drain’ phenomenon (Agger et al., 2018; Bernsen et al., 2022; Demi et al.,
2009). This perspective was shared by many interviewees who associated youth out-migration
with ‘ambition’, since out-migration from Tumbler Ridge is required to attend a post-secondary
institution. This cultural association of out-migration and ambition is also found in the literature;
McLaughlin (2014) explains that leaving the home community to attend a post-secondary
institution is seen as a sign of success for the youth, the high school, and the community.
For youth in Tumbler Ridge, not only is staying in the community stigmatized, but so is
returning within a certain timeframe or without completing post-secondary education under the
assumption that they ‘failed’ at whatever they left to accomplish. However, returning to Tumbler
Ridge later in life, usually after completing post-secondary education, is not stigmatized; youth
returning is encouraged, celebrated, and even expected by the community. This scale of
stigmatization and expectation differs from much of the literature on rural youth migration which
simplifies out-migration as a decision in the best interest of rural youth (Schafft, 2016) or
explores the stigmatization of youth who stay (Donkersloot, 2011; Eacott & Sonn, 2006;
Pedersen & Gram, 2018; Robichaud, 2014). This difference between the literature and Tumbler
Ridge may be explained by the poor socioeconomic conditions in many rural communities
experiencing youth out-migration which are not occurring in Tumbler Ridge, such as industry or
school closures. A culture that normalizes post-secondary education and stigmatizes those who

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stay pushes youth out of Tumbler Ridge, but this is complicated by expectations that youth will
return and contribute.
6.1.2 Youth Employment Goals
The literature discusses economic opportunities as one of the most significant influences
on the migration planning of rural youth (Liu, 2015; Robichaud, 2014; Theodori & Theodori,
2015). McLay and Foster (2023) add that migration “is a subjective process that is influenced as
much by perceptions and discourses that link success with big cities as by actual job
opportunities” (p.24). Indeed, few youth in Tumbler Ridge had reviewed job postings or inquired
about potential employment opportunities in their desired communities, instead it was assumed
that other communities, with greater economic diversification than Tumbler Ridge, will have
youth’s desired employment opportunities. However, youth did not actually discuss a lack of
economic opportunity in Tumbler Ridge, instead they sought different types of employment that
they believed was not available in their community. Unlike the literature, most youth did not
associate successful jobs with urban locations, instead high-paying ‘good’ jobs were often
associated with skilled trades in northern BC and Alberta.
Rather than a pattern of rural-to-urban migration in pursuit of greater education and
employment opportunities, youth prioritized lifestyle factors alongside their desired employment.
This finding demonstrates that youth perspectives on employment have changed over time, while
‘good’, high-paying jobs are still important, so is being fulfilled. This theme is present in recent
literature, for example, Bernsen et al. (2022) did not find economic opportunities to be a
significant predictor of youth migration aspirations, concluding that “policies are often
developed to recruit young workers to rural locales, but without fostering attachments, simple
economic incentives are not likely to succeed” (p.578). In my research, employment was not the

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primary push factor for Tumbler Ridge youth, it was remoteness and lack of amenities.
Therefore, resident recruitment and retention strategies targeting youth and young families
should focus on lifestyle and quality of life factors rather than simply economic opportunities
(MacMichael et al., 2015).
6.2 Youth Readiness
While all youth participants planned to pursue post-secondary education, TRSS students
and graduates expressed feelings of unpreparedness for this transition. Youth cited high rates of
teacher turnover, the lack of qualified teachers, and restricted course offerings at TRSS, as well
as the removal of standardized testing from the BC curriculum, as reasons for their lack of
preparedness. Local government and service providers echoed these concerns, and some shared
stories of their children or other local youth who had not been successful in post-secondary
pursuits. Unfortunately, there is almost no contemporary literature on student readiness in the
northern BC context. Most of the literature is from the rural US and focuses on the low
socioeconomic status, marginalization, and poverty present in many small, rural schools. As a
result, the literature links rural students’ lack of readiness with under-resourced, low performing
schools and low levels of post-secondary aspirations (Bouck, 2004; Corley, 2018; Morton et al.,
2018).
Some experiences shared by youth in Tumbler Ridge do connect to elements of the
literature, including limited course offerings and challenges with distance learning. Anderson
and Chang (2011) and Saw and Agger (2021) explored the accessibility of math and STEM
courses, respectively, in American high schools and found that rural schools had lower teaching
capacity and offered less advanced placement (AP) courses. Similarly, Gagnon and Mattingly
(2016) found that rural American high schools struggle to promote AP courses due to teaching

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constraints and a lack of sufficiently prepared students. At TRSS, most courses are only offered
once per year or every other year due to teaching constraints, setting students back a year if they
fail a course or if they have to choose between a limited set of classes offered in any given year.
One education provider shared that some students would rather drop out than take a course again
the next year with a younger cohort of students. Elective courses are also restricted at TRSS due
to the small teaching staff. To cope with these teaching constraints, TRSS facilitates distance
learning for some courses and students. While this model can fill gaps, education providers and
youth had mixed feelings about its effectiveness due to the lack of personalized support.
Mulcahy and Barbour (2010) discuss similar issues with distance learning in Newfoundland and
Labrador, finding that students avoided taking difficult courses remotely. A few youth in
Tumbler Ridge have transitioned their high school learning to be fully remote, but levels of
success vary.
According to youth participants, the most significant challenge to their academic
readiness was the high rates of teacher turnover and lack of qualified teachers at TRSS. This
issue is not new to Tumbler Ridge, according to Gill (1991) who states,
the high level of teacher turnover, with two years being an average length of stay, was
mentioned as a problem because of the resulting lack of continuity. This is often
associated with concern about teacher competence as many teachers are newly qualified
and come north to gain experience (p.192).
Youth felt strongly that inexperienced teachers did not provide the quality of education required
to succeed in post-secondary, and education providers stressed the importance of building
rapport and trust with students over time. A study of rural BC high schools by Nielsen and
Nashon (2007) tells a similar story of teacher stability being significantly linked to student

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success and yet also reported high rates of teacher turnover and the hiring of inexperienced
teaching staff. Nevertheless, youth expressed feelings of trust and support with their
longstanding teachers, peers, and community, an important piece of readiness (Knox, 2023).
Challenges with teacher recruitment and retention at TRSS reflect broader structural barriers that
have existed for decades, evidenced by Nielsen and Nashon’s (2007) study and Gill’s (1991)
report. SD 59 administration shared that about one quarter (20 to 30%) of their teaching staff are
unqualified teachers working under Letters of Permission. The provincial government has
recognized the teacher shortage and is investing $12.5 million over 2024 to 2026 for teacher
recruitment and training initiatives through the StrongerBC Future Ready Action Plan
(Government of BC, 2024b), but education providers and administrators are not confident in
current provincial initiatives. Incentives are needed to attract and retain teachers in rural and
northern communities.
As a result of these feelings of unpreparedness, many youth shared a desire to raise their
children elsewhere, despite their connections to Tumbler Ridge. Youth’s experiences of high
school education contributing to migration and family planning was not explored in the
literature, instead research tends to focus on post-secondary aspirations rather than high school
experiences. This connection between youth educational experiences and migration planning is
important because it illustrates that place attachment alone is insufficient with education as an
example of a push factor that can override place attachment. Pedersen and Gram (2018) explore
the complexities of youth place attachment and share that,

