FN Post-Secondary Ed. 1

COURAGE STRENGTH WISDOM - A FIRST NATIONS COMMUNITY’S
POST-SECONDARY EXPERIENCE

by

Kenneth Federick LePage
B. Ed., University o f British Columbia. 2001

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
IN
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY LEADERSHIP

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
March, 2014

© Kenneth Federick LePage, 2014

UMI Number: 1525679

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FN Post-Secondary Ed. 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge my advisor, Dr. Paul Madak for his encouragement, assistance and
patience. Paul, thanks for being with me every step of the way. Along with Paul Madak,
Professor Paul Michel and Dr. Lantana Usman you remain etched in my memory as some of the
most memorable people in my life. You have shown me what it is to be an extraordinary role
model. A big heart felt thank you to my wife, Elcy and my stepdaughter Michelle. Your faith,
kindness and love have been my strength. At my weakest moments I could see that you believed
in me and this became my will to move on. A special thanks to Chief and Council, Band staff
and in particular the talking circle participants for giving of your time and sharing your
educational journey.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 3
ABSTRACT
This thesis is about a number o f First Nations community members that pursued a post­
secondary education. The purpose of the research was to investigate their post-secondary
educational experience including motivating factors and importance o f the process in their lives
and the community they represent. The researcher used a qualitative methodology for the study
in the form o f focus groups. A traditional talking circle method was used to collect data. Three
talking circles took place on-reserve and two questions were asked. Sixteen community
members that attended post-secondary education participated. They received emotional support
and encouragement from a visionary Sister, peers, family and community members. All the
participants spoke o f how difficult it was to pursue post-secondary and their fulfilling
experience. The participants have found meaningful employment on and off-reserve impacting
their community culturally and academically. All of them are playing a vital role encouraging
others in their communities to further their education.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page........................................................................................................................................... 1
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................2
Abstract............................................................................................................................................. 3
Table of Contents.............................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER I Introduction..................................................................................................6
First Nations Post-Secondary Education Overview............................................... 6
First Nations Traditional Worldview of Learning................................................. 8
Eurocentric Education Overview............................................................................12
The Current State of First Nations Education.......................................................15
Personal Perspective.................................................................................................21
Statement of the Problem........................................................................................24
Research Questions..................................................................................................24
CHAPTER II Review of the Literature......................................................................... 26
First Nations Post-Secondary Education in Canada............................................ 26
Efforts to Address First Nations Educational Gap in Canada............................36
First Nations Post-Secondary Education in British Columbia............................40
Efforts to Address First Nations Educational Gap in British Columbia.......... 44
Gaps in the research.................................................................................................53
CHAPTER III................................................................................................................... 55
Methodology and Design..........................................................................................55
Research Site and Purposeful Sampling.................................................................57
Qualitative Data Analysis Procedures................................................................... 59
Researcher’s Role and Potential Ethical Issues.................................................... 60
Methods of Validation..............................................................................................61
Delimitations.............................................................................................................61
Limitations................................................................................................................62
Building Rapport......................................................................................................62
CHAPTER IV.................................................................................................................... 64
Analysis of Research Findings.................................................................................64
First Question............................................................................................................67
Second Question........................................................................................................76
Cultural Impact........................................................................................................ 80
Academic Impact...................................................................................................... 82
Final Thoughts.......................................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER V ..................................................................................................................... 86
Conclusion................................................................................................................. 86
Recommendations: Institutions, Federal and Provincial Governments............87

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 5

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................. 89
Appendix A ...................................................................................................................... 104
Appendix B ...................................................................................................................... 105
Appendix C ...................................................................................................................... 106
Appendix D ...................................................................................................................... 107
Appendix E ...................................................................................................................... 109
Appendix F ...................................................................................................................... 110

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 6

CHAPTER I
Introduction
First Nations Post-Secondary Education Overview
For the most part throughout Canadian history, First Nations people received schooling
so that they could be trained to be servants, labourers and farm hands (Adams, 1989). Only
within the last fifty years have First Nations started taking control o f their education so that there
is less of an education gap between First Nations peoples graduation success rate to that of
non-First Nations individuals. Much has been written about Aboriginal Education in Canada
(Castellano, Davis, & Lahache, 2000; Canada, 1996; Stonechild, 2006) and will continue to be
written about Aboriginal Education as the Federal Government and the various provinces write
numerous reports on the state of K-12 and post-secondary Aboriginal education. Thus,
Aboriginal people of Canada may begin to feel optimistic that Aboriginal control o f their
education is in sight. A lot of the press about Aboriginal education is negative reflecting a
predominantly detrimental residential school experience and its effects upon Aboriginal people;
a good example of this is seen in Harold Cardinal’s book The Unjust Society, The Tragedy o f
Canada’s Indians (1969). The imposed residential school legacy was a blatant attempt to
subjugate, assimilate, indoctrinate, discriminate and integrate. Residential school facts and
actual accounts have created a dark shadow over many generations o f Aboriginal people. Even
though we are now starting to live in a different generational time, the hardship, pain and
alienation that many Aboriginal people experienced in residential schools should not be forgotten
as many Aboriginal people are still living out its effects. What better way for Canada to repair
the wrong that was done then by creating a legacy to all who have endured this dark part of
Canadian history than to recognize the need to enter into dialogue with Aboriginal leaders to

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 7
promote, monitor and stimulate a learning environment that addresses the evident disparity in
high school graduation and post-secondary degree completion rates between Aboriginal and
non-Aboriginal students. The focus of this study is to look at the reasons why a number o f First
Nations adults from a First Nations community in Central British Columbia pursued a
post-secondary education and how they found the courage, strength and wisdom they needed to
walk such a difficult path.
A major reform of post-secondary education for First Nations began in the late 1960’s.
In 1967, the Native Education College (NEC) opened its doors and was one o f the first
institutions to recognize the need to further support First Nations adult education. It is the largest
private Aboriginal College in British Columbia. The Native Education College is a non-profit
society and is governed by leaders from various First Nations communities in British Columbia.
The college provides a culturally appropriate and supportive learning environment. In 1969, the
federal government began to rethink its policy on Aboriginal education and brought forth a
proposal for a new policy. The proposal came to be known as the White Paper. The basic
premise of the White Paper was to have provincial governments play a much larger role in
implementing Aboriginal education; the intention in its design was to facilitate Aboriginal
peoples being absorbed into main stream society. Many Aboriginal people were bothered by the
government’s new approach and therefore responded by putting out their own policy paper
called Citizens Plus (known as the “Red Paper”). The Red Paper established the necessary
framework and perspective of Indian Control o f Indian Education (Native Indian
Brotherhood/Assembly of First Nations, 1972). The Red Paper had an impact leading to the
federal government changing their focus so that Aboriginal people could take ownership and
responsibility for Aboriginal education in Canada. To implement this new policy o f Indian

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 8
Control of Indian Education the federal government created regional Indian cultural centres and
Indian education training centres. Thus, an effort was well underway to establish a foundation to
improve Aboriginal education. In addition, the federal government provided funds for
institutions and universities to begin to meet First Nations educational needs and as such,
programs were created like Native Indian Teacher Education Program (NITEP), Saskatchewan
Urban Native Teacher Education Program (SUNTEP), Indian Teacher Education Program
(ITEP) and Northern Teacher Education Program (NORTEP) along with many other programs
created since implementation o f the policy o f Indian Control of Indian Education.

First Nations Traditional Worldview of Learning
The Aboriginal approach to traditional learning involved the dissemination o f a way of
life by elders and community members through stories (Hains, 2001), songs, dance, rituals
(Johnston, 1990a), customs, traditions, prayers, ceremonies (Johnston, 1990b) and language.
These varied aspects developed everything about what First Nation people knew o f themselves,
others and Mother Earth. First Nations worldview takes into account that there is a Creator. For
many First Nations people the Creator is known as the Great Mystery, Great Spirit, or Great
Power (Sioui, 1992; Johnston, 1995). Amerindians throughout North America recognize that
there is an intimate spiritual interactive relationship between the Creator and the created
(Napoleon, 1996; Yuxweluptun, 1995, p. 48). They believe they have been entrusted by the
Creator to be stewards of creation (Canada, 1996b; Yuxweluptun, 1995, p. 48). What was
created is the embodiment of the Creator and therefore respect and reverence for all things is a
major part o f the First Nations way of life and worldview. Creation is referred to as Mother
Earth and First Nations people understand they are not only stewards, but students as well and
Mother Earth is the instructor (Hart, 1996).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 9
First Nations people throughout North America have always understood that they were
interconnected (Canada, 1996c) with their world and that they were entrusted with its care by the
Creator (Canada, 1996d). Since the beginning, First Nations have acknowledged and attributed
their existence to the Creator and therefore they would show respect and give thanks for all they
received from the earth. Everything was seen as being in balance and in harmony
(Yuxweluptun, 1995, p. 46), to a large extent, creator was foremost the teacher. First Nations
peoples developed much o f their worldview based upon the lessons found in nature. One o f the
most basic teachings passed down from generation to generation and millennium after
millennium is the concept of the circle. The circle is seen as sacred (Sioui, 1992, p. 8), all
encompassing (Wilson & Wilson, 2000), it is a gift from the Creator (Boys-Watson, 2005). “The
fundamental feature o f Aboriginal worldview was and continues to be, that all o f life is a
manifestation of spiritual reality” (Canada, 1996e).
First Nations throughout North America have gathered in a circle for many centuries to
debate, consult, inform and strengthen the community (Graveline, 1998; Pranis, 2005; Wilson &
Wilson, 2000). The concept of the Circle is part of the worldview o f First Nations people. First
Nations view their world order as circular. The sacred circle of life represents things like the
sun, moon, seasons, wind movement and stages in life. For First Nations peoples, the world as a
whole is intimately interconnected and has a circular balance and framework. Therefore,
teachings and beliefs are interrelated in a circle o f life. The circle is divided into four quarters
and within the circle there is an order of four; for example, four directions, four seasons and four
human races; each considered sacred (Sioui, 1992, p. 10).
The circle is perhaps the symbol most widespread among Aboriginal cultures. All
creatures in the biosphere are conceived of as part o f the circle of life. Time is

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 10
understood as cyclical, returning the daylight and the seasons in a predictable round and
carrying human beings inevitably toward a stage of life where they are dependent, like
children, on the strength and care of others (Canada, 1996f).
For many centuries and to the present day, elders (Canada, 1996g) have played a vital
role in transmitting the culture with all its varied facets. Elders taught the up and coming
generations through stories (Johnston, 1995, p. xiii), observation, participation, practice (Hains,
2001, p. 10) and role modelling (Hart, 1996, p. 64). Spirituality encompassed every part o f life
for First Nations people (Vick, Smith, & Herrera, 1998), whether it was through dreams,
ceremonies, or a prayer after a successful hunt, elders were there to impart their spiritual
knowledge (Battiste & Barman, 1995, pp. 107-109), as spirituality was tantamount throughout
the ages (Weenie, 1998, p. 59). The importance o f the spiritual realm in regards to First Nations
worldview cannot be. overstated, traditionally the young learned about the spirit world, history,
lineage and the role they are to play in the community through their elders, everything that one
needed to know came from the elders. Elders also taught that the Great Spirit infused everything
and everyone with traits and spirit like characteristics (Johnston, 1995, p. xx). The elders
throughout time have always instilled a sense of balance along with a holistic view that included
all o f the mental, physical, emotional and spiritual, elements; this formed the basis for First
Nations way of learning and knowing.
Traditionally, First Nations families throughout North America lived together with
extended family members in different forms o f dwellings (Canada, 1996h) that would
accommodate several families; these dwellings together formed the community (Johnston, 1995,
p. xix). This type of living facilitated elder participation and created more cultural fluidity in that
teaching and learning happened continuously, simultaneously and pragmatically. Traditional

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 11
Aboriginal education focused on the whole child, their intellectual, spiritual, emotional and
physical being (Canada, 1996i). Responsibilities were shared and children learned from
medicine men (Cardinal, 1969, p. 82), elders, wise men and various community members
(Cardinal, 1969, p. 52) such as grandmothers and grandfathers (Johnston, 1990a, p. 69); the
whole community was directly involved in raising the child.
Traditional child-rearing practices survive in many Aboriginal families and they are
consciously being revived in others. Some parents are fortunate to have the continuing
support of an extended family, with grandparents and other family members available to
share the responsibilities o f parenting and to pass on knowledge and skills that support a
strong sense o f identity and self-esteem (Canada, 1996j).
A brief overview o f the First Nations traditional worldview o f learning would not be
complete without an introduction to the Trickster as an instrument o f instruction. Within First
Nations culture exists a trickster figure often referred to as Coyote, Hare, Nanabush, Old Man,
Raven, Wesakychak, or Kluskap. The trickster figure can take on various roles and can be
conveyed as being half spirit and half human (Canada, 1996k). Trickster is thought o f as being
neither female nor male, thereby creating a greater connection to those who come into contact
with the story and thus enabling them in their own way to be a part o f the story. Trickster has
always been a part of Aboriginal stories and indeed an integral part of the Aboriginal cultural
fabric. Through Tricksters chaotic fumbling, excessive appetite, foolish ways and bravado we
can learn about ourselves. Not only does Trickster set himself up, but Trickster can also presents
the solution to the created problem (Bazylak D, 2002). It is as though a mirror is placed in front
of the person hearing the Tricksters stories and this allows the listener to internalize the message
imbedded in the story and confirms that Trickster is a being more than some mythical like

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 12
creature that is confined and constricted by parameters. Trickster’s unique characteristics
transcend cultures to create the ultimate instructor, student and teacher for Aboriginal people. In
his book, Trickster Shift, Ryan (1999) presents Trickster through Aboriginal contemporary art.
“This Trickster is a definite presence, albeit more energetic and peripatetic than aesthetic. It is
this Trickster, too, whose countless adventures and comic exploits have entertained and educated
generations of Native peoples and whose influence has left a lasting impression on the work and
practice of many Native artists” (p. 5). Perhaps it is because of Trickster that Aboriginal people
have such a self-reflective sense of cultural humour as found in Basil Johnston’s books Ojibway
Tales (1993) and Moose Meat and Wild Rice (1987). Even though there is no direct teaching
about Trickster, there is however the spirit o f Trickster in each story exemplifying Trickster as a
cultural phenomenon. There are a great number of Trickster stories both old and new. Trickster
is such a fluid character that Trickster will continue to occupy the hearts and minds o f Aboriginal
people for centuries to come.

