THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHER SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE
TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROSOCIAL CLASSROOMS: THE ROLE OF
TEACHER PREPARATION
by
Gordon Cogan
B.Ed., University of Manchester, 1986

PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
IN
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY LEADERSHIP

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
February 2017
© Gordon Cogan, 2017

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Abstract
The alarming statistic that 40% to 50% of new teachers leave the profession within five years
makes pre-service training of teachers even more crucial to get right. Failing to address the
mental health needs and holistic wellbeing of teachers and not providing them with the tools
necessary to break the cycle of likely burnout cascade is incredulously negligent, and
threatens to make educating our children unsustainable in the future. In this project, through
a content analysis approach, I will draw upon a wide range of scholarly research literature to
form both the guiding principles and core components of a course to promote and develop
social and emotional competencies (SEC) and Emotional Intelligence (EI) in pre-service
teachers. The course content and training I propose, however, needs to be not only an
ongoing dialogue involving the education community, particularly teachers, but also
administrators, families, students, parents, and wellness professionals, and should continue
beyond the pre-service course; it should be ongoing, holistic, ‘drip-fed’ and employing a
combination of strategies.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... i
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... v
Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 3
Statement of Purpose and Research Question. ................................................................. 5
Background and Personal Meaning of this Study ............................................................. 6
Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 8
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 8
Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 10
Teacher Social and Emotional Competencies..................................................................... 11
Emotional Intelligence ........................................................................................................ 14
The changing nature of education ....................................................................................... 17
The prosocial classroom ..................................................................................................... 21
Social and Emotional Learning ........................................................................................... 24
Teacher Efficacy and Attrition............................................................................................ 30
Teacher-training education: structural and programming considerations .......................... 37
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 3: Research Design .................................................................................................... 48
Data Collection ................................................................................................................... 51
Data analysis ....................................................................................................................... 52
Validity ............................................................................................................................... 56
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 4: Results and SEC Course Content Guide ............................................................... 59
Table 2 ................................................................................................................................ 61
The SEC Course Content Guide ......................................................................................... 63
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................... 119
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 122
Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 124
Reflections ........................................................................................................................ 125

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References ............................................................................................................................. 127
Appendix A: The Pro-Social Classroom – A Relationship Model ....................................... 139
Appendix B: Pie Chart of Coded Research Focus ................................................................ 140

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List of Tables
Table 1 …………………………………………………………………………………….53
Document Content Analysis Gathering Process
Table 2 ………………………………………………………………………………….…61
Proportion of SEC-Related Scholarly Research Supporting SEL Themes

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Acknowledgements
This project is dedicated to the new and the old who commit to teaching as a
labour of emotion and require our support and appreciation in meeting the needs of the next
generation. Our very future balances on the development of caring, inquisitive, and informed
individuals inspired by teachers equipped to swim in the turbulent waters of education today.
The completion of this project would never have been possible without the patience
and loving support of my wife, Tracy, who continues to be my best friend, strongest
advocate, and fiercest critic. Her feedback and reflections continually helped me stay focused
on the question as the work progressed. I will always be eternally grateful to her for the life
we share.
Finally, deep appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr. Andrew Kitchenham, for all his
support and insight, as well as to the rest of my committee members, Dr. Tina Fraser and
Lynn Maksymchak, whose knowledge and expertise have helped shape my work.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
In the ever-changing landscape of education, practitioners, stakeholders, and most
significantly students are continuously exposed to the need for change. Rethinking how
students learn 21st century skills, the advent of personalized learning, and the development of
inquiry-based curriculums, all point to the changing needs of our society, and the economic
realities our children face. Schools, though, are charged with the responsibility of addressing
and servicing student-centred learning and the increasingly diverse needs of students with a
wide range of abilities and motivation for learning (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, &
Schellinger, 2011; Ransford, Greenberg, Domitrovich, Small, & Jacobson, 2009). While
accountability for academic success is inherent in the mandate of policy makers, human and
social development is also required. Students should be proficient in interacting and working
together in responsible and respectful ways, developing the social and emotional
competencies needed to contribute to a healthy society and a sustainable economy (BC
School Act, 1989).
The challenges and expectations faced by students today to become responsible
citizens, competent socially and successful academically, places a burden on them which can
become magnified by social and economic inequality. Changes in the social and economic
conditions of families over the latter part of the last century, and the beginning of this new
one have led to increasing pressure and dysfunction becoming manifest in school drop-out
statistics, drug use, and risk of psychopathology (Buchanan, Gueldner, Tran, & Merrell,
2009; Greenberg, Domitrovich, & Bumbarger, 1999; Noddings, 2005). The demands on
teachers to meet the growing needs of students have become broad and increasingly onerous,

2
and classrooms have become the focus of intense public scrutiny in regards to pedagogical
approaches and practices, achievement, and increasing accountability (Buchanan, Gueldner,
Tran, & Merrell, 2009; Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg, & Walberg, 2007). Students feel
greater alienation from an education system still based on control and obedience, and where
connection and caring are subordinate to the importance of academic goals (Freiberg &
Lamb, 2009; Noddings, 2005). For many teachers, the behaviourist approach to classroom
management married to the heavy demands and accountability of a content and assessment
driven curriculum have led to what Jennings and Greenberg (2009) describe as a “burnout
cascade” (p. 493).
The effective introduction of social and emotional learning (SEL) and the
development of more prosocial classroom environments have led to a preventative
intervention model that schools and teachers can use to enhance children’s social and
emotional functioning, and benefit their academic performance (Buchanan et al., 2009; Han
& Weiss, 2005; Payton et al., 2000; Zins et al., 2007). The essential components of SEL are
the development of skills that effectively recognize, manage, and regulate emotions,
strengthen social and emotional connections, promote positive relationships, and lead to
better pro-social problem solving for individuals (Elias, 2006; Zins & Elias, 2007). It is
becoming recognized that classrooms possess the potential to become level one intervention
points for disconnection and mental health symptoms, and are fiscally more sustainable than
the relatively limited and expensive mental health services that are already stretched (Han &
Weiss, 2005). Schools have traditionally adopted a reactive approach to student issues of
mental health, trauma, self-medicating, and lack of attachment, but possess, as Han and
Weiss (2005) suggested, the agents of change toward a more proactive approach.

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Teachers shape the learning environment for their students by developing a
welcoming and supportive classroom which nourishes connection through caring and a sense
of belonging, augmented by lessons that are engaging and matched to the strengths and
interests of their students. Teachers also set the tone of the classroom by helping and
coaching students to navigate positively through conflict resolutions, and by the exemplary
modeling of emotional self-regulation (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). While teachers are the
essential change agents to the development of beneficial prosocial classrooms in schools, of
pivotal concern is whether they possess the requisite skill sets to achieve this goal. The
purpose of this study is to understand the importance of social and emotional competencies
(SEC) in teachers at the inception period of their careers. I intend to investigate whether they
have the necessary SEC commensurate with such a difficult and stressful role, and what can
be done to support them in their professional development.
Significance of the Study
Of all the pressing challenges that education and the teaching profession faces today,
two of the most significant have a direct relationship with each other. The first is the
increasing disaffection and alienation of a large percentage of students whose lack of
connection and sense of belonging in school have seriously impinged upon not only their
academic performance, but also upon their social and emotional health (Blum, Libbey,
Bishop, & Bishop, 2004; Boyce, King & Roche, 2007; Durlak et al., 2011; Tishelman,
Haney, O'Brien, & Blaustein, 2010). The second is the impact of occupational stress on
teacher attrition rates. The types of stressors to which teachers are exposed on a regular basis
such as the classroom management issues of discipline and poor behaviour, non-compliance
and defiance, and poor or low student motivation can lead to emotional exhaustion,

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depersonalization, and limited personal accomplishment and competence (Chan, 2006;
Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Mearns & Cain, 2003).
Given the needs of many students, it is imperative that schools and classrooms
become more prosocial in their structure and management, and that teachers nurture positive
social and emotional development amongst all their students. Vital for the future of this
approach is the introduction of new teachers equipped with not only the relevant subject
methodology, but also with a full array of SEC.
In a study of burnout among teachers in Hong Kong, Chan (2003) found that
emotional exhaustion was a strong predictor, and would have a deleterious effect upon a
teacher’s wellbeing and career, and on the learning achievements of their students. Jennings
and Greenberg (2009) postulated that when the climate in the classroom deteriorates, the
ensuing emotional exhaustion for teachers leads to a breakdown in relationships with
students and apathy towards the profession. Mearns and Cain (2003) suggested as much as
20% of new teachers leave the profession within the first few years due to burnout; yet there
is no systematic approach to pre-service training for young teachers to develop SEL, and
little attention given to exploring whether an examination of personal resources regarding
SEC for teachers in training would be relevant (Chan, 2006; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009;
Mearns & Cain, 2003; Zins et al., 2007).
The construct of SEC for practicum teachers should be based, according to Jennings
and Greenberg (2009), on the core components of SEL. CASEL, the Collaborative for
Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (2013) outlined these components as: selfawareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-

5
making. Jennings and Greenberg (2009) believe that these SEL competencies, originally
devised and applied to children, deliver a more genuine framework for teacher SEC than do
the components of emotional intelligence (EI) because of the nature of the relationship. Since
teachers would be entrusted to teach SEL components, utilizing the same framework for
teachers would lead to better connection and performance (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
I believe that new teachers would benefit from developing an inventory of their own
SEC during the formative years of their training, as well as gaining formal access to SEL
specific training. Developing stronger, more effective SEC must become an integral part of
training for pre-service teachers, and should underpin all intervention decisions in and around
student participation and engagement.
Statement of Purpose and Research Question.
The perennial axiom that life for a teacher at the beginning of his or her career is a
“sink or swim proposition” (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003, p. 4) continues to be an area of major
concern in education today. Zins et al. (2007) were unequivocal in their suggestion that:
Many new professionals entering the teaching force need training in how to address
social emotional learning to manage their classrooms more effectively, to teach their
students better, and to cope successfully with students who are challenging.
Moreover, such skills likely will help these teachers to manage their own stress more
effectively and to engage in problem solving more skillfully in their own lives (p.
192).

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I believe that action is required to equip new teachers as the agents of change in promoting
the intellectual, social and emotional growths of students, and break the cycle of sink or
swim in their formative years.
The purpose of the study was to inform the planning and development of future
teacher preparation courses in order to better equip new teachers to work in challenging
classrooms through, firstly, an investigation into the changing complexity of schools and the
teaching environment, and, secondly, the development of SEC-related course content
emphasizing an understanding while practicing those skills that are most important to
developing and nurturing emotional intelligence (EI) and SEL. The goal of this project is to
identify what the basic social and emotional competencies that preservice teachers need to
possess themselves in order to develop prosocial classrooms. I propose a research agenda to
address the potential efficacy of intervention strategies designed to promote teacher SEC
while providing course content to support pre-service skill-based teacher social and
emotional learning.
Background and Personal Meaning of this Study
In a career spanning three decades, I have been both a teacher and administrator in
two school systems in two different countries. My experience was developed in what Kaser
and Halbert (2009) would describe as a ‘sorting system of education’: large inner-city
schools where the mindset emphasized teaching rather than learning, and ranking students
through a process of grading and judgment. My formative years were spent developing
classroom management skills based upon control and obedience; relationship building with
students reflected the notion of hierarchical authority rather than connection and developing a
sense of belonging. My first seven years working in Canada was in Special Education and

7
Alternative Education, and it was here, working with disenfranchised, disconnected, and
traumatized learners, that I formulated much of my philosophy regarding the importance of
social and emotional development. For many of these learners, the inability to cope and form
positive relationships both alienated and marginalized them; therefore, constructing a
program where coping and relationship skills were nurtured and developed along with
academic skills in a safe, non-judgmental environment was paramount in their overall
success.
When I eventually returned to administration, I started to recognize a disturbing
pattern of low-level, disruptive behaviour which often punctuated and characterized many
classroom environments. A disproportionate amount of my time was being spent intervening
and investigating classroom referrals and documenting all the evidence. In analyzing the
evidence, it became clear that a number of characteristics were a constant: expectations in
classrooms were inconsistent and led to student frustration and antagonism; teacher
interventions were frequently punitive and reactive in nature; the classroom environment for
all students became less conducive for optimal progress; and teachers felt exhausted and
unable to cope with the behaviour.
Working with both students and teachers alike in my role has led me to believe that a
large majority of these behaviour referrals emanated from a lack of social and emotional
competencies being present. Either the student’s behaviour had become a manifestation of
some unresolved trauma, processing issue, or motivational issue, or the teacher had been illequipped or lacked the ability to collect the student, and respond to his or her needs. The
diversity of needs that children have is as multifarious as the students themselves, yet
traditionally teacher education curriculums have designated very little time or focus to

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equipping teachers with the necessary social and emotional competencies to navigate these
turbulent waters.
Theoretical Framework
The issue of teacher SEC is a minefield of political correctness and emotive
viewpoints, but is one in which I am inherently invested as a professional educator, and
manager of human resources. The pursuit of enlightened education meeting the needs of
diverse learners drives a constructivist perspective to be applied to problem solving through
real-life experience, and the life and world of a new teacher can be one of multiple realities.
I consider myself a praxis-oriented researcher seeking knowledge in my own lifeworld about
the transformative nature of social processes (Lather, 1986) in the belief that I and my fellow
practitioners may seek a solution to concerns that affect us all.
I propose to use an action research process to determine and reflect on those
components most suitable to be included in a pre-service teacher SEC-related curriculum.
The use of action research is to not only add knowledge, but to develop theory from practice
towards affirmative social change (Brydon-Miller, Greenwood, & Maguire, 2003). As ZuberSkerritt and Fletcher (2007) stated, “knowledge in practice relates to practitioners’
improvement and transformation of their workplace practices into ones that are new, unique
and different from past practices in the particular system” (p. 419).
Chapter Summary
The changing nature of society has made it imperative that classrooms reflect and
provide for the needs of learners who are becoming increasingly disconnected and
disenfranchised in a traditional educational system based upon compliance and obedience.
The importance of developing prosocial classrooms requires that teachers have the requisite

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SEC to deliver an environment not only conducive to academic progress, but social and
emotional development. The sink or swim mindset of new teachers entering the profession
correlates worryingly with teacher attrition data and makes attention to SEL training and
SEC development in pre-service programs highly relevant. The purpose of this project was
to create SEC-related course content for pre-service teachers based on relevant research and
best practice. The course content guide, while emphasizing an understanding of the
relationship between teaching and emotion, would be predominantly skill-based, practicing
those skills that are most important to developing and nurturing EI and SEC in new entrants
to the teaching profession.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
The topic of teacher SEC and its importance to a student’s social, emotional, and
academic success has received very little coverage in professional literature and research and
is often overlooked in the broader discourse on educational reform, yet, according to Jones,
Bouffard, and Weissbourd (2013), teachers’ report the need to use and apply SEC on a daily
basis in their work (p. 62). In contrast, SEL has become a mainstream topic and an area of
burgeoning research focusing on the mental health of the nation with clear implications for
every classroom and school. The significance of emotion on teaching and teachers, and the
relevance of SEC to the preparation of all practitioners require further discussion at a time
when schools are facing unprecedented challenges (Buchanan, Gueldner, Tran, & Merrell,
2009; Greenberg, Domitrovich, & Bumbarger, 1999; Jones, Bouffard, & Weissbourd, 2013;
Noddings, 2005; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2016).
The nature of this review is to compare, contrast, and correlate previous research as it
pertains to the theme of teacher SEC, and its impact upon the development of prosocial
classrooms in our schools. In defining the scope and relevance of teacher SEC, it will be
important to analyze the changing nature of education; discuss the relevance of SEL curricula
to prosocial development; highlight the importance of teacher SEC on the outcomes of
personal, academic, and preventative measures for student success, and examine the effect of
SEC on teacher efficacy and attrition rates. The final part of this review will deliberate on the
pre-service training phase for new teachers, and its structural and programming
considerations for teacher preparation and education.

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Teacher Social and Emotional Competencies
The subject of teachers’ social and emotional competencies was first highlighted in a
study by Jennings and Greenberg (2009) who developed it as a broad construct based on the
SEL outcomes developed by the CASEL group in 2008. The framework of core
competencies for teachers, they argued, had a major impact upon the delivery of SEL
curricula in the classroom, and, ultimately, the development of prosocial classrooms
(Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). This seminal work by Jennings and Greenberg was built upon
previous research (e.g., Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2004, Greenberg, Domitrovich, Graczyk, &
Zins, 2005, Hargreaves, 1998, Osher et al., 2008, Ransford, 2007, Schonert-Reichl, &
Hymel, 2007) that posited the key role teachers played in providing caring classroom
environments conducive to SEL and academic achievement. Greenberg along with his fellow
collaborators, Domitrovich, Graczyk, and Zins, had presented a paper in 2005 entitled, The
study of implementation in school-based preventive interventions: Theory, research, and
practice, and concluded that a teacher could empower students through modeling social and
emotional competencies and responsible decision-making, but cautioned that little research
had been conducted on whether teacher characteristics and “psychological mindedness”
impact negatively upon learning outcomes (p. 30).
Jennings and Greenberg (2009) argued that deficits in teacher SEC can lead to less
effective classroom management skills and student learning, unhealthy student-teacher
relationships, poor implementation of SEL curricula, and eventually teacher burnout. In
contrast socially and emotionally competent teachers are able to apply core SEL
competencies to the school setting such as self-awareness, social awareness, selfmanagement, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making (Jennings & Greenberg,

12
2009; Tom, 2012). High self-awareness allows teachers to recognize their own emotions, and
emotional patterns, whilst also understanding their emotional strengths and weaknesses. This
informed knowledge allows them to engage and extract through emotional cues and
motivational strategies positive learning for themselves (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Tom,
2012; Zins et al., 2007). The importance of high social awareness allows teachers to
understand the emotions of others and build strong connections to service these emotional
needs particularly through strategies for positive conflict resolution. Strong social awareness
for a teacher is also essential to nurturing connection and non-judgmental attitudes (Jennings
& Greenberg, 2009).
Jennings and Greenberg (2009), Tom (2012), and Zins et al., (2007) all agree that
socially and emotionally competent teachers develop, model, and nurture prosocial behaviour
based upon ethical and informed decision-making. They suggest that the presence of these
competencies ultimately lead to better problem-solving, coping, and resiliency amongst
students in a teacher’s care, as well as positive intellectual outcomes (Jennings & Greenberg,
2009; Tom, 2012; Zins et al., 2007). Jennings and Greenberg (2009) contend that because
“SEC is context dependent” (p. 496) an individual might be able to function at a high social
and emotional level in one work domain, but require support and training in another such as
an elementary teacher transferring to a secondary school, or a teacher moving from a school
with a history of positive behaviour, where they felt supported, to a failing school with poor
leadership. Brackett and Katulak (2006) assert that devoting time to developing emotional
awareness is critical to teacher effectiveness across a range of domains.
Emotion plays a significant role in the teaching and learning dynamics of a school,
yet research regarding the significance of emotion on teaching and teachers is, according to