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thoughts of the local places are hereby representations of future possibilities and
constraints … although some interviewees actually have an urge to stay or return because
of strong feelings of place attachment, they find it impossible, due to a lack of services
and amenities (p.629).
Youth readiness has many implications for community development and has emerged as an
important topic area with little research in the northern BC context.
6.3 Rural Youth Retention
6.3.1 Fostering Youth’s Connections to Community
According to the literature, the most significant aspect of youth-focused community
development is education and employment support. The prevalence of this topic is likely
attributed to the overrepresentation of education and employment opportunities in the rural youth
migration literature. Many scholars recommend building connections between schools and local
businesses, organizations, and institutions to encourage students to pursue employment
opportunities in their home community (Foster & Main, 2018; Stalker & Phyne, 2014;
Robichaud, 2014; Schafft, 2016; Theodori & Theodori, 2015). Specifically, Avis (2013)
recommends promoting summer and co-op employment opportunities and connecting high
school students directly with employers.
Tumbler Ridge provides exceptional examples of school-community partnerships through
experiential learning, work experience, and dual credit opportunities. For example, the Go-Kart
program facilitates collaborations between TRSS, the District, Northern Lights College, and
multiple local businesses (see section 5.2.3a and 5.2.3b). In addition to experiential learning and
work experience opportunities which introduce students to potential career paths and facilitate
connections with local professionals, the dual credit program through TRSS and Northern Lights

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College allows students to gain post-secondary credits in their desired field. Outside of TRSS,
the community also provides a multitude of summer student employment opportunities,
including with the District, Community Centre, golf course, Fire Hall, Geopark, Museum,
Library, and Conuma Resources (see section 5.3.3a). Partnerships between rural high schools
and local institutions increase the amount of relevant, accurate information that schools transmit,
broaden student access to post-secondary and employment preparation, and increase the social
capital of youth (Morton et al., 2018).
The community development literature also discusses the role of social and recreational
planning to support youth engagement and empowerment in rural communities. Tumbler Ridge
is excelling in these areas through a variety of community facilities, programs, and partnerships.
Youth participants spoke highly of the recreation infrastructure in the community, including the
facilities located in the town, such as the Community Centre and golf course, as well as
surrounding trail networks. A variety of structured and unstructured youth programs are also
facilitated by the Community Centre, Library, Youth Centre, and a variety of civic organizations,
contributing to diverse youth engagement. Ryser et al. (2012) discuss the value of structured
social and recreational activities for youth as “opportunities to develop positive social and
mentoring networks that can build confidence, provide a broader range of supports, and limit
their exposure to negative behaviours as they become older” (p.201). Recreational and social
opportunities foster youth well-being and encourage community involvement (Foster & Main,
2018; Liu, 2015) which play an important role in building a sense of belonging.
The planning of Tumbler Ridge also contributes to youth well-being as it was designed to
facilitate recreational and social opportunities for young people. During the planning of Tumbler
Ridge, there was recognition of the association between stability and married workers, so

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investments were made in recreation and community facilities, social services, and residential
satisfaction (Gill 1991, 2002; Illsley et al., 2010). These efforts are still appreciated by youth
who cited the walkability of Tumbler Ridge and its green spaces as pertinent youth features.
Social infrastructure such as these provide spaces that foster interaction and a sense of belonging
among youth (Ryser et al., 2012), which Tumbler Ridge demonstrates in abundance.
Some scholars also discuss the less tangible aspects of youth-focused community
development, including building place attachment and a sense of belonging. In the rural
community development literature, youth sense of place is often discussed alongside the natural
environment, outdoor recreation, and small-town lifestyle (Casey, 2021; Foster & Main, 2018;
Robichaud, 2014). McLaughlin et al. (2014) found that a clean and accessible natural
environment and opportunities for outdoor recreation increased the likelihood that rural youth
aspired to stay in, or near, their community. Tumbler Ridge has invested in robust outdoor
recreation development with a variety of infrastructure in the community (e.g., basketball courts,
golf course, Pump Track) and surrounding area (e.g., Mountain Bike Park, cross-country ski
trails) as well as through the Tumbler Ridge Outdoor Recreation Association (TRORA), a new
partnership between the District’s Economic Development Office and four key outdoor
recreation civic organizations. The promotion of the natural environment is particularly
supported in Tumbler Ridge given the local area’s UNESCO Global Geopark status. All youth
participants discussed an appreciation of the natural environment, often in relation to outdoor
recreation opportunities but also its scenic qualities.
The effectiveness of promoting the natural environment, small-town lifestyle, and
outdoor recreation to local youth may be mixed. MacBride (2014) explored youth out-migration
in rural Nova Scotia and found that similar childhood experiences were perceived differently by

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youth – while the community may fit the ‘rural idyll’ imaginary for some youth, it is the ‘rural
dull’ for others. Current development efforts in Tumbler Ridge typically focus on the natural
environment or outdoor recreation (e.g., the Geopark, coal mining, hiking, snowmobiling). This
community identity was important to many participants, evidenced by the small-town lifestyle
and natural environment being identified as the primary pull factor of Tumbler Ridge. Youth
interested in the rural lifestyle and its opportunities for outdoor recreation demonstrated strong
sense of place, but youth with different priorities or interests did not express the same. Youthfocused community development is challenging because youth are not one homogeneous group,
and some interests are easier to engage in rural communities than others. A weak sense of place
was shared by youth who expressed interest in the arts and/or technology, areas where Tumbler
Ridge currently falls short.
The District, Museum, and Geopark do not have any youth strategies or plans. Local
government interviewees explained that while no initiatives were designed specifically for youth,
all community development plans are designed to support all age groups, including youth.
However, the planning needs of youth do not necessarily align with those of children or adults.
Additionally, the youth cohort itself is diverse with different social and recreational desires
between younger and older teens, further complicating service and program delivery.
Anderson (2015) argues that all places are separated and ordered for certain groups,
either designed for children, designed for adults, or assumed to be used by adults and families,
but few spaces are designed for youth. Instead, youth are liminal beings that exist on the margins
of the community and are often out of place. The feeling of being ‘out of place’ in the
community was shared by youth participants of all ages. All youth who had grown up in
Tumbler Ridge discussed feelings of meaningful community engagement throughout their