Eurocentric Education Overview
The Eurocentric-style of education was profoundly different from what First Nations
children knew and the approach to discipline was starkly different from anything First Nations
children had ever experienced (Dickason, 1996 p. 165; Cardinal, 1969, p. 84). The perspective
of Eurocentric education goes back many centuries and as such, the idea o f education is deep
rooted in ancient idealistic thought; this overview, however, will present the Eurocentric
approach to education only from the time of so called contact, the settlement o f Europeans on
Turtle Island (North America). The notion of Eurocentrism (Graveline, 1998, p. 23) emphasizes
European culture as being preeminent and superior to other cultures and thus the new inhabitants
to Turtle Island set about to attempt to transform the inhabitants, First Nations peoples, to be like

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 13
them. The term Eurocentric education often invokes such words as condescending, prejudicial,
imperialistic, paternalistic, patriarchal, colonial, domineering, capitalistic, acculturation and
assimilation. For most people the words conjure up a sense of negativity and for others a sense
of displacement and rejection. The visitors (Europeans) viewed First Nations people as
primitive, uncivilized, uneducated savages, so much so that the new settlers thought they could
just take the land from them without consultation. At one point of time in Canada’s history, in
1749 to be exact, a bounty had been placed on the Micmac of Nova Scotia for resisting colonial
expansion (York, 1990, p. 56; Dickason, 1996, p. 160). The point being made is that there were
serious conflicts between the government and rulers o f the day and Aboriginal peoples. A brief
look into Canada’s history and treatment o f Aboriginal people reveals continuous conflict up
until the present. Perhaps it is that the old colonial mentality still exists today; that Aboriginal
people are a primitive simple minded people, uncivilized and uneducated. One cannot argue that
cultural biases, prejudices and stereotypes do not take on a life o f their own and live throughout
generations and centuries.
From the very beginning colonialist made an effort to educate the First Nations people,
whom they viewed as heathens and slaves (Adams, 1999, p. 13). As early as 1620, children were
taken from their family and sent to France to receive the proper education by the Recollects and
later by the Jesuits. Their hope was to convert some First Nations so that they would return and
win over the hearts and minds of their communities and in essence, to evangelize their own
people. Their vision however, never came to fruition; but efforts to civilize, Christianize and
educate persisted (Dickason, 1996, p. 165). In 1845 “A government report to the Legislative
assembly of Upper Canada recommended Indian Boarding Schools be adopted,” according to the
Provincial Residential School Investigation timeline submitted at the Henry Arthur Plint

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 14
residential school court case. The Parliament of Canada passed the Indian Act legislation in 1876
that gave the government the power to regulate just about every part o f Aboriginal life (BC
Treaty Commission 2000, 2007, p. 29) and paved the way for industrial schools, boarding
schools and residential schools. By 1900 there were thirty nine boarding schools in Canada
along with a number of industrial schools and a large number of day schools (Dickason, 1996, p.
334). In 1920, Bill 13 and 14 were passed in parliament; these bills allowed the government to
seize and sell Native lands with half the proceeds going to the government. Bill 14 gave the
government custodial powers to apprehend Indian children if they were not attending school as a
part of the governments compulsory enfranchisement. Soon after the passing of Bill 13 and 14
the church and state got together officially to deliver First Nations education, before this it was
mostly a missionary effort to educate Aboriginal people (Tenant, 1990, pp. 100, 333).
According to Duncan Campbell Scott, deputy superintendent general, the whole purpose
o f educating First Nations children was to assimilate them into mainstream society (Tenant,
1990, p. 92), in other words, according to Scott, “Kill the Indian in the child” (Truth and
Reconciliation Commission of Canada, p. 6). This thrust to assimilate and integrate persisted
until all residential schools were eventually closed. The Gordon residential school in
Saskatchewan was the last residential school to close its doors in 1996. Late into the 19th century
remnants of this worldview persist (Adams, 1989, pp. 146-148).
Canada’s first attempt to educate First Nations came from the French, followed by the
British. Both viewed education as a tool to either assimilation or integration. Once the British
came to power, the same colonial mindset to indoctrinate used by the French was employed by
the British and thus began the formal educational of Aboriginal people. The British worked with
the church to indoctrinate and assimilate the ‘Indian’ with the primary goal to civilize and

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 15
Christianize them (Dickason, 1996, pp. 225, 333; Canada, 19961). It was not until the 1960s that
the federal government pursued a policy o f integrating First Nations children into public schools;
with the changing economic structure in Canada, First Nations families had begun to leave
reserves to seek employment in urban areas. The result was an increase in numbers o f First
Nations students in the public school system (Canada, 1996m).
Residential schools were a dark part o f Canadian Eurocentric education and Canadian
history. On June 1,2008, the Government of Canada established the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission with a five year mandate to investigate the government funded church-run schools
that began in the 1870’s (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, p. 1). It followed
that on June 11,2008, on behalf o f the Government of Canada, the Honourable Prime Minister
o f Canada, Stephen Harper formally apologized to all Aboriginal people who had endured the
hardship of the residential school system and acknowledged that it was a policy o f assimilation.
He also recognized that residential schools had left a damaging impact on Aboriginal culture,
heritage and languages.

The Current State of First Nations Education
There are two views of what First Nations education should look like, the government’s
view (federal/ provincial) and a First Nations’ view. In six years it will be half a century since
First Nations peoples expressed their expectation o f First Nations Education through the Red
Paper in response to the federal governments White Paper (Battiste & Barman, 1995, p. xiii).
Throughout the last forty-four years a variety of sources such as the Report o f the Royal
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples and provincial government’s labour market reports indicate
that Aboriginal high school students and post-secondary students are lagging behind the rest of
the population, nationally (Canada, 1996n) and provincially (Stock, 2009, p. 1). Blair

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 16
Stonechild, author of The New Buffalo, The Struggle fo r Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education in
Canada lays out disparaging Aboriginal post-secondary educational results (2006, pp. 40-43).
Similarly, The Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal People used the census data from
Statistics Canada for 1981 and 1991 to evaluate and compare the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal
educational attainment levels. In the 1981 statistics 8.2% o f Aboriginal people graduated from
high school; in 1991 that number rose to 11% o f students, an increase o f only 2.8%. In
comparison, in 1981, 16.6% of non-Aboriginal students graduated from high school and in 1991
the percentage rose to 18.9% of non-Aboriginal students who graduated from high school, a
difference of 2.3% (Canada, 1996o). Upon analysis, an educational lag was persistent from 1981
through to 1991. When we compare this with the 2006/2007 school year in British Columbia,
only 49% of Aboriginal students graduated from high school, compared to 83% of
non-Aboriginal students, a 34% difference as noted in the British Columbia Ministry o f Advance
Education and Labour Market Development, Aboriginal Report - Charting our path (2008, p. 8).
There is a persistent disparaging educational gap between the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal
graduation rates nationally and provincially. The provincial graduation gap between Aboriginal
and non-Aboriginal people has remained around 30% from 2002 to 2007 (British Columbia
Ministry of Advanced Education and Labour Market Development, 2008, p. 8).
Post-secondary graduation rates between the Aboriginal population and non-Aboriginal
population are somewhat similar to national and provincial high school graduation rates between
both groups (Canada, 1996p) and as such, a comparable educational lag exists for Aboriginal
post-secondary students as well. Again, using the data provided in the Report o f the Royal
Commission on Aboriginal People (Canada, 1996q) we find that in 1981, 2.0% of Aboriginal
students completed a university degree and in 1991, ten years later, 2.6% of Aboriginal students

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 17
completed a university degree. In comparison, in 1981, 8.1% o f non-aboriginal completed a
university degree and in 1991,11.6% of non-aboriginal students completed a university degree.
Using the British Columbia Ministry of Advance Education and Labour Market Development,
Aboriginal Report - Charting our path, in 2008 7% o f Aboriginal students completed a
university degree while 24% o f non-Aboriginal students complete a university degree (2008, p.
23). First Nations on-reserve people are not included in these figures. Provincially, on-reserve
students, whether high school or post-secondary, have a lower graduation rate than that of
off-reserve students on a consistent basis. A document released by BC Stats, The Educational
Attainment of Aboriginal People Part II-Post Secondary, indicated that in 2007 4.5% o f the
Aboriginal people living on-reserve completed a university degree or certificate, in contrast to
the 24.6% of the non-Aboriginal population who completed a university degree or certificate in
(Kittredge, 2005, p. 1). Using the Census data from 2006,4% o f on-reserve First Nations
students completed a university degree compare to 25% of non-First Nations students (Stock,
2009, p. 3). Stock (2009) wrote the following for the BC Stats Business Indicators:
The difference in educational attainment between Aboriginal groups is considerable, 43%
of First Nations people (age 25 to 64) living on-reserve have not completed their high
school education, compared to 29% of First Nations people living off-reserve and 22% of
Metis. Only 12% o f the non-Aboriginal population have not completed high school - a 31
percentage point gap with First Nations people living on-reserve. At the other end o f the
education spectrum, only 37% o f the First Nations people living on-reserve have completed
a post-secondary credential, compared to 62% of the non-Aboriginal population. The
post-secondary completion rate is higher for Metis and First Nations people living

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 18
off-reserve (51% and 45%, respective), but still lower than the non-Aboriginal population
(p. 2).
On June 11, 2011 Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development’s (AAND) Minister
John Duncan and Shawn Atleo, Chief of the Assembly of First Nations (AFN), announced the
beginning of a consultation process with First Nations to draft educational legislation (Aboriginal
Affairs and Northern Development Canada, 2011). The consultation is twofold, first between
December 2012 and April 2013, AADN will participate in a regional consultation process with
First Nations parents, educators and leaders to explore solutions to improve elementary and
secondary education for First Nations peoples on-reserve as part of the federal government’s
Economic Action Plan 2012, with the end result being to develop a First Nations Education Act.
The Economic Action Plan 2012 committed the Government to having legislation in place for
September 2014 (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, 2012a). The second
part of the consultation process will be to present the draft legislation to First Nations
communities across Canada and provincial governments. For the most part, legislation regarding
First Nations education is not viewed as a step in the right direction because legislation has
historically been imposed upon First Nations peoples both federally and provincially. The same
is true when it comes to trust between First Nations and federal/provincial governments in
relation to past and present treaties. Nonetheless, progress towards Federal First Nations
education legislation is moving forward. On April 9, 2013, the Minister for Aboriginal Affairs
and Northern Development, the Honourable Bernard Valcourt announced the signing o f the
Tripartite Education Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in Mattagami, Ontario by the
Government of Canada, the Nishnawbe Aski Nation, comprising nearly fifty First Nations

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 19
groups and the Government o f Ontario (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada,
2013).
On December 14,2012, the First Nations Leadership Council in B.C. expressed their
opposition toward the First Nation Education Act consultation initiated by the Federal
Government of Canada. The Federal Government released a documents called, “Developing a
First Nations Education Act: Discussion Guide” and the First Nations Leadership Council
claimed it was: (1) created without input from First Nations, (2) the discussion guide is unilateral
and paternalistic, (3) it demonstrates that the Federal Government has an antiquated,
stereotypical and racist perspective, (4) that the First Nations Education Act would be
assimilationist in its policies, (5) and that if the discussion guide were put in place in B.C. it
would mark a huge step backwards. The First Nations Leadership Council stated that Ottawa
should honour First Nations in B.C. through the education jurisdiction agreements and
supporting legislation that are already in place in B.C. Specifically these are the Tripartite
Education Framework Agreement between the Provincial Government, Federal Government and
First Nations Education Steering Committee, as well as the Transformative Change Accord that
is already in place to improve the socio-economic and First Nations educational gaps that exist.
Even though the Federal legislation is not directly associated to post-secondary education, it is
however indirectly related in that it sets a precedent for First Nations education as a whole. The
proposed Federal First Nation education legislation approach that is supposed to come into effect
in 2014 is in conflict with B.C.’s First Nations Education Act, Bill 46 that was passed in 2007
(British Columbia Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation, 2007). The legislation
o f Bill 46 was the first of its kind in Canada. One way this legislation was to serve First Nations
is that it would allow First Nations high schools to grant graduates eligibility for admission to

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 20
post-secondary institutions. Bill 46 primarily focused on K-12 (British Columbia Ministry of
Education, 2007) enabling First Nations to assume self-government jurisdiction over their
education.
The Provincial Government, the Chiefs’ Action Committee and the Government of
Canada became educational partners when they signed the Memorandum o f Understanding
(MOU) in 1999, along with other signatories, to improve Aboriginal Education (Aboriginal
Affairs and Northern Development Canada, 2012a). The Tripartite Education Committee was
formed from the MOU and a framework was developed so that B.C. First Nations could begin to
assume self-government jurisdiction over education and together work at addressing the
educational gap that exists between First Nations and non-First Nations. Another significant
milestone was reached when a tripartite MOU was signed between Canada, B.C. and the First
Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC) in 2012, which lead to the signing of the
Educational Jurisdiction Framework agreement that would allow students to transfer without
academic penalties (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, 2012b).
In 2005, the Provincial Government, the Federal Government and the Leadership Council
representing B.C.’s First Nations people signed the Transformative Change Accord (Government
of British Columbia, 2005). Working collaboratively, the parties to the Accord agreed to take
immediate action to address several concerns, one of which is post-secondary education. The
Transformative Change Accord opened the post-secondary education dialogue that lead to the
2007 Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education Strategy and Action Plan (Government o f British
Columbia, 2007). The number one goal set out in the strategy action plan is to specifically
address the persistent First Nations post-secondary educational gap.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 21

Personal Perspective
I am a Metis person (Aboriginal). I grew up in a family of ten children. My father’s side
o f the family is Metis and my mother’s side o f the family is English, French and Metis. On my
Father’s side neither my grandfather nor my grandmother knew how to read or write, as was the
case with a number of their children. They could not write their name or read the service bills
they would get. On the other hand, on my mother’s side of the family, both of my grandparents
were literate and so were their children.
Growing up, I attended an elementary bilingual Roman Catholic school where
misbehaving students were threatened with the strap by both nuns and teachers. Primarily, my
elementary school experience was quite negative, due in large part to a short attention span, my
rebellious nature and my strong desire to be out commercial fishing or hunting with my father. I
would much rather be outside playing or working than being in school. Part o f the reason for me
feeling this way was that I did not feel a sense o f belonging or acceptance at school; in fact the
opposite is true, I often felt fearful, alienated, picked on and left out o f activities whether it be in
the classroom or playground. At times I asked my father to take me with him to go fishing
instead o f going to school and I would be out o f school for several days at a time. Sitting at my
desk or listening to the teacher was the last thing I valued or appreciated.
My grandfather had a commercial fishing outpost on Georgian Bay, in Ontario, located
on the Great Lakes, called the Watchers Island. Every summer my father would take the whole
family to the Watchers as soon as school was out. I would work with my father and brothers
commercial fishing each day to help earn a living for our family. Once the nets were lifted and
the fish were cleaned I was free to swim, canoe, fish, hunt and explore the island to my heart’s

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 22
content. I could not wait for the last day o f school so that we could head for the Watchers and
escape my educational woes.
My father taught me many practical, traditional and outdoors skills that he himself
learned from his father. Each summer I would learn new life long skills and further develop
abilities necessary to survive in life and contribute to the wellbeing o f the family. From a
practical perspective, I learned to navigate in an open boat without instruments, maintain and
repair outboards motors, fillet various species o f fish, as well as prepare a shore lunch for guests.
Net making and net repair is something that has been passed down from generation to
generation. Fishing for certain species or harvesting particular foods during seasonal times o f
the year is still a tradition family members participate in. From an early age outdoor skills seem
to dominate my need for learning. Under my father’s guidance I learned to fish, hunt, track and
harvest rabbits, ducks and deer.

Personal Educational Growth
After completing a two year occupational course, I finished high school with a grade ten
diploma and soon after I started working in the labour force as a general labourer, baker
assistant, carpenter and welder. By the time I was twenty I moved to British Columbia and
started commercial fishing. In 1992 I decided to go back to school because the commercial
fishing industry was looking very bleak and I felt in time that I would not be able to do the
strenuous physical labour required. Another deciding factor to go back to school was that the
commercial fishing industry was a high risk job; each year many workers were seriously injured,
maimed or killed.
At the time, I was living on Vancouver Island and I decided to visit the Chemainus
Native College to see if it was possible to upgrade and perhaps get my grade 12. I was asked to

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 23
return the next day for an assessment and when I did I did not score very well on the assessment.
As it turned out, I had grade five level grammar skills and grade three level math skills. If I was
going to upgrade then I had a lot o f work ahead of me. After sleeping on it for the night I
decided it was time for me to upgrade and work at getting my grade twelve so that I might be
able to get a job other than commercial fishing. Two and a half years later I completed my grade
twelve. I had no idea what I wanted to do or be in life now that I had my grade twelve. One of
the administrators at the Chemainus Native College suggested I take a career assessment and so I
did. To my surprise the career assessment indicated I might best be suited as a shop teacher. I
met a former Chemainus Native College student who was in a teaching program called Native
Indian Teacher Education Program (NITEP). I was invited to sit in on one o f the classes. Within
a few months I was enrolled in the program. I attended the first two years o f the University of
British Columbia’s (UBC) NITEP program at their Duncan field center and the remaining three
years on campus in Vancouver. If a seat at the University had not been reserved for me when I
signed up for the program I would have never been able to compete with all the other students
out there as my grade point average was not high enough to qualify for entry into the teaching
faculty. I realize now that I was not less of a student then, I just had a different skill set than
most students that apply to the education faculty.
Facing My Educational Fears
I was terrified to enter the Chemainus Native College and indicated that I wanted to go
back to school as an adult. Ever since I was young I had a nagging desire inside o f me to want to
do better educationally and finally I took the bull by the horns. The seven and half years it took
for me to become a teacher was the hardest and most terrifying thing I have ever done and yet
the most rewarding.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 24
I spent so many days at sea on the West Coast (Pacific Ocean) that I needed to find
something to pass the time, so a good friend recommended buying a book to read. I was twenty
four years old before I read my first novel. To a large degree, this was my start down the road to
recovery. Since that day I have gained a new love for learning. It seemed like I could not hide
from the fears I faced with my low level o f education. Pursuing a post-secondary education has
most certainly helped me with my fears. Since becoming a teacher I have even enrolled at the
University o f Northern British Columbia to complete my Master of education degree. The
hardest thing I had to do every day was to find the words necessary to write another paragraph to
inch my way one step closer to completing my thesis.

Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this research is to identify some o f the key factors that encouraged
on-reserve members of a First Nations Band in Central British Columbia to pursue their
post-secondary education. The research approach is qualitative and the methodology is
participant personal narrative observation, whereby Band members share their story o f the
importance of their post-secondary education. Talking circles will be used to gather data at a
designated location in the First Nations community in central British Columbia.

Research Questions
The overall purpose of the study is to answer the main research question: What were the
keys to success in education for elders and adults in a First Nation community in central British
Columbia? There are three subquestions in relation to the main research question: What
motivated First Nations on-reserve Band members to pursue their post-secondary education?
What challenges did the individuals experience and how did they overcome the hurdles before

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 25
them? What were their post-secondary education experiences and how can they be beneficial to
others?

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 26

CHAPTER II
Review of the Literature
First Nations Post-Secondary Education in Canada
A brief look at the relationship between Canada and First Nations is in order to establish
how we arrived at the educational relationship between the Government o f Canada and First
Nations people today. A History o f Founding Peoples from Earliest Times, by Olive Patricia
Dickason (1996), is a comprehensive and highly praised resource that closely examines the
history of Canada and First Nations people. Dickason explains that in 1857, the government
passed First Nations enfranchisement (having the full privileges and rights to citizenship)
legislation with the intent to gradually civilize First Nations so that in time they would become
self-sufficient (p. 234). The British viewed it as their duty to civilize native people and help
them become more like British citizens (Dickason, 1996, p 232); one means of doing this was
through education (Dickason, 1996, p 225). The Act o f 1857 built upon what was already
established in the previous legislation of 1850-51 (Dickason, 1996, p 258), whereby First
Nations land would be managed by the government and sold or leased in order to suit the
government’s purpose (Dickason, 1996, p 284). There are seven dates of interest historically in
relation to First Nations education. The first date is 1867, the year of Confederation, when First
Nations became the responsibility of the federal government. The second date, is 1876, the year
the Indian Act was introduced, giving the federal government self-imposed power to solely
decide what is best for First Nations people, namely ‘assimilate’ and ‘civilize’. First Nations
people who pursued higher education or became ministers, lawyers, teachers, or doctors gave up
their ‘Indian’ status and were enfranchised (Castellano, Davis, & Lahache, 2000, pp. 171, 190;
Dickason 1996, pp. 252, 284). The third date is the amendment to the Indian Act in 1884, giving

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 27
the federal government even more power over First Nations people, down to the minutest detail.
Indian agents were introduced federally; every aspect of First Nations life required the approval
of the Indian agent, including permission to leave the reserve. The fourth date is 1920, when Bill
14 was introduced making education mandatory for all First Nations people. The fifth date is
1951 when a parliamentary investigation rejected the Indian Affairs education policy as it was
then and recommended the integration of First Nations’ children into the public school system
(Dickason 1996, pp. 329, 336). The sixth date is 1972 when the National Indian Brotherhood
(the present day Assembly of First Nations) issued its policy document entitled Indian Control o f
Indian Education (Castellano, Davis, & Lahache, 2000, p. 231; Battiste & Barman, 1995, pp.
262-263).
The seventh date is 1982, when section 35 was included in the Canadian Constitution
recognizing Aboriginal rights and entitlement as law. Section 35 of the 1982 Constitution
affirmed First Nations treaty rights and government obligations (Assembly of First Nations,
2010, p. 6). First Nations hold the view that education at all levels is historically a part of treaty
negotiations and as such is the fiduciary responsibility o f the federal government (Richardson &
Blanchet-Cohen, 2000, pp. 14-15). The federal government’s take on the issue is that education
should be based on the pre-existing treaty arrangements as they were at the time, the standard of
the day (Richardson & Blanchet-Cohen, 2000, p. 15). Each of these dates reflects a stage in First
Nations education and signifies a gradually higher degree of First Nations education autonomy
and self-control. These advances over time lead to the development o f First Nations education
with First Nations, rather than for First Nations.
It was not until the National Indian Brotherhood’s policy paper, Indian Control o f Indian
Education that significant policy changes were made for First Nations people pursuing post-

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 28
secondary education (Stonechild, 2006; Maclvor, 1995, p. 73; Malatest & Associates, 2002, p.
43; Richardson & Blanchet 2000, p. 13). The National Indian Brotherhood’s policy paper served
as an impetus to instil the government to begin to work in conjunction with First Nations to alter
education policy in order to suitably address the evident First Nations educational need. Their
policy paper was a demand for the right to relevant, adequate and appropriate education at all
levels, from preschool through post-secondary, an education that recognized and connected with
‘Indian’ cultures, languages, heritages and values. An education that would radiate respect,
honour and pride:
We want education to provide the setting in which our children can develop the
fundamental attitudes and values which have an honored place in Indian tradition and
culture. The values which we want to pass on to our children, values which make our
people a great race, are not written in any book. They are found in our history, in our
legends and in the culture. We believe that if an Indian child is fully aware o f the
important Indian values he will have reason to be proud of our race and of himself as an
Indian (National Indian Brotherhood/Assembly of First Nations, 1972).
The Assembly of First Nations, formerly the National Indian Brotherhood updated their
policy paper in 2010 and the updated policy paper title is now First Nations Control o f First
Nations Education 2010:
The purpose of the policy framework presented in this paper [First Nations Control o f
First Nations Education 2010] is to reaffirm the First Nations’ vision of lifelong learning
presented in the IC IE 1972 [Indian Control o f Indian Education] policy and reassert First
Nations inherent Aboriginal and Treaty rights to education. This policy framework
provides strategic recommendations that will enable the development and implementation

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 29
o f education legislation, governance frameworks, policies, programs and services for all
levels o f education for First Nations learners at all stages o f lifelong learning (Assembly
of First Nations, 2010, p. 3).
The updated policy recognizes there is a further need to reform education and that the
collection of data is a prerequisite in making positive progressive change involved in the reform
and delivery of First Nations education. One critical update under Policy Implementation
Recommendations 2.1.3 is the appeal for governmental support in creating data management
systems and infrastructure that follow the principles o f Ownership, Control, Access and
Possession (OACP), whereby First Nations reserve the authority and rights to collect data as well
as intellectual and traditional knowledge.
In 1993, the University o f British Columbia (UBC) witnessed an historical event, the
official opening of the First Nations House o f Learning. It was a comprehensive learning center
designed around the social, academic and cultural needs o f First Nations people o f British
Columbia. Between 1992 and 1993 there were an estimated 250 First Nations students enrolled
in degree programs at UBC (Gardner, 2000, p. 191). During this time, Verna Kirkness coined
the phrase “ 1000 First Nations students by the year 2000” (LePage, 1999, p. 1). Gardner
discusses UBC’s commitment to First Nations post-secondary education and highlights that in
1997, UBC’s Senate and Board of Governors formally approved the goal statement, “ 1000 First
Nation students by the year 2000” (Gardner, 2000, p. 206). The significance of this cannot be
overstated. While enrolled in the Native Indian Teacher Education Program (NITEP) at UBC in
1999 I wrote a paper entitled, UBC’s Unmeasurable First Nations Goal, “ 1000 First Nations
Students by the year 2000” for my 301 Technical and Business Writing course (LePage, 1999).
The more I looked into this goal statement, the harder it became to assess the validity o f the

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 30
statement. There was no data collection or way of tracking student success or program
performances. I had to do ground level data collection by going from department to department
to get an estimate of how many First Nations student might be enrolled in various departments. I
compiled the data I collected and the results left me bewildered. The best estimate o f the number
o f First Nations students enrolled in UBC by the year 2000 was 500, using the approximate
enrolment provided by the First Nations House o f Learning (FNHL). The worst case scenario
was that there were only 382 First Nations students enrolled at UBC using the data I collected
from the different departments. So how did UBC justify “ 1000 students by the Year 2000”?
They arrived at that number based on the fact that 3.8% of B.C.’s population is First Nations
according to the 1996 census; therefore, 3.8% of the University’s First Nations population would
be the same. According to these figures from UBC Planning and Institutional Research, there
would be 1, 071 students by the year 2000. A similar lack of institutional statistical data
collection is mentioned in, Best Practices in Increasing Aboriginal Postsecondary Enrolment
Rates (Malatest, 2002, p. 9). This example is used as an indication o f the broad lack o f
accountability and responsibility towards data collection and statistical data analysis in reference
to First Nations post-secondary education across Canada.
However, the University of Saskatchewan’s College of Arts and Science and the Palliser
Campus of the Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology were among the first
institutions to collect data to increase Native ancestry student enrolment (Dorion & Yang, 2000,
p. 177). The Saskatchewan Human Rights Commission granted the University of Saskatchewan
permission to implement their Affirmative Action Program on February 28, 1988. They were to
measure and monitor the education they provided to Aboriginal peoples to increase higher level
learning participation (Basran, 1990, p. 280).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 31
April 15, 2008 marked a milestone for Aboriginal post-secondary education. The
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC) formulated a framework called, Learn
Canada 2020, involving provincial and territorial ministers and that they “... will use [the
framework] to enhance Canada’s education system, learning opportunities and overall education
outcome with one of the goals to eliminate the education achievement and graduation gap
between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students” (Council of Ministers of Education, Canada,
2008). On March 29-30, 2011, CMEC held a workshop on improved data, better outcomes:
strengthening Pan-Canadian Aboriginal data (Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 2011).
The workshop was attended by National Aboriginal Organizations (NAO’s), Regional
Aboriginal Organizations (RAO’s), ministers of Aboriginal Affairs, Canadian Education
Statistics Council and stakeholders. In the CMEC Summary Report following the workshop,
The Director General, in a thank you letter stated, “We need to build better data related to
Aboriginal learners as an essential component o f the larger effort to eliminate the gap in
academic achievement and graduation rates between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students”
(Council o f Ministers of Education Canada, 2011, page 3). The Council of Ministers of
Education, Canada published Key Policy Issues in Aboriginal Education: An Evidence-Based
Approach (Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 2012a). The commissioned report was
part of CMEC’s Aboriginal Education Action to begin to address the education gap. The report
consists o f two parts: Part 1, Identifying Data and Evidence Gaps, Part 2 Strengthening
Administrative Data building on their commitment with Aboriginal people. This is educational
post-secondary progress in Canada with Aboriginal people rather than for Aboriginal people.
The CMEC’s initiatives are likely to succeed because they are collaborating and corroborating
with Canada’s First People.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 32
Federal and provincial governments recognize the need to address the education gap
between First Nations and non-First Nations for several reasons; they understand that, “Between
1996 and 2006, the Aboriginal population in Canada grew 45%; nearly six times faster than the
non-Aboriginal population at 8%” (Canadian Council on Learning, 2009, p. 10). Furthermore,
according to the Assembly o f First Nations, Aboriginal youth could play a key role in meeting
Canada’s economic development:
The Aboriginal population is expected to make up 12.7% of the labour force growth
between 2006 and 2026. Immediate and affirmative action along with significant
financial investment will be required to realize the full potential and economic impacts of
Aboriginal youth, particularly given Canada’s labour shortage and increasing need for a
highly skilled competitive workforce (Assembly o f First Nations, 2012, p. 5).
The awareness o f the need to close the educational gap cannot be overstated as it could add $71
billion to Canada’s GPD by 2017 (Assembly o f First Nations, 2012b, p. 14). Statistics Canada
released the data on Aboriginal people from the 2011 census on May 8th, 2013:
New data from the National Household Survey (NHS) show that 1,400,685 people had an
Aboriginal identity in 2011, representing 4.3% o f the total Canadian population.
Aboriginal people accounted for 3.8% of the population enumerated in the 2006 Census,
3.3% in the 2001 Census and 2.8% in the 1996 Census (Canada, 201 la).
It is interesting to note that the Canadian Centre for the Study of Standards (CSLS) reported that,
“In 2026, using the medium growth projection for the Aboriginal and general population, the
Aboriginal population is projected to make up 4.6 percent o f the Canadian population” (Sharp &
Arsenault, 2010, p. iv). Using figures from the NHS and CSLS the Aboriginal population is
0.3% away from meeting the expected population of 2026 in 2013.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 33
Statistics Canada released the data on Aboriginal people from the 2011 NHS on May 8th,
2013. The data indicates that half of the registered First Nations population in Canada live
on-reserve and as previously indicated, the greatest educational gap exists between on-reserve
First Nations and non-Aboriginal people. Using current data from the 2011 National Household
Survey the overall Aboriginal population increased by 20.1% compared to 5.2% o f the nonAboriginal population. Aboriginal children 14 and under represented 28% o f the total
Aboriginal population whereas the non-Aboriginal population represented 16.5% under the age
o f 14. Similarly, Aboriginal youth aged 15-24 represented 18.2% of the Aboriginal population
whereas the non-Aboriginal population 15-24 represented 12.9% of the non-Aboriginal
population. In addition, the 2011 NHS also indicates that half of the registered First Nations
population in Canada live on-reserve and as previously indicated, the greatest post-secondary
educational gap exists between on-reserve First Nations and non-Aboriginal people in reference
to university degree completion (Canada, 201 la).
The 1991 Census revealed 0.9% of First Nations living on reserve attained a university
degree compared to 12.2% of non-First Nations, a difference o f 11.3% difference. On June 26,
2013, Statistics Canada released the NHS 2011 data on the educational attainment o f the
Aboriginal people in Canada. The NHS indicated 4.7% of First Nations living on-reserve aged
25 to 64 achieved a university degree compared to 26.5%, a difference o f 21.8%. According to
Statistics Canada the university degree achievement rate between First Nations living on-reserve
and non-First Nations in regards to university degree attainment gap has nearly doubled in the
last two decades. The central issue remains unchanged, that of the on-reserve First Nations
university degree attainment. “Research has shown that the health and well-being o f individuals
is closely associated with their education levels” (Kashaninia, 2011, p 1). “Education plays an

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 34
important role in the labour force success” (Buliziuk, 2011, p. 3). “The disparity in educational
attainment means the skill levels of the jobs that are available to Aboriginal people are
considerably lower than those available to non-Aboriginal people. Few Aboriginal people have
university degrees, so most of the professions are not accessible” (BC Stats, 2006, p. 3);
According to Mendelson (2006) when using the 2001 Census closing the educational gap
in Canada between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people poses a substantial challenge and is
likely impossible in the near future based on Aboriginal population numbers and percentages.
If the gap were to be closed in a decade, another 6,500 Aboriginal students would have to
obtain degrees every year. Assuming on average four years to get a degree and allowing
a margin for dropout, Aboriginal enrolment in universities would have to increase by
about 30,000. Given that there are only about 225, 000 Aboriginal people between the
ages o f 20 and 34, and given that the total number o f Aboriginal people with university
degrees at the present time is less than 29,000, and enrolment of 30,000 does not seem
realistic or perhaps even physically possible in the near future (p. 28).
In 2012 the Council of Ministers o f Education, Canada (2012b), published the, Literature
Review o f Factors Affecting the Transition o f Aboriginal Youth from School to Work. In their
review they acknowledge Aboriginal peoples are the fastest growing population in Canada;
however, “...their education and employment outcomes lag significantly behind the rest o f the
population” (p 1). An interesting note in their literature review is that Aboriginal youth 12-18
indicated they are interested in various professional careers (p. 2). Their literature review also
states Aboriginal youth have a desire to pursue careers that would allow them to serve their
community or further develop their culture (p. 3). Most importantly the CMEC literature review
highlights four areas o f utmost concern for policy makers:

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 35
•

not enough Aboriginal young people in Canada are reaching their full potential;

•

the problem is not new, but it is persistent and increasingly urgent because of
demographic patterns;

•

there is no simple solution owing to the complexity of the problem, vast regional
differences, and the number o f government levels involved; and

•

innovative strategies and constructive policies do exist that we should
borrow/adapt/bring to scale (p. 68).