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Garner (2010), almost non-existent. Teaching and learning is by its very nature a human
interactive process, and is governed by emotions. It is, in the words of Hargreaves (2000),
“an emotional practice” (p. 824). Teachers experience a range of both positive and negative
emotions on a daily and weekly basis that can be associated with student performance or
behaviour; these can vary from happiness to sadness, but also include disappointment, hope,
enthusiasm, and pride (Brackett & Katulak, 2006; Garner, 2010; Hargreaves, 1998).
Emotional stress can also be present when dealing with difficult situations, parents,
colleagues, administrators, or the onerous nature of new district or provincial initiatives that
require change, or attract more public scrutiny (Brackett & Katulak, 2006; Buchanan,
Gueldner, Tran, & Merrell, 2009; Garner, 2010; Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg, & Walberg,
2007).
Positive emotions for teachers can influence the teaching strategies employed, which
not only service the emotional needs of students and the teacher, but have an enormous
influence upon how teachers’ feel about their students (Garner, 2010; Hargreaves, 1998;
Yoon, 2002). Increased student effort, and longer on-task focus by students in the classroom
may be a consequence of positive displays of emotion by a teacher (Elbertson, Brackett, &
Weissberg, 2010; Garner, 2010). Garner (2010) posits that there may be neurological
reasons for this since positive emotion stimulates and increases the part of the brain where
memory is located. Brackett and Katulak (2006) not only supported Garner’s claim, but state
that “emotions drive attention, which impacts learning, memory, and behaviour” (p. 4).
Teachers who experience positive emotions on a regular basis can build greater resiliency
towards improved emotional wellbeing, as well as attention and cognition leading to better
creative thinking and intrinsic motivation (Elbertson et al., 2010; Fredrickson, 2001; Jennings

14
& Greenberg, 2009). Greater resiliency can be highly beneficial to a teacher when dealing
with difficult or adversarial conditions and problems such as poor behaviour in the
classroom, new district implemented initiatives, or upset parents.
Conversely, negative emotions such as sadness, anger, annoyance, and frustration can
lead to teachers losing the motivation and enthusiasm to teach which in turn can impact
students’ ability to want to learn (Garner, 2010; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Jennings and
Greenberg (2009) point out that the nature of classroom teaching can mean that when
teachers are faced with emotionally difficult and provocative situations such as poor student
behaviour, they, unlike other professionals, have little opportunity to excuse themselves away
from the provocateur to emotionally self-regulate. These limited courses of action for
positive self-regulation can exasperate the problem leading to the potential for poor decisionmaking such as being overly reactive and punitive. This can lead to feelings of guilt, and, if
not checked, according to Jennings and Greenberg (2009), “may reduce teachers’ intrinsic
motivation and feelings of self-efficacy and lead to burn-out” (p. 497).
Emotional Intelligence
Such is the importance of emotion and emotional intelligence (EI) to the classroom
environment it seems almost inconceivable that little or no attention is paid to enhancing or
developing these traits as part of a teacher’s pre-service training and preparation. Elias,
Bruene-Butler, Blum, and Schuyler (2000) highlighted the issue in their discussion about the
roadblocks inhibiting the successful implementation of SEL and EI programs in school. They
stated that new teachers may not have been made aware of the potential benefits of SEL and
EI to academic and life skills, even less about how to develop those skills in a way that
would have a long-lasting and profound impact. The reason, according to Elias et al. (2000),

15
is “because the preparation of educators lags far behind advances in knowledge about
learning and teaching” (p. 262).
Hargreaves (1998, 2000) discusses the early years of becoming a teacher, which he
describes as one of survival and moving beyond the formative stage of self-preoccupation
and insecurities to concerns about the needs of students. Hargreaves (1998) claimed that
educational theorists, up to his time, had marginalized the importance of EI, and considered
its development an inter-play between individual competence and choice, rather than as a
consequence of the environment and changing circumstances. Brackett and Katulak (2006)
believe that emotional skills training for teachers is vital to the development of a more
conducive and supportive learning environment characterized by positive social interaction
and engagement.
While the relevance of EI was still in its infancy in the early 1990s, what was
becoming apparent were the growing concerns over a burgeoning psychopathology amongst
the school population which Doll and Lyon (1998) and Elias et al. (2000) cautioned would
have a significant long-term impact without the intervention of school as a potential
protective factor. In response, school authorities were increasingly triaging a system
unprepared for the changing times, and attracting criticism for their efforts (Elbertson et al.,
2010). In a book by Sowell Thomas titled, Inside American Education: The Decline, The
Deception, The Dogmas (1993), the author criticizes the seemingly endless invasion of a
non-academic agenda into American education. Thomas (1993) believed that education of
the last number of years had been invaded by psychological-conditioning programs aided and
supported by a costly army of non-academic staff and resources. He concluded that what he
saw as a “psychotherapeutic curriculum” was in fact undermining the role of parents as well

16
as the value system of society itself (p. ix). In spite of such politicized attacks the time was
right for new ideas and approaches.
The topic of Emotional Intelligence became popularized through Goleman (1995),
but was based on earlier research by Salovey and Mayer (1990). While Goleman’s book did
much to draw attention to the expanding literacy of emotion and the potential impact that the
introduction of SEL in schools could have, it somewhat muddied the waters with exaggerated
claims and journalistic license based more upon marketability than substantiated academic
research (Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2008). In contrast, Mayer and
Salovey (1997) continued to expand on their research by defining EI through their fourbranch model of emotional intelligence, and developing and constructing scales for
measuring EI (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004).
Goleman’s book, which appeared on the New York Times bestseller list for over a
year, sparked a frenzy of follow-up articles in trade papers, magazines, and newspapers with
the potential, according to Mayer et al (2008), for exaggerated, unsubstantiated claims on the
power of EI. In response, Mayer et al (2008) suggested limiting the term EI to those abilities
at the point where emotions and intelligence meet; to be more specific, “limited to the set of
abilities involved in reasoning about emotions and using emotions to enhance reasoning” (p.
514). Of even greater significance to the later development of SEL was Mayer and Salovey’s
(1997) four-branch model of EI which was designed to demonstrate how the branches, made
up of abilities and skills, flowed from perception to management and combined with other
primary psychological subsystems to form part of an individual’s personality. The fourbranch model applied the abilities and skills into the following four areas: “The ability to (a)

17
perceive emotion, (b) use emotion to facilitate thought, (c) understand emotions, and (d)
manage emotion” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997. p. 199).
Much of the research work conducted by Mayer, Salovey and associates increasingly
indicated that EI when measured as an ability was highly predictive of a number of outcomes
that have particular relevance to the importance of SEL in schools. Mayer, Salovey, and
Caruso (2004) posit that as EI increases so does an individual’s academic achievement.
Conversely, according to Mayer et al (2004), as EI decreases, we are likely to see a
preponderance of antisocial behaviour, addictive practices and the potential for
psychopathology. The impact of such findings was not lost on educational commentators
such as Hargreaves who concluded:
Governments and other reformers must incorporate the emotional dimensions of
teaching and learning into learning standards or curriculum targets for students, and
into professional standards or competencies for teachers and administrators. As
Goleman and others have shown, emotions are not simply a support for teaching and
learning, but a vital and integral part of teaching and learning (Hargreaves, 1998, p.
851).
The growing importance of emotion as a feature of teacher SEC, therefore, is more relevant
today than it has ever been.
The changing nature of education
The demands on education today are greater than at any other time in our history as a
result of enormous social change manifesting into widespread social problems, and the
resultant burgeoning of mental health disorders and psychopathology (Buchanan, Gueldner,
Tran, & Merrell, 2009; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Greenberg et al., 2003; Greenberg et al.,

18
1999; Noddings, 1995; Tishelman, Haney, O'Brien, & Blaustein, 2010; Tom, 2012).
According to Greenberg et al. (2003) schools are expected to do more today than they have
ever done before, but with even less resources. Recurrent social upheaval occurs as a result
of increased social, emotional and economic pressures existing. For example, the pressure of
high mortgages, debt, materialism, and consumerism have placed an unhealthy burden on
members of society particularly parents which has led to the increased likelihood of
separation, divorce, displacement, detachment, and trauma (Buchanan et al., 2009; Greenberg
et al., 2003; Greenberg et al., 1999; Noddings, 1995; Tishelman, Haney, O'Brien, &
Blaustein, 2010; Tom, 2012). We have also seen the slow erosion of community
organizations that were inherently invested in, and encouraged children’s social, emotional,
and moral growth as valued young citizens (Greenberg et al., 2003). Finally, we are coming
to terms today with the reality of the pervasive and, at times, destructive nature of social
media that can support, encourage, and pressure unhealthy interactions and dysfunctional or
antisocial behaviour among children and young adults (Elbertson et al., 2010; Greenberg et
al., 2003). Social media as well as mass media and news outlets continually bombard the
public with images and news of terrorism, child abuse, suicide, domestic violence, and
natural disasters that can all lead, according to Tishelman et al. (2010), to the development of
a trauma lens for young people.
Greenberg et al. (2003) compares the difference between American schools in the
1900’s to the ones at the turn of the 21st century by stating that in 1900 the average school
size consisted of 40 students who by and large were economically, racially, and ethnically
similar. Schools at the beginning of this century, he states, are far larger with the average
elementary population totaling 400, and high schools as large as 2000. The growth in school

19
populations is one thing, but what Greenberg et al. (2003) find even more concerning is that
our schools are confronted by “unprecedented challenges to educate an increasingly
multicultural and multilingual student body and to address the widening social and economic
disparities” (p. 467).
Adding to these unprecedented challenges is the disturbing pattern of increased
mental health problems amongst students today. Schonert-Reichl and Hymel (2007), basing
their findings on epidemiological data, suggest that almost 20% of children and adolescents
in Canada suffer from mental health issues serious enough to require medical intervention
and therapy. In the United States the problem is even more severe: as much as 22% of young
people suffer from some form of social, emotional, or mental health prognosis that required
treatment; while an estimated 7.5 million children and teenagers were diagnosed with one or
more psychiatric disorders (Buchanan et al., 2009; Elbertson et al., 2010; Greenberg et al.,
2003; Greenberg et al., 1999). According to Greenberg et al. (2003), 30% of 14 to17-yearolds engage in high-risk activities; they go on to conclude that high-risk activities such as
substance abuse, risky sexual behaviour, violence, and criminality may have a serious
detrimental impact upon future health and success.
Tom (2012) reports that the prevalence of externalizing disorders such as Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD), and
Conduct Disorder (CD) are now quite common in children and adolescents. Through
estimates gathered from the American Psychiatric Association, Tom (2012) states that
ADHD accounts for 3% to 5% of school children, while ODD in comparison is anywhere
between 2% to 16%; CD is prevalent in 6% to 16% of boys in contrast to only 2% to 9% of
girls. Tom concludes that “these statistics reveal that many mental health disorders appear at

20
a very early age, and the reported prevalence rates might be a conservative approximation of
the actual number of children who may be experiencing a mental health disorder” (2012, p.
12).
The context of higher levels of children with either internalizing disorders such as
depression and anxiety, or externalizing disorders as reported above places far greater
demands on schools to plan, resource, and implement effective programs and services that
nourish and cultivate intellectual achievement, promote healthy living, and prevent engaging
in high-risk behaviour and activities (Buchanan et al., 2009; Greenberg et al., 2003; Merrell,
2010; Tishelman et al., 2010; Tom, 2012). While the onerous burden and cost of supporting
and intervening in an epidemic of social change, emotional turmoil, and mental health
concerns for schools may seem insupportable and unsustainable, the cost of not acting could
be catastrophic. Tom (2012) reports that World Health Organization estimates suggest one
person in every four will develop either a mental or behavioural disorder in the course of a
lifetime, while Schonert-Reichl and Hymel (2007) state that mental health and illness will
account for the majority of health care costs in Canada by 2020.
Tishelman et al. (2010) in a study on developing a framework for school-based
psychological evaluation discusses the impact of trauma on a student’s social, emotional, and
academic success, and posits that while the school environment is a place where trauma can
manifest itself into behavioural and performance concerns, it also has the potential to be a
major change agent. They conclude that the ecology of the surroundings can act as a buffer
for traumatized children against adversity, or conversely exacerbate the deep-seated
problems. Therefore, development of a school and classroom environment conducive to the
social and emotional development of children and adolescents managed by socially and

21
emotionally competent teachers would, in the words of Tishelman et al. (2010), be a
“potential contributor to a child’s healing and coping” (p. 280).
Another important consideration for the development of far more effective
classrooms for the development of social, emotional, and academic success is the current
response to childhood trauma and mental health currently in schools and society. When
mental health and illness manifest in the behaviour of a student, the intervention carried out
by the school and health service providers are primarily reactive and fragmented; therefore,
their efforts can invariably lead to a lack of coordination, poor monitoring and follow-up,
and, ultimately, become ineffectual in meeting the needs of the individual (Buchanan et al.,
2009; Greenberg et al., 2003; Merrell, 2010; Tom, 2012; Zins & Elias, 2007). Jennings and
Greenberg (2009), and Tom (2012) suggest that preventative measures are the key protection
factors to addressing mental health concerns in school because the classroom has the
potential to respond to the needs of the student before symptoms manifest. The development
of more prosocial classrooms manned by teachers with the requisite SEC may hold the
answer to providing a more effective educational approach to the growing needs of all
students.
The prosocial classroom
The importance of incorporating social and emotional learning into the classroom
environment has its origins in the person-centred movement credited to Dr. Carl Rogers who
pioneered client-centred therapy and developed an approach to education that emphasized the
development of the whole person; an approach, according to Cornelius-White (2007), that
posits the importance of positive teacher-student relationships to “optimal, holistic learning”
(p. 113). Classroom SEL was further influenced, as suggested earlier, by the work of Daniel

22
Goleman in his 1995 book, Emotional Intelligence, which inspired further child development
research emphasizing the importance of social and emotional competencies to healthy
wellbeing and as a protective barrier to the pervasiveness of mental illness (Adelman and
Taylor, 2000; Blum, Libbey, Bishop, & Bishop, 2004; Durlak et al., 2011; Elias et al., 2000;
Greenberg & Jennings, 2009; Greenberg et al., 2003). Freiberg (2009) argues that for
decades, the traditional behaviourist approach to school and classroom discipline,
characterized by strict obedience and control and fixed rewards and consequences, has done
little to help students develop the ability and awareness to self-regulate and self-direct. In
fact, he concludes, it has absolved students of the responsibility to take ownership over their
actions, and to socially and emotionally mature; vital components, according to Freiberg, to
access higher, more complex levels of instruction for teaching and learning (Freiberg, 2009).
Freiberg (2009) describes the essential characteristics of a person-centred, prosocial
classroom in the following way:
Teachers develop four pro-social classroom management dimensions that foster
person-centred classrooms: (a) social-emotional emphasis – teachers demonstrate
caring for students’ social and emotional needs, and for who they are as people; (b)
school connectedness – teachers ensure that students feel a strong sense of belonging
to the school, their classroom, and their peers; (c) positive school and classroom
climate – students feel safe in school, developing trust for their peers, and their
teacher; and (d) student self-discipline – students learn through responsible
consequences and a shared respect and responsibility (p. 100).
The essence of connectedness and sense of belonging that prosocial classrooms have
potential to form can become a frontline preventative measure for mental health disorders.

23
Resnick, Harris, and Blum (1993) identified family and school connectedness as the two
most influential protective factors against a multitude of health and risk morbidities among
the young and adolescent including violence. Since we have already reasoned that the family
unit is under increasing pressure, and prone to widespread instability, the importance of the
school and classroom environment takes on greater focus and responsibility for universal
preventative and intervention education.
In a prosocial classroom, the tone is set by the teacher who develops
supportive and caring relationships that are free of judgment and prejudice. Lessons are
designed to build upon the strengths, abilities, and interests of the student, while behaviour
guidelines promote trust and integrity leading to more intrinsic motivation. Teachers act as a
role model for respectful dialogue and communication, and sensitively coach students
through conflict situations while exhibiting exemplary self-regulation (Jennings &
Greenberg, 2009). The importance of developing prosocial classrooms requires that teachers
have the requisite social and emotional competencies to deliver an environment not only
conducive to academic progress, but also to social and emotional development.
In figure 1 (see appendix B), Jennings and Greenberg (2009) present a prosocial
classroom model that emphasizes the importance of teacher SEC to the cultivation and
development of a healthy classroom environment. If combined, the resultant will
beneficially impact a student’s social, emotional, and academic outcomes and healthy
wellbeing. The model recognizes the importance of relationship building, and the
competence of the teacher to understand that misbehaviour is a manifestation of a problem
which requires a caring, nurturing response rather than reactive or punitive intervention
(Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Tom, 2012). Jennings and Greenberg (2009) propose a

24
transactional relationship existing between all the elements of the model, and reinforced by
the effective delivery of SEL curricula. In this transactional relationship, the teacher’s
competence, skill-set, and training to develop and sustain a healthy classroom climate will
improve student outcomes which in turn, they conclude, “may reinforce a teacher’s
enjoyment of teaching, efficacy, and commitment to the profession, thereby creating a
positive feedback loop that may prevent teacher burnout” (pp. 493-4).
The model is dependent upon the successful delivery by teachers of SEL which is
vital for two reasons: firstly, SEL underpins the prosocial context of the classroom through
an activity-based approach to positive social and emotional development; and secondly,
according to Merrell (2010), SEL provides “a significant opportunity to link prevention
science to school-based interventions” (p. 55).
Social and Emotional Learning
1994 was a pivotal year in the historiography of SEL. It was the year when the term
was first coined, and the inception year for the start and development of CASEL based at the
University of Illinois at Chicago (Elbertson et al., 2010; Macklem, 2013). Both events were
products of a conference held at the Fetzer Institute, a non-profit organization, convened to
address concerns about poorly coordinated prevention programs in schools, and its impact
upon student wellbeing in light of, as already stated, the multitude of health and risk
morbidities prevalent in statistics at the time (Buchanan et al., 2009; Elbertson et al., 2010;
Greenberg et al., 1999; Macklem, 2013). Educators, researchers, and advocates attended the
conference with diverse interests and agendas ranging from the developmental,
psychological, to educational and the health and wellbeing of children, but all participants
were aware that the current fragmentation in preventative health programs required

25
programming that was more robust, holistic, evidence-based, field-tested, and capable of
accommodating the full range of school grades from preschool to high school (Buchanan et
al., 2009; Elbertson et al., 2010; Elias et al., 2000; Greenberg et al., 1999; Macklem, 2013).
While by the early 1990s a variety of school-based programs existed, according to
Elbertson et al., (2010) and Elias (1997), they tended to be limited to information workshops
or educational infomercial platforms, and often narrowly focused on single components of
SEL such as for example substance abuse, anti-bullying, antisocial behaviour, or safe sex
choices. The arrival of such organizations as CASEL was a first step in creating a more
holistic, conceptual framework for SEL allowing for the development of more defined
school-based programming based on the premise of universal prevention and promotion; in
summary, the prevention of unhealthy behaviours by promoting stronger social and
emotional competence and personal wellbeing which today is the focus of most SEL
curricula (see Buchanan et al., 2009; Elbertson et al., 2010; Greenberg et al., 2003; Zins &
Elias, 2007). CASEL, founded in 1994 by a small group led by Daniel Goleman and Eileen
Rockefeller Growald, developed a conceptual framework built upon current theory and
empirical research backed by on-site analysis of highly regarded, effective SEL programs
already in existence (Elias et al., 2000; Schonert-Reichl, & Hymel, 2007). CASEL
developed 39 guidelines focused on four major areas: “(1) life skills and social competencies,
(2) health promotion and problem-prevention skills, (3) coping skills and social support for
transitions and crises, and (4) positive, contributory service” (Elbertson et al., 2010, p. 1017);
elements that CASEL believed to be vital to the development of structured, evidence-based
SEL programming woven into the fabric of the school.