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childhood that ended around 14 years old. The youngest youth participants (aged 15) still felt
engaged by the Youth Centre and community events, but they shared the same sentiment of
being left out of the youth programs at the Community Centre and Library. When reviewing the
recreational programs offered by the Community Centre, Youth Centre, Library, and other civic
organizations, all offerings can be categorized into children’s or adult’s programs with almost no
youth representation. However, it is important to consider the limited resources and capacity of
the program providers in Tumbler Ridge as well as the small pool of youth, making teen-specific
program delivery difficult.
To facilitate further youth program development, especially in currently underserviced
areas such as arts and technology, the capacity and resources of youth organizations need to be
increased. For example, the Youth Centre is operated by the Coordinator for 25 hours per week
with no other staff to facilitate the planning, marketing, and execution of youth activities. This
story is common among other rural service providers. Partnerships with the Community Centre,
the District, and other civic organizations need to be fostered to generate greater resources,
capacity, and volunteers of all organizations. Attracting residents with interests in currently
underserviced areas may also improve the sense of place of some youth.
There is an interesting conflict in youth recreation planning where organizations express
difficulty engaging youth and assume that youth become less interested in community programs
and structured activities around age 14. Rather than a lack of interest, youth shared that they
often do not feel comfortable attending programs designed for adults and often avoid those that
are open to children. Developing recreational programs specifically for youth may decrease their
feelings of being ‘out of place’ in the community and contribute to a stronger sense of belonging.
Youth expressed a desire for social and recreational planning that was explicitly teen-focused,

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including minimum and maximum age restrictions, less supervision, and events held in ‘third
spaces’. For example, many youth shared stories of attending Community Centre movie nights as
children and expressed that they still had a desire to attend, especially given the lack of a movie
theatre in Tumbler Ridge, but that current movie nights are geared to younger audiences.
Showing movies with higher age ratings, and providing a robust concession, would encourage
older youth to attend. Youth shared many positive memories associated with the Youth Centre
and Community Centre events as well as sentiments that these have changed over the years, so
organizations could capitalize on nostalgia alongside the development of new programs to keep
youth engaged throughout their formative teen years.
6.3.2 Economic and Community Development Gaps
While childhood experiences, place attachment, and sense of place are important aspects
of youth migration planning, youth also discussed housing and service provision. Housing was
discussed by youth participants as a barrier to staying in or returning to Tumbler Ridge. The
affordability of purchasing a house was recognized by participants, and affordable housing was
listed as a strength in the Tumbler Ridge Economic Development Plan (District of Tumbler
Ridge, 2018). However, many participants discussed the rental market as both scarce and
expensive, a pertinent issue for youth. Additionally, participants complained about the lack of
diversity in the housing market with few options outside of single detached homes. These issues
were addressed in Tumbler Ridge’s OCP (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2023) which states that
there is a shortage of affordable rental housing and a need to increase housing diversity.
What the OCP and Economic Development Plan do not address are the housing pressures
incurred by the temporary contractors of Conuma Resources, an increased pressure felt since
2023 with the re-start and expansion of the Quintette Mine. According to participants, this influx

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has greatly impacted rental housing availability and affordability, a pressure I also experienced
when trying to find accommodation during my fieldwork. The most recent Housing Needs
Assessment was completed in December 2024 and is not yet publicly available, but a
presentation of the results to City Council revealed that 109 new units are needed in the next five
years to accommodate population growth estimates (Ernst, 2025). However, this assessment uses
the provincial methodology and does not consider place-specific changes, including the potential
opening of a new coal mine (Ernst, 2025). The current housing stock and rental market do not
support the retention of youth looking to move out of their family’s homes or the recruitment of
other young people to the community.
Youth interested in technology, recreationally or as a career, expressed their concerns
about Tumbler Ridge’s information and communication technology (ICT), specifically, the lack
high-speed internet and poor cellular reception. Interviewees echoed these concerns in relation to
economic development due to the inability to promote e-commerce or recruit and retain remote
workers without sufficient ICT. The rise of remote work following the COVID-19 pandemic has
played an important role in rural resident recruitment and retention in some areas of Canada
(Breen & Robinson, 2021). Visible migration of urban populations into rural Ontario (School of
Environmental Design and Rural Development, 2023) and net migration gain in Atlantic Canada
in 2020 and 2021 (McLay & Foster, 2023) have both been linked to remote work opportunities.
This shift could provide an economic development opportunity for Tumbler Ridge if sufficient
investments in ICT are made. Additionally, Kelly (2013) discusses the importance of building
digital capacity in rural Canada to support technology-based employment for youth, something
youth did not feel was currently available. The Tumbler Ridge Economic Development Plan
expresses an interest in recruiting remote workers and includes an action plan for investing in

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‘broadband Internet connectivity’ (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2018, p.48). The OCP reflects
these efforts with Policy 6.2.20 that states the District will “continue the effort to improve the
local high-speed internet” (District of Tumbler Ridge, 2020, p.86). Local government
interviewees shared that the District has approached Telus requesting Fibre Optic installation,
but that progress has been slow, despite installation in Dawson Creek and Chetwynd.
While the rural charm of Tumbler Ridge is an important community characteristic, it
must be balanced with engagement in modern technology if the community wants to retain
youth and young professionals. Improvements to the ICT could also facilitate further economic
diversification, a push factor identified by youth who, despite recognizing the contributions of
wind energy and the Geopark, view the District and Conuma Resources as the only opportunities
for ‘good’ local jobs. Tumbler Ridge is not unique in its struggle for high-speed internet,
evidenced by the Waiting to Connect report (Council of Canadian Academies, 2021) which states
that,
rural and remote communities in Canada have identified limited access to fast, reliable
internet as their main barrier to achieving economic growth and have stated that the lack
of connectivity restricts their ability to retain youth, attract new talent, develop or expand
existing businesses, train workers, and adopt new technologies (p.xxi).
Despite this knowledge, adoption of better ICT is challenging for Tumbler Ridge due to its low
population density and large distance from other communities, making it unappealing to
telecommunications providers. Kelly and Hynes (2018) call for the provincial and federal
governments to recognize this market failure in rural communities and provide increased
financial support and capacity for alternative models of service delivery.