In their Survey of Post-Secondary Education Programs in Canada for Aboriginal People,
Richardson and Blanchet-Cohen (2000, p. 4) refer to three ways that Canada uses to approach
post-secondary education for Aboriginal people. There is the add-on approach that is viewed as
Aboriginal enrichment of existing curriculum and pedagogy (p. 20); the partnership approach
based on bi-cultural cooperation between First Nations and mainstream educational institutions
(p. 22); and, the third approach is the First Nations control approach whereby First Nations
reclaim educational delivery with an emphasis on cultural re-integration, control o f educational
programm ing, content and delivery (p. 24). The three approaches can be viewed as progressive

steps in the process of the development of Aboriginal post-secondary in Canada (p.27). The
authors have also stated that the three approaches are not the only ways to classify Aboriginal
post-secondary education in Canada (p. 20). Richardson and Blanchet-Cohen also present an
Annex at the end of their paper titled, Aboriginal Programs in Canada (p. 69). The Annex is a
commentary of the various types o f programs within various colleges and institutes. In the paper
they prepared for the CMEC titled Best Practices in Increasing Aboriginal Postsecondary Rates,
Maltest & Associates (2002) highlight a number o f key elements and barriers leading to the
success of Aboriginal post-secondary students. More specifically they provide discourse related

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 36
to colleges and academic institutions within Canada and abroad that have developed and fostered
successful programs to address the learning needs of Aboriginal students (p. 24-34).

Efforts to Address First Nations Educational Gap in Canada
Over the last ninety years Aboriginal peoples have strived to have a national lobby group
and throughout those years Aboriginal people have faced tremendous governmental opposition at
all levels, including legislation in 1927 preventing Aboriginal peoples from forming political
organizations (Dickason, p. 328; Assembly o f First Nations, p i ) . Seven notable national
Aboriginal lobby groups have existed over the last ninety years and they are as follows, in
chronological order: The League o f Nations, The League o f Indians in Canada, The North
American Indian Brotherhood, The National Indian Council, The National Indian Brotherhood,
The Native Council of Canada and Assembly of First Nations. In 1968 the National Indian
Council dissolved to reform into two separate organizations, the National Indian Brotherhood
representing the Status and Treaty Aboriginal groups and the Native Council o f Canada
representing the non-Status First Nations and Metis groups. The National Indian Brotherhood
became the Assembly o f First Nations in 1982, the Native Council o f Canada became the
Congress o f Aboriginal Peoples in 1971. The Assembly of First Nations and the Congress of
Aboriginal Peoples arguably the two most widely represented national lobby groups in Canada.
These Aboriginal groups brought to the forefront many issues and indirectly have had an effect
on the state of First Nations education as it is now. The Assembly of First Nations is a non­
service organization that represents First Nations across Canada and strives to influence
government policy. Within the Assembly o f First Nations is the Education Secretariat that is
working to improve First Nations education at all levels and in all areas across Canada for First
Nations people. The other political organization to emerge as an advocate is the Congress of

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 37
Aboriginal People which represents off-reserve, non-Status and status Indians, Metis and
southern Inuit living on and off-reserve. On April 18, 2013, the Congress o f Aboriginal Peoples
met with the provincial and territorial Ministers of Aboriginal Affairs; together they formed the
Aboriginal Affairs Working Group (AAWG). The AAWG have set the education gap as one of
three priority issues to be addressed (Congress o f Aboriginal Peoples, 2013). Aboriginal people
across Canada are more dedicated, united and committed to eliminating the enduring educational
gap that exists at all ages and grade levels between Aboriginal people and non-Aboriginal
people.
The phenomenon of the rise of First Nations post-secondary programs and institutions in
the 1970s is a turning point for Canada’s First Peoples in education (Richardson, BlanchetCohen, 2000, pp. 4, 54). A number of indigenous institutions came into existence and various
institutions developed quality programs designed to attract, retain and certify Aboriginal peoples
throughout Canada. As part of their research paper, Richardson and Blanchet-Cohen included
case studies o f five Aboriginal post-secondary education programs as a sample o f indicative
initiatives that are in place to address the Aboriginal education gap within Canada. The five
programs presented in their study are the First Nations Partnership Program, the Nunavut
Sivuniksavut Program, the First Nations House o f Learning, Malaspina University-College and
Saanich Adult Education Center.
First Nations post-secondary educational gains are being made across Canada. The
Assembly of First Nations reported on the status of indigenous higher learning institutes across
Canada.
There are sixty (60) First Nations owned and controlled post-secondary institutions which
deliver a wide range o f programs to approximately 100,000 learners, including

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 38
preparatory programs, adult upgrading, trades and apprenticeship, certificate, diploma,
degree, and advanced degree programs (Assembly of First Nations, 2012, p. 3).
The Indigenous Institutes o f Higher Learning (IEHL) emerged to address the
post-secondary educational gap of indigenous people across Canada, First Nations and Inuit
people (Assembly First Nations, 2006, p. iii, iv). “IIHL’s deliver a wide range of programs
including basic literacy and secondary upgrading, language and Indigenous knowledge base
programs, skilled trades and university graduate degree programs” (p.26). On March 10, 2011, a
virtual summit on indigenous institutions was hosted by the First Nations University o f Canada
(Assembly o f First Nations, 2011). Students from across Canada that attend indigenous
institutes of higher learning participated in the virtual summit by responding to online questions
to facilitate dialogue on the topic o f Indigenous Institutes of Higher Learning. The participants
in the Virtual Summit restated the importance of indigenous institutions and how they provide a
cultural environment, relevant learning, a safe place to learn and demanding programs (p. 17).
The National Association of Indigenous Institutes (NAIIHL) was established in 2001
(National Association o f Indigenous Institutes o f Higher Learning). In 2007 the NAIIHL
represented sixty four Aboriginal controlled post-secondary institutions of higher learning
throughout Canada (Canada, 2007, p. 22). The NAIIHL’s objective is to promote Indigenous
controlled institutions of higher learning by providing support and improving IIHL resources.
The NAIIHL is supported by and works collaboratively with Aboriginal Affairs and Northern
Development Canada’s (AANDC) through the Indian Studies Support Program (IISP). NAIIHL
carries out research to assist Indigenous peoples and communities (National Association of
Indigenous Institutes o f Higher Learning).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 39
In February 2007, the Report of the Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs and
Northern Development tabled a document in the House o f Commons called, No Higher Priority:
Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education in Canada (Canada, 2007). The Standing Committee
presented ten recommendations that were put into the following six categories: Creating Positive
Outcomes; Student Funding; Data Collection and Tracking; Allocation and Delivery o f PSE
Funding; Indian Studies Support Program; and Access to Post-Secondary Programming.
NAIIHL and AFN along with other national indigenous organizations reported on the topics
presented in the recommendations. In his evidence presented to the Standing Committee, Trevor
Lewis, (Chair, National Association o f Indigenous Institutes of Higher Learning) stated:
The Federal Government has taken the position that support for post-secondary education
is a matter o f social policy rather than legal responsibility. As a consequence, federal
support has not evolved with the reality of the growth of our institutes or the growth of
our student population (Lewis, 2006).
More importantly Trevor Lewis encouraged the standing committee to accept the policy
recommendation presented in the report entitled Review of the Indian Studies Support Program
Component of the PSE Program Final Report Presented to the Joint AFN-INAC PSE Working
Group, prepared by Chignecto and Katenies (Assembly o f First Nations, 2006). The Standing
Committee also included an appendix in the report o f provincial post-secondary achievements
(Canada 2007, p. 43). A major topic of the report is the need to address funding for students and
academic institutions. In relation to demographics the Standing Committee revealed federal
departmental documents indicated between 1971 and 2001, the Aboriginal population increased
322% compared to 37% of the non-Aboriginal population, with Bill C-31 and the 1985 Indian
Act amendment helping to account for the increase (Canada, 2007, p. 5). The committee

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 40
members also conducted a survey o f reports on Aboriginal post-secondary education and
recognized a tremendous amount o f reports have been written in recent decades and that now
they understand why Aboriginal people may feel like they have been “studied to death” and the
committee acknowledged why Aboriginal people may feel frustrated because so many issues
have been raised in the scores o f First Nations educational reports, but have been inefficiently
addressed (Canada, 2007, p. 8). The Chair of the House o f Commons Standing Committee on
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development reiterated the Standing Committees sentiment,
“The Committee is convinced that it is possible and essential, to meet the challenges, starting
now” (Canada, 2007, p. xix). The literature on the efforts of Aboriginal education in Canada
reflect both an optimism and urgency to be more proactive rather than reactive when it comes to
closing the educational gap between First Nations, particularly on-reserve and non-First Nations.
F irst Nations Post-Secondary Education in British Columbia
According to the Centre for the Study of Living Standards (Sharp, A, & Arsenault, 2010,
pp. 15 & 16) two thirds o f the Aboriginal labour force and employment growth will occur in
Western Canada and B.C. could stand to gain, providing Aboriginal people are properly
equipped educationally.
Given the demographic structure of the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal population,
Aboriginal people will undoubtedly play a significant role in shaping the economic future
of Canada, and in particular, that of the Western provinces (p. v).
Conversely, “If there is no change in the Aboriginal participation and employment rates, the
Aboriginal population will contribute to the overall trend towards higher dependency rates”
(Sharp & Arsenault, 2010, p. 12). A number of public post-secondary institutions in B.C. have
recognized the need to do a better job of meeting the educational needs o f indigenous peoples

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 41
(First Nations Education Steering Committee, 2008, p. A). In many respects, B.C. is leading the
way in addressing the educational gap that exists between the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal
population (Assembly of First Nations, 2012, p. 26); for example, there are seventeen affiliated
indigenous institutes of higher learning and sixteen non-affiliated institutions (Assembly First
Nations, 2006, p. 19). These institutions offer a broad range of services and programs to meet
the unique needs and challenges o f students and the various communities they represent.
Indigenous institutes in B.C. are autonomous community based organizations and governed by
independent boards or by Chief and Council (First Nations Education Steering Committee, 2008,
p. A) and reflect the philosophy of Indian Control of Indian Education and as such, “Indigenous
institutions exist for the express purpose o f addressing the human resource needs and capacity
developed o f First Nations communities. Programs and services reflect First Nations worldview,
epistemologies, cultures, customs, languages, values, and histories” (Assembly of First Nations,
2012, p. 43).
A major reoccurring theme throughout the literature is the inadequate federal and
provincial funding for indigenous controlled post-secondary institutions in British Columbia and
Canada. In 2005, an examination of government policy by The Aboriginal Institutes’
Consortium revealed the constant issue o f the lack o f federal and provincial funding for
indigenous institutions (Canadian Race Relations Foundation, 2005, p. 49). Even though the
Canadian Race Relations Foundation focuses on Ontario in their examination, their paper
highlights the large systemic problem faced by indigenous institutes nationally. The lack of
funding remains the biggest challenge facing indigenous institutions; limited funding jeopardizes
programs, curriculum development and staffing (First Nations Education Steering Committee,
2008 pp. B-C, 1; The Indigenous Adult and Higher Learning Association, 2007, p 5).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 42
Indigenous institutions have struggled since their inception (The Aboriginal Institutes'
Consortium, 2005, p. 56) to be recognized provincially as viable institutions that contribute to
the well-being of Aboriginal students and as a result play an extremely constructive role in
demographic figures and employment labour force outcomes. One of the many
recommendations from the Report of the Provincial Advisory Committee on Post-Secondary
Education for Native Learners was that the BC Ministry o f Advance Education, Training and
Technology provide targeted funding (1990). Then in 1995 the Aboriginal Post-Secondary
Education and Training Policy Framework recommended allocations of funds for indigenous
institutions (IAHLA, 2007, p. 14). In 2006, McCue wrote a paper for the Centre for Native
Policy and Research in which he stated, “Funding continues to be a major issue” (McCue, 2006,
p. 14). He clarifies further in that funding needs for Metis and non-status Aboriginal youth are
not being met through the Federal Post-Secondary Student Support Program (PSSSP) (2006, pp.
14-16). Similarly, in the research paper that Malatest & Associates (2002) wrote for the Council
of Education Ministers they discuss the lack of funding faced by Aboriginal people:
While Status Indians are theoretically eligible for band funding of their postsecondary
education, many do not receive it. Aboriginal people are increasingly vocal about the
limited resources of the PSSSP transfer, which necessitate a limited number o f interested
Aboriginal people being able to access band funds (51).
In 2007, the BC Ministry of Advanced Education (AVED) put in place the Aboriginal PostSecondary Education Strategy Action plan to which they committed to improving higher
education for Aboriginal learners. The vision statement o f the 2007 Aboriginal Post-Secondary
Education Strategy Action Plan is as follows:

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 43
Aboriginal post-secondary education outcomes are comparable to those o f
non-Aboriginal learners, and that public institutions and Aboriginal organizations and
institutions play appropriate roles and are supported by the combined resources o f the
federal and provincial governments (Ministry o f Advanced Education, 2007, p.l).
In 2011 an external evaluation o f the Action Plan was completed and used to create the
Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy Framework and Action Plan, 2020
Vision for the Future (2012). Goal number three in the 2020 Vision for the Future report stated:
“Financial barriers to accessing and completing post-secondary education and training are
reduced for Aboriginal learners” (British Columbia Ministry o f Advance Education, 2012a, p.
13). With the announcement of the new Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training
Policy Framework and Action Plan the British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education
announced a commitment of $16.2 million towards Aboriginal post-secondary programs and
student assistance (British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, 2012b).
The extensive Final Report, Evaluation of the BC Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education
Strategy by Jothen in 2011 brought forward a list o f imperative recommendations. In the
Conclusions and Overall Recommendations sections they articulately stated, “The lack of
evaluation framework built into (from the start) the 2007 Strategy and clear logic models and
measurement indicators for some program elements, made it challenging to assess the outcomes
of every element” (Jothen, 2011, p. vi),. In addition, the following observation was made of
foremost importance:
One strong message from Aboriginal post-secondary students and Aboriginal
communities was about the serious financial barriers impeding participation and retention
in higher education. This was particularly an issue o f First Nations students. While it is

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 44
beyond the scope o f this evaluation, the Evaluators believe mention should be made of
concerns consistently raised by Aboriginal students, educators and communities
regarding what they see as deficiencies and, in fact, real declines in the levels of
resources available for post-secondary studies (Jothen, 2011, p vi).
Among other recommendations, the report also recommended that the Ministry consider
developing a partnership with Indigenous Adult of Higher Learning Association (IAHLA) and
Indigenous Institutes of Higher Learning (IIHL) in that such partnerships,

have proven highly

successful in community-based delivery programs and bridging programs” (Jothen. 2011, p ii).
Nonetheless, even though there is a substantial discrepancy in funding, Indigenous
Institutions o f Higher Learning are making a significant difference in addressing the learning
needs o f Aboriginal people provincially and nationally.