26
CASEL (2006) have outlined an implementation and sustainability process designed
to help schools introduce SEL programming tailored to the needs of the students,
stakeholders and the community. The process involves ten key steps conducted through
three distinct phases. Phase 1 is the Readiness Stage where a commitment on the part of a
school’s administration to embrace and incorporate all aspects of SEL into school life and
programming is reinforced by developing capacity through stakeholder involvement and
ownership in the form of steering committees. In phase 2, the Planning Stage, an audit of
student and staff needs and resources allow ultimately for a better fit to the school context
and culture, as well as developing an understanding of the relative strengths and weaknesses
inherent in the school culture that may present barriers to successful implementation. Phase
2 also allows for action-planning where goals, benchmarks, and a timeline are developed to
monitor progress. In the final phase, termed Implementation, facilitators from the selected
evidence-based SEL program initiate professional training for teachers and administrators
grounded in the philosophy of the program which leads to “sequenced, evidence-based
classroom instruction” for the effective delivery of SEL to the whole school (CASEL, 2006,
p. 3).
While CASEL’s framework has done much to improve the delivery of quality,
tailored SEL programming, it is by no means alone in its endeavor to nurture holistic
education. Examples abound of quality programming such as PATHS, Promoting
Alternative Thinking Strategies (Kusche, Greenberg, & Anderson, 1994), which focuses on
emotional competence and conflict resolution; Roots of Empathy (ROE) developed by Mary
Gordon (2001) which works to foster empathy and pro-sociability in children through the
engagement in the classroom of a mother and baby; and Emotional Literacy in the Middle

27
School (Brackett & Katulak, 2006) which focuses on nurturing emotionally literate children
through the development of caring, feeling vocabulary allowing and promoting, according to
Brackett and Katulak (2006), greater social competence. We have also seen the inclusion of
a SEL framework at the provincial, national, and international level in recent years
underlining its growing importance to child development (Schonert-Reichl, & Hymel, 2007).
In Canada, the provinces of British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and Ontario particularly have
initiated or instigated various approaches to SEL at the school, district, and provincial level.
In British Columbia in 2000 for example, the Ministry of Education introduced a social
responsibility dimension as one of its foundational skills along with reading, writing, and
numeracy. In Australia, the National Framework for Values in Australian Schools,
introduced in 2005, sought to mandate such components as care and compassion, respect and
responsibility, understanding, tolerance, and inclusion into the mission and curriculum of
schools. On an international level, The International Baccalaureate (IB), according to
Skrzypiec, Askell-Williams, Slee, and Rudzinski (2014), has developed a holistic view of
education focused not only on academic achievement, but built around social and emotional
learning. They state that:
social and emotional learning is considered to play a key role in the IB MYP [Middle
Years Program] curriculum to develop knowledgeable, balanced, and caring students,
and IB schools are encouraged to increase their focus on social and emotional
learning in the classroom (Skrzypiec et al., 2014. p11).
The growth and popularity of SEL programs are not without some drawbacks and
concerns particularly regarding efficacy and effectiveness. Merrell (2010) presents an 8 year
research study of the impact of the Oregon Resiliency Project (ORP) on the efficacy of SEL

28
curricula and the development of prevention science in schools. Dr. Merrell posits that the
introduction of SEL into a school setting presents an opportunity for preventative science at a
more affective level. He states that schools and classrooms are becoming increasingly “defacto mental health service centers” for the increased prevalence of mental health concerns in
students (Merrell, 2010, p. 56). In preparing the study, Dr. Merrell utilized the work of
dissertation students who as part of the ORP had developed Strong Kid and Strong Teen SEL
curricula aimed at five different school cohorts: pre-K age; grades K-2, grades 3-5; grades 68; and grades 9-12. Their low cost, universal approach took the form of a 10-12 week lesson
package based on the CASEL (2009) organization's five core competencies: self-awareness;
self-management; social awareness; relationship skills; and responsible decision-making.
The findings of the study suggest, according to Merrell (2010), that Strong Kids and Strong
Teen programs may help improve a child's SEC leading to greater resiliency while reducing
the impact of internalizing disorders, and may, posits Merrell, even be adaptable to meeting
the diverse needs of those students who have cultural and linguistic diversity.
Additional findings by Merrell (2010), though, reveal that developing the
psychometrics to measure change in positive SEL knowledge and behaviour was
problematic. Merrell (2010) found that when gains in social-emotional knowledge amongst
students seemed evident, changes in behaviour and functioning seemed less so, particularly
over the short-term. The study also encountered some issues and demonstrated some
limitations with gathering evidence such as the self-report feedback feature for younger
children in the Strong Kid program who had difficulty accessing the language; or, the higher
degree of resistance Merrell found in high schools when trying to deliver new Strong Teen
curricula. He puts this down to the perception amongst teachers that being asked to deliver a

29
new curriculum was onerous in a setting where they felt they already had an over-prescribed
curriculum.
Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, and Schellinger (2011) conducted a metaanalysis on the effects of school-based SEL programming on children’s behaviours and
academic performance; a study allowing them enough access to data to deliberate on the
relative importance and effect of SEL opportunities across a wide range of schools and
students. They too found limitations in their research in regards to high school. Their study
concentrated on the analysis of findings from 213 SEL programs covering 270, 034
kindergarten through high school students. They concluded that teaching and learning are
collaborative processes based on positive connections and relationships, and that universal
school-based SEL interventions lead to greater wellbeing and academic performance (Durlak
et al, 2011). It is unfortunate that the study methodology utilized by Durlak et al (2011)
excluded students with pre-existing behavioural, emotional, or academic problems;
conditions in high school that would greatly benefit from SEL intervention.
The introduction of SEL programming possessing coping and healing dimensions
promises much as a preventative science, but would it provide holistic, universal coverage?
While, as previously stated by Merrell (2010), SEL may be highly adaptable to service the
needs of learners from diverse backgrounds, it is the contention of Brown (2004) that
additional measures and modifications may be required in the delivery of SEL curricula to
mitigate what he sees as de-colonization present in Indigenous groups particularly, but not
exclusively, in Canada. Brown (2004) stated that the current approaches to emotional
competence and intelligence as it relates to educational philosophy have been both “alien and
unhealthy” (p. 9) to Aboriginal communities. He views education in North America as too

30
narrowly focused and dominated by a Eurocentric orientation that has led amongst other
powerful forces to a general decrease in the emotional maturity of Aboriginal communities as
witnessed through the increasingly negative statistics on school dropout rates, high
incarceration rates, drug and alcohol abuse, suicide, family dysfunction, and low academic
achievements (see also Barnes, Josefowitz, & Cole, 2006; Baydala et al., 2009; Bazylak,
2002).
Of significance to Brown (2004) and supported by Battiste and Barman (1995) is the
high volume of Aboriginals that make up the correctional population, and the alarmingly
disproportionate statistics for Aboriginal suicides which is six times that of the nonAboriginal population. As previously discussed, Brown (2004) accounts for the drop-out rate
at school as being a historically-based process of colonization which included a “colonization
of emotions, a colonization of affect” (p. 9) which he believes has led to First Nation culture
being stripped from mainstream classroom environments. He believes this process of
cultural and emotional deprivation has led to a crisis of cultural identity, as well as a feeling
of powerlessness and confusion amongst young Aboriginals (Battiste & Barman, 1995;
Brown, 2004). While it is outside the scope of this study to look at length at remediation
processes for this particular issue, it does have relevance to those teachers who fall into what
Battiste and Barman (1995) call, “the education of Indians by non-Indians using non-Indian
methods” (p. 6).
Teacher Efficacy and Attrition
While Durlak et al. (2011) focused attention in their study on examining and
discussing the implications of their findings on educational policies and practice, Han and
Weiss (2005) conducted a study that focused attention on those teacher level factors that

31
influence provision. Specifically, how sustainable within the current dynamics of schools
and classrooms are classroom-based prevention and intervention mental health programs
such as SEL. They argued that properly implemented school-based mental health programs
have positive benefits for a student’s social and emotional wellbeing, and are fiscally
sustainable compared to expensive external agencies, but may be prohibited by
implementation fidelity such as administrative support, teacher self-efficacy, and
professional burnout.
The adding and implementation of new intervention programs such as SEL to
promote prosocial classroom development is in itself a contentious issue. On the one hand it
is a vital step in servicing the needs of an increasingly diverse, disaffected, and
disenfranchised school population, but on the other places additional workload stresses and
program fidelity squarely on the shoulders of a profession already feeling overstretched and
overburdened (Blum, Libbey, Bishop, & Bishop, 2004; Boyce, King & Roche, 2007; Durlak
et al., 2011; Greenberg et al., 2003; Tishelman, Haney, O'Brien, & Blaustein, 2010; Vesely,
Saklofske, & Leschied, 2013). Critical to this process are the skill sets and competencies of
teachers that are paramount to success (Vesely et al., 2013). In a study looking at the
contribution of EI to teacher efficacy and wellbeing, and based on the previous work of
Jennings and Greenberg (2009), Murphy, Delli and Edwards (2004), and Yoon (2002),
Vesely, Saklofske, and Leschied (2013) summarized two areas key to a teacher’s expertise:
(a) the “professional skills” and characteristics needed for optimal effectiveness in the
classroom and with students generally and (b) “personal skills” and characteristics
that buffer the adverse components and situations of teaching and contribute to the
building of resilience, psychological wellbeing, and teacher efficacy (p. 72).

32
The notion of teacher self-efficacy has been a recurrent theme throughout this study and one
particularly highlighted by Jennings and Greenberg (2009) in regards to SEC, but what is
self-efficacy, and what impact does it have on a teacher’s SEC?
Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) suggest that self-efficacy has its basis in social
cognitive theory and relates to an individual’s powers of control over what they can do, and
how they can do it. Bandura (2006) believes that “self-efficacy is concerned with people’s
beliefs in their capabilities to produce given attainments” (p. 307). He suggests that people’s
efficacy differ in various areas and domains of mastery, and is not a “global trait but a
differentiated set of self-beliefs linked to distinct realms of functioning” (Bandura, 2006. p.
307). For teachers it may well encompass how well they goal-set, self-organize, selfmotivate, self-reflect, and self-regulate, and project these elements towards the achievement
goals of their students; it must also be linked, critically, to a belief that they can make a
difference to the needs of all students including even those at-risk of not achieving
(Ransford, Greenberg, Domitrovich, Small, & Jacobsen, 2009; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007;
Vesely et al., 2013).
Goddard, Hoy, and Hoy (2004) caution that the shorthand term, teacher efficacy,
should not be misinterpreted to suggest a teacher is effective, or even successful, but rather
must be re-calibrated towards a personal statement of perception regarding self-efficacy.
Ransford (2007) posits that teachers who exhibit increased stress coupled with lower selfefficacy will have a detrimental impact upon the students’ learning. Goddard et al. (2004), in
contrast, believes that teachers with high self-efficacy are more likely to plan and organize
effective strategies for learning that services the needs of all students while establishing a
nurturing environment that embodies transparency and trust. Yoon (2002) states that

33
teachers with greater self-efficacy tend to be more open and positive to student needs,
subjected to lower levels of stress, and demonstrate less anger and sadness when
encountering poor or disruptive behaviour.
Those components that influence the development of strong self-efficacy also have a
bearing on a teacher’s capacity to cope (Ransford, 2007; Vesely et al., 2013). There are both
internal and external factors that can have an influence on a teacher’s self-efficacy: internal
factors are those within the control domain of the teacher, such as developing superior
subject knowledge, methodology, and having a strong sense of commitment and application;
while teachers have very little control over those external factors such as the dynamics of the
students’ home lives, the particular uniqueness of the school’s catchment area, and local
district or provincial guidelines which are required to be adhered to (Vesely et al., 2013). We
have already discussed at length the importance of EI to both successful SEL
implementation, and the part it plays in the “high emotional labor” of teaching (Vesely et al.,
2013. p. 72; see also Hargreaves, 2000), but it may also have, according to Vesely et al.
(2013), components that directly influence and impact a teacher’s self-efficacy. Vesely et al.
(2013) conclude:
Many factors that contribute to teacher efficacy and may help explain competent
teacher behaviour and positive classroom outcomes overlap with EI. A short list
would include emotional regulation ability (ERA), emotional labor, social-emotional
competence (SEC), and components of rational-emotive behaviour theory (REBT) (p.
78).
In summary, the work of a teacher is a fine balance between those components that can be
controlled and manipulated, and those other almost nebulas variables and dynamics that a

34
teacher will have to cope with on a daily or weekly basis. As Ransford (2007) postulates,
“teaching under such conditions may be considered a high demand-low control job, which
could result in adverse mental and physical health” (p. 8).
The relationship of EI to self-efficacy is an important consideration and may explain
why the high work-related demands of teaching are perceived by some as a challenge, and by
others as highly stressful (Mearns & Cain, 2003; Ransford et al., 2009; Tsouloupas, Carson,
Matthews, Grawitch, & Barber, 2010; Vesely et al., 2013). In fact a higher level of EI may
mediate against the effects of Jennings and Greenberg’s “burnout cascade” (2009, p. 493)
leading to greater effectiveness through increased resiliency and job satisfaction (Vesely et
al., 2013). Mearns and Cain (2003) are particularly interested in why such high job stress
does not lead to even greater burnout statistics. They conjecture that certain aspects of
personality protect individuals from the “ravages of job stress” such as negative mood
regulation expectancies (NMR), and that “NMR expectancies were associated with lack of
personal accomplishment, while stress was associated with emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization (Mearns & Cain, 2003. p. 79).
When teachers extend beyond their regular threshold for coping over a protracted
period of time, they can come to feel their outlay of time and energy are not reciprocated in
the learning outcomes of their students; absenteeism can then become a symptom, and
burnout a likely result with, as a consequence, less effective learning environments for
students (Chan, 2006; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Mearns & Cain, 2003; Ransford, 2007;
Ransford et al., 2009; Tom, 2012; Tsouloupas et al., 2010; Vesely et al., 2013). Teacher
burnout is the manifestation of stress triggers emanating from environmental variables and
interacting with both the interpersonal and intrapersonal traits of an individual who has little

35
or no control over negative mood regulation (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Kokkinos, 2007;
Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1997; Tsouloupas et al., 2010). According to the Maslach
Burnout Inventory (BMI), occupational burnout occurs in three stages: emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1997.
p. 192). During emotional exhaustion, a teacher has reached a level of fatigue and coping
that impacts upon their ability to physically, socially, and emotionally provide for their
students; they may demonstrate less caring, or be less tolerant of disruptive behaviour.
During depersonalization, a teacher can become more fatalistic; their attitudes to other
colleagues, as well as to students and parents may become cold and cynical. Eventually, the
teacher may come to feel a reduced sense of personal accomplishment manifesting into a
belief that they have little or no control anymore and perceive themselves as ineffectual
(Chan, 2006; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Kokkinos, 2007; Mearns & Cain, 2003;
Ransford, 2007; Ransford et al., 2009; Tom, 2012; Tsouloupas et al., 2010;Vesely et al.,
2013). Particularly vulnerable to burnout are new teachers to the profession who, according
to Ingersoll (2012), are left to “sink or swim” and invariably “tend to end up in the most
challenging and difficult classroom and school assignments, akin to a ‘trial by fire’” (p. 47).
Richard Ingersoll and Thomas Smith in 2003 presented a short paper entitled, The
Wrong Solution to the Teacher Shortage, where they argued that the current high demand for
teachers was not necessarily due to increasing student enrollment, or the impending, at the
time, projected teacher retirements, but was to a large extent due to teacher attrition (p. 31).
Tsouloupas et al. (2010) concluded that occupational turnover for teachers had, in their
words, “reached epidemic proportions” (p. 176); they go on to report that in 2007 the
averages for teacher turnover in public and private schools extrapolated from the US

36
Department of Education were 16.5% and 19.5% respectively representing an increase of
more than a third on 1991-1992 statistics (p. 176). As concerning as this is, the findings of
Ingersoll (2012) are even more acute and perplexing. In his paper, Beginning Teacher
Induction: What the Data Tell Us, he highlights three significant trends in the US. The first
he terms the “ballooning of the teacher force” where he reports that up until the mid-eighties
increases in the student population were somewhat matched by increases in the teaching
force. But by 2008 the picture had dramatically changed; while the student population
between the early 1980s to 2008 rose by 19%, in contrast teacher recruitment rose by 48%
(Ingersoll, 2012. pp. 48-49). Ingersoll (2012) believes this first trend has led to another even
more significant one which he terms “greening” of the teacher population. He claims that
200,000 new hires in 2008 were new first year teachers compared to only 65,000 in 1988 (p.
49). He states that in 1988, the teaching force was on average populated by “a veteran with
15 years of teaching experience,” whereas by 2008 this statistic had been replaced by
teachers at the inception stage of their careers (Ingersoll, 2012. p. 49). Ingersoll (2012)
concludes that by 2008 “a quarter of the teaching force had five years or less of experience”
(p. 49).
The final trend described by Ingersoll (2012) in regards to teacher attrition is the most
concerning for society: statistics indicate that the number of teachers leaving the profession is
most significant during the first five years of their career, and estimates show that this could
be as much as 40% to 50% of the teaching workforce (p. 49). So it appears, therefore, that
new teachers to the profession are the most vulnerable to burnout during their first few years
of probation and tenure, and cite: poor student behaviour and motivation, negative student
engagement, lack of support from administrators, heavy workload, and limited opportunity to

37
collaborate with colleagues as reasons for leaving (Chan, 2006; Han & Weiss, 2005;
Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Ingersoll, 2012; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
In conclusion, the impact of such concerning statistics regarding occupational stress
and attrition have a number of major implications. Firstly, on the health and wellbeing of
new teachers to the profession whose first tentative steps into such an emotionally intensive
occupation may have lasting effects upon both self-confidence and mental health (Chan,
2006; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Ransford, 2007; Vesely et al., 2013). And secondly, the
impact such large staff turnover will have upon the stability and structure of the classroom
environment and that of the school; so vital to student wellbeing and achievement (Chan,
2006; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Ransford, 2007; Yoon, 2002).
Also important to consider is the potential impact upon the successful implementation of
SEL programming which is inhibited because of both the necessity to model SEC as well as
navigate the additional workload of program fidelity (Ransford, 2007; Ransford et al., 2009;
Vesely et al., 2013). Finally, the inevitable conclusion is that first year teachers, in general,
are ill-prepared for the tumultuous and turbulent waters of the classroom and the needs of an
increasingly diverse and disconnected student population (Blum, Libbey, Bishop, & Bishop,
2004; Boyce et al., 2007; Durlak et al., 2011;Greenberg et al., 2003; Ingersoll, 2012;
Jennings & Greenberg 2009; Tishelman, Haney, O'Brien, & Blaustein, 2010).
Teacher-training education: structural and programming considerations
A teacher who is highly effective and successful in the classroom is able to respond to
the ever changing needs of their students; they regulate the mood, tone, pace of the learning
environment in a proactive way based on subtle changes in student emotion, language, and
behaviour (Corcoran & Tormey, 2012a; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). According to

38
Jennings and Greenberg (2009), and based on the work of Kounin (1977), it is termed
“withitness” which is “associated with the teachers’ high degree of awareness of individual
and group social and emotional dynamics and the ability to influence and regulate these
dynamics” (p. 507). Unfortunately, as statistics and research suggest, not all teachers are
created equal, and with the ever changing demands facing the profession, addressing the
issue of teacher SEC has become pivotal not only to the deployment and fidelity of wide
scale SEL programming for students, but to the health and wellbeing of teachers (Corcoran &
Tormey, 2012a; Garner, 2010; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Ransford, 2007: Tom, 2012;
Tsouloupas et al., 2010; Vesely et al., 2013). Ingersoll (2012) posits that there is a
commonly held belief that, due to the complexity of teaching, teacher training programs will
always fall short in regards to equipping new entrants to the profession with the tools and
understanding to be initially successful, and that schools must provide quality in-service
training to allow new teachers to develop and survive. Unfortunately, according to Ingersoll
(2012), “teaching as an occupation … cannibalizes its young’” by, as we have already stated,
commonly assigning them the most challenging of schedules with students who potentially
have the greatest needs (p. 47). The issues discussed raise a number of questions: firstly, do
pre-service teacher education programs adequately equip and prepare new teachers for their
emotionally challenging role; and secondly, can SEC be learned? Can it be nurtured and
developed during pre-service teacher education and what might such additional SEC-related
pre-service teacher education components look like?
The topic of teacher pre-service training is one that has attracted much attention at
both the political and educational level (Corcoran & Tormey, 2012a; Darling-Hammond,
2010; Ingersoll, 2012). Questions have been raised regarding whether teacher-training