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Finally, there is currently no resident recruitment plan for Tumbler Ridge and no plans to
develop one. When asked about this decision, local government interviewees shared that the
community is not in a position to recruit new residents due to the large number of temporary
contractors living in the community. However, interviewees from numerous community
institutions discussed staffing shortages and issues related to bringing in qualified workers. Due
to the small local population, specialized jobs often require successful candidates to relocate to
Tumbler Ridge, but some interviewees shared that potential workers had turned down job offers
due to an inability to find housing. Despite these shortages and the presence of contractors in the
community, there does not appear to be an effort to shift these temporary workers into permanent
residents. There is a need to recruit working professionals in Tumbler Ridge. Local government
interviewees did express that housing diversity, rental affordability, and the lack of high-speed
internet were all barriers that need to be addressed before a meaningful recruitment plan could be
developed.
6.4 Conclusion
Sense of place is a key factor in the migration planning of rural youth. Education and
employment goals initiated the desire for youth to migrate, but sense of place influenced their
residential aspirations, including the desire to return to Tumbler Ridge, stay northern/rural, or
move to an urban centre. However, development that fosters youth sense of place must be
combined with meaningful efforts to improve youth readiness for post-secondary education.
Moreover, community development that improves rental housing accessibility and affordability
and ICT is needed for youth retention. Tumbler Ridge demonstrates excellent community
planning to support youth sense of place, rooted in the social design principles, connection
between local education and employment, and the promotion of the natural environment and

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outdoor recreation. While interview and focus group participants described a culture of youth
support during their formative years, this local culture also pushes out youth by linking outmigration with ambition and stigmatizing youth who stay or return too early. Improvements
could also be made to engage and empower youth with interests outside of the traditional
resource town lifestyle, including arts and technology. Development in these areas could also
contribute to general resident recruitment and retention and economic diversity.

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Chapter 7: Conclusion
Following the socioeconomic changes beginning in the 1980s, rural and small-town
places across Canada have experienced trends of youth out-migration. Better education and
employment opportunities in urban centres are often cited as the reason for youth migration from
rural communities, but recent research, including this thesis, suggests a more complex story.
Youth’s sense of place to their home communities significantly contributes to their migration
planning, including the decision to stay rural. Through a case study of Tumbler Ridge, BC, this
thesis explored youth migration planning and its implications for community development.
7.1 Research Questions
Three main questions guided this research. First, what are the push/ pull factors of
Tumbler Ridge for youth and young people? Understanding the local perspectives on push and
pull factors suggests what the community is doing well and what gaps exist for local youth. In
order of significance, the pull factors of Tumbler Ridge for youth and young people are smalltown lifestyle and family connections, natural environment and outdoor recreation, amenities and
community planning, (high-paying) employment, and low cost of living. These findings reflect
that cultural, environmental, and community factors pull youth to Tumbler Ridge rather than
economic factors, reflecting the importance of sense of place in youth migration planning. This
importance is further illustrated by interviewees who described their childhood experiences as a
primary motivator for their decision to return or migrate to Tumbler Ridge. The push factors of
Tumbler Ridge for youth and young people are remoteness and lack of amenities, education,
employment (lack of economic diversification), housing, healthcare, and social dynamics and
lack of anonymity. A special mention must be made on the education push factor as the available
courses and curriculum in Tumbler Ridge may not prepare youth to be successful with post-

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secondary pursuits. While the perceived lack of education and employment opportunities in
Tumbler Ridge do push out youth, these factors were less significant than the push of
community’s remoteness and lack of amenities, reflecting the importance of lifestyle and quality
of life for youth retention.
The second question asked, what are the education, employment, and migration goals of
youth in Tumbler Ridge? Post-secondary education was normalized by youth and many
interviewees. All youth participants expressed interest in post-secondary education and,
therefore, leaving Tumbler Ridge due to the lack of local post-secondary institutions. As a result,
youth migration plans were closely linked to their education and employment goals. However, as
youth discussed their migration plans and residential aspirations, lifestyle and quality of life
factors became more significant. An interesting pattern emerged where youth who demonstrated
a strong sense of place in Tumbler Ridge planned to stay northern and/or rural, while youth with
a weak sense of place tended to desire urban and/or southern communities. Interestingly, there
was no gendered pattern in youth’s education, employment, or migration goals nor in their sense
of belonging in Tumbler Ridge, demonstrating a shift in rural sense of place.
The final question asked, how is Tumbler Ridge supporting local youth (or not)?
Community support of youth in Tumbler Ridge was organized into four main categories,
education, employment, community, and sense of place. Educational support includes the
experiential learning, work experience, and dual credit opportunities at TRSS. However, high
rates of teacher turnover, inexperienced teachers, and restricted course offerings strain youth
education support. Youth employment opportunities include part-time employment and summer
student positions at many community institutions; however, these do not necessarily translate to
career opportunities for young adults. Factors of community support include resident-focused

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community planning, diverse recreation facilities and programs, and civic organizations that fill
service gaps. Unsupportive community factors include an expensive rental market with little
availability and low accessibility to emergency healthcare. Finally, supportive sense of place
factors include the natural environment, outdoor recreation opportunities, the small-town
lifestyle and social connections, and an intangible community culture of youth support.
However, local culture also pushes youth out by linking ambition with out-migration and seeing
this out-migration as inevitable, while also desiring youth to return later in life. There is an
interesting dichotomy in the local culture where youth who stay or return too quickly are
stigmatized and labeled as ‘unsuccessful’ while youth who choose to return after a certain
temporal threshold are celebrated. Overall, youth in Tumbler Ridge are supported by the
community in numerous and diverse ways, contributing to feelings of belonging while also
facing pressures to leave the community.
The first two research questions provided guidance through this exploratory study and
generated baseline knowledge on youth experiences and migration goals. However, the real story
of migration planning emerged through the third research question. While understanding the
push/pull factors of Tumbler Ridge is helpful for community planning, youth identified push
factors that did not necessarily translate to pull factors in their desired locations. When asked
about their migration goals, youth cited employment and education opportunities. However, the
pertinence of quality of life factors became clear through discussions of how Tumbler Ridge
supports local youth. Place attachment and sense of belonging emerged as significant themes
when youth discussed their childhood experiences, and if they wanted to foster or change these
experiences and the identity that they had constructed in Tumbler Ridge. The migration planning

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of rural youth considers multiple complex factors, but most relate back to either a sense of
belonging with the familiar or a yearning for the foreign and strange.
7.2 Lessons Learned
This research demonstrated that sense of place is important in the migration planning of
rural youth, including the decision to stay northern and rural or not. Economic opportunities are
often assumed to be the most significant factor in youth migration planning (e.g., Demi et al.,
2009; Looker, 2021), but my findings speak to differences in youth’s priorities. While education
and employment were the drivers of youth out-migration, quality of life and sense of place were
the most significant factors in determining where youth planned to migrate and why. There is
little literature on rural youth experiences or migration planning from northern BC or resource
towns, demonstrating gaps in our understanding. My research adds to the literature the
importance of sense of place on the migration planning of rural youth and its implications for
community development. My research contributes by broadening the dialogue on what rural
youth are seeking in their communities.
The lessons learned from this research include the importance of engaging youth early in
life to build a strong sense of place and continuing to support youth engagement and
empowerment through the teen years. Rather than a pattern of rural-to-urban migration in search
of better opportunities, the migration goals of youth reflected lifestyle priorities and their sense
of place to Tumbler Ridge. Therefore, community development that focuses on supporting youth
sense of place is both a youth retention and recruitment strategy. These strategies must prioritize
lifestyle and quality of life factors rather than simply employment and education opportunities.