Efforts to Address First Nations Educational Gap in British Columbia
Literature sources indicate that the provincial government began to become concerned
about the Aboriginal post-secondary education gap around 1988. According to the Report by the
Provincial Access Committee, Access to Advanced Education and Job Training in British
Columbia, highlights the issue o f the post-secondary educational gap between Aboriginal and
non-Aboriginal people in “... that the Provincial Government take immediate steps, in
consultation with Native Indian groups, universities and colleges, to develop and implement a
detailed strategy to address the diverse advanced education and job training needs of Native
Indians” (Provincial Access Committee, 1988). Soon after the Provincial Access Committee
released their report, the Minister of Advanced Education, Training and Technology announced
the formation of the Provincial Advisory Committee on Post-Secondary Education for Native
Learners in 1989. The initiative, Access fo r All, brought together First Nations, the public and

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 45
post-secondary institutions to aid in policy development (Provincial Advisory Committee, 1990,
p. 4). It is through this initiative the Provincial Government, along with Access fo r All
participants formed a goal to bring First Nations post-secondary education rates to the national
average by 1995, a five year optimistic plan to bolster Aboriginal post-secondary education.
After consultation and reviewing all the material and evidence, the Provincial Advisory
Committee released their report (Provincial Advisory Committee, 1990). Then the Ministry of
Education, Skills and Training published the Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training
Policy Framework (1995) to redress the issues. Their policy framework included four
objectives, one of which was to “... increase the participation and success rates o f Aboriginal
people in post-secondary education and training” (p. 1). The next significant step was the
signing of the Memorandum of Understanding on Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and
Training in 2005 and then the Ministry o f Advance Education implementation o f the Aboriginal
Post-Secondary Strategy and Action Plan in 2007. The signing of the New Relationship
Agreement in 2005 would also be a pivotal point in First Nations post-secondary education as it
lead to a government to government relationship in recognition o f past injustices, new
approaches and a renewed commitment (Union of BC Indian Chiefs, a). The release o f the
Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy Framework and Action Plan 2020
Vision for the Future (2012) marked a pivotal point as well. The 2020 Vision for the Future is
sectioned into three components throughout the document, Short-Term Results by 2013,
Medium-Term Results by 2016 and Long-term Outcomes by 2020. An overview of the literature
indicates there has been a cooperative consorted effort invested since 1989 in effecting
meaningful First Nations post-secondary change.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 46
There are several First Nations organizations that play a major role in the efforts to
address the First Nations Educational Gap in British Columbia. They are the Indigenous Adult
Higher Learning Association (LAHLA), the First Nations Education Steering Committee
(FNESC) and the Union of BC Indian Chiefs (UBCIC). Each o f these organizations is a major
provincial and federal advocate for First Nations education in British Columbia. The Indigenous
Adult and Higher Learning Association is an organization focused on improving post-secondary
education in B.C. IAHLA came into existence in 2003 when Aboriginal adult learning centers
and post-secondary education institutions gathered together to form a more unified voice in
representing both centers and institutions to further develop indigenous language, culture and
knowledge. One o f IAHLA’s main objectives is to support post-secondary institutions through
research (Indigenous Adults of Higher Learning Association).
The First Nations Education Steering Committee was established in 1992. They are an
independent society with over one hundred First Nations community representatives. Their main
objective is to improve First Nations education in B.C. and communicate First Nations
educational priorities to the provincial and federal governments while supporting First Nations
communities to work together in developing a brighter educational First Nations future. Much of
FNESC expertise is in the realm of elementary and secondary First Nations education. They
have made a significant impact as a First Nations advocate organization. One of their more
recent accomplishments as stated by FNESC: “We have won the legal recognition o f our
authority to be decision-makers in the education o f our children, protected in federal legislation
(2006) and provincial legislation (2007)” (First Nations Education Steering Committee).
The Union o f BC Indian Chiefs (UNBCIC) was created in 1969, in response to the
federal government’s ‘White Paper’, which was viewed as an attempt to assimilate First Nations

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 47
into mainstream society (Union o f British Columbia Indian Chiefs, b). “The goal o f the UBCIC
is to support the work of our people, whether at the community, nation or international level, in
our common fight for the recognition of our aboriginal rights and respect for our cultures and
societies” (Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs, c). A recent advocacy measure from
UBCIC was to issue a new release, on June 5, 2013, demanding that Federal Department of
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada rescind their decision to centralize the
Indian Student Support Program (ISSP) rather than have regional First Nations committees that
oversee the funding selection process (Union o f British Columbia Indian Chiefs, d; Hyslop,
2013).
The Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy Framework (1995) drew
attention to public institutions such as The University o f British Columbia that has the First
Nations House of Learning; Capilano College, in partnership with the Squamish Nation have
established a transition program; Malaspina University-College that has a First Nations Arts-One
program; Simon Fraser University, the North Coast Tribal Council and School District #52 have
implemented a First Nations Language Teacher Education Program (Ministry of Education,
Skills and Training (pp. 3-4). Malatest and Associates give another example o f First Nations
post-secondary progress in Best Practices in Increasing Aboriginal Post-Secondary Enrolment
Rates (2002).
Aboriginal control has successfully extended to the development of curriculum and the
hiring of staff at mainstream postsecondary institutions. For example, the successful
development of a strong Aboriginal voice in the development of curriculum and
Aboriginal studies at the University o f Northern British Columbia has included
establishing the Nisga’a Protocol Agreement with UNBC. This gives the Nisga’a control

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 48
over hiring related to Aboriginal programs and over standards in conjunction with the
university (p. 44).
For the first time in B.C. history, in 1995, the government of British Columbia through
the College and Institute Act granted two indigenous institutions, the Nicola Valley Institute of
Technology and the Institute o f Indigenous Governance the authority to grant degrees. At the
time, Saskatchewan was the only other province to take such a bold move in recognizing the
significance o f Aboriginal institute control and authority (The Aboriginal Institutes' Consortium,
2005, p. 32).
Efforts are being made by the Ministry of Advanced Education to improve their
accountability towards First Nations and their post-secondary education. This is noticeable in
the review process of the B.C. Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy
Framework-2 0 2 0 Vision fo r the Future (2012a) that involved input from LAHLA and the
FNESC. In their feedback to the Ministry of Advance Education, the IAHLA and FNESC
emphasized the importance of recognizing the recommendations put forth in their 2008 policy
background paper, Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education in British Columbia; A Place fo r
Aboriginal Institutes (Indigenous Adult and Higher Learning Association, 2012).
Momentum in re-evaluating the Private Career Training Institutions Agency is growing.
Plant (2007) brings to light in Campus2020 Thinking Ahead: The Report, Access & Excellence
The Campus 2020 Plan fo r British Columbia’s Post-Secondary Education System, the need to
revisit the Private Career Training Institutions Agency as pointed out in recommendation 29:
“Undertake an independent review of the Private Career Training Institutions Act in 2009” (p.
57). Following Plant’s report recommendations, the Ministry of Advance Education
commissioned an independent review in 2008 by John Watson of the Private Career Training

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 49
Institutions Act. Watson states among other things, “The report contains recommendations to
help develop a deeper pool o f experienced academics and administrators and thereby improve
student outcomes and credit transfer for Aboriginal institutions” (2008, p. 3).
It seems that the Ministry of Advanced Education recognizes the importance o f the
recommendations that FNESC and IAHLA brought forth in their policy background paper and
the review of the Private Career Training Institutions Act by Watson (2008). The Ministry of
Advanced Education has known for some time the divisive nature between (private) Aboriginal
post-secondary institutes and public post-secondary institutes as they state in the 2012 report,
Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy Framework and Action Plan 2020
Vision fo r the Future to, “... provide for designation of Aboriginal-controlled institutes as public
post-secondary institutions, in reference to their 1995 Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and
Training Policy Framework (British Columbia Ministry of Advance Education, 2012a, p. 5).
There is a greater move towards the quality assurance framework that the British
Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education first introduced in 2003. Education Quality
Assurance (EQA) is the term for British Columbia’s quality post-secondary education. “EQA is
a voluntary mechanism available to all eligible post-secondary institutions in B.C.” (British
Columbia Ministry o f Advance Education). The First Nations Education Steering Committee
policy background paper Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education in British Columbia: A Place fo r
Aboriginal Institutes brought forth a number of pivotal recommendations to address post­
secondary quality assurance.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 50
Recommendation #1:
The Province o f British Columbia should create policy and legislation that
establishes a more integrated post-secondary education system in BC by
recognizing the unique and critical role o f Aboriginal institutes.
Recommendation #2:
Recognizing the need fo r academic quality assurance, which will facilitate
student mobility, efficiency o f the system, as well as mutual accountability, the
Indigenous Adult and Higher Learning Association (IAHLA) will work with
Aboriginal institutes to create an effective and thorough quality assurance
system based upon high standards and rigorous review (First Nations
Education Steering Committee, 2008, p. D).
On April 4,2012, the Ministry of Advanced Education released a discussion paper
entitled British Columbia’s Quality Assurance o f Post-Secondary Education Framework, where
they stipulated, “The Framework will be used to create a new Quality Assurance Act for all
post-secondary institutions delivering education in or from BC”; furthermore, it is important to
note that “The framework also takes into account previous reports on the quality of
post-secondary education commissioned by the Ministry o f Advanced Education as well as
national and international commitments” (British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education,
2012c, p. 2). Then in March 2013, the Ministry o f Advanced Education, Innovation and
Technology (AEIT) released the Green Paper, Quality Assurance Framework British Columbia
(Ministry o f Advanced Education, Innovation and Technology, 2013). The AEIT Green Paper is
a live document that is intended to guide AEIT and post-secondary institutes in the creation of
more harmony between post-secondary institutions in British Columbia. “During the first phase

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 51
o f the engagement process, students, stakeholders and the public provided feedback on the goals
and objectives outlined in an initial discussion paper” (p. i). One o f the sectors that AIET
proposed in the quality assurance framework is Aboriginal-controlled institutes (p. 17). EQA is
an extreme large leap forward in Aboriginal institutions receiving the necessary federal and
provincial funding to create and implement post-secondary programs and courses designed and
taught by Aboriginal people, bringing Aboriginal Institutes one step closer to seeing the
fulfillment of First Nations Control o f First Nations Education.
An indication that the government o f British Columbia is serious about improving
Aboriginal post-secondary education is that they are starting to monitor their progress by
commissioning independent reports on the efforts to improve Aboriginal post-secondary
education. Reviews or reports like the Final Report Review of Aboriginal Post-Secondary
Education Programs, Services and Strategies/Best Practices & Aboriginal Special Projects
Funding (ASPF) Program (Jothen, 2005) and the Final Report Evaluation o f the Aboriginal
Post-Secondary Education Strategy (Jothen, 2011) have informed the Ministry o f Advanced
Education in creating the 2012 Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy
Framework and Action Plan 2020 Vision fo r the Future (British Columbia Ministry of Advance
Education, 2012a, p. 5).
Another confirmation that the Provincial Government is willing to move forward in the
new relationship with First Nations is the Tripartite Educational Framework Agreement (TEFA)
that came into effect on September 1, 2012. It is a five year agreement between Canada, British
Columbia and the First Nations Education Steering Committee (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern
Development Canada, 2012b). The agreement is a commitment by the parties to work together
to improve elementary and secondary schools and student success for Aboriginal learners in

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 52
British Columbia. “As of March 30, 2012, AANDC has received Band Council resolutions from
85 o f 86 eligible First Nations that operate schools in B.C. AANDC will work with First Nations
that have passed Band Council resolutions over the next few months to amend their funding
agreement accordingly” (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, c).
Another effort towards First Nations post-secondary education is the Student Transition
Project (STP) initiated in 2005 by the Ministry of Education as a means of strategic planning.
“The Student Transition Project provides data on student transitions from K-12 into
post-secondary institutions” (British Columbia, 2010, p. 18), includes special reports and studies
on Aboriginal student transitions (Heslop, 2010. p.9).
The government of British Columbia has taken numerous steps to improve Aboriginal
education from preschool to post-secondary throughout B.C. For example, each year the
province publishes an Annual Report on the New Relationship progress with Aboriginal People.
The report is a review of past successes, present events and future endeavours in the
government’s relationship with Aboriginal peoples.
The provincial government, through BC Stats, publishes Census Fast Facts that include a
range o f statistics related articles about Aboriginal people, both on and off-reserve (BC Stats
Census Fast Facts). BC Stats also publishes the Labour Force Characteristics of Off-Reserve
Aboriginal Population. The reports cover topics such as employment, unemployment, types of
jobs, labour supply and schooling (BC Stats Labour Force Survey). BC Stats uses statistics to
evaluate Aboriginal trends to guide and inform the relationship between the province and
Aboriginal people. Many of the strategies, initiatives and agreements are ongoing and in a
constant flux being revisited, revised, clarified and evaluated.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 53
Aboriginal post-secondary education is not a disconnected entity in and o f itself; rather, it
is intimately connected to each stage of the educational process; a child’s successful education
experience through preschool, primary, intermediate and secondary translates into a successful
post-secondary graduate. First Nations have always understood learning as a lifelong process
from pre-natal to elder.

Gaps in the research
The general research topic of Aboriginal post-secondary education is more inductive
whereas as the specific research topic o f university degree completion for on-reserve First
Nations is more deductive. There is a limited amount o f qualitative research available on the
topic and more qualitative research is needed. A majority o f the literature is quantitative in
nature, drawing most o f the data from the same source Statistics Canada (Council o f Ministers of
Education, 2012b, p. 10). The data that is available is often skewed in that a number o f reserves
do not complete the census; Aboriginal groups are treated as one result; there is inconsistent data
collection throughout the educational system; there appears to be a tendency to use off-reserve
Aboriginal statistics more often as it projects a more successful outcome. The literature review
covers extensive commissioned reports that include lists of recommendations. Throughout the
literature very little is mentioned o f Aboriginal children with special needs and how they can be
included in the positive results of Aboriginal post-secondary statistics. At times the literature
mentions post-secondary results are dependent on accomplished Aboriginal elementary and
secondary students, but little is offered to advise how to make it happen. Another trend that is
observed, but often times ignored, is that Aboriginal women are consistently more successful in
achieving university degrees. The trend is noticed and highlighted, but not understood.
Furthermore, there is very little research to expound First Nations post-secondary graduate

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 54
experience once they are back in their community. In addition, having such a broad range as
25-64 used by statistics Canada can be misleading and inaccurate, making it difficult to interpret
First Nations intergenerational trends in post-secondary education. Lastly, the literature rarely
broaches how the socio economic situation on-reserve influences First Nations desire to pursue
post-secondary education. These are areas that directly and indirectly affect First Nations
post-secondary outcomes. Each of these gaps are worthy o f further study.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 55

CHAPTER III
Methodology and Design
The methodology for the study is qualitative research using a personal narrative research
design to collect recordings and field notes that will provide the story o f the individual’s
post-secondary education experience (Creswell, 2005). The data for this study will be collected
through talking circles and observation. Talking circles are a traditional method o f information
sharing among First Nations people and similar to focus groups. Adults and elders will
participate in the circles that will take place on a First Nations reserve in central British
Columbia. The data will center on a problem solution narrative structure that relates to the
research questions.
A qualitative method is chosen in order to maintain participant originality. Adults and
elders will be telling their point of view or experience regarding their participation in the
post-secondary education system. A personal narrative approach will allow the researcher to get
as close as possible to what the educational experience was for the individuals. Using a personal
narrative design will provide an opportunity for participants to freely talk about their personal
perspectives. In addition, the personal narrative is culturally appropriate and it is expected to
provide a familiar environment and comfort level for all participants. First Nations people have
developed strong oral communication skills over the ages and thus the personal narrative design
will be best suited for the study. In addition, verbal communication has long been the order of
First Nations culture, both past and present. An example o f this is when elders and leaders speak
to the community about traditions and teachings which take the format o f a personal narrative.
The research will consist o f three talking circles made up o f three rounds. This will be
accomplished by passing a talking stick (see Appendix B) clockwise (to the person on their left)

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 56
around the talking circle. In each talking circle only the individual holding the talking stick is
permitted to speak according to tradition. Therefore, each round will begin with me giving the
topic or question for the round. An introductory meeting (potluck) will take place prior to the
talking circle activity in order for participants to get acquainted and at the beginning of each
talking circle thereafter. As an Aboriginal Cultural Educator, I will facilitate each talking circle.
There will be approximately 8-12 adults and elders participating in the research talking
circles. The three talking circles will be audio recorded using a digital voice recorder (not video
recorded). Throughout each talking circle participants will share their personal post-secondary
educational experiences, motivations, challenges and how their experience can be beneficial to
others. A similar format will be used for all three talking circles. The talking stick is passed
clockwise to each participant in the talking circle and each time the talking stick completes the
circle it is considered one round of the talking circle.
The three rounds for the first talking circle are as follows:
1.