39
programs have any real impact upon student learning and emotional growth (Corcoran &
Tormey, 2012a; Darling-Hammond, 2010); while in other parts of the world such as Britain,
concerns have emerged suggesting that pre-service preparation has become too narrowly
focused on subject methodology and pedagogy to the neglect of other important components
(Corcoran & Tormey, 2012a; Hawkey, 2006; Weare & Gray, 2003). Darling-Hammond
(2010) is highly critical of the inconsistent nature of pre-service training particularly the ones
she refers to as “fast-track, low-quality pathways into teaching” (p. 38). Her most damning
assessment of teacher training in the US caused by these inconsistencies has led her to
conclude:
Even as the demands of a knowledge-based society call for more sophisticated
teaching of much more complex skills, we have seen a return to the factory model of
the early 19th century, with the hiring of underprepared teachers linked to the use of
scripted curriculum intended to compensate for their lack of skills (DarlingHammond, 2010. p. 38).
In an examination of the characteristics of good teachers and good teaching, Murphy
et al. (2004) conclude that research into whether teacher training has an impact upon a
teacher’s set of held beliefs regarding what may constitute good teaching is still unresolved,
and that in general, pre-service teachers had an unrealistic expectation of their own skills and
abilities suggesting that they may somehow be immune to the inherent difficulties, stresses,
and strains existing in the job. Murphy et al. (2004) believe that unlike other professions,
teachers in training have already been exposed to many years of teaching, and that these early
experiences coupled with the challenge of pre-service training may shape and solidify beliefs
and models of teaching and learning that are difficult to change later on. Even more

40
concerning is when this research is placed into the context of a training environment:
according to Garner (2010), new teachers accept they have very little pre-service instruction
in how to nurture social and emotional development in children, and even less on managing
aspects of their own SEC. A combination of unrealistic expectations and ideals coupled with
limited or non-existing social and emotional training and development may lead us to
understand the disturbing correlation between the attrition of new teachers to the profession
and burnout cascade.
In a study conducted by Corcoran and Tormey (2012b) entitled How Emotionally
Intelligent are Pre-Service Teachers, a measurement of pre-service teachers’ EI was found to
be below that of the rest of the population. The data they collected showed a .5 of a standard
deviation difference in the mean average between the pre-service teacher cohort and the
population average, and when genders were separated, male student teachers were a .8
standard deviation below the wider population average (p. 754). Corcoran and Tormey
(2012b) concluded that such is the weight of evidence supporting the impact a teacher’s
emotional skills upon student connection, behaviour and achievement that it is almost
inconceivable to consider that pre-service teachers entering the profession may do so with EI
below what is deemed competent in the general population. Brackett and Katulak (2006),
Chan (2006), Corcoran and Tormey (2012a), Elbertson et al. (2010), Jennings and Greenberg
(2009), Tom (2012) ,Vesely et al. (2013), and Weare & Gray (2003) have all called for the
inclusion of either SEL or EI, or both related components to be included in teacher preservice preparation, or into general teacher preparation and training programs. If there are
deficits in the EI of pre-service teachers, and some consensus on the importance of including
social and emotional dimensions into teacher preparation programs, then the question still

41
arises as to whether EI and SEC can be nurtured, developed, and learned through courses and
workshops?
In a study on developing EI in pre-service teacher education, Corcoran and Tormey
(2012a) studied the effect that focused workshops would have on the emotional competence
of pre-service student teachers. Third year undergraduates were randomly chosen and placed
in groups: one experimental and one control group. Both groups were administered the
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (Mayer et al., 2008). The
experimental group then undertook emotional competence workshops comprised of six, twohour sessions every other week for twelve weeks based on an EI skill building workshop; “an
application-based training course for MSCEIT-certified individuals” (Caruso, Kornacki, &
Brackett, 2005. as cited in Corcoran & Tormey, 2012a. p. 548). The control group continued
with their regular studies. At the end of the workshop period, a new MSCEIT was
administered to the experimental group and control group, and then followed-up by semistructured interviews related to questions about what they had learned about their emotions
and emotional skill development during the course of weeks. The test was administered
before the students went out to their assigned teaching practice. In all, students from three
separate university level teacher education programs were selected using the random
sampling methodology, tested, and the process repeated over a two year cycle. The final
component was a follow-up interview after teaching practice to ascertain whether their
increased awareness of emotional skills had influenced their teaching (Corcoran & Tormey,
2012a. pp. 204-209).
Corcoran and Tormey (2012a) after full analysis and discussion concluded the
following: 1) The experimental group showed little overall improvement in their post-

42
MSCEIT in terms of their Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EIQ); 2) When the testing was
analyzed more closely through its constituent parts relating to the four skills making up the
EIQ (termed: Perceive, Use, Understand, and Manage emotion), the group completing the
workshops did show evidence of growth in managing emotions albeit at a statistically nonsignificant level (Corcoran & Tormey, 2012a. pp. 252-253). According to Corcoran and
Tormey (2012a), the increased ability to manage emotions is relevant since it is a skill that is
vital to teaching as an occupation, and may have been influenced by those workshop
activities that focused on communication skills, decision-making, and some positive
reflective techniques relating to teacher actions (p. 252). Corcoran and Tormey (2012a) posit
that the six, two-hour workshops over twelve weeks may have been too short to have any real
impact upon emotional skill development, and that a much longer period of scheduled
sessions could have led to more positive outcomes; they conclude, “[A]lthough the data are
far from conclusive, they do at least hint that an emotional competence component may lead
to increases in measured levels of EI skills” (pp. 252-253).
Vesely et al. (2013) postulate on what makes a good teacher, and whether those
variables equate to a question of nature or nurture. They conclude that nurturing has a
significant part to play in developing those competencies and qualities seen in an effective
teacher (p. 79). They suggest that competencies can be improved through workshops and
training, and has been partially demonstrated through such programs as improving classroom
management, coping skills training such as Rational Emotive Education, and the PATHS
curriculum (Kusche, Greenberg, & Anderson, 1994) to name just a few. Of particular
interest to Vesely et al. (2013) is the study conducted in Australia to improve the
management of occupational stress in teachers by improving aspects of EI such as emotional

43
self-awareness and expression, self-regulation, and awareness of others. They report, based
on empirical data, improvements in the cohort of teachers’ EI and a general reduction in
those elements that lead to burnout; they also cite an additional pilot study conducted in
Canada with comparable results that lead them to announce optimistically that options now
exist with real potential (Vesely et al., 2013. p. 81). Further optimism as to the potential for
nurturing SEC and EI in schools comes from Ransford (2007), who reports that when
teachers have successfully implemented SEL programming in their classrooms, a multitude
of improvements to both teaching skills and their classroom environment have been seen.
She concludes that “teachers that have been trained in SEL also have more positive learning
environments, an enhanced ability to connect with students and colleagues, as well as better
classroom management” (Ransford, 2007. p. 24). If there is cause for optimism as to the
potential for nurturing SEC and EI in pre-service programs, then what components should be
included or considered to be of value?
The workshop Corcoran and Tormey (2012a) instigated in their research study
utilized components of Brackett and Katulak’s (2006) Emotionally Intelligent Teacher
Workshop design built on EI theory. The basis of the program’s approach is applying the
four branch theory of EI, as previously described, to the development of stronger relationship
building, improved coping skills with increased resiliency, and improved job-related
performance (Brackett & Katulak, 2006). The workshop gives teachers practical activities
that can be used both in and out of the classroom that focus on both students and self
respectively whilst also developing each particular EI branch (Perceive, Use, Understand,
and Manage emotion). For the skill of Perception of Emotion, activities focus on developing
tools to help recognize not only one's own emotional state, but that of others through the

44
understanding and processing of multiple key indicators in dialogue and body language
(Brackett & Katulak, 2006. p. 7). This process, they suggest, helps a teacher to not only
regulate and manage their emotional needs in various conditions throughout the day and
week, but can become a highly effective predictive tool in deciding what behaviour is most
appropriate in addressing particular situations (Brackett & Katulak, 2006. p. 7). The activity
requires a teacher to complete reflective journal entries on events that happened during the
day; making note of who else was present; a description of the feelings and the intensity of
these feelings; and finally a brief review and analysis of what they perceived to be the
emotion of others involved through the recounting of verbal and nonverbal signals such as
facial expressions (Brackett & Katulak, 2006. p. 8). Brackett and Katulak (2006) conclude
that after regularly practicing this technique, the use of note taking will be replaced by a less
onerous mental process (p. 7).
In the Use of Emotion, Brackett and Katulak, (2006) describe the necessity to develop
tools to recognize types of emotion and effectively utilize and even exploit positively
emotional energy towards more productive and healthy behaviour and thought (p. 9). During
this activity there is again a period of reflection where observations are made about what
effect the environment has upon the teacher in terms of emotion, motivation, efficacy in the
job, and the various levels of engagement and interaction throughout the day (p. 9). The
activity then requires the teacher to document which settings within the working environment
creates particular moods such as lighting, music, imagery for example, and to use this
information to inform planning for future events or situations where a particular mindset is
required; Bracket and Katulak (2006) term it “emotion-generating strategies” (p. 9).

45
For the third skill, Understanding of Emotion, the very nature of the work requires
constant interaction and engagement with a host of other people in possession of a variety of
emotions; therefore, a greater understanding of emotions experienced by others will lead to a
more informed strategist (Brackett & Katulak, 2006. pp. 9-10). They suggest that when a
teacher encounters a negative emotion or an adverse reaction that leads to a student, or group
of students not being productive, then an investigation is required to inform on future
interactions. This gathering of information and analysis will expand a teacher’s
understanding of the variety of emotions possible, how they develop and transform;
ultimately helping to develop “emotion vocabulary” leading to more engaged and connected
learners whose needs are serviced (Brackett & Katulak, 2006. pp. 9-11)
For the final skill, Management of Emotion, the teacher records instances of negative
emotion experienced while in school, and supplements with additional information about the
triggers causing the emotion (Bracket & Katulak, 2006. p11). The teacher then evaluates the
strategies employed to combat the negative emotion and chronicles the relative success of
each before finally listing as many strategies as possible such as yoga, listening to music,
deep breathing, or strenuous exercise, or talking to a friend or mentor, for example, to help
combat future episodes (Bracket & Katulak, 2006. p11). Bracket & Katulak (2006) suggest
that the activity helps to create an inventory of emotion-management strategies along with an
audit of which strategies are most effective in different situations; ultimately, they posit, the
teacher will be able to use the same inventory to manage the emotions of their students (pp.
11-13).

46
Chapter Summary
In an age of widespread economic and social change, schools are at the frontline of
enormous social and emotional upheaval manifested in an increasingly disenfranchised,
disconnected school population managed and nurtured by teachers oftentimes ill-prepared for
the challenges confronting them. A teacher’s SEC, therefore, plays a key role in the social,
emotional, and academic success of his or her students through modeling and positive
emotion. The basis for SEC and the role played by emotion is encompassed in the science of
emotional intelligence, which despite its populism is grounded in Mayer and Salovey’s fourbranch model of EI. The exponential growth in the school population combined with
dramatic changes in the shape and size of school provision correspond alarmingly to a
burgeoning psychopathology threatening to become an epidemic amongst school age
children. The development of prosocial classrooms aided by the provision of quality SEL
programs and delivered by teachers with the requisite SEC to model and regulate social and
emotional development is more important than ever in schools today. Students require a
frontline protective barrier to combat issues of psychopathology while harnessing the power
of emotional intelligence to improvements in learning and achievement; vital components to
healthy classrooms and student wellbeing. While SEL’s universal appeal and application
may still be open to discourse, what is not open to debate is that teaching is challenging. It is
a high demand-low control occupation with the potential for adverse mental health. The
disturbing correlation between teacher burnout and attrition particularly during the first five
years of work suggests that new teachers in particular would benefit from a more prescriptive
approach to pre-service professional development. While research into the benefits of
emotional workshops for teachers is still unreliable, the impact upon managing emotion may

47
be significant in nurturing SEC and bolstering occupational efficacy as a protective factor
against burnout.

48
Chapter 3: Research Design
As an administrator, the notion that teachers are able to balance the increasing
demands placed upon them in terms of classroom management, assessment, dealing and
collaborating with difficult parents, engaging with administration and colleagues while
maintaining “model exemplary emotion regulation” (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009. p. 496) is
in itself daunting. Looked at in light of other influences such as personality, health concerns,
and other life stressors, it places an enormous burden on the coping system of teachers and
his or her ability to positively interact with students in difficult situations. While much of my
support for teachers, who had in my opinion gone beyond their threshold of coping, involved
a combination of coaching and professional development, the process was reactive and
somewhat too little, and in some cases, too late. A more proactive approach is a curriculum
focused on nurturing SEC in teachers prior to the start of his or her career; developing
knowledge and tools to help and manage emotion in both students and self alike.
The primary purpose of this study was to inform on SEC-related components that
could form part of pre-service training for teachers in order to nurture and develop their SEC
and EI; I employed an action research approach because of the nature of the real world
problem, and the need for participants to be invested in finding a solution (Lather, 1986;
Lewin, 1952). McKernan (1988) proposed that action research has distinct advantages over
more orthodox research:


it assists participants in gaining and increasing their own understanding of personally
experienced educational or curriculum problems;

49


action-research as opposed to fundamental research focuses on problems of immediate
concern; and,



research is geared towards practical short term solutions—thus, it is a form of operational
or applied research (p. 155).
There is a substantial body of scholarly research in regards to student behaviour, the

importance of SEL within the school structure, and teacher attrition rates, but the theme of
teacher SEC has been limited to a paltry number of quantitative studies (Jennings &
Greenberg, 2009; Tom, 2012). While these studies have excellent statistical evidence, they
do not cover the issue entirely, and leave a lot of unanswered questions. A quantitative
approach was considered for this study, but the use of questionnaires in Tom (2012) raised
issues about rater bias from teachers completing the surveys. While both Jennings &
Greenberg (2009) and Tom (2012) considered the issue of new teachers and pre-service
training, no actual perspective was provided from this cohort. The quantitative approach to
this topic takes the positivist paradigm and assumes that the real world is made up of
measurable facts (Glesne, & Peshkin, 1992), but the essence of SEC and its impact upon the
lives of new teachers and their students revolves around human feelings and interaction, and
so required initially an interpretive approach to the problem.
I conducted an early demonstration interview as a means to refining my research
question, as well as an exploration of other possible approaches (Josselson, Lieblich, &
McAdams, 2003). In taking account of the life experiences of a new teacher practitioner to
the profession, I utilized an interpretive phenomenological approach (Heidegger, 1971;
Gadamer, 1976) to the participant with the use of an unstructured interview. The participant

50
was initially asked to reflect on his experiences about emotional intelligence development
with his students through a process of: how do they know what they know; and, how do we
help them know other ways? An inductive process, guided by my own experience and
background, was used with additional questions added to develop and explore the
participant’s background, knowledge, and experience (Gadamer, 1976; Patton, 2002). The
results and feedback of the demonstration led to refining the research question, and prompted
a change from a phenomenological approach to one of action research since the combined
knowledge had to be one that was applied back to the preparation of new teachers.
While designing a method involving the use of unstructured interviews with
participants in the pre-service stage of their teaching careers, I was continually confronted by
the issue of bias impacting my findings. How could I avoid becoming involved in the
interactions of my participants? Building a research study interview protocol requires a large
degree of trust between the interviewer and the participant as rapport is slowly built through
the stages of apprehension, exploration, cooperation, and participation (DiCicco‐Bloom, &
Crabtree, 2006). Transparency is vital to this process; therefore, I had concerns that my
position as a principal administrator may have had a detrimental impact upon the openness of
the interviews. It may also have been conceivable that potential participants may also be
potential applicants for positions leading to a conflict of interest in the future. Since this
formed a significant component of my reflexivity, I felt I needed to look at other options.
After lengthy deliberation and re-evaluation, I moved from an inductive process with
participants for my data gathering to a more flexible document content analysis method.
While I would lose the authentic voice of the pre-service teacher’s experience, I would have,
through a large literature review, a non-obtrusive process for gathering data, as well as an

51
opportunity to use and extend existing theory towards my research question and the
development of my course content guide (Bowen, 2009; Cho & Lee, 2014; Hsieh &
Shannon, 2005).
Method
A qualitative content analysis method allowed me to adopt a more deductive
approach to data gathering, while improving my opportunity to start coding immediately by
utilizing pre-determined codes based on my research from the field (Cho & Lee, 2014; Hsieh
& Shannon, 2005). Krippendorf (2012) believes that the method has the benefit of extending
a researcher’s understanding of a subject or situation while allowing for more practical
solutions to be acted upon which was pivotal to my production of a pre-service SEC-related
course content guide. According to Heikkilä and Ekman (2003):
This method is often used to answer questions such as what, why, and how, and the
common patterns in the data are searched for by using a consistent set of codes to
designate data segments that contain similar material; these codes are then
categorized to answer the research questions. (p. 138)
Data Collection
Fifty four separate works related to the fields of teaching, learning, emotional
intelligence, social and emotional learning, school discipline, prosocial and child-centred
classrooms, social and emotional competencies, mental health and schools, teacher attrition,
and teacher education were reviewed and analyzed through document content analysis. The
categories were pre-determined based on the CASEL (2013) SEL framework, and supported
by Jennings and Greenberg (2009) who posit that CASEL’s five SEL components
comprising self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and

52
responsible decision-making are ideal for developing teacher SEC. With such a vast amount
of data to work through, Krippendorf (2012) advises researchers to “construct a world in
which the texts make sense and can answer the analyst’s research questions” (p. 30). I
initially sorted research documents into seven topic areas comprised of the fields stated
above. This allowed me to be more comprehensive in my data gathering by referencing a
greater number of topic areas whilst also allowing me to cross reference validity in regards to
my themes for inclusion in my course content guide. The codes were derived from each of
CASEL’s five SEL components and further broken down into more discrete essential skills
as outlined by Elias (2006).
While tabulating and documenting my research sources during my literature review, I
became starkly aware of the dearth of literature specifically addressing teacher SEC;
therefore, utilizing a method such as content analysis afforded me the opportunity for greater
flexibility in interpreting a wider range of material to support the inclusion of all five SEC
components in my guide (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). The importance of this interpretive
approach, according to Cho & Lee (2014), is the ability to analyze both the manifest and
latent content of the documents.
Data analysis
Data gathering and analysis went through three main stages as suggested by Elo and
Kyngäs (2008) involving preparation, organization, and tabulation of results. The
preparation and organization stages involved three phases of analysis designed to understand
the complexities of teacher-pupil dynamics, disseminate those elements essential to teacher
SEC development, and support and ratify the inclusion of those vital components to a SECrelated course content guide for teachers. The process resulted in two levels of interpretation:

53
Table 1
Document Content Analysis Gathering Process
Topic Areas from
Research

Codes Applied to Each
Document

Themes Related to
Each Code

Categories
Assigned

Teacher SEC

Identify feelings:
recognizing and labeling
one’s feelings

Know Yourself and
Others

Self-Awareness

SEL

Recognize strengths:
Make Responsible
identifying and
Decisions
cultivating one’s positive
qualities (Efficacy)

Self-Management

School Discipline

Manage emotions:
regulating feelings so
that they aid rather than
impede the handling of
situations

Care for Others

Social Awareness

Prosocial and ChildCentered

Understand situations:
accurately understanding
the circumstances one is
in

Know How to Act

Relationship
Skills

Mental Health

Show empathy:
identifying and
understanding the
thoughts and feelings of
others

Teacher Attrition

Seek help: identifying
the need for and
accessing appropriate
assistance and support in
pursuit of needs and
goals

Teacher Education

Build relationships:
establishing and
maintaining healthy and
rewarding connections
with individuals and
groups

Responsible
Decision-Making

54

Respect others: believing
that others deserve to be
treated with kindness
and compassion as part
of our shared humanity
Communicate
effectively: using verbal
and nonverbal skills to
express oneself and
promote effective
exchanges with others
Appreciate diversity:
understanding that
individual and group
differences complement
one another and add
strength and adaptability
to the world around us
Negotiate fairly:
achieving mutually
satisfactory resolutions
to conflict by addressing
the needs of all
concerned
Be responsible and act
ethically: understanding
one’s obligation to
engage in ethical, safe,
legal behaviors while
being guided by a set of
principles or standards
derived from recognized
legal and professional
codes or moral or faithbased systems of
conduct
Solve problems
creatively: engaging in a
creative, disciplined
process of exploring

55
alternative possibilities
that leads to responsible,
goal-directed action,
including overcoming
obstacles to plans
Refuse provocations:
conveying and following
through effectively with
one’s decision not to

deductive coding of various works followed by assigning coded entries to themes. According
to Elo and Kyngäs (2008), the preparation stage consists of building and selecting a unit of
analysis that is, they posit, “representative of the universe from which it is drawn” (p. 109). I
utilized CASEL’s five essential SEL skills which I further broke down into 14 separate codes
derived from seven research topic areas and linked to four themes as shown in Table 1.
During Phase 1, each document was exported to a qualitative analysis app called
Saturate. This software allowed for large amounts of data to be read using a Holistic Coding
approach (Dey, 1993) with predetermined codes applied to chunks of data and saved. The
Saturate program allowed the text to be treated like data where I could export it as a
collection of CSV files to an Excel spreadsheet for greater analysis. This data was then used
to identify broad groups from which was indicated: where the relevant research has been
focused, the questions it raised, and what areas need to be given more attention in future
studies.
My familiarity with the literature made the process a little more straightforward and
cut down the document coding process to two readings per document to meet a level of
confidence I was happy with on initial coding. Organizing research documents into various
topic areas in and around teaching and learning allowed for cross-sectional sampling rather

56
than focusing purely on the rare teacher SEC-related research. The opportunity to apply the
essential SEL skill codes at both the manifest and latent level of interpretation offered good
coverage of the material, and was essential for research not focused on teacher qualities or
needs.
During Phase 2, documents were coded and assigned to themes in a process of
thematic analysis (Boyatzis, 1998). Thematic analysis, states Boyatzis (1998), “allows for
the translation of qualitative information into quantitative data” (p. 4). This thematic process
was then organized into a table to correlate with the Holistic Coding process for greater
interpretation. In Phase 3, tabulated codes and themes were related to the major categories of
self-awareness; social awareness; self-management; relationship skills; and responsible
decision-making. The categories, as suggested in chapter 1, emanated from literature
research on social and emotional competencies, and the findings of the American based
organization Collaborative to Advance Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2013) to
address the need of educators to provide an environment conducive to the social and
emotional learning of students. Key competencies that would, among other things, lead to
more effective teaching practices, and enhance training for educators (Payton, Wardlaw,
Graczyk, Bloodworth, Tompsett, & Weissberg, 2000).
Validity
The process of validity is the development of strategies that work to measure the
credibility of a research study (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Confidence that the information
and conclusions are a true representation of the data taken from the works is critical.
Creswell and Miller (2000) discuss the credibility of a study through the lens of a researcher
whereby the researcher decides how long to invest in the field based upon saturation; a point

57
at which themes and categories become clear and pertinent. While I had hoped that
saturation may have been reached somewhere between 20 to 30 research documents, I felt
more were needed due to the limited number of literature on SEC-related teacher themes.
The final part of the validation process was reflexive through which I had chronicled
my research journey, explored my assumptions, and assessed my value system and biases
that had all shaped my approach to the study. My reflexive process had led to a change in
my data gathering method as explained earlier, but had also added an extra layer of analysis
and credibility to my conclusions. The move to a deductive content analysis had also added
a degree of trustworthiness since the data was freely available, and my codes and themes
were predetermined on prior research (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Elo et al. 2014, Bowen, 2009).
This final component was an essential part of the triangulation process of validity in that
multiple entry points of data allow a convergence to common themes (Denzin, 1978;
Creswell & Miller, 2000). Lather (1986) posited that “we must formulate self-corrective
techniques that check the credibility of data and minimize the distorting effect of personal
bias upon the logic of evidence (p. 270); therefore, I was cognizant of personal bias in
choosing which documents were coded which led to me extending the number of scholarly
research papers and texts across a wider range of topic areas.
Summary
The increasing burden of demands and challenges faced by teachers today places a
toll upon them that some are ill-prepared to cope with, and consequently for some may lead
to eventual burnout. A SEC-related curriculum delivered during the pre-service stage of a
teacher’s development was the focus of my research. My early research methodology
navigated the relative strengths and weaknesses of previous research done and included an

58
early interpretive phenomenological approach. After reflection, a more practical way to
address the issue of teacher SEC was designed and instigated. The chapter chartered my
research journey moving, after much reflexivity, from an inductive process with unstructured
interviews with pre-service teachers for my primary data to a non-obtrusive, non-reactive
content analysis of research in the field of teaching and learning. I overcame the dearth of
specific teacher SEC research by spreading my search across related fields including: SEL;
school discipline; prosocial and child-centred education; mental health and youth; teacher
attrition and education. I analyzed a wide range of scholarly research by applying codes,
themes, and categories emanating from the CASEL Organization’s SEL skills as outlined by
Elias (2006). A saturation point in terms of number of documents analyzed would need to be
met to off-set any possible bias in document selection improving the validation process.
Finally, the experience of analyzing a variety of scholarly research also shaped my own
perspective on the problem rather than my assumptions and biases shaping my final
conclusions.

59
Chapter 4: Results and SEC Course Content Guide
Preparing new teachers with the skills to create and nurture optimal teaching and
learning conditions while meeting the changing needs of students from diverse backgrounds
continues to be a topic that attracts national discourse and intense public scrutiny. To date
teacher education and preparation has been a complex interplay between policymakers,
provincial licensing authorities, professional standards, and locally determined coursework
requirements at post-secondary institutions. Michalec & Michalec (2013) posit that effective
teacher preparation programmes are built around common core or pillars which they suggest
can be typically categorized as, “engage, plan, teach, and lead” (p. 28). While much of
teacher preparation focuses on the common core, advances in neuroscience and learning
theory has led to a greater understanding of the impact of the social and emotional domain to
student success (Weaver & Wilding, 2013) leading to a call for the inclusion of what
Michalec & Michalec (2013) called the “inner core”, or simply, “grow” (p.28). According to
Schonert-Reichl et al., (2016) teacher education and preparation must programme relevant
SEC and SEL learning opportunities, and must include “a focus on science and evidencebased practices, and the link between theory and practice” (p. 71).
The primary purpose of this study was the development of a course content guide to
support pre-service teachers in developing those social and emotional core competencies
vital to meeting the ever changing and complex needs of students in an increasingly
challenging school and classroom environment. The learning outcomes for the course
content guide are based on the findings of my qualitative content analysis research and
current researchers’ recommendations for what inner core learning components should be

60
included in a pre-service teacher training curriculum to nurture the development of
Emotional Intelligence and Social and Emotional Competence.
I analyzed the contents of 54 research documents using 14 pre-determined codes
derived from Elias (2006) and assigned them to one of four themes: Know Yourself and
Others; Make Responsible Decisions; Care for Others; and Know How to Act. These four
themes were drawn from extensive research by CASEL including brain functioning and
development and dimensions of how we learn and how we teach (Elias, 2006). According to
Elias (2006), the themes relate to “a set of social-emotional skills that underlie effective
performance of a wide range of social roles and life tasks” (p. 5). While these skills were
designed for school-age students, they have the same relevance to teachers, particularly preservice teachers (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009). Table 2 represents the findings of the
content analysis with significant entries for percentage of all documents with relevant coding
impact, and frequency of the SEL code to the relevant percentage of documents.
The content analysis was designed to validate those essential SEL skills needed for an
inner core SEC course. While the academic research documents were taken from a variety of
related topic areas to support validity (see table 1), what is somewhat alarming was the level
of discrepancy in terms of coverage and attention afforded to the coded skills. In terms of
sources and references, 25% of the attention focused on building relationships, while 14%
focused on managing emotions (see Appendix B). Very little research attention or reference
was afforded to those other components such as self-awareness.

61
Table 2
Proportion of SEC-related Scholarly Research Supporting SEL Themes
Categories

Themes

Code

Self-Awareness

Know Yourself

Identify feelings:
recognizing and labeling
one’s feelings
Recognize strengths:
identifying and cultivating
one’s positive qualities
(Efficacy)
Manage emotions:
regulating one’s feelings
so that they aid rather than
impede the handling of
situations
Understand situations:
accurately perceive the
circumstances one is in
Show empathy:
identifying and
understanding the
thoughts and feelings of
others
Appreciate diversity:
understanding that
individual and group
differences complement
one another and add
strength and adaptability
to the world around us
Respect others: believing
that others deserve to be
treated with kindness and
compassion as part of our
shared humanity
Build relationships:
establish and maintain
healthy and rewarding
connections with
individuals and groups

SelfManagement

Social
Awareness

Relationship
Skills

Make
Responsible
Decisions

Care for
Others

Know How to
Act

% of
Relevant
Documents
19%

Frequency
of Codes
29

17%

36

32%

75

20%

15

24%

34

6%

4

13%

8

57%

134

62

Responsible
DecisionMaking

Make
Responsible
Decisions

Communicate effectively:
using verbal and
nonverbal skills to express
oneself and promote
effective exchanges with
others
Negotiate fairly:
achieving mutually
satisfactory resolutions to
conflict by addressing the
needs of all concerned
Seek help: identifying the
need for and accessing
appropriate assistance and
support in pursuit of needs
and goals
Act ethically: understand
one’s obligation to engage
in responsible, ethical,
safe, legal behaviours
while being guided by a
set of principles or
standards derived from
recognized legal and
professional codes or
moral or faith-based
systems of conduct
Refuse provocations:
conveying and following
through effectively with
one’s decision not to
engage in unwanted,
unsafe, unethical
behaviour
Solve problems
creatively: engaging in a
creative, disciplined
process of exploring
alternative possibilities
that leads to responsible,
goal-directed action,
including overcoming
obstacles to plans

20%

16

4%

4

9%

6

11%

6

4%

2

26%

24

63
During the analysis process, I also coded for barriers to implementation both at the
manifest and latent level. While it is not referenced in Table 1 due to it having limited
impact upon the course content, it does have a bearing upon future recommendations.
Almost 15% of the research suggested in one way or another limitations to teacher SEC
implementation, which combined with almost nominal reference to other important areas of
SEC such as solving problems creatively, identifying feelings, respecting others, showing
empathy, and negotiating fairly to name just a few, represent a significant gap in research and
potential implications for teacher training. In a white paper prepared by Schonert-Reichl et
al., (2016) entitled, Social and Emotional Learning and Teacher Education: What Do We
Know and Where Do We Go From Here?, they report a disturbing absence from the national
debate in the United States on teacher standards and educational reform of any informed
discussion regarding the importance of SEL and teacher SEC. In a detailed content analysis
of 3916 required courses in pre-service teacher preparation programs, Schonert-Reichl et al.,
(2016) found that only two SEC dimensions, social awareness and responsible decisionmaking, were included in more than 10% of mandatory courses (p. 40).
The SEC Course Content Guide
The five dimensions of teacher SEC, self-awareness, self-management, social
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making, formed the foundations of
the SEC course contents guide. Along with the themes, they become both the guiding
principles and the Essential Learning Outcomes for the course content. Many of the
activities combine elements of two or more dimensions. I also added two additional subcategories relating to emotional expression and management of others since both have
importance to the daily interactions of teachers with students. The SEC contents guide is

64
intended to be highly flexible in terms of duration and application that could be portioned
into existing pre-service teacher training courses, form stand-alone short courses, or form a
regular part of ongoing teacher professional development, elements of which could be
beneficially shared with participants in the wider education community.
The content guide is made up of activities and related learning outcomes referenced
to the relevant SEC category. It is designed to flow from self-discovery and assessment
towards self-management and regulation, identifying those tools that could protect against
teacher burnout. Many of the activities are drawn from best practice and latest research
including the self-assessment tools at the beginning based on the work of Mayer et al. (2008).
Participants are also guided through reflective practices, and asked to chart their journey
through the use of a reflective journal. The journal becomes a vital emotional dictionary for
individuals and forms a pivotal role amongst the participants in a community of practice with
colleagues. Mindfulness and wellness complete the course contents allowing participants to
develop protective factors.

BUILDING TEACHER SOCIAL EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE
COURSE CONTENT GUIDE
AND SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

65

Core Component Guide for Building Teacher Social Emotional Competence
Areas of EI & SEC Codes used for this guide:
Self-Awareness: SfA; Self-Management: SM; Social Awareness: ScA; Relationship Skills: RS; Emotional Expression: EE; Management of
Others: MO

Essential Learning
Component

Orientation to Course

Self-assessment

Activity

Learning Objectives

Introduction of tutor and expectations of the
participants.
As a course concerned with developing
understanding, expression and control of feelings it
is crucial to begin by setting out the behavioural
expectations of the participants: exercise
confidentiality, be non-judgmental, a circle of trust,
supportive of one another on this journey and how
important it is for them to contribute to the process
rather than simply be passive attendees. That this is
something to help them develop the skills to protect
and promote their own wellness and to potentially
become better teachers with happier, more
successful students.
Completion of one or more of the following selfassessments:
Mayer, Salovey and Caruso Emotional Intelligence
Test (MSCEIT), the Bar-On Emotional Quotient
Inventory (EQ-i), and the Emotional Competence
Inventory (ECI)

 Know the behavioural expectations of
the course participants.

Assessing your emotional style - EI self-study
survey (Caruso & Salovey, 2004):

Identify emotional style

 Understand ‘how EI skills play an
integral role in academic learning,
decision making, classroom
management, stress management,
interpersonal relationships, team
building, and the overall quality of
one’s life’
(Brackett et al, 2009)

-

Identify personal values, beliefs,
expectations, goals and aspects of selfimage (Cherniss and Adler, 2000)
identify personal stressors
increase self-awareness

Area of
EI/SEC
SfA, SM,
ScA, RS, EE,
MO

SfA

66

Participants complete the 4 parts to Caruso and
Salovey’s EI self-study questionnaire on their own
Participants once finished can score the self-study
test with the marking rubric.
Complete the following 4 questions based on
results:
Consider your highest area and ask yourself:
What strengths do I have?
How might I approach a situation?

Develop emotional inventory

Consider your lowest area and ask yourself:
What obstacles do I face?
What possible problems might I have in a given
situation?

Emotions
 identify emotions
 use emotions
 understand
emotions
 manage emotions
(Caruso & Salovey,
2004. p. 150)

Handout: Emotional Intelligence Self-Study
Ask students to identify a person whom they admire
and share with the group why they chose him/her
(ie, what qualities do they recognize in that person
to be admirable).
Mood Scale (Caruso & Salovey, 2004, p. 88)
The mood meter plots emotions along two
dimensions: feelings (negative to positive, and
energy (high to low).

Identifying and fostering the development ScA, SfA
of positive role-modelling (McAllister and
McKinnon, 2008; Freshwater, 1998)
-

Become aware of your own feelings
and emotions.
Help students to identify, monitor and
track change in their own and others’
moods.

SfA, ScA,
SM, RS, MO

Handout of emotional vocabulary ‘Feeling Words’

-

improve interpersonal communication
by expanding emotional vocabulary.
(Hansen, Gardner, & Stough, 2007)

EE,RS

Handout: Develop Your Emotional Imagination
Exercise

-

develop emotional imagination
develop empathy with the feelings of

SfA, SM,
EE, ScA, RS

67

(Caruso & Salovey, 2004)
Feelings Card exercise – in pairs (identified as ‘1’
and ‘2’), participants are given four cards with a
positive or negative feelings word on. The #1s talk
to their partner for 1 minute sharing when they last
had that feeling and what the circumstances were.
Keeping strict timing, after one minute they swap
over. After two minutes all the #2s move to a
different desk.

-

others
enhance thinking processes
identify and label feelings
encourage the sharing of feelings with
others
develop participants’ comfort with
sharing their own feelings
develop empathy and a trusting
relationship with others

ScA, RS, EE,
SfA

Keep swapping and moving for as long as you have
time for.
End with a reflective group discussion about how it
felt to talk about feelings with others.
In pairs, each participant is to talk for a couple of
minutes about a ‘happiest memory’ they have – one
in which they felt the most happiness in their life to
date – this could be from the distant past or recently.
Emotion Charades:
In groups, participants are dealt Scenario cards (see
Caruso & Salovey, 2004. pp. 88-90).
1. One player selects a card and reads it.
2. The player then acts out the emotion nonverbally without the use of any vocalization
using facial and body expressions to convey the
emotion felt.
3. (Allow 30 seconds to convey emotion.)
4. The other group members rate the actor on the

-

becoming aware of yours and others
emotional expressions;
help students to accurately identify
and label non-verbal emotions

SfA, ScA,
RS, EE, MO

68

emotion being expressed, and the genuineness of
the emotion.
5. The player now reads out the emotion card being
conveyed while the group writes down the
emotions the player should have conveyed.
6. The group discusses the key emotions in the
scenario.
7. The group shares their ratings.
The highest rated participants are asked the
following questions:
- What is a ‘phoney’ emotion and how do you
know?
- What are the keys to understanding non-verbal
expressions?
- What about facial expression?
- Did you pay attention to body language such as
posture?
Understanding Emotions exercise
(See activity sheet)

-

understand the causes and effects of
your own and other people’s feelings

SfA, ScA,
RS, EE

Students are asked to think about an event that upset
them. Either verbally to the group, or privately in
writing, students describe the event, indicate what
happened just prior, and how they felt as it unfolded.
They should consider what they had hoped or
expected would happen, and then indicate how they
felt at the conclusion of the event.
How did their emotions change following the event?
Ask them to remember a feeling that goes back to a
neutral or positive point.

69

Then,
Do the same exercise, but reflect on an event where
someone else was upset.
(Caruso & Salovey, 2004, p. 150)
Anger management and conflict management
training
- lectures/presentations by expert counselors and
professional trainers
- large and small group exercises and reflective
discussion

-

regulate emotions;
recognize emotions in others;
understand the impact of one’s own
behaviour on the emotion of others
(Slaski & Cartwright, 2003)

SfA, SM,
ScA, RS, EE,
MO

Reflective Narrative Writing:
Introduce importance of, and suggested format for,
reflective narrative writing/journaling. During the
course these journal entries should be encouraged to
be a regular reflection of the students’ personal
emotional-development journey. However, four of
these entries will be submitted.