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7.2.1 Recommendations
Recommendations for Tumbler Ridge and other rural BC communities:
1. Children and adult recreational programming is well established in Tumbler Ridge but
lack teen-specific planning and some local youth expressed feeling ‘out of place’ as a
result. While it is pertinent to consider the limited capacity and resources of civic
organizations, youth expressed a desire for social and recreational planning that was
explicitly teen-focused, including minimum and maximum age restrictions, less
supervision, and events held in ‘third spaces’. Developing teen-specific programming led
by teen input may increase teen engagement in community events, thus fostering a deeper
sense of place.
2. Outdoor and other physical recreation opportunities are plentiful for Tumbler Ridge
youth, but youth with other recreation interests, especially arts and technology, felt less
engaged by the community. To facilitate further youth program development in these
underserviced areas, the capacity and resources of youth organizations need to be
increased. Partnerships with the District, the Community Centre, and civic organizations
need to be fostered to generate greater resources, capacity, and volunteers of all
organizations.
3. There is currently no resident recruitment plan and local government interviewees shared
that the community is not in a position to recruit new residents due to the large number of
temporary contractors living in the community. However, staffing shortages at numerous
community institutions, especially at TRSS, illustrate the need to recruit young
professionals and working families. Developing a resident recruitment plan provides a

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clear and focused path forward for long-term community development, including
potentially shifting temporary workers to permanent residents.
4. Developing a youth representative position(s) for local institutions and organizations,
specifically, a Youth Councillor position on Town Council, provides opportunities for
youth to engage with the community and foster a local sense of place. These positions are
empowering as youth can bring their own concerns and ideas forward from a position of
power. In Tumbler Ridge, the local high school could act as a collaborating partner for a
Youth Councillor position as a relationship between TRSS and the District is well
established and could contribute to required high school volunteer credits.
5. Housing was identified as an issue for both youth retention and resident recruitment. The
lack of availability and affordability of the rental housing market challenges youth’s
ability to move out of their family’s home and stay in the community. Purchasing a home
is more affordable, but the age and lack of diversity outside of single family homes
provides challenges for young people, especially single professionals, looking to
purchase in Tumbler Ridge. The influx of temporary contract workers for the coal mines
further strains local housing availability and affordability. Additional areas need to be
zoned as residential and developments should include mixed housing, especially multifamily housing, to cope with local need.
Recommendations for the Government of BC:
1. Tumbler Ridge youth expressed feeling unprepared for post-secondary due to challenges
at TRSS. High rates of teacher turnover, the lack of qualified teachers, and restricted
course offerings at TRSS, as well as the removal of standardized testing from the BC
curriculum were cited as reasons for their lack of preparedness. Local stakeholders,

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including education providers and SD 59 administration, echoed many of these concerns.
While many of these issues are not unique to northeastern BC, there is a need to recruit
and retain qualified teachers in rural BC. More education programs, financial incentive to
teach in rural BC, and increased support and resources in rural schools may help address
these issues.
2. The poor ICT in Tumbler Ridge, specifically, the lack high-speed internet and poor
cellular reception, impacts youth retention and resident recruitment. Despite high-speed
Internet installation in both Chetwynd and Dawson Creek, Tumbler Ridge remains
without. The inability to promote e-commerce or recruit and retain remote workers
without sufficient ICT impacts economic development, especially in the post-COVID era.
ICT upgrades are outside of the District’s jurisdiction and service providers are not filling
this gap, so there is a need for government intervention.
7.2.2 Transferability
Youth recruitment and retention is an important issue for rural communities with a long
history of academic literature in this area. This thesis explored a single case study of rural youth
retention, but the implications of this research are more broad. Tumbler Ridge is a remote
northern community with a local economy based in natural resource extraction – characteristics
that describe much of rural Canada. The commonality of themes from this research with the
literature, as well as contributions that extend beyond the literature, also have wider applicability.
With respect to themes from the research, Tumbler Ridge youth did confirm the
importance of education and employment opportunities, natural concerns for young people on
the verge of making their first major life decisions after high school. However, the key
contribution of this research, that youth’s sense of place plays a critical role in their migration

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planning, has value for other rural and small-town places across Canada, as noted in the
opportunities for future research (section 7.3). Attention to building and maintaining local
youth’s sense of place contributes to youth retention in rural communities.
7.3 Opportunities for Future Research
This research was the first to explore youth issues in Tumbler Ridge and many interesting
topics emerged alongside the story of migration planning. Rural youth experiences are dynamic
and complex, providing opportunities for longitudinal and comparative studies as well as indepth case studies. Specifically, differences between the research and the literature suggest this is
an important topic for future research. Potential themes for future research include:
1. All youth in this research planned to leave Tumbler Ridge following high school
graduation, although a few planned to return. However, these youth represent a small
sample of the youth in Tumbler Ridge. Future research with a larger and more diverse
sample of youth in Tumbler Ridge may be able to explore more diverse migration plans,
including those of youth who want to stay in the community. The assertion that place
attachment and sense of belonging significantly influence these plans could be tested.
2. This research explored the migration planning of rural youth on the verge of making the
decision to stay in or leave their hometown. This age group provides important insight on
the migration planning process and expectations, but planning does not necessarily
translate to decisions. A longitudinal study that explores youth migration plans before
they graduate high school and then in five-year increments could explore what factors
influence the actual migration of rural youth compared to their plans. This research could
also explore how push and pull factors of their home communities change over the life
course.

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3. While all youth participants planned to pursue post-secondary education, youth also
expressed feelings of unpreparedness for this transition. Unlike other rural communities
in the literature, the pursuit of post-secondary education following high school graduation
was normalized for youth in Tumbler Ridge. Local culture also linked ambition with outmigration while also expecting youth to return later in life. Youth readiness has many
implications for community development and youth retention, and little research has been
conducted in the northern BC context.
4. Tumbler Ridge youth provided insight on being a young person in Tumbler Ridge and on
their migration planning, both of which informed this research on rural youth retention.
However, Tumbler Ridge youth could not speak to issues of ‘recruitment’. Future
research could explore youth recruitment to rural communities by asking urban youth
what community factors might recruit them to Tumbler Ridge or other rural communities.
5. Much of the Canadian youth migration literature focuses on Atlantic Canada with many
young people travelling west for employment opportunities. There is a current gap in our
understanding of rural youth migration in western Canada, and resource towns generally.
Future research on rural youth migration in BC, Alberta, and Saskatchewan could provide
a more robust understanding of youth migration patterns and provide further insights for
community development.
6. Youth’s place attachment and sense of belonging were important aspects of their
migration planning. However, some youth literature has explored how youth’s identity
shifts over time, especially after leaving their home community. Future research could
explore how these shifts in identity and sense of belonging impact migration, especially
for youth who planned to return to their home community.