Round one: Share one encouraging educational experience.

2.

Round two: When did you pursue post-secondary educationand what motivated you?

3. Round three: What are some o f the best things about having completed your post­
secondary education?
The three rounds for the second talking circle are as follows:
1.

Round one: Share one encouraging educational experience.

2.

Round two: What were some of the challenges you faced pursuing a post-secondary
education and how did you overcome the challenges?

3. Round three: Why did you decide to return to the reserve after completing your post­
secondary education?

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 57
The three rounds for the third talking circle are as follows:
1. Round one: Share one encouraging educational experience.
2. Round two: What advice would you give to students, parents, teachers and Band
members regarding your post-secondary education?
3. Round three: Now that you have completed your post-secondary education, what
advice would you give to post-secondary institutions?
At the beginning of each talking circle the objective is introduced, the purpose of the
talking circle is presented and guidelines for the talking circle are established by the facilitator.
Even though a talking stick will be used to indicate the speaker, the facilitator will interject if
necessary so that I may ask participants to clarify what is being said through questioning or
paraphrasing.
Each talking circle will proceed as follows:
1.

A sign will be posted by the entrance, “Talking Circle in Process”;

2. Adults and elders will be asked to form a circle;
3. A brief overview o f the traditional talking circle and talking stick will be given;
4. Talking circle topic will be presented;
5. The facilitator/researcher’s role will be reviewed (see Appendix E);
6. Talking circle guideline will be presented (see Appendix C);
7. Three consecutive rounds will take place in the talking circle (1 Vi hours);
8.

At the end adults and elders will be thanked for their participation.

Research Site and Purposeful Sampling
The research will take place on a First Nations reserve in central British Columbia. As
with a number of reserves in B.C., the reserve is located in a semi-rural area. The Band typically

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 58
views itself as a progressive First Nations Band, actively engaged in treaty negotiations and
diligently administering Band programs and resources. The Band is proactive in providing youth
programs and support; they also provide opportunities for all age groups to participate in cultural
activities.
The focus of the research will be First Nations community members who live on-reserve
and have completed their post-secondary degree. Talking circles will be open to Band members
that have completed their post-secondary education in order to determine motivating factors of
how the individuals succeeded to graduate from a post-secondary institution. If counseling is
necessary as a result o f the talking circles a counselor will be available for participants through
Band services. The primary focus group are on-reserve Band members that have attended
post-secondary education. Two non-First Nations guests will be invited to participate in the
talking circles, a counselor and a youth worker, both are non-Band members, but are employed
by the Band. They are critical players in the community and having them there will provide a
tremendous support for participating Band members who participate in the talking circles. The
talking circles will take place in a building on-reserve and measures will be taken to minimize
any disruptions, cell phones will be turned off, a sign will be posted saying ‘Talking Circle in
Process Do Not Disturb’ and the best time for the talking circles will be selected by the
participants and researcher.
There are several reasons why this First Nations community is chosen for the study.
First, a Band staff member shared with me that some adults and elders from the community have
a post-secondary degree. Second, I am interested in contributing to the First Nations
community’s well-being. Third, some o f the elders that meet as a women’s group on a regular
basis have a post-secondary degree. They are familiar with one another and are willing to share

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 59
their post-secondary experience with others. Fourth, as a Metis person I completed my
post-secondary education as an adult and recognize the significance o f such a feat and want to
document what motivated the group o f individuals and the roadblocks that they overcame to
pursue their degrees. It may be possible to learn a great deal from this group o f resilient First
Nations people that have acquired their post-secondary degree.
The talking circle will take place between January and February 2014. Prior to the study
taking place the researcher will coordinate an informal potluck with the assistance o f the
participating counselor and youth worker. The counselor and youth worker will recruit talking
circle participants and invited them to the potluck; an invitation will be extended to Chief and
Council to attend the potluck. The intent of the potluck social function is to get acquainted,
answer questions and give a brief oral presentation along with a pamphlet (see Appendix F) to
inform Band members of the talking circle topic, purpose and possible dates when the talking
circles might take place. Coffee, tea and cookies will be provided at the end of each talking
circle.

Qualitative Data Analysis Procedures
The three talking circles will be digitally recorded using an audio recorder. Upon
completion o f the talking circles a transcriber will transcribe the recordings. A Confidentiality
Agreement Transcription Services contract will be sign by the researcher and the transcriber to
ensure confidentiality. The researcher will analyze the data by way of coding to determine
themes and sub-themes as well as present and discuss the findings and bring fourth
recommendations.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 60

Researcher’s Role and Potential Ethical Issues
The researcher’s role will be to facilitate the talking circles, code the data, collect field
notes documenting personal observations and report the findings. Talking circle participants are
required to sign a letter of informed consent prior to participating in the talking circles. The
researcher will forward the talking circle questions to Chief and Council prior to the
commencement o f the talking circles or the collection o f any data. The document will be
presented to Chief and Council upon completion o f the research.
At any time during the talking circles if there is any uncertainty as to what is meant the
facilitator will paraphrase or use questioning to clarify. The researcher will endeavour to create a
comfortable environment for the participants, socially and culturally, ha the event that hurtful
memories are exposed the researcher will recommend counselor follow up. Personal
observations will be recorded in a note book after each talking circle. To address potential
ethical issues special care will be given in that the data will be masked to ensure anonymity,
confidentially and privacy of the participants; however, due to the nature o f qualitative research
and the small size of the community, the names o f the participants might become known.
Participants will be made aware o f the possible risks. Once the study is complete the data will be
put away in a locked box at the University of Northern British Columbia for no more than five
years; after which time the data will be destroyed in accordance with UNBC’s Ethics Committee
stipulations. The researcher will gather the data between January and February 2014. Upon
completion of the talking circles and analysis o f the data according to UNBC’s expectations the
researcher will provide a copy o f the research to Chief and Council. The researcher will provide
a copy of the research to participants once it is accepted by the University at a potluck dinner.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 61
The researcher will give a copy of the research to Chief and Council and participants in person,
or by e-mail, or mailed directly to them.

Methods of Validation
To check for validity o f the study, I will adopt the qualitative method o f member
checking of transcribed and analyzed interview data (Creswell, 2005) by providing the
information to a member of the advisory committee that will listen to or read the transcript from
the digital audio recordings from the talking circles. Individual interviews will be conducted and
recorded if clarification is required. The advisory committee will read the researcher’s field
notes to validate and provide input regarding data analysis.

Delimitations
The talking circle and personal interviews will take place on-reserve, between January
and February 2014 in a quiet organized setting. Each member participating in the talking circle
will sign a letter o f informed consent prior to taking part in the circle (see Appendix D). The
researcher is an experienced talking circle facilitator. At the beginning o f each talking circle
participants receive a brief overview of the traditional talking circle and talking piece. Then the
researcher will inform participants of the talking circle topics and guidelines o f the talking circle.
It is difficult to determine the length of a talking circle as it is largely dependent on the number
o f participants and the length o f time each participant takes to respond or share their reflections,
thoughts, feelings, ideas and experiences. However, a rough time parameter will be mentioned at
the beginning of each talking circle. The facilitator will inform participants that the talking circle
is expected to take about one and a half hours. To introduce or review the talking circle
guidelines 5 minutes; to get everyone settled 10 and give a brief overview o f the talking circle 10
minutes; round one, share an encouraging educational experience, 20 minutes; round two, the

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 62
response to the first research question, 20 minutes; round three, the response to the second
research question, 20 minutes; closing 5 minutes; for a total o f 90 minutes. The facilitator will
inform participants o f the rough time schedule at the beginning o f each round in order to
conclude the talking circle in a reasonable time for everyone.

Limitations
1. The study is limited to a small First Nations population located in central British
Columbia.
2. The results are limited to on-reserve First Nations.
3. As purposeful sampling is carried out the results cannot be generalized.
4. There is no certainty how many First Nations post-secondary graduates will be
present at the talking circles or participate.
5. Researcher and talking circle facilitator are performed by the same person.
6. This research is not designed to compare one First Nations community to another.
7. The nature of the study allows for only a small group of post-secondary graduates to
participate.
8. The results are limited by how comfortable and honest the participants are with me.

Building Rapport
At the very beginning of the study the researcher contacted the Band and was referred to the
counselor that works for the Band. The counselor suggested for the researcher to get involved in
various community activities where the researcher’s skills could be utilized. Over a period of
two years the researcher participated in two main events, dip net making and hunting prior to
completing the study. The researcher had worked as a commercial fisherman for many years and
acquired net mending skills. After being invited by the Band to make a traditional river dip net

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 63
the researcher and several youth began the process o f making the dip net over several days.
First, we went out and cut down a dried beetle killed lodge pole pine. Second, we gathered some
willow branches for the hoop. Third, we stripped the bark from the pole and willow branches.
Fourth, we bent the willow branches into a circle to from the hoop and lashed the branches
together with twine. Fifth, we lashed the hoop to the pole as tightly as possible and made a cross
piece to support the hoop that was attached to the pole. It was a warm summer day and some of
the elders that participated in the talking circles came by to visit while the net was being made.
Bannock was served each day we gathered to make our dip net.
The researcher participated in two hunting parties over the last two years. We would first
meet prior to the hunt to plan the location and make a list o f the supplies that were needed. Then
we would meet at the designate area within the traditional hunting territory. The hunters had a
support group that took care of the meals and packed lunches. In the evening we would gather
around the fire for drumming and storytelling. There was no game harvested on the first hunt,
but new relationships were created and old ones renewed. Much o f the process for the second
hunt was similar to the first. A new location was selected for the second hunt. Two moose and
four deer were harvested. There was a consorted effort in getting the game hung on a meat pole
to cool overnight. The following day elders came to the camp to provide the necessary
leadership to process the game. Several weeks later a community feast was held to
commemorate the successful harvest of game, herbs and berries. Throughout the activities
members of the community displayed enthusiasm, commitment and team work.

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CHAPTER IV
Analysis of Research Findings
A letter o f invitation was sent to potential participants informing them o f the time and
dates the talking circles would take place. The three talking circles took place on January 20,23
and 27, 2014. There were a total of 16 participants at the three talking circles. The researcher,
the counselor and youth worker prepared a meal for participants prior to each talking circle. The
first talking circle set the framework for the next two talking circles. The Chief was at the first
talking circle and this may have influenced the way some o f the participants responded as the
participants at the first circle seemed to be a little more eloquent in their responses to the
questions.
Participants o f the first talking circle were given a choice o f having the talking circle
upstairs or downstairs and they elected to have the talking circle upstairs were everyone was
seated for the meal. The group felt we were already sitting in a circle and everyone was
comfortable with the seating arrangement so the group decided to start the talking circle where
we were rather than getting reestablished in another room. Participants were presented with a
pamphlet that explained the purpose of the talking circles along with questions that would be
asked in the talking circle and clarification that anonymity could not be guaranteed in the sense
that the researcher could only request that each participant respect the talking circle and keep
what is said in the circle confidential.
Prior to the first talking circle a discussion ensued of how to proceed through the three
talking circles. Most o f the participants indicated they would only be able to attend one talking
circle. After consulting with my thesis adviser, it was decided that since there would be different
participants at each circle it would be best if the participants at each talking circle would be

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 65
asked the same questions. An assurance that the same participants would attend all three talking
circles could not be obtained and this meant the previous talking circle format needed to be
modified. As a result, the format for the three talking circles was altered, only the first two
questions o f the original six questions were asked at each talking circle. However, many
participants in each talking circle used the six questions that were laid out in the pamphlet as
their guide to tell their post-secondary story. Also, the first part of each talking circle where the
participants would share one encouraging educational experience was dropped to allow
appropriate time for participants to respond to the questions.
The other change that took place was the choice o f the talking piece for the circles. The
participants chose an eagle feather for the talking circle rather than the talking stick. The reason
being the eagle feather had greater cultural significance for this First Nations Band as appose to
the talking stick that is associated with First Nations from Vancouver Island. This change
demonstrated flexibility and cultural sensitivity. It also indicated that the researcher was
interested in creating a comfort level for everyone.
Before each talking circle participants were asked to read and sign the Letter of Informed
Consent (see Appendix D). At the beginning of each talking circle the researcher informed
participants o f the facilitator’s (researcher) role and basic talking circle guidelines, in particular
that participant confidentiality be maintained; that is, what is said in the circle is to remain in the
circle. The researcher informed participants that some notes would be taken during the talking
circles and that a voice recorder will be used to record the talking circle. It took approximately
three hours for each talking circle to answer the two questions.
Several steps were involved in the data analysis. First, the researcher listened to the
complete recordings approximately ten times. Second, when listening to the recordings the

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 66
researcher used a voice recorder to keep track o f themes, sub-themes and keywords. Third, the
researcher typed up the voice recorded notes for further analysis. Fourth, the transcript was
formatted using headings to organize the data for the study. Fifth, the researcher read and
searched the data for major themes, sub-themes and keywords. Once the transcript was
formatted it was easy to search using the navigation pane. A transcriber was acquired to type the
recordings into a text document and ninety four pages were transcribed from the recordings. A
confidentiality agreement for transcription services was signed between the researcher and
transcriber.
The study did not focus on the level of post-secondary education nor did it ascertain how
many Band members had completed their post-secondary education. Nonetheless, it is important
to mention that the Bandleaders at the time took the initiative to consult institutions to see if one
o f them could provide a post-secondary program. After a lot o f consultation and dialogue an
institution did agree to provide a post-secondary program for the Band. The Band made a seven
year commitment to the program and in the end twenty-one Band members completed the
program with a degree. A number of participants were in the graduate program together and
other participants obtained their post-secondary education through various institutions. The
talking circles provided an avenue for participants to reflect on their post-secondary education as
a group. Participants often shared that other family members also pursued post-secondary
education spanning several generations. The name o f the participants were changed to ensure
anonymity. What is written is their story, a story of courage, strength and wisdom to pursue their
post-secondary education in spite o f overwhelming odds.
There were two main research findings that were derived from the two questions that
were asked at the talking circles.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 67
1. Motivational factors
a. Common motivational factors:
b. Encouragement from a visionary nun
c. Government, family and community support
d. A desire to build self-worth and self-sufficiency
e. A desire to upgrade educationally
f.