-

develop self-awareness, empathic
reflection and reflective
communication;
enhance emotional expression.

SfA, ScA,
RS, EE, SM

Reflective Practice

-

Some guiding reflective questions (based on:
Nankin, I, 2016, Breathe For Change - Changing
the World, One Teacher at a Time. p. 260) could
be:

Journal submission 1
- Tell me what you are thinking and experiencing
knowing that your first year of teaching is
around the corner.
- What are your fears? What are you most
excited/passionate about?
- What is your vision for yourself, your
classroom, your community, etc.?

70

-

Share whatever it is that captures your authentic
experience, perspectives and thinking right now.
What are your intentions for participating in this
ongoing reflective, growth opportunity and
community of practice?

Journal submission 2:
- What has your experience been like specifically
teaching students that are culturally,
linguistically, racially, or ethnically different
from you?
- What have been some of the biggest tensions for
you in these first few months of teaching?
- What are your unfulfilled needs?
Journal submission 3:
- How do (and how don’t) you take care of your
wellbeing?
- Why are you teaching? Has your reasoning
changed since the start of teacher education? If
yes, how so?
- How are you feeling about your growth as a
teacher? What are you proud of? What scares
you?
- What is something that you really want to
transform for yourself/your teaching, but that
you are totally afraid to confront? What is
blocking you from taking on this challenge?
Journal submission 4
- What did you learn about yourself from taking
part in this reflective process?

71

-

What will you do to promote your personal
wellbeing in future?
- What will you do to promote the wellbeing of
your students?
Ask students to write a reflective narrative from
someone else’s perspective, and share these
reflections in small groups.
- DasGupta and Charon (2004); Hurley and
Linsley (2012)
Reflective small and large group discussions and
feedback to occur throughout the course.

-

improve communication skills, help
nurture appropriate empathy and
improve professional practice

EE, ScA, RS,

-

create a safe psychological space for
students to express their emotions, to
seek support and advice; and receive
positive feedback;
identify personal strengths, promote
self-awareness and develop reflective
techniques (Goleman and Cherniss
2001; Gyllensten and Palmer 2005)
develop self-awareness, empathic
reflection and reflective
communication;
promote interpersonal awareness
(Kagan, Kagan & Watson, 1995)
nurture community building skills
through collaborative reflection
practice listening skills
To provide a safe forum for students
to reflect on their practice with their
peers;
To receive feedback on their
reflection;
To problem-solve and share their ideas
for alternative courses of action;

SfA, RS,
ScA

-

Peer coaching to
enhance support

Peer coaching and support will be occurring through
the many small and large group reflective
discussions throughout the course.

-

SfA, SM,
EE, ScA, RS

72

-

Supportive
supervision and
mentoring
and,
Experiential learning

Ask students to write a ‘support card’ to the student
next to them.
After reading the card written for them, students
discuss and are asked to share with the group how
that made them feel.
1 day of teaching practicum per week in 2 or more
schools:
Organization: assuming 24 pre-service students group divided into four with 1 tutor per group of six
students.

Increase self-confidence, professional
identity and motivation;
- Increase resiliency.
(Grant and Kinman, 2013)
- Recognize the large impact that even
small actions can have on feeling
supported by others
- Exercise to promote empathy
-

Practicum 1 - observation
In pairs, proactive observation of experienced (3
years+) teacher focusing on identifying occasions of stress and seeing how the teacher responds to it, how
that reaction affects the class.
Ask experienced teachers to describe their personal
emotional reactions to practice and the strategies
they use to ensure their own personal wellbeing.

-

positive role-modelling and coaching
to support increased resilience;
help to develop action-orientated
solutions to difficult situations, as well
as develop strategies for self-care;
establish effective social connection
with peers and other adults
(McAllister and McKinnon (2008)
experience supportive mentoring and
supervision
improve aspects of emotional
intelligence, reflective ability and
empathy (Vesely-Maillefer, 2015)
forum for peer coaching and support
relationship building

ScA, SfA,
RS, EE

SfA, SM,
ScA, RS, EE,
MO

73

Each of the four practicums to be followed directly
by reflective small group discussion and feedback
(that is, the group of six students with their
individual tutor).

-

practicing active listening skills
emotional self-expression
starting to compile a ‘tool kit’ for
strategies to manage stress

-

Experiencing and practicing calming
and relaxation techniques; making it
habit-forming;

-

experiencing a method to aid
reduction in stress and improvement in
well-being and resiliency (Richards,
Campenni, & Muse-Burke, 2010;
Glomb, Duffy, Bono, & Yang, 2011)

-

enhanced levels of empathic selfawareness, self-compassion and
emotional resilience (Shapiro, Brown
and Biegel 2007; Krasner et al. 2009;

Circular discussion to share observations from
teaching practicum and to answer questions like:




Mindfulness and
relaxation:
meditation, yoga and
relaxation training
-

Mindfulness
Based Stress
Reduction
(MBSR) KabatZinn (2003)

were there general stressors in the classroom?
how were they handled – what worked what did
not?
What alternative strategies could the teacher
have used?

Someone from each group to be responsible for
collecting all examples of coping skills suggested by
staff – these will be shared with whole group at
another session.
At the start of every lesson, begin with short gentle
yoga exercises with deep breathing (15 mins)
Handout: Gentle Yoga Exercises with Breathing

SfA, SM,
ScA, RS, EE

74

Pipe et al. 2009; Napoli and Bonifas
2011)

Full sessions of yoga, mindfulness and wellness
given by trained certified professionals.
These skills training sessions should make up 30%
of the course curriculum.

-

strategic tool to reduce stress because:
"An anxious mind cannot exist in a
relaxed body." (Dr Edmund Jacobson,
1929)

-

develop greater focus, build better
relationships, and enhance creativity.

-

Through mindfulness meditation,
make ‘structural changes around the
anterior cingulate cortex, a part of the
brain important for developing selfcontrol’ (Tang, et al, 2010).
develop self-awareness, empathic
reflection and sensitivity;
enhance emotional expression.

For homework, suggest students write down their
experiences, feelings and thoughts about the
exercises in their journals.

-

Creative Imagery exercise

-

experiencing a method to aid
SfA, SM
reduction in stress and improvement in
well-being and resiliency (Richards,
Campenni, & Muse-Burke, 2010;
Glomb, Duffy, Bono, & Yang, 2011)

-

enhanced levels of empathic selfawareness, self-compassion and
emotional resilience (Shapiro, Brown
and Biegel 2007; Krasner et al. 2009;
Pipe et al. 2009; Napoli and Bonifas
2011)

Do a basic relaxation exercise for a few minutes and
then ask participants to close their eyes and picture a
tiny person above their head – it could be a
miniature version of themselves or another
character. Begin to place the things that are causing
you stress right now in a ‘cloud’ – one cloud for
each problem – and form them in an arc over the top
of your mini-person. Now picture him/her
vacuuming them up one at a time until they are all
gone inside the vacuum bag. He/she takes out the

-

SfA, SM,
EE, RS, ScA

75

bag and drops it into a metal bin. And set light to it
or ‘magics it away’ with the swipe of a wand.
Ask them to picture themselves three years into the
future. Ask them to visualize themselves being
involved in their community, enjoying working,
taking care of themselves, feeling active and
healthy, having time for everything they want to
focus on each day.

-

Strategic tool to reduce stress because:
"An anxious mind cannot exist in a
relaxed body." (Dr Edmund Jacobson,
1929)

Spend a few minutes on affirmations:
-

I am relaxed and alert
My stress is an indication that I need to make
changes in my life
I am relaxed and centred
I am loving and loveable

Ask for comments from the group and suggest they
write down their experiences, feelings and thoughts
about the exercise in their journals.
Progressive muscle relaxation exercise

SM

Handout: Progressive Muscle Relaxation
In-class exercise:
Ask students to lie down in a comfortable position
on yoga mats. Play the progressive muscle
relaxation tape (20 mins) and have them follow the
instructions.
Systematic desensitization exercise

SfA, SM

76

Ask students to:
1. Determine which emotions give you the most
trouble.
2. Make a list of situations that result in the emotion.
3. Order the situations from least to most
emotionally intense.
4. Learn to relax through, for example, progressive
muscle relaxation exercises.
5. Generate a calm and pleasant mood and relax.
6. Picture the least intense emotional situation.
7. As you find yourself tensing up, start to relax
again and generate a calming mood.
(Caruso & Salovey, 2004)
Emotion Generalization Strategy
1. Select an emotion that you might exaggerate.
2. Consider a recent situation in which this emotion was present.
3. Was it reasonable to feel this way? Consider the
causes of emotions to help you to determine this.
4. How strongly did you feel this way?
5. Consider the following: Did you have a warm
feeling or cold? Were you tense or more
relaxed? Did you have a light feeling or some
sort of heavy, weighted-down feeling? Did you
feel tired or energetic?
6. Do you often feel this way?
7. What do you think about when feeling this way?
Do you “catch” yourself when you feel this
way?
8. Why do you feel this way? What causes the

To experience an insight that allows
you to determine which emotional
filters you use
Strategy to help students manage
emotions

SfA, SM

77

feeling? Identify what makes you feel this way.
How did you interpret the event? Would
someone else have interpreted the event in the
same way? Is it possible that your view of the
event was incorrect?
9. Evaluate alternative explanations for feeling this
way. Ask whether is it reasonable.
10. Practice feeling this way: Before a situation,
think about the likelihood of feeling
__________________.
11. Visualize the provoking scenes. Relax and
visualize your response. Then, enter the
situation, ready for action.
(Caruso & Salovey, 2004)
Handouts:
- Wellness
- 50 Self-Nurturing Ideas

Wellness
- physical, social,
environmental,
emotional, spiritual,
and intellectual
wellness

To understand that:
- emotional intelligence and socialemotional competence are dependent
upon personal holistic wellbeing:
emotional, spiritual, social,
intellectual, financial, environmental
and physical;
- by focusing on these areas of
ourselves can promote an enhanced
degree of balance, stability and
resilience;
- this is an ongoing process of personal
growth and development;
- Promote holistic wellbeing and selfcare
- understand the importance of personal
wellbeing and its impact on
themselves and their teaching;

SfA, SM

78

-

Physical health assessment
 Group to complete a physical assessment
exercise (various gentle physical exercises
that can be measured against age-appropriate
ranges);
 Learn how to monitor own blood pressure;
work out daily caloric needs;
Handouts: How Healthy Are You?; Push-Ups; SitUps; Wall Sit Test; Sit-and-Reach Flexibility Test;
1.5 Mile Walk/Run
Goal Setting Exercise: SMART
Instruct students to decide on one or more health
goals they wish to achieve and write out a plan for
achieving them. Their plan should be structured
using the SMART criteria:






everyone experiences stress in their
lives, but that there are strategies and
techniques to manage stress.
- to restore emotional balance (Caruso
& Salovey, 2004)
 To discover their own level of
physical fitness is;

SfA, SM

 Learn what their daily caloric needs
are; what comprises a good diet;
understanding labelling on foods;
optimum water intake; need for
adequate sleep; effect of comfort
foods and quick-fixes (drugs and
alcohol) on stress.
 Make personal fitness plan to improve
physical health

SfA, SM

Specific: target a specific area for
improvement
Measurable: quantify, or at least suggest,
an indicator of progress
Assignable: specify who will do it
Realistic: state what results can realistically
be achieved given available resources
Time-related: specify when the result can
be achieved

79

When students have reached the time set, ask them
to write a reflection paper on whether they
succeeded in attaining their goal, what the barriers
were, and what their next goal will be.
(Doran, G. T. (1981)
Handout: SMART
Ecomap exercise:
An ecomap is a diagram that shows the social and
personal relationships of an individual with his or
her environment. It provides a visual indication of
the quality of those connections as being either
positive and nurturing or negative and stressful. As
such, they can be a useful tool for identifying
sources for stress, the presence of, or lack of,
support systems and where in a person’s life they
may want to focus to improve their overall wellness.

-

identify sources of stress or anxiety
identify personal support network and
seek ways to expand or strengthen it
experience collaboration in a
supportive forum
develop tools to reduce own stressors
develop team spirit

SfA, SM,
ScA, RS, EE

Students write down answers to:

Who are the people you depend on; who do you
find are supportive of you?

What type of support do you receive from them?
(ie, love, companionship, guidance, honesty,
help, etc.)

What type of support do you find yourself to be
lacking? Why is that?

How could you go about remedying those
support deficiencies? (ie, improving your
interpersonal skills, joining social groups,
building self-esteem, etc.)
Then, using a flipchart, the students draw their

80

personal ecomap indicating the nature of
connection/relationship (ie, strong, stressful, weak,
etc) as indicated on the handout.

Resilience

Ask group for ways they came up with to expand or
strengthen or reduce their connections.
Handout: Ecomap Exercise
Ask students to research online a person whom they
admire for their ability to overcome adversity. Give
a brief presentation to the group on why they chose
this person.
Handouts:
- Stress Effects
- 50 Signs and Symptoms of Stress

-

Handout: Resilience

-

Handout: Generating Alternative Beliefs
1. Using the A-B-C Model of Resilience
(Ellis,1962), students are first asked to choose an
event they felt very angry about. They are to
identify: the adverse event, their belief about the
event, and the consequences of the event. They
are asked to write these out on the activity sheet.
- Then, students are asked to consider the
same event from a different view point and
with other interpretations of the event;
consider new consequences based on those
different interpretations. Students write their
responses out on the activity sheet.

-

recognize and appreciate positive role
models
help foster the development of
positive role modeling
identify sources or triggers for stress
know the physical effects of stress
know the impact of stress on self and
on the emotions of others
identify coping strategies for reducing
stress
examples of problem-solving
strategies to build resilience
increase awareness of relationship
between thinking & feeling
promote flexible thinking to adapt
behaviour
provide insight into own response to
feelings
help promote problem-solving skills
help to reduce stress by enabling
students to recognize the possibility of
multiple causes of adverse events
help to preserve relationships by
developing empathy

SA, ScA, SM

SA,SM, SA,
MO

SM
SfA,SM,RS,
MO

81

Guest Speaker – Seeking Help
 Invited counselor who will talk about
counseling: what it is, who needs it and when to
seek help. And what it costs.
Select a favorite painting and picture it while also
playing a favorite piece of music in your head.
Concentrate on these while doing some deep
breathing.

Opportunities for
working creatively
with the arts and
humanities
ie, art, drama, music,
film, literature and
poetry

Instead of imagining a painting, choose a
photograph of a favorite place – you could have it
on your iPhone or as a screen-saver and look at it
while listening to your music on an iPod or phone.
Changing your mood through a personal reflective
story (Caruso & Salovey, 2004 Page 113)
Students are asked to recall an emotional conflict
that they resolved positively.
1. They are to reflect on it, and create a short story
using positive feeling words that evoke powerful
memories of survival and hope.
2. The story can be brought to mind and ‘replayed’
to quickly alter your mood to one that is
positive.
Watch the youtube two minute film clip from ‘A
Wonderful Life’ (the ‘angry George’ scene) at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxNXtjGY_Us
Write down the verbal and non-verbal expressions
of stress in the film clip and what effects it has on
George Bailey and his family.

A stress management tool.

SfA, SM

Strategies to help you quickly relax

SM, EE

Strategy to manage emotion

EE, SM, SfA

-

EE, ScA, RS

-

Recognizing the expression of
emotion in others;
Develop sensitivity to feelings and
empathy with others;
means for self-expression;
enhanced appreciation of diversity of
people, cultures, values and
perspectives and ways to interpret the

82

Invite a group discussion of these.
Storytelling from teaching practice (Caruso &
Salovey, 2004. p. 123)
-

In small groups, students take turns to pick a
card with an emotion word and tell a story from
their teaching practicum related to that word.

-

The storyteller should try to generate emotions
in themselves and in the listeners.

The listeners engage in active listening, ask
questions that reflect the storyteller’s emotions, and
make empathetic comments.
Ask students to choose their favorite inspirational
quote or poem. Place in a personal reflective
journal. The tutor should then invite students to
share these – one or two students each day with the
group.

-

-

-

-

world we live in;
practice active listening.
Recognizing the expression of
emotion in others;
Develop sensitivity to feelings and
empathy with others;
means for self-expression;
enhanced appreciation of diversity of
people, cultures, values and
perspectives and ways to interpret the
world we live in;
practice active listening.

Recognizing the expression of
emotion in others;
Develop sensitivity to feelings and
empathy with others;
means for self-expression;
enhanced appreciation of diversity of
people, cultures, values and
perspectives and ways to interpret the
world we live in;
practice active listening.
Help to create a positive and hopeful
mood.

EE, ScA, RS

EE, ScA, RS,
SfA

83

84
Handout 1 - Emotional Intelligence Self-Study: Overview of the Four Skills of EI
Objective
The four parts of this section can help you to become more aware of your confidence and
understanding of your emotional intelligence skills.
Instructions
Simply read each question and select one response—a, b, or c— that you feel best describes
yourself.
Part 1. Identifying Emotions: Assess your emotional awareness.
1. Awareness of emotions
a [ ] Almost always aware of how I feel.
b [ ] At times am aware of my feelings.
c [ ] Don’t pay much attention to my feelings.
2. Expression of feelings
a [ ] Can show others how I feel through emotional expression.
b [ ] Can show some of my feelings.
c [ ] Not good at expressing my feelings.
3. Reading of other people’s emotions
a [ ] Always know how someone else feels.
b [ ] Sometimes pick up on others’ feelings.
c [ ] Misread people’s feelings.
4. Ability to read subtle, nonverbal emotional cues
a [ ] Can read between the lines and pick up on how the person feels.
b [ ] At times, can read nonverbal cues such as body language.
c [ ] Don’t pay much attention to these cues.

85
5. Awareness of false emotions
a [ ] Always pick up on lies.
b [ ] Usually am aware of when a person is lying.
c [ ] Can be fooled by people.
6. Perception of emotion in art
a [ ] Strong aesthetic sense.
b [ ] At times can feel it.
c [ ] Am uninterested in art or music.
7. Ability to monitor emotions
a [ ] Always aware of feelings.
b [ ] Usually aware.
c [ ] Rarely aware.
8. Awareness of manipulative emotions
a [ ] Always know when a person is trying to manipulate me.
b [ ] Usually know.
c [ ] Rarely know.
Part 2. Using Emotions to Facilitate Thought: Assess your ability to generate emotions
and use them to think.
1. When people describe experiences to me,
a [ ] I can feel what they feel.
b [ ] I understand what they feel.
c [ ] I focus on facts and details.
2. I can generate an emotion on demand
a [ ] Easily, for all emotions.
b [ ] For most emotions.

86
c [ ] Rarely, or with great difficulty.
3. Before an important event,
a [ ] I can get into a positive, energetic mood.
b [ ] I may be able to psych myself up for it.
c [ ] I keep my mood just the same.
4. Is my thinking influenced by my feelings?
a [ ] Different moods affect thinking and decision making in different ways.
b [ ] It may be important to be in a certain mood at certain times.
c [ ] My thinking is not clouded by emotions.
5. What is the influence of strong feelings on my thinking?
a [ ] Feelings help me focus on what’s important.
b [ ] Feelings have little impact on me.
c [ ] Feelings distract me.
6. My emotional imagination is
a [ ] Very strong.
b [ ] Mildly interesting.
c [ ] Adds little value.
7. I can change my mood
a [ ] Easily.
b [ ] Usually.
c [ ] Rarely.
8. When people describe powerful emotional events,
a [ ] I feel what they feel.
b [ ] My feelings change a bit.
c [ ] My feelings stay the same.