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7.4 Closing
Migration planning for Tumbler Ridge youth was less about potential economic
opportunities and more about sense of place and lifestyle desires. While education and
employment opportunities may drive youth out-migration, lifestyle and quality of life factors
determined residential aspirations. Youth who demonstrated a strong sense of place planned to
return to Tumbler Ridge or move to other northern and/or rural communities while youth who
demonstrated a weak sense of place planned to move to southern and/or urban centres.
Community engagement supports youth sense of place, demonstrating the pertinence of
including youth in community development initiatives. The engagement and empowerment of
local youth can attract other young people, building more inclusive and resilient rural
communities.

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Appendix 1: Research Ethics
1.1 Research Ethics Board Project Approval

169

1.2 Research Ethics Board Amendment Approval

170

1.3 Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans Certificate

171

1.4 Letter of Permission: School District 59

172

1.5 Letter of Permission: District of Tumbler Ridge

173

Appendix 2: Interview Materials
2.1 Information and Consent Form for Community Organizations

Exploring the Migration Decisions of Rural Youth: A Case Study of Tumbler Ridge, BC
Information and Consent Form for Community Organizations
Researcher
Jessica Froese, Graduate Student, Natural Resources and Environmental Studies
University of Northern British Columbia
3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, V2N 4Z9
Cell: (604) 309-9344
Email: jfroese@unbc.ca
Research Supervisor
Greg Halseth, Professor, Geography Program
Canada Research Chair in Rural and Small Town Studies
Co-Director, Community Development Institute at UNBC
University of Northern British Columbia
3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, V2N 4Z9
Tel: (250) 960-5826
Email: greg.halseth@unbc.ca
This research is part of the thesis and academic requirements for the Master of Arts degree in
Natural Resources and Environmental Studies at UNBC.
Purpose
Rural and small-town places across Canada face challenges with social, economic, cultural, and
environmental changes. One crucial topic is youth out-migration and the need to attract and
retain young people. This research explores the education, service, and employment
opportunities for youth in Tumbler Ridge alongside the perspectives and experiences of youth.
The purpose is to explore senior high school students’ feelings about staying, leaving, or
returning to the community following high school graduation. This can help inform community
planning.

174

To understand the education, service, and employment opportunities available for youth in
Tumbler Ridge, I would like to invite you to be part of this research.
The criteria for the selection of interview participants are as follows:
• Resident of Tumbler Ridge
• Currently providing a program, service, or employment to local youth
Voluntary Participation
Participation in the interview is entirely voluntary and, as such, you may choose not to
participate. You may also choose not to answer any questions that make you uncomfortable, and
you have the right to end their participation in the interview at any time and have all the
information you provided withdrawn from the study and destroyed. The interview will be audio
recorded, and a summary of key themes will be created. This summary of key interview themes
will be sent to you through an encrypted, password protected file, and you will have two weeks
to provide any edits or corrections back to me. The interview should take about one hour to
complete.
Anonymity and Confidentiality
The names of participants will not be used in any reporting, nor will any information which may
be used to identify individuals. All electronic data will be managed, encrypted, and securely
stored on password protected computers and will be accessible only to the research team. The
research team includes Jessica Froese and Greg Halseth, both at UNBC. The information will be
kept for two years following the completion of the master’s thesis, until September 2027. After
this date, shredding and file erasure will destroy all information related to the interview.
Potential Risks and Benefits
This project has been assessed by our university research ethics process. The research team does
not consider there to be any risks to participation. The participants will be educational, service,
or employment providers for youth in Tumbler Ridge with knowledge of local youth issues. The
questions are about the educational, service, or employment opportunities provided and your
thoughts and experiences in this role. We hope that by participating, you will have the chance to
share your experiences and provide input related to youth recruitment and retention in Tumbler
Ridge.
Research Results
One of the products of this research will be a master’s thesis which will be publicly accessible
through the UNBC Library. A second product of this research will be a summary report of
results which will be reviewed by School District 59 to ensure the privacy of TRSS students,
teachers, and staff before being provided to participants via email. The results from this research
will also be published in academic research journals and shared at academic conferences.
175

Questions
In case of any questions that may arise from this research, please feel free to contact Jessica
Froese in the Natural Resources and Environmental Studies Program at jfroese@unbc.ca or Greg
Halseth in the Geography Program at greg.halseth@unbc.ca.
Complaints
Any complaints about this project should be directed to the UNBC Office of Research at (250)
960-6735 or by email at reb@unbc.ca.
I have read the above description of the study, and I understand the conditions of my
participation. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in this research.

_____________________________________________________________________________
Name (please print)
Signature
Date

_____________________________________________________________________________
Researcher Name
Signature
Date

176

2.2 Interview Guide for Community Organizations
Exploring Youth Migration Decisions: A Case Study of Tumbler Ridge, BC
Interview Guide for Community Organizations
_____________________________________________________________________________
Participant name: ____________________________________________
Contact information: _________________________________________
_________________________________________
Date: _____________________________
Interview Time:
Start: _________________________ Finish: ________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Notes:

_____________________________________________________________________________
Preamble:
Rural and small-town places across Canada have been undergoing rapid sociodemographic and
economic changes since the early 1980s. These changes are the product of the 1980s recession
and shift toward neoliberal public policies. Since then, service infrastructure has aged, the
original workforce is retiring, and many youth and young families have migrated out of these
communities. The changing resource economy combined with an unsuitable service
infrastructure has changed the nature of rural and small-town places and for the young people
seeking employment and quality of life within them. In the context of changing rural
communities, youth out-migration has long been identified as a pressing issue. The focus of this
research is exploring senior high school students’ feelings about staying, leaving, or returning to
their community following high school graduation. Specific research questions are: 1) What
aspects of community are most important to youth in Tumbler Ridge? 2) What are the future
education and employment goals of youth in Tumbler Ridge? 3) How is Tumbler Ridge
supporting local youth (or not)?
177

Intro Discussion
Can you introduce yourself and tell me about your role?
Tell me about your organization.
How long have you lived in Tumbler Ridge?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Section A: Youth Involvement in [Name of Organization]
How does your organization currently involve local youth?
What are past initiatives to involve local youth?
Are there any other youth initiatives planned for the future?
What has the response been from youth towards your programs/ services/ employment?
Has youth response changed over time?
What kind of local, provincial, or federal support do you receive for your youth programs/
service/ employment?
What are the goals of your programs/ services/ employment for local youth?
Are there any additional or unexpected benefits?
Have your programs/ services/ employment impacted any other groups in the
community?
What are the challenges to engaging youth in your programs/ services / employment?
How has your organization coped with these challenges?
Are any of your programs/ services/ employment opportunities underutilized by youth?
If yes, why do you think that may be?