A desire to contribute to the community

g. A desire to not be dependent
h. Properly trained Band member to conduct Band affair
2. Benefits of pursuing post-secondary education
a. Cultural Impact
b. Educational Impact
F irst Question
When did you pursue post-secondary education and what motivated you? The first
participant to speak at the first talking circle gave a historical account of the various educational
steps the Band had taken to address their educational concerns before speaking o f the factors that
motivated him towards his post-secondary education. “In the early 70s we uh, set up uh, in the
community an Adult, Adult Basic Education Program and a lot o f our members uh, went through
that...” (Circle #1 - Sam). “And out of that program, people started to question and think about
their future and I will always remember that__________ asked and it is written in one of our old
newsletters somewhere, “Why can’t we go to university?”” And this was back again in the 70s.
So from that time, it has always been at the forefront of education and we make education a
priority” (Circle #1 - Sam).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 68
One participant in particular talked about a dream she had from an early age o f pursuing
post-secondary education. This is the same person that Sam quoted as saying, “Why can’t we go
to university?”
I have always wanted uh, my education. I always dreamed of, of, of receiving a cap, you
know you see all these graduates with caps you and I really wanted that and I just kept
thinking oh, if only someday that I could you know do this and that was my dream and
when I was in the residential school a t__________ uh, that we had to write an essay on
what we want, wanted to do after we graduated and, and so I had written that I wanted to
be a teacher and to be a teacher was to uh, you know, I, uh, I saw our community the way
it was and, and wanted the uh, kids uh, to have an education, but not the way we had to
go and get our education so I wanted to be a teacher just you know be helpful to our
people, uh, but you know that was my dream... (Circle #2 - Debbie).
Sam went on to say, “By the early 80s, again the question kept cropping up why can’t we
go to university? By the mid-80s, we started negotiating, we started asking, we asked
___________, we asked___________, we asked__________ can you deliver a program in our
community that meets the needs of our community? Each and every one of them said no we
can’t. We don’t have the means to do it.” (Circle #1 - Sam).
The Catholic Sister was a common motivating factor that many o f the participants talked
about. She encouraged, supported and lovingly pushed them to seek a higher education. She
was relentless in her quest to see Band members up-grade, to get their grade twelve equivalent
and then pursue post-secondary education. She approached the university she was attending
regarding the Band’s vision to pursue post-secondary education. The result, the university

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 69
opened its doors to the Band after taking two years to negotiate a suitable program. In response
to the program and partnership, twenty-one Band members graduated in education and business.
All the participants spoke fondly of the Sister as they recalled her tactful persuasive
ways. “As in everyone else, I always had Sister__________ to push me along” (Circle #1 Betty). In time of financial need the Sister was there to help out as one participant related:
One year she, I told her I can’t afford it, I’ve got four children, she says get down there, if
you have a place to stay we will make arrangements. One day she came over to check on
us and she went to the Catholic Church and she got me grocery money because I used up
all my education money on trying to complete in __________ an d ___________ (Circle #1
- Betty).
With a chuckle another participant and elder remembered the Sister’s persistence, “Sister
said I can quit anytime, but I think the sister was such a pusher, she pushed and pushed and
shoved. I even locked her out of my house and she got in. She sent my niece to come and talk to
me. That Sister was just a bully. “Do you want to quit?” There was no such thing as quit.”
(Circle #2 - Julie).
Still, another participant tried to sum up the role the Sister played in her getting a higher
education:
So umm, I did [pursue post-secondary], but it was also the help o f my, my family, like
my sisters were involved in an education route and my brothers were in there, in a
program and there is a lot of support and I think one o f the other, the ones that really
believed was Sister________ umm, gave a lot and always supported right through, right
through to the end and I think without her and my mom’s words, I don’t think I would
have made it (Circle #3, - Pam).

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One o f the participants in particular put things into perspective as she covered the history
between herself and the Sister:
... you have heard a lot of talk about___________and she’s been in my life, she was in
my life since I was a child and uh, my sister,___________and I lived with when uh, for
about a year in ___________and from that time forward like she was always in my life
anyways. She was always pushing me. She was standing beside me. She was pulling
me. Like she was uh, she always getting me to reach for one goal higher. Like when I
finished high school, she said, “Now you are going to go to university”, when I finished
university now she said, “You are going to go on to a Masters”. I finished my Masters
and she says now you are going to go to your doctorate so there was always one more
thing after, after I finished one thing. I didn’t uh, go on to my doctorate (Circle #2, Anita).
In the community there were other individuals just as important in motivating as the
Sister. Some participants recounted how the group that signed up for the program and the
community in general played a role in motivating the participants, “So that is, the motivation
came again from the early 70s, people with a vision, past leadership, our own community
members, all o f our own community supporting the program and supporting the students (Circle
#1 - Sam). It was as though the group was a nucleus, a smaller version of the larger community.
“I missed a lot of classes, so I had to stay a couple more summers, but again without that peer
support,_________ , __________ and others,___________ in the last couple o f years, I wouldn’t
have made it and again like I was saying with the group as a whole, that peer support was one of
the biggest factors” (Circle #1, - Sam).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 71
One o f the participants who was not one o f the original core group members who had
pursued post-secondary talked about how he and his family supported his brother to make it
through post-secondary.
The best thing about going away to school is just being able to grow up and mature and
learn how to take care of myself and another good thing was that I was able to stay
down there and live with my brother__________ and support him in his schooling and
stuff and he’ll never admit it, but we, our family supported him through his education
and did everything we could to make sure he completed it. I worked every kind o f job
to make sure we had food on the table and stuff like that and we did every little thing to
make sure that he made it through and that was the best thing about going away to
school was to support him and to grow into the person I am today (Circle #2, - Wayne).
Yet another participant reflected on the support the group as a whole provided especially
through some of the most tragic times.
I don’t remember the last year, they had church, we had like a church celebration, part of
the grad or something and___________asked me can you say all the names of the people
that were bom, all the names o f the people in those 7 or 9 years and all the babies that
were bom and all the people that we lost and there were a lot o f people from when the
program started to when the program finished, there were numerous people who died, a
lot o f elders, a lot of leaders and that was one of the hardest things that I ever had to do
because I said those names in church and the numbers, there were more deaths than
births, but they continued through the program so that tells me that there was a real
camaraderie, a real passion and a real love among the group” (Circle #1, - Diane).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 72
Through the educational process the group grew closer together and relationships were
strengthened. Participants reflected on the larger community environment as they studied
together.
I think amongst ourselves as people you know, it created better relationships amongst
ourselves and going through as a group I have a great better relationships outside
community, cohesiveness amongst the group, learning you know who’s, if I am having
problems in this area, I can go to this person or help this person, you know you develop
that, like we are all in this together kind o f idea (Circle #3, - Jackie).
Family was another strong motivating factor either directly or indirectly. Three sisters sat
next to each other in one o f the circles. The first sister to speak had this to say about family
support:
When I started my post-secondary education is when they, umm, brought the
__________ program to the reserve, that was now late 80s, (unintelligible words) the
mid-80s and then I finished in 92. I guess what umm, mainly got me going was my
mother. I think right to the end where she umm, encouraged me to finish, cause back
then I didn’t really have any self-confidence in my education although they wanted me to
finish high school and graduate umm, for a lot of reasons, I didn’t take education as
serious as they did and I didn’t really understand why it was so important. I guess maybe
they just saw more than, more than, more than I did. Cause I thought growing up onreserve is everything that I needed was here, cause they showed a way o f life, that umm,
that I had some knowledge of the culture, had some understanding and I didn’t feel
education was important so I was glad I did and I think you know it was the support o f
our, seeing our whole family go to school. Cause in, family back then was really

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 73
important, to support each other, through your, my ups and downs and I had four kids to
bring up and think about them, but I didn’t take it seriously until my mom. One time I
came back I was really having a hard time and she told me, I told her I was going quit. I
said I can’t do it. I, I just can’t finish. It is too hard on the kids and there’s not enough
family time and struggling financially, emotionally, spiritually and everything. She told
me that if I finish I won’t have to depend on anybody. So from there that’s what I did, I
went back and, and it was always kept in the back of my mind that was always my
biggest push to finish was just those words, you won’t have to depend on anybody again,
you can look after yourself and your kids. (Circle #3 - Pam)
The second sister went on to speak o f the precious classroom memory she had of her
mother:
“ .. .it was intriguing to work with language ideas and just watch it. Sometimes watch
what was happening, being present was, was, was just amazing for me. So I was
fortunately to appreciate now that, that, that time o f sitting with my mother in a
classroom where both of us were students” (Circle #3, - Jackie).
Jackie spoke with high regard o f her father as he raised them to valued education and
make it a priority:
About our dad there he was a veteran, a World War II veteran. He was Chief for many
years, having come back and endured life as an equal in Canada’s army fighting in the
war witnessed so many things and came back knowing himself what it was that he
wanted and was able to articulate it and I think we grew up with that, being raised to
know what it meant to be raised by a veteran, were the expectations were there. The
Canadian Army did a pretty good job I think o f that. You believe in something strongly

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 74
enough to be able to want to give up your life for it, that is something, that was, that was
there as a person” (Circle #3, - Jackie).
The third sister went on to describe further the significant part that her family
played regarding her desire to strive to acquire her education.
I was glad to be doing something like my sisters; I always knew education was important. We
learned that at a very young age because Lord help us if our younger brother___________got home
ahead of us because he was always doing very well in his schooling and he would get home with
the report card. We would walk in and our dad would be sitting there and he would ask where our
report cards were” (Circle #3, - Ann).
Parents played a pivotal motivational role in the lives o f their children as they were
exhorted to achieve post-secondary education as one o f the other participates stated:
I always in, I was always taught by my father, always pursue your education because
what the other cultures know, the other races know, you have to know too, to get on that
same level were your education strong enough to understand their words, that’s how I
have always see it, is that, learn what’s been taught and educated and spoke of so you can
speak on those terms also” (Circle #1, - Betty).
One o f the participants from the second circle talked about how her parents groomed her
for post-secondary when she was a child. “Even before I went to college and even before I
finished high school, my mom and dad had told me that umm, no matter what I was going to
finish high school and I was also going to go to college, so it was like uh, something that was
already put out there (Circle #2 - Anita).
Children and independence were another significant motivating factor for participants.
Participants clearly communicated they were passionate about the ability to provide for their

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 75
children. “My major driving force back then was a lot of my, w as__________ , my oldest boy,
just trying to uh, trying to be the better dad. I guess and trying to make up for lost time or
whatever it might have been. It was a lot of my driving factors and then just graduating was part
of it” (Circle #1, - Joe). Fighting back her emotions, one of the participants who sought post­
secondary in a different institution than many of the other participants shared the following:
I told her I want to go t o __________ . I hear there is a First Nations program and I want
to do my BA because I love accounting, I love money. I like to support myself and I
didn’t want to live on welfare. I applied for welfare once in my life and I cried all
through the process because I was taught always support yourself because it is what
everyone is taught, you know, raise yourself, educate yourself and__________ came
back to me and said we can’t put you in that program because it costs too much and no
one has ever gone to __________ before, but I am going to bring it back to the education
board and we’ll see where it goes from there. In that one week she had me scheduled for
the CAT test the application to go into university. The next week, I was packing up my
children and myself and we went, we were off to ___________to go, to go to school.
This was independent as a single mom because as I had mentioned before it was a time in
my life where things weren’t going right in my family, in my husband, I, relationship,
where I had to do something for my children. Where what if the possibility if he is not
going to be there for me or my children. Somebody has to be there to raise them and that
was my biggest step forward was my oldest son to know that there, that we all can
graduate and we can complete whatever we wanted to do and they’re my biggest
motivation and my biggest accomplishment to teach them that where there’s a will,
there’s a way, no matter what the odds are, single parent, single person, First Nations,

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 76
you can do it. All my children have graduated and I have my youngest one, yet to go
through (Circle #1, - Betty).
One father who upgraded and attended the university program set up by the Band talked
about his motivation to further his education to be a better role model for his children and to
prove to himself higher education was possible.
My name i s __________ and what pursued me to post-secondary education was umm,
getting my grade 12 and Sister__________ was a great part o f that in getting us all
studied up and prepared for it, 8 hours’ worth o f tests. Umm, that was a huge step in my
education, because before then it was umm, grade 10 and low self-esteem and a lot of that
was due to alcohol also umm, yeah and the motivation was I wanted more, to prove to
myself and my kids that a higher education was possible and so far it is working I guess.
Umm, I started off with ah, post-secondary with umm, the group back in 19__ , __
(Circle #1, - Ron).
Perhaps the best way to summarize how family played a motivational role could be
summed up this way. “And so again I’d just like to say my biggest inspiration was my mom and
dad, my grandparents, my ancestors and my children and then later in life it was a lot o f
colleagues and colleagues’ support” (Circle #1, - Sue). There was hardly a participant that did
not share how their post-secondary education impacted their life, the lives of their children and
the lives o f their grandchildren.
Second Question
What are some of the best things about having completed your post-secondary education?
In regards to the second question participants gleamed with enthusiasm and a sense o f elation as
they responded to the question.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 77
My name is ___________and I have to say some o f the best things that came from my
education was encouraging a lot of the younger generation to go to school and my
encouraging some o f the secretaries go on with your education cause I was right were
you were. Carry on, like go back to school finish your education and at times it feels like
I am a broken record, but at times there is just one o f them that needs it that’s like, yes,
victory so that’s one o f the things that I would have to say that is the best thing that came
from getting my education was encouraging others to go get their education” (Circle #1, Sarah).
A well-known member of the community and former Chief had this to say about the best
thing of having completed his post-secondary education.
My name is __________ . Again, what were some o f the (unintelligible word), I mean,
what were some of the best things? And there’s quite a few things that umm, I’m like I
mentioned earlier that I am proud about having completed the umm, program. Just the
fact there I was able complete and again after 9 years umm, you know, made me very
proud, again not only myself, but to see the group as a whole graduate in

. You know

when you see all o f our students going up to accept their umm, certificates and that in, in
___________with the support group that we had from __________ was just, to me was
pretty amazing. Like I said it is something that has never been done and I don’t think
will never be done again in this country, with such a program. Again like I mentioned
some o f the best things was having the family, peer support that we set up to umm,
provide that support to individual students and that I think that’s what made it such a
success (Circle #2 - Sam).

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 78
A grandmother and stalwart of the community pondered the best thing about her post­
secondary experience.
I mean the best thing about going to ___________was that we had all the support. If
anything happened to one person, everybody was there to help them they’d tell us you
know do you need help with your papers, do you need, do you need us to cook for you,
do you need us to help look after your kids or do you need a time out or, they were
always there and she [her niece] was one o f my best support for doing my papers (Circle
#2, - Julie).
Another participant spoke of how she gathered a form of strength from her
post-secondary education.
I guess the best thing for me for completing my school, I don’t know, to me just gave me
a ticket that I could go and work somewhere. Where this was something needed or
required to get a job and all the benefits that came with it. But I think the other side, what
it gave me was knowing that I could stand up to the challenges (Circle #3, - Pam).
Throughout the talking circles many of the participants spoke directly or indirectly o f the
job opportunities that post-secondary provided and how their education has prepared them to
better meet their personal needs and the needs o f their community.
A participant who had previously worked for a local school district and has since move
on to work with a local government agency expressed what post-secondary meant for her.
T he___________program or completing university was a stepping stone for me to
complete my umm, to go on to my Masters o f Education in Counselling Psychology. I
did that through the University o f __________ and completed that in 19,_______. And
what my mom didn’t tell you is that they started just before me. They were doing their

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 79
masters in linguistics through__________ University and the only thing that stopped
them from going and completing their Masters was they had to go live in, a t__________
and they refused do it. So they were that close to finishing it, that’s all they had to do.
So they started before me. Umm, what my degree or what my degree has done for me is
umm, I was able to get a really good job (Circle #3, - Anita).
With a smile on her face an elder in the community and who graduated along
with the group relayed the best thing about graduating for her.
Well first o f all I’ll tell you the date I graduated was the greatest day o f my life. I thought
that was the most eh, exciting time. I, I was waiting for my diploma and, and I was way
in the back with my, my niece__________ and I was crying and she told me I had no,
no, no business to be crying. I told her you would too if you waited this long to for this
day to come along and she, I told her I was so happy, I never thought I would see this day
and she told me “quit crying, making, making everybody look at you.” I said let them
look, I said I’m really happy and she be seen supporting, she has a tissue there too; I just
told her I was so happy, she was embarrassed. She won’t admit it she (unintelligible
words) supporting. I think she was embarrassed, but that was a really good day and I said
I accomplished what I came for, I had this paper and I was able to get jobs and have,
make my children proud of me, my grandchildren and my great-grandson said “who
would ever believe me I said, my great-grandmother is my teacher.” I said, I said “yeah,
that’s true.” (Circle #2, - Julie).
The previous participant’s sister was sitting beside her and talked about what she felt was
the best thing about getting her post-secondary education:

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 80
Well I, my name is __________ . Some of the best things that uh, uh, about having, I
completed my education um, first of all I was very, very proud and happy and I received
my cap that I always wanted and I still have that cap today. It’s uh, still stashed away
where I look at it once and awhile and remember that day and uh, also I have been uh,
working as a language teacher since 85 (Circle #2, - Debbie).
A sense o f accomplishment and satisfaction was heard in the elder’s voice as she remembered
the value o f completing her post-secondary education.