87
Part 3. Understanding Emotions: Assess your emotional knowledge.
1. My emotional vocabulary is
a [ ] Very detailed and rich.
b [ ] About average.
c [ ] Not very large.
2. My understanding of why people feel the way they do usually yields
a [ ] Excellent insights.
b [ ] Some insight.
c [ ] Some missing pieces.
3. My knowledge of how emotions change and develop is
a [ ] Sophisticated.
b [ ] Somewhat developed.
c [ ] Limited and of little interest to me.
4. Emotional what-if thinking yields
a [ ] Accurate prediction of outcome of various actions.
b [ ] At times, good prediction of feelings.
c [ ] Tend not to project how people will feel.
5. When I try to determine what causes emotions, I
a [ ] Always link the feeling to the event.
b [ ] Sometimes link a feeling to a cause.
c [ ] Believe that feelings don’t always have a cause.
6. I believe that contradictory emotions
a [ ] Can be felt, such as love and hate at the same time.
b [ ] May be possible.
c [ ] Make little sense.

88
7. I think emotions
a [ ] Have certain patterns of change.
b [ ] Sometimes can follow other emotions.
c [ ] Usually occur in a random order.
8. My emotional reasoning could be described this way:
a [ ] I have a sophisticated emotional vocabulary.
b [ ] I can usually describe emotions.
c [ ] I struggle for words to describe feelings.
Part 4. Managing Emotions: Assess your emotional management.
1. I attend to feelings
a [ ] Usually.
b [ ] At times.
c [ ] Rarely.
2. I act on my feelings
a [ ] Immediately.
b [ ] At times.
c [ ] Hardly ever.
3. Strong emotions
a [ ] Motivate me and help me.
b [ ] At times take over.
c [ ] Should be controlled and forgotten.
4. I am clear about how I feel
a [ ] Usually.
b [ ] At times.
c [ ] Rarely.

89
5. The influence feelings have on me
a [ ] Is usually understood in terms of how feelings affect me.
b [ ] Is understood at times.
c [ ] Is rarely processed or felt.
6. I process strong emotions
a [ ] In order not to exaggerate or minimize them.
b [ ] At times.
c [ ] So as to either minimize or maximize.
7. I am able to change a bad mood
a [ ] Usually.
b [ ] At times.
c [ ] Rarely.
8. I can keep a good mood going
a [ ] Usually.
b [ ] At times.
c [ ] Rarely.

What Does It Mean?
A minute or so more of your time can help you better understand your relative emotional
intelligence skills and confidence level.
Indicate how many times you selected a, b, or c responses for each of the four sets of
questions. Then create a score for each of the four parts of the self-assessment survey by
giving yourself 2 points for every “a” response, 1 point for a “b” response, and 0 points for a
“c” response.

90

Area

a
(2)

b
(1)

c
(0)

Your Score

Identifying Emotions

___

___

___

___

Using Emotions

___

___

___

___

Understanding Emotions

___

___

___

___

Managing Emotions

___

___

___

___

Let’s say that a lower score is one that is around 8 or less, and a higher score one that is about
9 or above. This is meant only as a means to stimulate your thinking and feeling about these
issues, not to measure your actual skills.
You can interpret these scores as follows:
Identifying Emotions: Your score indicates how you feel about identifying emotions
accurately. Do you attend to this source of data, or do you ignore it? And if you do try to
figure other people out, are your guesses accurate or not?
Using Emotions: Your score gives you an idea of whether you use your feelings to help you
gain insight into others or to enhance the way you decide and think.
Understanding Emotions: Your score for this set of questions helps you better understand the
depth of your emotional knowledge.
Managing Emotions: Your score on managing emotions indicates the extent to which you
allow your feelings to positively affect your decision making.
Consider your highest area and ask yourself:
• What strengths do I have?
• How might I approach a situation?
Consider your lowest area and ask yourself:
• What obstacles do I face?
• What possible problems might I have in a given situation?

Source: Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2004). The emotionally intelligent manager: How to develop and use
the four key emotional skills of leadership. John Wiley & Sons.

91
Handout 2 - Feeling Words
Write on to 3” x 5” cards the following feelings words:

Happy

Feel happy
for another

Love

Fascinated

Intrigued

Loathe

Nervous

Embarrassed

Worried

Envious

Despair

Apprehensive

Anger

Rage

Sad

Tense

Trust

Admire

Attract

Awe

Surprise

Afraid

Frustrated

Bored

Relaxed

Shock

Concern

Adore

Irritation

Be positive

Ecstatic

Bewilderment

92
Handout 3 - Develop Your Emotional Imagination
Purpose:

This exercise will help students to more easily relate to the feelings of others,
develop emotional imagination and enhance thinking processes.

Materials:

Yoga mats, blankets and pillow

Time:

15 minute yoga to begin; 20 minute emotional imagination exercise; 15 min
discussion.

After a gentle yoga exercise with deep breathing get the students to lie in a comfortable
position on the yoga mats.
For each of these emotions, ask students to think of a specific example of when they felt this
way. Give them time to bring it to mind. Then read the following, slowly, and tell them to
try to experience or feel the sensations that accompany that emotion.
Intensify the visuals and the physical sensations as necessary. Intensifying the image may
help you experience the physical sensations of different emotions. Take the image and replay
it in your imagination in slow motion. With each frame of the scene, go through the
sensations one at a time. Try to increase the overall vividness and intensity of the feelings.
Sadness. It is cold, and you are feeling chilled. You feel heavy and slow. You find it hard
to move about, as if there are weights on your ankles. You are hunched over slightly. It
seems dark all around you, and although you can distinguish shapes, you seem to be in a
fog. You breathe in slowly and deeply, taking time to slowly exhale. As you breathe out,
make a low moaning sound. Your eyes droop down and your mouth relaxes.
Fear. It is perfectly still all about you; there is no movement of air. Something is going to
happen, but you are not sure what it is or when it will happen. All your muscles are tense.
You are standing motionless. Your heart is pounding, and your skin grows pale. Your
mouth is dry.
Love. Warmth suffuses your body. You cannot help smiling. A glow emanates from you,
and you are sure that anyone who looks at you just knows that you are full of joy and
passion and hope. Your heart beats just a little faster. The world is colored brightly.
Anger. Your jaws are clenched, and you are staring at the other person with a fixed gaze.
You clench and unclench your hands and pound one hand into the other. You feel warm,
and your heart begins to beat faster. A frown pulls the corners of your mouth down, and
your mouth tenses up, as do your shoulders.
Happiness. You are feeling nice and warm—not hot, but safe, satisfied, content, and
protected. Your body seems like it is floating, just as if you were in a warm spring-fed hot
tub. You are laughing and smiling. Every now and then you shout out. You move about
excitedly and feel like dancing around.

93

End on a positive note: bring everyone ‘back’ slowly. Have them get into small groups and
share with one another a ‘happiest memory’ they have.
Source: Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2004). The emotionally intelligent manager - How to develop and use the
four key emotional skills of leadership. John Wiley & Sons]

94
Handout 4 - Gentle yoga exercises with breathing
Ask students to stand in a space, feet shoulder width apart. Explain that the breaths they take
should be deep but gentle, and resemble a gentle surf rolling up and back down a sandy
beach. Ask them to try and picture that as they do the exercises.
1.

Raise arms up straight from the sides and gently breathe in as deeply as you can.
Lower arms to sides gently and breathe out as far as you can.
Repeat six times.

2.

Gently walk your hands down your legs and ‘hang’ there, head loose and down,
breathing out.
Raise head to look forward, shoulders back, hands on shins and breathe in deeply.
Gently hang back downwards and breathe out.
Repeat six times.

3.

From the downward ‘hanging position’, bring feet closer together then gently swing
arms to the right side then the left side of the body (or to the outside right foot, to the
left side of left foot). Do this for about 10 swings.
Gently walk hands back up legs and roll up to stand.

Do some gentle neck movements with breathing:
1.

Head tilt backwards, breathe in; head comes to center and breathe out.

2.

Heal tilt downwards and breathe in; head comes to center and breathe out.

3.

Gently turn head to right, breathe in; head comes to center and breathe out.

4.

Gently turn head to left and breathe in; head comes to center and breathe out.

5.

Gently tilt head ear-towards-right shoulder and breathe in; head comes to center and
breathe out.

6.

Gently tilt head ear-towards-left shoulder and breathe in; head comes to center and
breathe out.

Finish with some more gentle arm raises with breathing as above.

95
Handout 5 - Progressive Muscle Relaxation:
"An anxious mind cannot exist in a relaxed body."
(Dr Edmund Jacobson, 1929)
For the following exercises:
-

hold the muscles tight for about 10 seconds, then release them suddenly.

-

allow muscles to relax for about 15-20 seconds before moving on to the next muscle
group.

-

allow the rest of your body to remain relaxed as you work on each muscle group.

1.

Begin by clenching your fists. Hold them tight as described above, then release them.
Enjoy the feeling in your limp hands as they relax.

2.

Tighten the bicep muscles on the tops of your upper arms by pretending to be a
"muscle-man". Hold tight - then relax.

3.

Tighten the triceps, which are the muscles at the bottom of your upper arm. This is
best done with your arms out straight. Hold tight - then release.

4.

Tighten the muscles in your forehead by raising your eyebrows up high, as if you are
surprised. Hold tight - then release.

5.

Tighten the muscles around your eyes and in your cheeks by squeezing your eyes
tightly closed. Hold - and relax. Enjoy the waves of relaxation that spread throughout
your face.

6.

Tighten the muscles of your jaw by opening your mouth as wide as you can. Hold then relax, letting your jaw hang loose and your mouth be open.

7.

Be careful as you tense the muscles in your neck by looking forward and then tilting
your head back slowly, to look at the ceiling. Tense the muscles in your neck as you
hold this position, but be gentle. Then relax.

8.

After doing these exercises, notice the weight of your head and allow it to sink deeply
into your chair or pillow.

9.

Now, tighten your shoulders by tensing them as you bring them up as high as you can
toward your ears. Hold - and relax.

10.

Tighten your shoulder blades and upper back by pushing your shoulder blades
together as if you are trying to get them to touch. Hold - and relax.

96
11.

Tighten the chest and by taking in a deep breath. Hold - and relax as you exhale,
letting all the tension flow away.

12.

Suck in your stomach to tighten the muscles of your abdomen. Hold - and relax.

13.

Tighten the muscles of your back by arching back slightly and deliberately tensing
the muscles. Be careful if you have back problems, or you can skip this step
altogether if you wish. Hold - and relax.

14.

Tighten your buttocks by squeezing them together. Also feel the muscles of your hips
tighten. Hold - and relax, and feel the whole area loosen.

15.

Tense your thighs by squeezing the muscles from your knees to your hips. Hold - and
let go, feeling your thighs go loose and heavy.

16.

Pull your toes up toward you to tense the calf muscles. Do this carefully to avoid
cramp. Hold - and relax.

17.

Tighten your feet by pointing your toes and curling them downwards. Hold - then
relax.

18.

Gently notice your entire body, and if there is still any tension in any area, repeat the
exercise for that muscle group until it feels relaxed.

19.

Now, starting at the top of your head and progressing down to your toes, notice a
blissful wave of relaxation spreading throughout your entire body. You can visualise
this wave if you like, even giving it a colour as you mentally watch it flow from head
to toe.

20.

Take a moment to enjoy this relaxed state, then take a few deep breaths before you go
about your day.

As with anything, the more you practice progressive muscle relaxation, the more you will be
aware of both the tense and relaxed state of your muscles.

Source: retrieved August 2016 from: http://www.gateways-to-inner-peace.com/progressive-musclerelaxation.html



Handout 6 - Wellness

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98
Handout 6 - 50 Self Nurturing Ideas
1.

Buy yourself a bunch of fresh flowers and display them where you'll see them often.
Allow yourself to stop and admire them.

2.

Have a massage by a qualified massage therapist.

3.

Sit in the warm sunshine and read a good book or magazine.

4.

Make yourself a cooked breakfast for a change, and sit somewhere nice to enjoy it.

5.

Go for a walk through a nice park, and then sit for a while and watch the world go by.

6.

Visit a museum or art gallery, and browse leisurely.

7.

Go and see a good movie or live show, alone if need be.

8.

Sit at the beach and eat one of your favorite snacks.

9.

Wake up early and watch the sun rise from a good vantage point.

10. Do a jigsaw or work on a puzzle book or coloring book.
11. Go through your wardrobe. Give away any clothes that don't flatter you, and arrange
the remaining clothes neatly.
12. Buy yourself some new clothes and shoes.
13. Go for a drive to somewhere scenic.
14. Take warm bath with some oils or bubble bath.
15. Visit a zoo and also read all the information displays about the animals.
16. Have a facial, manicure or pedicure.
17. Get a haircut that is a different and more flattering style.
18. Get your favorite take-out for dinner and eat it while watching a funny movie.
19. Try some relaxation exercises.
20. Buy something special for yourself that doesn't cost more than you can afford.

99

21. Cook yourself your favorite meal, set the table nicely and eat by candlelight.
22. Go to a playground and swing on the swings.
23. Go hiking in nature.
24. Play some dance music and bop around by yourself.
25. Go for a swim and then hop in a spa bath.
26. Buy a nice hand and body lotion and rub it all over your body.
27. Meditate.
28. Make a list of your special achievements, no matter how small they may seem.
29. Read some positive and funny quotes.
30. Write a list of things you'd like to do one day, even if they seem absurd or unattainable.
31. Go for coffee and cake at your favourite cafe.
32. Go window shopping and browse for as long as you like.
33. Watch a sunset at the beach.
34. Buy a plant and plant it in the garden or in a lovely pot.
35. Put some of your favorite photographs into frames and put them on display.
36. Start eating more healthily and practice some regular exercise.
37. Take Tai Chi lessons or join a yoga class.
38. Join a craft or hobby group.
39. Read an inspirational book or listen to an inspirational CD.
40. Snuggle underneath a cosy duvet and take an afternoon nap.
41. Lie comfortably on the ground outside and watch the clouds go by. Take note of any
interesting shapes that may have special meaning for you.

100

42. Perform some progressive muscle relaxation.
43. Be a tourist in your own town or further afield.
44. Just sit and do absolutely nothing for 10 minutes (without thinking of all the things you
think you should be doing).
45.

Walk along a beach.

(Source: adapted from a list retrieved in 2016 at: http://www.gateways-to-inner-peace.com/selfnurturing.html)

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Handout 7 - How Healthy Are You?
Body Mass Index (BMI)
A high BMI can be an indicator of high body fatness. BMI can be used to screen for weight
categories that may lead to health problems but it is not diagnostic of the body fatness or
health of an individual.
BMI Ranges:
Underweight = <18.5
Normal weight = 18.5–24.9
Overweight = 25–29.9
Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater
What is your BMI?
BMI = kg/m2 where kg is a person's weight in kilograms and m2 is their height in metres
squared.
Weight (kilograms):

………………

Height (meters):

………………

Square of height:

………………

My BMI:

……………....

My Vital Signs:
-

Blood pressure:

………………

-

Resting Heart Rate:

………….bpm

-

Target Heart Rate for Exercise:

………….bpm

-

Maximum Heart Rate:

………….bpm

-

My daily caloric needs:

………………1

Date recorded: …………………………………………

Note: See caloric needs calculator at: http://www.freedieting.com/tools/calorie_calculator.htm

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Handout 8 - Push-ups
Technique
Men should use the standard "military style" pushup position with only the hands and the
toes touching the floor in the starting position. Women have the additional option of using
the "bent knee" position. To do this, kneel on the floor, hands on either side of the chest and
keep your back straight. Lower the chest down towards the floor, always to the same level
each time, either till your elbows are at right angles or your chest touches the ground.

Do as many push-ups as possible until exhaustion. Count the total number of pushups
performed. Use the chart below to find out how you rate.
Table: Push Up Test norms for MEN
Age

17-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-65

Excellent

> 56

> 47

> 41

> 34

> 31

> 30

Good

47-56

39-47

34-41

28-34

25-31

24-30

Above average

35-46

30-39

25-33

21-28

18-24

17-23

Average

19-34

17-29

13-24

11-20

9-17

6-16

Below average

11-18

10-16

8-12

6-10

5-8

3-5

Poor

4-10

4-9

2-7

1-5

1-4

1-2

Very Poor

<4

<4

<2

0

0

0

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Table: Push Up Test norms for WOMEN
Age

17-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-65

Excellent

> 35

> 36

> 37

> 31

> 25

> 23

Good

27-35

30-36

30-37

25-31

21-25

19-23

Above Average

21-27

23-29

22-30

18-24

15-20

13-18

Average

11-20

12-22

10-21

8-17

7-14

5-12

Below average

6-10

7-11

5-9

4-7

3-6

2-4

Poor

2-5

2-6

1-4

1-3

1-2

1

Very Poor

0-1

0-1

0

0

0

0

* Source: adapted from Golding, et al. (1986). The Y's way to physical fitness (3rd ed.)

From: http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/home-pushup.htm (2016)

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Handout 9 - Sit-ups
Starting Position:
Lie on a carpeted or cushioned floor with your knees bent at approximately right angles, with
feet flat on the ground. Your hands should be resting on your thighs.
Technique:
Squeeze your stomach, push your back flat and raise high enough for your hands to slide
along your thighs to touch the tops of your knees. Don't pull with you neck or head and keep
your lower back on the floor. Then return to the starting position.
Scoring:
1 Minute Sit-Up Test for MEN
Age

18-25

26-35

36-45

46-55

56-65

65+

Excellent

>49

>45

>41

>35

>31

>28

Good

44-49

40-45

35-41

29-35

25-31

22-28

Above average

39-43

35-39

30-34

25-28

21-24

19-21

Average

35-38

31-34

27-29

22-24

17-20

15-18

Below Average

31-34

29-30

23-26

18-21

13-16

11-14

Poor

25-30

22-28

17-22

13-17

9-12

7-10

Very Poor

<25

<22

<17

<13

<9

<7

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1 Minute Sit Up Test for WOMEN
Age

18-25

26-35

36-45

46-55

56-65

65+

Excellent

>43

>39

>33

>27

>24

>23

Good

37-43

33-39

27-33

22-27

18-24

17-23

Above average

33-36

29-32

23-26

18-21

13-17

14-16

Average

29-32

25-28

19-22

14-17

10-12

11-13

Below Average

25-28

21-24

15-18

10-13

7-9

5-10

Poor

18-24

13-20

7-14

5-9

3-6

2-4

Very Poor

<18

<13

<7

<5

<3

<2

Adapted from: http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/home-situp.htm(2016)

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Handout 10 - Wall Sit Test
Purpose: to measure the strength endurance of the lower body, particularly the quadriceps
muscle group.
Equipment required: smooth wall and a stopwatch

Procedure:
Stand comfortably with feet approximately shoulder width apart, with your back against a
smooth vertical wall. Slowly slide your back down the wall to assume a position with both
your knees and hips at a 90° angle.
Hold as long as you can and time yourself.

males (seconds)

females (seconds)

excellent

>100

> 60

good

75-100

45-60

average

50-75

35-45

below average

25-50

20-35

very poor

< 25

< 20

Adapted from: http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/wall-sit.htm (2016)

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Handout 11 - Sit-and-Reach Flexibility Test
Equipment required: Sit and reach box (or alternatively a ruler can be used, and a step or
box).
Procedure:
This test involves sitting on the floor with legs stretched out straight ahead. Shoes should be
removed. The soles of the feet are placed flat against the box. Both knees should be locked
and pressed flat to the floor - the tester may assist by holding them down. With the palms
facing downwards, and the hands on top of each other or side by side, the subject reaches
forward along the measuring line as far as possible. Ensure that the hands remain at the same
level, not one reaching further forward than the other. After some practice reaches, the
subject reaches out and holds that position for at one-two seconds while the distance is
recorded. Make sure there are no jerky movements.