178

Can you tell me about any collaborations that your organization has with TRSS or other
community organizations?
____________________________________________________________________________
Section B: Post-High School Plans of Youth
What local post-secondary education is available for high school graduates in Tumbler Ridge?
For example, through Northern Light College, remote learning, trades programs, etc.
Have youth shared their post-high school graduation migration plans with you? What are they?
Have you noticed any patterns or changes in these migration plans between different youth or
over time?
Have youth shared their post-high school graduation education or employment goals with you?
What are they?
Are these goals accessible in Tumbler Ridge?
Have you noticed any patterns or changes in these goals between different youth or over time?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Section C: Perception of Youth Experiences of Tumbler Ridge
What about Tumbler Ridge do you think is positive for local youth? Why?
What about Tumbler Ridge do you think is negative for local youth? Why?
Are there any program or service gaps for youth in Tumbler Ridge?
Are there any educational gaps for youth in Tumbler Ridge?
Are there any employment gaps for youth in Tumbler Ridge?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Section D: Closing
Is there anything else you would like to add that I haven’t asked you about?

179

2.3 Information and Consent Form for Teachers

Exploring the Migration Decisions of Rural Youth: A Case Study of Tumbler Ridge, BC
Information and Consent Form for Teachers
Researcher
Jessica Froese, Graduate Student, Natural Resources and Environmental Studies
University of Northern British Columbia
3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, V2N 4Z9
Cell: (604) 309-9344
Email: jfroese@unbc.ca
Research Supervisor
Greg Halseth, Professor, Geography Program
Canada Research Chair in Rural and Small Town Studies
Co-Director, Community Development Institute at UNBC
University of Northern British Columbia
3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, V2N 4Z9
Tel: (250) 960-5826
Email: greg.halseth@unbc.ca
This research is part of the thesis and academic requirements for the Master of Arts degree in
Natural Resources and Environmental Studies at UNBC.
Purpose
Rural and small-town places across Canada face challenges with social, economic, cultural, and
environmental changes. One crucial topic is youth out-migration and the need to attract and
retain young people. This research explores the education, service, and employment
opportunities for youth in Tumbler Ridge alongside the perspectives and experiences of youth.
The purpose is to explore senior high school students’ feelings about staying, leaving, or
returning to the community following high school graduation. This can help inform community
planning.
To understand the education, service, and employment opportunities available for youth in
Tumbler Ridge, I would like to invite you to be part of this research.

180

The criteria for the selection of interview participants are as follows:
• Current resident of Tumbler Ridge
• Current teacher or staff member of Tumbler Ridge Secondary School
Voluntary Participation
Participation in the interview is entirely voluntary and, as such, you may choose not to
participate. You may also choose not to answer any questions that make you uncomfortable, and
you have the right to end their participation in the interview at any time and have all the
information you provided withdrawn from the study and destroyed. The interview will be audio
recorded, and a summary of key themes will be created. This summary of key interview themes
will be sent to you through an encrypted, password protected file, and you will have two weeks
to provide any edits or corrections back to me. The interview should take about one hour to
complete.
Anonymity and Confidentiality
The names of participants will not be used in any reporting, nor will any information which may
be used to identify individuals. All electronic data will be managed, encrypted, and securely
stored on password protected computers and will be accessible only to the research team. The
research team includes Jessica Froese and Greg Halseth, both at UNBC. The information will be
kept for two years following the completion of the master’s thesis, until September 2027. After
this date, shredding and file erasure will destroy all information related to the interview.
Potential Risks and Benefits
This project has been assessed by our university research ethics process. The research team does
not consider there to be any risks to participation. The participants will be educational, service,
or employment providers for youth in Tumbler Ridge with knowledge of local youth issues. The
questions are about the educational, service, or employment opportunities provided and your
thoughts and experiences in this role. We hope that by participating, you will have the chance to
share your experiences and provide input related to youth retention and recruitment in Tumbler
Ridge.
Research Results
One of the products of this research will be a master’s thesis which will be publicly accessible
through the UNBC Library. A second product of this research will be a summary report of
results which will be reviewed by School District 59 to ensure the privacy of TRSS students,
teachers, and staff before being provided to participants via email. The results from this research
will also be published in academic research journals and shared at academic conferences.

181

Questions
In case of any questions that may arise from this research, please feel free to contact Jessica
Froese in the Natural Resources and Environmental Studies Program at jfroese@unbc.ca or Greg
Halseth in the Geography Program at greg.halseth@unbc.ca.
Complaints
Any complaints about this project should be directed to the UNBC Office of Research at (250)
960-6735 or by email at reb@unbc.ca.
I have read the above description of the study, and I understand the conditions of my
participation. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in this research.

_____________________________________________________________________________
Name (please print)
Signature
Date

_____________________________________________________________________________
Researcher Name
Signature
Date

182

2.4 Interview Guide for Teachers
Exploring Youth Migration Decisions: A Case Study of Tumbler Ridge, BC
Interview Guide for Teachers
_____________________________________________________________________________
Participant name: ____________________________________________
Contact information: _________________________________________
_________________________________________
Date: _____________________________
Interview Time:
Start: _________________________ Finish: ________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Notes:

_____________________________________________________________________________
Preamble:
Rural and small-town places across Canada have been undergoing rapid sociodemographic and
economic changes since the early 1980s. These changes are the product of the 1980s recession
and shift toward neoliberal public policies. Since then, service infrastructure has aged, the
original workforce is retiring, and many youth and young families have migrated out of these
communities. The changing resource economy combined with an unsuitable service
infrastructure has changed the nature of rural and small-town places and for the young people
seeking employment and quality of life within them. In the context of changing rural
communities, youth out-migration has long been identified as a pressing issue. The focus of this
research is exploring senior high school students’ feelings about staying, leaving, or returning to
their community following high school graduation. Specific research questions are: 1) What
aspects of community are most important to youth in Tumbler Ridge? 2) What are the future
education and employment goals of youth in Tumbler Ridge? 3) How is Tumbler Ridge
supporting local youth (or not)?
183

Intro Discussion
Can you introduce yourself and tell me about your role as a teacher?
How long have you lived in Tumbler Ridge?
How long have you been teaching at TRSS?
What subject(s) and grade(s) do you currently teach?
What subject(s) and grade(s) have you taught?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Section A: Opportunities at TRSS
Tell me about the experiential learning available to students at TRSS.
Do you think that students are satisfied with the courses available at TRSS?
Are there any classes TRSS is unable to provide for students?
Have students requested other programming at TRSS?
Does TRSS collaborate with any local organizations? How?
How does TRSS prepare senior students for life after high school graduation?
Are there any specific employment or post-secondary preparations available for
students?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Section B: Post-High School Plans of Students
What local post-secondary education is available for high school graduates in Tumbler Ridge?
For example, through Northern Light College, remote learning, trades programs, etc.
Do you encourage local post-secondary education for your students? Post-secondary
education in northern BC? Why or why not?