Cultural Impact
Education has become a family and community value where children are learning to
appreciate the accomplishments of their elders. One Elder and great grandmother shows the
value of education to her children and grandchildren by putting their picture on her wall of fame.
Just happy I have an education and, and know a lots of, lots of things. I have friends, but
you ask my grandchildren I have none because I am mean. Then they see my friends.
Oh yeah you do have one friend, but it makes you happy, satisfied just to walk up and get
your diploma and that was the greatest thing, besides my children and grandchildren.
After my great-grandchildren, comes my grandchildren and then my, my kids and I
always tell them the happy, a happy day will be when I go up to your graduation and I
have pictures with my grandchildren at their graduation that is hanging on my wall. I
have one wall just for graduates I tell them. I said when your picture goes up there,
that’ll be another proud day (Circle #2, - Julie).
Several participants spoke about the ability to serve their community now that they have
graduated from post-secondary. One aspect that came from the interviews was that Band
members are better suited to provide and perform necessary Band administration tasks. Through

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 81
their post-secondary education graduates offer a type o f leadership that did not exist prior to the
Band graduate program initiative. Much of the Band administrators, Chief and Council members
consist o f Band members from the Band graduate program. Some o f the graduates are directly
involved in treaty negotiations and others are language and cultural teachers that teach at the
Band school and local school district. One of the graduate participants now sits as a university
senate member at one o f the nearby universities to provide First Nations leadership at an
institutional level. After graduating, graduates have not idly sat back; the opposite is true in that
they have become involved in the community. They have filled a variety of positions throughout
their community and surrounding communities. After the initial Band program, the leaders
consulted with local universities to develop a university weekend program in conjunction with
other First Nations groups in the area.
The former post-secondary grad students understand they have become more enriched
through their education individually and as a community. They have had the courage to step
outside of their familiar culture and learn to live and succeed in a very different culture. They
came to the realization that they could rise up through past and present challenges. This type of
courage has now given them a renewed vision.
I am very proud o f my brothers and sisters who went through the education system. I
know what it takes to go through that, to work with them, the fun we had, the challenges
we had, the growth in each and every one o f us, the growth as a community. You look at
it from the umbrella point o f view, from where our parents were, the changes that were,
we went through as students and learning to where we want our children to go to our
grandchildren and that’s something that we have to keep in our visions is what we want
for our children were we made a treaty. What are the jobs and skills that are going to be

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 82
needed for our people, so that we can grow as a community and not be dependent (Circle
#3, - Ann).
Post-secondary education has allowed participants to be more self-sufficient as
individuals and as a community and has assisted in cultural preservation. Band members went
away to learn and came back enriched. Participants developed a greater degree o f self-worth and
self-esteem. Many of the participants referred to their geographic move as difficult yet enabling
them to preserve and enrich their worldview.

Academic Impact
Participants from the talking circles spoke about maintaining a balance between
education and their culture. They indicated that now that they are certified teachers they have
been able to secure teaching positions at the Band school. This alone has been extremely
significant in that it has provided an opportunity for them to show their community they are able
to fill such positions and earn their trust and respect. One teacher spoke o f the challenges o f
teaching in her own community and her efforts to overcome them. In the end, the community
did accept and understood that a First Nations teacher teaching in their Band school has more
pros than cons. First Nations teachers are familiar with cultural style, how to meet specific
student needs and represent role models for First Nations children. In addition, they were able to
established better communication with parents. The British Columbia Teachers Federation and
the British Columbia Public School Employers’ Association (BCPSEA) supports employment of
Aboriginal teachers (British Columbia Teachers Federation, 2013-14) and has published
disparaging ratios o f First Nations teachers to First Nations students. Participants did not seem
threatened by education in that somehow traditional culture would be eroded away by education.
In fact, the opposite is true. Some of the participants said that they were better able to integrate

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 83
traditional culture and values into the classroom when one participant in particular spoke of how
much she enjoyed her post-secondary experience and summed up the way she was feeling, “Like
I said before; I umm, I umm, would love to live on campus you know for the rest o f my days you
know because I, I just love, just loved the environment that, the whole enviry [sic]. I’m traveling
through umm, you know, when down w ith__________ to ___________and I was up at
, I would say, gee, I’d love to be able to stay here and just, just be a student. So I
have nurtured the desire to learn, for the sake o f learning” (Circle #3, - Jackie).
One of the younger participants fought back her tears as she spoke about her
children who were about to enter university and o f the encouragement her daughter
received from family. She also quite succinctly summed up the role o f the
community when it came to education.
We got the letter today ironically and my middle child was accepted to university and
we’re really happy. We had her phone some community members, we had her phone a
couple o f her uncles and aunts and to hear them cheer was really good and like hear them
and encourage her “go do it.” She’s turning 18. She hasn’t quite turned 18 yet so like we
are really excited and my oldest one we are waiting on her letter to go t o ___________in
___________so and listening to some of the other youth that have children and trying to
encourage them go back, go back and get your education. Go do it! You can do it! This
community will hold you up” (Circle #1, - Sarah).

Final Thoughts
Creating friendships and assisting in various activities before and after the study with the
Band established trust, respect and assurance that the researcher is genuinely interested in the
people themselves and not solely for the purpose o f gathering data to benefit the researcher.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 84
Using culturally appropriate methodology to do cultural research was a key component to
engaging participants in order to collect a rich array of data. It is important for researchers
working with a First Nations community to be flexible and culturally sensitive.
As previously discussed in the thesis, Literature Review o f Factors Affecting the
Transition o f Aboriginal Youth from School to Work, it is pointed out that Aboriginal peoples are
the fastest growing population in Canada. The opportunity exists for the government o f Canada,
British Columbia and the Bands to meet First Nations academic learning needs in order for
British Columbia and Canada and the Bands to address the present and future work force
demands.
Thus far post-secondary graduates have done well encouraging family, friends and
community members to consider post-secondary education. However, the Band should consider
encouraging and motivating post-secondary graduates to proactively engage others to pursue
post-secondary education through post-secondary organized activities or informal activities like
common gathering to talk about the past post-secondary experience and how the post-secondary
experience is still relevant today.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 85
Here are some final thoughts to the study after reflecting on my research and my personal
educational experience. First Nations are resourceful, resilient and a determined people. First
Nations are actively preserving and transmitting their culture while developing a greater sense of
independence.

Post-Secondary Education
Embraces Courage
Endows Strength
Bestows Wisdom
Heals Emotions
Exhorts Pride
Builds Self-esteem
Bequeaths Legacy
Empower Character
Creates Equality
Restores Faith

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 86

CHAPTER V
Conclusion
The First Nations group allowed the researcher to be a part o f their community and
become a part o f their history. This First Nations Band has applied what they have learned
through their post-secondary education as individuals and as a community. It is one thing to go
to school and apply what you have learned and it is quite another thing to have gone to school
and not practiced what you have learned. This First Nations group had a vision when they
created the graduate program and succeeded. Before attending post-secondary education they
were proactive in instituting educational, social and emotional reform.
Graduates have stepped up to assist local Band members and family to attend post­
secondary education. This is a form of higher learning, being able to explain to someone the
importance o f post-secondary education and to talk about what you have learned is critical to the
learning process. The other aspect that is recognized throughout the talking circles is how
participants have unknowingly exercised the Zone o f Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978)
within the community. The Zone of Proximal Development is about what a learner has already
mastered and what he or she can achieve. It is about being in the gap were things seemed doable
and yet not too difficult. As numerous participants apply the right amount of pressure to
encourage family, friends and community members, some that are encouraged ultimately move
forward with their education.
When the Sister passed the Band experienced a tremendous loss. The big question that
was not directly addressed in the talking circles is who is going to take her place? Even though
many o f the participants did not say directly they have taken the Sister’s efforts to heart, many of
them have and are now supporting, encouraging and assisting similar to what the Sister did.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 87
Through the effort o f all who have pursued post-secondary education the number o f community
Band members who are seeking higher education continues to increase.
In the end the community has experienced improved quality o f life. They have
progressed educationally and have taken the opportunity to grow emotionally and intellectually.
An educational post-secondary culture has been created through this conscientious First Nations
group. The Band’s educational story of courage, strength and wisdom is being passed down
from generation to generation.

Recommendations: Institutions, Federal and Provincial Governments
1. The literature review and participants acknowledge the shortage o f funding to support
individuals and the community in order to access significant post-secondary achievement.
The Federal and Provincial governments should provide adequate funding to develop and
maintain a post-secondary education support system through daycare, housing, tuition,
mentorship, access to mental, spiritual, physical and emotional well-being.
2. The study could be replicated in other communities in order to validate possible common
success factors to develop a platform that may facilitate reaching more First Nations
communities to engage potential post-secondary students.
3. Institutions as well as the Federal and Provincial governments would do well to use this
Band’s graduate success model to further study how research can play a larger part in
addressing the shortage of First Nations professionals and skilled workers in B.C.
4. The Band should form a deeper partnership with the Provincial and Federal governments to
formulate a specific post-secondary education action plan based upon their particular
graduate success factors.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 88
5. The Provincial and Federal governments should promote ground level facilitators that will
support, encourage and advise regarding post-secondary education.
6. The First Nations population growth offers a huge potential to meet the increasing provincial
work force demand. Post-secondary education stakeholders could make a significant
difference in the end result by proactively cooperating to engage the employable First
Nations population through post-secondary education.
7. A genuine relationship with Aboriginal Peoples must be established prior to any research to
develop long term meaningful ties to facilitate open communication before gathering data.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 89

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Appendix A
Talking Circle Topics and Questions
Talking Circle 1
1. Share one encouraging educational experience.
2. When did you pursue post-secondary education, and what motivated you?
3. What are some o f the best things about having completed your post-secondary
education?
Talking Circle 2
1. Share one encouraging educational experience.
2. What were some of the challenges you faced pursuing a post-secondary education,
and how did you overcome the challenges?
3. Why did you decide to return to the reserve after completing your post-secondary
education?
Talking Circle 3
1. Share one encouraging educational experience.
2. What advice would you give to students, parents, teachers, and Band members
regarding your post-secondary education?
3. Now that you have completed your post-secondary education, what advice would you
give to post-secondary institutions?

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 105

Appendix B
Talking Stick

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 106

Appendix C

Talking Circle Guidelines

1. Respect confidentiality
2. Only the person with the talking stick is permitted to speak
3. Give your name each time you speak
4. Take your time and say all that you would like to say
5. Direct your comments to the question asked by the researcher
6. Pass the talking stick clockwise, to the left when finished speaking
7. No put downs
8. You can pass on your turn if you would like to do so
9. Always be respectful
10. Make an effort to listen attentively to the speaker

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 107

Appendix D
University of Northern British Columbia
Ken LePage Talking Circle Research
Letter of Informed Consent

Dear Participant:

________________________________
Participant Name

Please read the following items, check the box ( 0 ) and sign at the bottom if you agree to contribute to
this research under the proposed conditions.
1. I have been informed that this talking circle has been created by Ken LePage to help him
complete his Master’s Degree research for the University of Northern British Columbia. The
purpose of the talking circle is to research why some members of your community were
successful in completing a university degree and what can we do, as a community, to ensure that
other indigenous peoples can be successful as well.
2. My participation in the talking circle is voluntary, and I can withdraw from the study at any time.
3. Researcher, Ken LePage, is a Metis person who has conducted many talking circles. He will
facilitate the talking circle and will digitally voice record and compile notes after each session.
Ken LePage is aware that traditional talking circle protocols must be respected throughout each
session.
4. While my participation will be kept confidential unless I make a written request to be identified, I
realize that there is a risk that my identity will become known. My privacy will be protected such
that I am not identifiable in the written analysis.
5. The primary researcher Ken LePage will keep the digital voice recordings (files) and notes for no
more than five years in a locked box at the University Northern British Columbia. No one except
the researcher and his advisor will have access to these documents in any form without my
written consent.
6. Ken LePage may use the digital voice recordings and notes for further analysis; in that
eventuality, all conditions of confidentiality will be strictly maintained.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 108

7. I understand and agree that the findings of the study may be published; however, my
confidentiality will be maintained in any publication.
8. If I have further questions about the study I can contact Ken LePage at (250) 791-6289. I may
direct any complains I have about the project to the Office of Research, UNBC, (250) 960-5820.
^

I have read the above information and agree to participate in the talking circle(s).

Participant Name

Signature

Date

Ken LePage

Signature

Date

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 109

Appendix E

The Facilitator’s Role
1.

Acknowledge the people and territory the talking circle is being held on.

2.

Open, guide, and close the talking circle.

3.

Clarify the difference between confidentiality and non-confidentiality.

4.

Ensure participatory consent forms are signed and collected.

5.

Prepare the environment and setting for the talking circle.

6.

Introduce talking circle guideline.

7.

Oversee that the talking circle respectful.

8.

Make sure talking circle protocol is followed.

9.

The facilitator may ask for clarification through questioning or paraphrasing
during the talking circle.

10. Acknowledge participant contribution in a non-judgemental way.
11. The facilitator is to demonstrate empathy, positive regard, warmth,
genuineness, concreteness, competence, respect, and objectivity.
12. The facilitator will clarify elements o f the talking circle i.e., talking circle
guests; a person can pass and later ask to share.

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 110

Appendix F

Who is the Talking Circle
Facilitator/Researcher?

Anonymity
Talking circle participants need to be aware
that unanim ity cannot be guaranteed in a
talking circle in that the research cannot
ensure participants do not talk o f w hat is
said in the talking; how ever, the research
will ask that confidentiality be kept within
the talking circle.

Talking Circle Questions
• W hen did you pursue post­
secondary education, and what
m otivated you?
• W hat are som e o f the best things
about having com pleted your post­
secondary education?
• W hat were som e o f the challenges
you faced pursuing a post-secondary
education, and how did you
overcom e the challenges?
• W hy did you decide to return to the
reserve after com pleting your post­
secondary education?
• W hat advice w ould you give to
students, parents, teachers, and B and
m em bers regarding your post­
secondary education?
N ow that you have com pleted your post­
secondary education, w hat advice w ould
you give to post-secondary institutions?

Researcher, Ken LePage, is a Metis
person who has conducted many talking
circles and is an Aboriginal cultural
educator. Ken works for School District
27 and teaches primary. He will
facilitate the talking circle and will
digitally voice record and compile notes
after each session.

Contact US
Phone Barb: [250 397-2502]
Phone Ken: [250 706-8581]

First Nations
Post-Secondary
Education
Talking Circles

First Nations
Post-Secondary Education

Wisdom Courage Strength ...
Talking Circles

FN Post-Secondary Ed. 111

Talking Circles
We would like to hear your
story o f how you had the
wisdom, strength and
courage to pursue a post­
secondary education. There
will be three talking circles.
Throughout each talking
circle participants will share
their personal post­
secondary educational
experiences, motivations,
challenges and how their
experience can be beneficial
toothers. Another reason
for the talking circles is to
help me (Ken LePage)
complete my post­
secondary education (M.
Ed.) with UNBC.

An introductory meeting
(potluck) will take place prior
to the talking circle in order
for participants to determine
if they are interested in
participating in the talking
circles and so that everyone
can get acquainted. There
will be a potluck each
evening before the
introductory meeting and
talking circles. The research
will consist of three talking
circles made up o f three
rounds. If you agree to take
part in this study, the
researcher is asking that you
attend the three (3) talking
circles. North American
First Nations talking circle
protocol will be reviewed and
followed at each talking
circle.

Important!
Participants must sign a Letter of
Informed Consent before
participating in the talking
circles. The Letter of Informed
Consent outlines the researcher’s
responsibilities and lets
participants know the various
technical aspects of the study.
• If you are First Nations and
have pursued a post-secondary
education you are invited to
attend
• Each talking circle is expected
to take about 1 X
A hours, but it
could be longer.
Barb Guertsen and Brenda Grant
will be present at each talking
circle to be of support, but will
not participate. Similarly, the
researcher (Ken LePage) will be
present, but not participate.