184

Have students shared their post-high school graduation migration plans with you? What are
they?
Have you noticed any patterns or changes in these migration plans between different classes or
over time?
Have students shared their post-high school graduation education or employment goals with
you? What are they?
Are these goals accessible in Tumbler Ridge?
Have you noticed any patterns or changes in these goals between different classes or over
time?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Section C: Perception of Youth Experiences of Tumbler Ridge
What about Tumbler Ridge do you think is positive for local youth? Why?
What about Tumbler Ridge do you think is negative for local youth? Why?
Are there any program or service gaps for youth in Tumbler Ridge?
Are there any educational gaps for youth in Tumbler Ridge?
Are there any employment gaps for youth in Tumbler Ridge?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Section D: Closing
Is there anything else you would like to add that I haven’t asked you about?

185

Appendix 3: Focus Group Materials
3.1 Recruitment Poster

186

3.2 Information and Consent Form for Youth

Exploring the Migration Decisions of Rural Youth: A Case Study of Tumbler Ridge, BC
Researcher
Jessica Froese, Graduate Student, Natural Resources and Environmental Studies
University of Northern British Columbia
3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, Canada, V2N 4Z9
Cell: (604) 309-9344
Email: jfroese@unbc.ca
Research Supervisor
Greg Halseth, Professor, Geography Program
Canada Research Chair in Rural and Small Town Studies
Co-Director, Community Development Institute at UNBC
University of Northern British Columbia
3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, Canada, V2N 4Z9
Tel: (250) 960-5826
Email: greg.halseth@unbc.ca
This research is part of the thesis and academic requirements for the Master of Arts degree in
Natural Resources and Environmental Studies at UNBC.
Purpose
Rural and small-town places across Canada face challenges with social, economic, cultural, and
environmental changes. One crucial topic is youth out-migration and the need to attract and
retain young people. This research explores the education, services, and employment
opportunities for youth in Tumbler Ridge alongside the perspectives of local senior high school
students. The focus of this research is exploring senior high school students’ feelings about
staying, leaving, or returning to the community following high school graduation. This can help
inform community planning.
To understand youth experiences of living in Tumbler Ridge and post-high school graduation
migration plans, I would like to invite you to be part of this research.

187

The criteria for the selection of focus group participants are as follows:
• Current grade 11 or 12 student at Tumbler Ridge Secondary School (TRSS)
How Participants Were Chosen
Focus group participants were introduced through teachers at TRSS following the permission of
the Principal and School District #59. Focus group participants were selected for their potential
to provide information on their experiences as youth in Tumbler Ridge and their migration plans
following high school graduation. As these focus groups will take place during class time, the
size and composition of the focus group will reflect the size and composition of the high school
class.
Voluntary Participation
Participation in the focus group is entirely voluntary and, as such, you may choose not to
participate. Participants may also choose not to answer any questions that make them
uncomfortable, and they have the right to end their participation in the focus group at any time.
Unfortunately, I will not be distinguishing which participant says what, so once you have
participated in the focus group, your comments cannot be withdrawn. The focus groups will be
audio recorded, and a summary of key themes will be created. This summary of key themes will
be sent to you through an encrypted, password protected file, and you will have two weeks to
provide any edits or corrections back to me. The focus groups should take about two hours to
complete.
Anonymity and Confidentiality
The names of participants will not be used in any reporting, nor will any information which may
be used to identify individuals. All information related to this focus group will be held in strict
confidence by the research team. As this research involves a focus group, we encourage
participants not to discuss focus group content with people outside of the group; however, we
cannot control what participants do with the information discussed. All electronic data will be
managed, encrypted, and securely stored on password protected computers and will be accessible
only to the research team. The research team is Jessica Froese and Greg Halseth, both at UNBC.
The information will be kept for two years following the completion of the master’s thesis, until
September 2027. After this date, shredding and file erasure will destroy all information related to
the focus group.
Potential Risks and Benefits
This project has been assessed by our university research ethics process. The research team does
not consider there to be any risks to participation. The focus group participants will be senior
high school students (grade 11 and 12) at TRSS. The questions are about your experiences as a
young person in Tumbler Ridge and your post-high school graduation migration plans. We hope

188

that by participating, you will have the chance to share your experiences and provide input
related to youth experiences in Tumbler Ridge.
Research Results
One of the products of this research will be a master’s thesis which will be publicly accessible
through the UNBC Library. A second product of this research will be a summary report of
results which will be reviewed by School District 59 to ensure the privacy of TRSS students,
teachers, and staff before being provided to participants via email. The results from this research
will also be published in academic research journals and shared at academic conferences.
Questions
In case of any questions that may arise from this research, please feel free to contact Jessica
Froese in the Natural Resources and Environmental Studies Program at jfroese@unbc.ca or Greg
Halseth in the Geography Program at greg.halseth@unbc.ca.
Complaints
Any complaints about this project should be directed to the UNBC Office of Research at (250)
960-6735 or by email at reb@unbc.ca.
I have read the above description of the study, and I understand the conditions of my
participation. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in this research.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Name (please print)
Signature
Date

_____________________________________________________________________________
Researcher Name
Signature
Date

189

3.3 Focus Group Guide
Exploring Youth Migration Decisions: A Case Study of Tumbler Ridge, BC
Focus Group Guide for Students
_____________________________________________________________________________
Teacher name: ___________________________________________
Course name: ____________________________________________
Student names: _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Teacher contact information: _________________________________________
_________________________________________
Date: _____________________________
Focus Group Time:
Start: _________________________
Finish: ________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Notes:

190

Introductory Discussion
What is it like to live in Tumbler Ridge?
What do you like about living in Tumbler Ridge? Why?
What do you dislike about living in Tumbler Ridge? Why?
Are your parents/ guardians from Tumbler Ridge?
Why do your parents/ guardians live in Tumbler Ridge?
If you have older siblings, are they in Tumbler Ridge? Why or why not?
What aspects of community are most important to you? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Tumbler Ridge Experiences
What community infrastructure for youth do you like to use? Why?
For example, the skate park, the Community Centre, the Youth Centre, the Library, etc.
What community infrastructure for youth do you not use? Why?
For example, the skate park, the Community Centre, the Youth Centre, the Library, etc.
What places in or around Tumbler Ridge are the most important to you? Why?
Do you participate in any local youth programs? Why or why not?
For example, sports teams, fitness programs, arts programs at the Community Centre,
Library reading programs, etc.
What youth infrastructure, programs, or services do you wish were available in Tumbler Ridge?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Migration Plans
Do you plan to stay in Tumbler Ridge after graduating high school?
For those staying, what is keeping you in Tumbler Ridge?

191

For those leaving, what is driving you away?
What would attract you back?
Do you plan to pursue post-secondary education?
If yes, are these plans accessible in Tumbler Ridge? Northern BC?
What are your employment goals after high school graduation?
Are these goals accessible in Tumbler Ridge? Northern BC?
_____________________________________________________________________________
Closing
In terms of returning young people to Tumbler Ridge, or recruiting young people to Tumbler
Ridge, are there other topics we have not yet discussed that you feel are important?

192