Scoring:
The score is recorded to the nearest centimeter or half inch as the distance reached by the
hand. Some test versions use the level of the feet as the zero mark, while others have the zero
mark 9 inches before the feet.
Men

Women

super

> +10.5

> +11.5

excellent

+6.5 to +10.5

+8.0 to +11.5

good

+2.5 to +6.0

+4.5 to +7.5

average

0 to +2.0

+0.5 to +4.0

fair

-3.0 to -0.5

-2.5 to 0

poor

-7.5 to -3.5

-6.0 to -3.0

very poor

< -7.5

< -6.0

Source: adapted from: http://www.topendsports.com/testing/norms/sit-and-reach.htm (2016).

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Handout 12 - 1.5 mile walk/run
Purpose: This test measures aerobic fitness and leg muscles endurance.
Equipment required: 1.5 mile (2.4km) flat and hard running course, stopwatch

Procedure:
1. Stop! Take a resting heart rate before you begin your walk/run. Record it.
The aim of this test is to complete the 1.5 mile course in the shortest possible time.
Cover the distance as fast as you can by walking, jogging or running at your own pace
and time yourself. Record the time.
2. Take your heart rate at the end of the walk/run. Record it.
A cool down walk should be performed at the completion of the test.

The time required for these tests normally range from 8 to 15 minutes, depending on the
population being tested.

Adapted from: http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/walk-run.htm (2016)

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Handout 13 - SMART Goal Setting Exercise
Decide on one or more goals you wish to achieve and write out a plan for achieving them.
Your plan should be structured using the SMART criteria:






Specific: target a specific area for improvement
Measurable: quantify, or at least suggest, an indicator of progress
Assignable: specify who will do it
Realistic: state what results can realistically be achieved given available
resources
Time-related: specify when the result can be achieved

(Doran, 1981)2
When you have reached the time you have set for yourself, write a reflection on whether you
succeeded in attaining your goal, what the barriers were, and what your next goal would be.
The acronym has also expanded to incorporate additional areas of focus for goal-setters.
SMARTER, for example, includes two additional criteria:


Evaluated: appraisal of a goal to assess the extent to which it has been achieved.



Reviewed: reflection and adjustment of your approach or behaviour to reach a goal.

Retrieved in 2016 from: https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php

2

Doran, G. T. (1981). "There's a S.M.A.R.T. Way to Write Management's Goals and Objectives", Management
Review, Vol. 70, Issue 11

110
Handout 14 - Ecomap Exercise
An Ecomap is a diagram that shows the social and personal relationships of an individual
with others and his or her environment. They also provide a visual indication of the quality
of those connections as being either positive and nurturing or negative and stressful. As
such, they can be a useful tool for identifying sources for stress, the presence of, or lack of,
support systems and where in a person’s life they may want to focus to improve their overall
wellness. Draw your personal ecomap indicating the nature of connection/relationship using
the key.

Ecomaps were developed in 1975 by Dr. Ann Hartman

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Handout 15 - Stress Effects
There are numerous emotional and physical disorders that have been linked to stress
including depression, anxiety, heart attacks, stroke, hypertension, immune system
disturbances that increase susceptibility to infections, a host of viral linked disorders ranging
from the common cold and herpes to AIDS and certain cancers, as well as autoimmune
diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. In addition stress can have direct
effects on the skin (rashes, hives, atopic dermatitis, the gastrointestinal system (GERD,
peptic ulcer, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcerative colitis) and can contribute to insomnia and
degenerative neurological disorders like Parkinson’s disease.
The Physical Effects of Long-Term Stress
Heart Problems
Over the long term, people who react more to stress have a higher risk of cardiovascular
disease.
High Blood Pressure
Stress increases blood pressure in the short term, so chronic stress may contribute to a
permanently raised blood pressure. Known as hypertension, this is a very common chronic
disease which usually has no obvious symptoms. But it raises your risk of stroke, heart
failure, kidney failure and heart attack.
Susceptibility to Infection
There is no doubt that under stress the immune system is suppressed, making you more
vulnerable to infections. Allergies and autoimmune diseases (including arthritis and multiple
sclerosis) may be exacerbated by stress. This effect can be partly offset by social support
from friends and family. Being stressed also slows the rate at which you recover from any
illnesses you already have.
Skin Problems
Stress is known to aggravate skin problems such as acne, psoriasis and eczema. It also has
been linked to unexplained itchy skin rashes.
Pain
Continued stimulation of muscles through prolonged stress can lead to muscular pain such as
backache.
Stress also is thought to aggravate underlying painful conditions such as herniated discs,
fibromyalgia and repetitive strain injury (RSI).
Diabetes
There is some evidence that chronic stress may lead to insulin-dependent diabetes in people
who are predisposed to the disease. It could be that stress causes the immune system to
destroy insulin-producing cells.

112
Infertility
Stress does not normally cause infertility, but the two have been linked many times. People
who are trying for a baby are more likely to conceive when on holiday or when facing little
stress, and fertility treatment is more successful at these times too.

Source: Retrieved in 2016 from: http://psychcentral.com/lib/the-physical-effects-of-long-term-stress/2/ from:
Carlson N. R. (2004). Physiology of behaviour, 8th ed. New York: Allyn & Bacon.

113
Handout 16 - 50 common signs and symptoms of stress
1. Frequent headaches, jaw clenching or pain

26. Insomnia, nightmares, disturbing dreams

2. Gritting, grinding teeth

27. Difficulty concentrating, racing thoughts

3. Stuttering or stammering

28. Trouble learning new information

4. Tremors, trembling of lips, hands

29. Forgetfulness, disorganization,

5. Neck ache, back pain, muscle spasms

confusion

6. Light headedness, faintness, dizziness

30. Difficulty in making decisions

7. Ringing, buzzing or “popping sounds

31. Feeling overloaded or overwhelmed

8. Frequent blushing, sweating

32. Frequent crying spells or suicidal

9. Cold or sweaty hands, feet

thoughts

10. Dry mouth, problems swallowing

33. Feelings of loneliness or worthlessness

11. Frequent colds, infections, herpes sores

34. Little interest in appearance, punctuality

12. Rashes, itching, hives, “goose bumps”

35. Nervous habits, fidgeting, feet tapping

13. Unexplained or frequent “allergy”

36. Increased frustration, irritability,

attacks

edginess

14. Heartburn, stomach pain, nausea

37. Overreaction to petty annoyances

15. Excess belching, flatulence

38. Increased number of minor accidents

16. Constipation, diarrhea, loss of control

39. Obsessive or compulsive behaviour

17. Difficulty breathing, frequent sighing

40. Reduced work efficiency or productivity

18. Sudden attacks of life threatening panic

41. Lies or excuses to cover up poor work

19. Chest pain, palpitations, rapid pulse

42. Rapid or mumbled speech

20. Frequent urination

43. Excessive defensiveness or

21. Diminished sexual desire or performance
22. Excess anxiety, worry, guilt,
nervousness

suspiciousness
44. Problems in communication, sharing
45. Social withdrawal and isolation

23. Increased anger, frustration, hostility

46. Constant tiredness, weakness, fatigue

24. Depression, frequent or wild mood

47. Frequent use of over-the-counter drugs

swings
25. Increased or decreased appetite

48. Weight gain or loss without diet
49. Increased smoking, alcohol or drug use
50. Excessive gambling or impulse buying

[Source: Retrieved on August 2016 from: http://www.stress.org/stress-effects/]

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Handout 17 - Resilience
‘Resilience is a multi-faceted (Oswald et al., 2003) and unstable construct. The nature of
resilience is determined by the interaction between the internal assets of the individual and
the external environments in which the individual lives and grows (or does not grow). Thus,
the manifestations of resilience vary from person to person and fluctuate over time, according
to the scenarios which they meet and their capacities to manage these successfully.’ (Day, et
al 2007, p 212)
There are four basic ingredients to resilience:
1. Awareness – noticing what is going on around you and inside your head;
2. Thinking – being able to interpret the events that are going on in a rational way;
3. Reaching out – how we call upon others to help us meet the challenges that we face,
because resilience is also about knowing when to ask for help; and
4. Fitness – our mental and physical ability to cope with the challenges without
becoming ill.
(Source: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ps/resilience.html)
Problem-solving strategy: putting things in perspective
Seligman et al (1995, pp. 219–220) formulated six questions we can ask ourselves in order to
put things in perspective and avoid catastrophizing an anticipated adverse event:
1. What is the worst thing that can happen?
2. What is one thing I can do to help stop the worst thing from happening?
3. What is the best thing that can happen?
4. What is one thing I can do to make the best thing happen?
5. What is the most likely thing that will happen?
6. What can I do to handle the most likely thing if it happens?
Problem-solving strategy
Seligman et al (1995, p. 260) suggest the following problem-solving strategy to determine a
course of action for handling adverse situations:
1. Slow down – stop and think.
2. Take the other person’s point of view.
3. Choose a goal and make a list of possible paths for reaching it.
4. Identify the pluses and minuses of each path.
5. Evaluate the solution – if it didn’t work try another.
(Source: found in RIRO – ECE College Program Curriculum)

115
References:
Day, C., Sammons, P., Stobart, G., Kington, A., Gu, Q., 2007, Teachers Matter: Connecting
Work, Lives and Effectiveness, Open University Press, p 212
Oswald, M., Johnson, B., & Howard, S. (2003). Quantifying and evaluating resiliencepromoting factors—teachers’ beliefs and perceived roles.
Research in Education, 70, 50–64.
Reaching IN … Reaching OUT (RIRO), An Introduction to Resilient Thinking: Riro ECE
College Curriculum Modules, Child & Family Partnership April 2006
Seligman, M. E. P., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L., and Gillham, J. 1995. The Optimistic Child. New
York: Harper Perennial.

116
Handout 18 - Resilience Activity: Generating Alternative Beliefs

Descriptions:
Adversity – Be objective about the situation. Record your description of what happened, not
your evaluation of it. Try to stick to the facts: “Who? What? Where? When?” e.g., On
Tuesday night at Tim Hortons, Joe and I had an argument about Suzanne’s new car.
Beliefs – Record your interpretation of the adversity. This is what you think about it, not how
you feel. Beliefs are the things we say to ourselves when something happens. e.g., “He can
be such a jerk. He wouldn’t listen to a word I said. He was just trying to show me he knows
more about cars than I do.”
Consequences – Record how you felt (the emotion) and what you did (your behaviour) as a
response. e.g., I was so angry, I got up and walked out of the coffee shop. I just couldn’t talk
to him any more.

Source: Adapted from content in Reivich & Shatté, The resilience factor, 2002, New York: Broadway Books and
featured in RIRO - ECE College Program Curriculum 29 © 2006 Child & Family Partnership.

117
Part A
Pick a situation in which you had strong negative emotions. Describe the adversity, your
beliefs, and the consequences. This part of the assignment is a description of the actual
occurrence together with your thoughts and feelings. Record this information on the attached
worksheet. Tip – when you are doing the assignment, it might be easiest to record the
Adversity first and then the Consequence and finally try to describe the Beliefs you have that
connect A to C.
Part A: Using the ABC model to describe an adverse event
A (adversity: the event)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
B (beliefs: an interpretation of the event)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
C (consequences: the emotions and behaviour)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Part B: Developing alternative beliefs – taking a different perspective
Using the same event as in Part A, describe a significantly different but plausible set of
beliefs you could have had. Choose beliefs that would lead to different emotions and
behaviour than the ones you actually experienced and described in Part A.
Adversity – same as Part A
e.g., On Tuesday night at Tim Hortons, Joe and I had a fight about Suzanne’s new car.
Alternative beliefs – Record a significantly different but plausible interpretation of the
adversity. This is what you might have thought if you had taken another perspective. Again,
this is not how you might have felt: beliefs are the things we say to ourselves when
something happens. e.g., “He really seems to want to impress me with his knowledge of cars.
He seems to be feeling a little insecure tonight. I wonder if he had another big argument at
work.”
Possible consequences – If you held this belief (instead of your original belief), what
emotions would you have and what might you do? e.g., I might feel concerned that
something else was wrong. I might compliment him on his knowledge of cars to defuse the
argument and then ask him about his day.
Challenge B (a different interpretation of the adversity)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
New C (new consequences: emotions and behaviour that would follow from the
alternative beliefs)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
The question of how we prepare teachers to meet the needs of children and young
adults in the increasingly diverse and demanding classrooms of the 21st century continues to
challenge the minds of policymakers, administrators, teachers and parents alike. The
emotional practice of teaching and learning is under ever increasing public scrutiny at a time
when accountability is high, mental health disorders and psychopathology are on the rise, and
schools are expected to provide the protective barriers needed against disconnection,
alienation, and inequality for all stakeholders (Buchanan, Gueldner, Tran, & Merrell, 2009;
Darling-Hammond, 2006; Greenberg et al., 2003; Greenberg et al., 1999; Jones, Bouffard, &
Weissbourd, 2013; Noddings, 1995; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2016; Tishelman, Haney,
O'Brien, & Blaustein, 2010; Tom, 2012). While research supporting the importance of
teachers’ SEC is still inconsistent, this is not the case with educators who, according to Jones,
Bouffard, and Weissbourd (2013), recognize the prominent role it plays on a daily basis in
classrooms and schools (p. 62).
As an administrator myself, I have observed, as other educational leaders and
managers before me, the pressing nature of stress and burnout among staff in the work place
and the resultant impact it has upon the success and wellbeing of students. While stress and
burnout can affect teachers and administrators alike, it is most prominent amongst our newly
or recently qualified teachers (Chan, 2006; Han & Weiss, 2005; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003;
Ingersoll, 2012; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Ransford, 2007). The action component of my
research had been the design of a course content guide focused on developing those teacherrelated SEC competencies that will assist and equip new entrants to the challenging demands
of the classroom. Through the use of a content analysis approach, I utilized a wide range of

120
scholarly research literature to develop both the guiding principles and the core components
of the course while maintaining some degree of freedom to include areas less well validated
by peer reviewed research. Part of these guiding principles and core components were
Brackett and Katulak’s (2006) four EI skills: perception of emotion, use of emotion,
understanding of emotion, and the management of emotion.
In building the course content, I was cognizant of the need to expose pre-service
teachers to the latest research and the best practice currently available; I also needed the
course to build thematically from knowing yourself to managing yourself. Since the program
would involve a process of personal emotional inventory and reflection on the part of the
participants, it would be important that they have some previous practicum experience in the
classroom to draw “emotional practice” from and relate to during the various activities
(Hargreaves, 2000. p. 824). Although almost 40% of the research focused on the importance
of building relationships and managing emotions, I balanced out these areas with other
components vital in my opinion to developing stronger SEC. I also made informed decisions
about which components not to include in the contents guide as they are areas already
covered elsewhere such as, for example, the domain of acting ethically. The professional and
legal standards for teachers in a particular jurisdiction adequately outline and guide decisionmaking for new entrants, and this component forms part of most or all teacher training
programs.
One of the key components built into the course is the development of emotional
vocabulary that can be applied to both self and students. This development builds from
knowledge, understanding and awareness to application with the help of mentoring and
exemplars. I wanted participants to receive, albeit over a shortened period of time, early

121
exposure to these components, and develop positive, healthy strategies that ordinarily would
have taken a new entrant to the teaching profession two to three years to acquire and adapt to.
This process would be further reinforced by short periods of in-school observations and
modeling with experienced teachers. Jennings and Greenberg (2009) conjectured that those
“SEC dimensions of self-awareness, self-management, and relationship management may
help teachers maintain attentive monitoring and responsiveness, which prevents disruptive
behaviour and supports students’ on-task behaviour” (p. 508). It was also for this reason that
I felt it was critical for participants to develop a full array of self-regulating tools to both
manage personal stresses and apply mindfulness techniques in the classroom.
My inclusion of mindfulness was based on current best practice and research
suggesting the benefits to teachers and students not only in terms of emotion regulation, but
to general stress management, wellness, and improved on-task focus (Glomb et al. 2011;
Napoli, & Bonifas, 2011; Napoli, Krech, & Holley, 2005; Roeser et al. 2013). There is
evidence to support the view that mindfulness-based stress reduction may have a part to play
in protecting an individual from the onset of depression, and potentially breaking the cycle of
the burnout cascade (see Roeser et al. 2013; Shapiro, Brown, & Biegel, 2007). Napoli,
Krech and Holley (2005) further suggest that particular stress-reducing techniques may be
compatible with Indigenous ways of knowing and practices stating, “the prevalent
Indigenous quality of being in the present time is congruent with mindfulness” (p. 114). The
process of mindfulness and its use in the classroom can also have beneficial affects upon
relationship building with students through being able to think and problem solve creatively
without resorting to reactive and punitive consequences; vital components to the
development of prosocial classrooms.

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Limitations
There were a number of limitations that became evident through my research. The
lack of authentic voice from the very cohort this study is hoping to serve was largely found to
be detrimental. The use of an inductive process in interviewing pre-service teachers would
have given valuable qualitative insight into the lived experiences of those new teachers as
they prepare for the challenges ahead. This insight may have helped shape other components
that the cohort may have valued rather than what my experience and scholarly research
suggested. This limitation may have been further compounded by my own relative
inexperience in conducting content analysis. While I had increased the range of research
documents analyzed, it nevertheless represented a relatively small sample from the field.
Another potential limitation of the course elements presented here is that they are
going to be more successful in developing core competencies in teacher SEC and SEL if they
are delivered over an extended, rather than a short period of time. This is because of the
essential need for reflective practice, and the learned modification in one’s own behavior and
ways of thinking in relation to multifarious situations and occurrences. This is supported by,
for example, Corcoran and Tormey’s (2012a) study into developing EI in pre-service teacher
education found that six, two-hour workshops over twelve weeks led to no significant
improvements in their MSCEIT re-test, and only non-significant improvement in the
managing emotions component (pp. 252-253). In a follow-up research paper titled, Does
Emotional Intelligence Predict Student Teachers' Performance?, Corcoran and Tormey
(2013) stated that “student teachers’ EQI scores did not significantly increase when the
students participated in an emotional skills program, despite the students showing
improvements in their emotional awareness, understanding and decision-making in their

123
teaching practice, as assessed by qualitative interviews” (p.36). There were also concerns
related to the validity of using Mayer, Salovey and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
(MSCEIT), or the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) as a tool to adequately
measure emotional awareness, or the development of an emotional inventory. Corcoran and
Tormey (2013) raised similar concerns when using the MSCEIT as a predictive tool with preservice teachers. They concluded:
While it may have the capacity to measure a person’s emotional skills in abstract, this
study did not find evidence that it is a good predictor of their capacity or disposition
to draw on such skills in the practice of teaching (p. 40).
Whether such tests as the MSCEIT or EQ-I are used as pre-screening tools for teacher
training admission, or as a self-assessment tool for practitioners, the use of them will
continue to be contentious.
The question of whether skill-based training during teacher preparation addresses the
particular needs of Indigenous learners was highlighted in chapter two when discussing
social and emotional learning. While the design of SEL to accommodate Indigenous ways of
knowing was outside the scope of this study, it did raise issues regarding whether there was
enough adaptability in the course content to accommodate and support a more Indigenous
ways of knowing lens for teacher SEC. New teachers entering the profession today are
increasingly required to understand and accommodate multi-ethnic diversity heightening the
need for knowledge, understanding, and empathy to be supported and nurtured by teacher
SEC through various cultural lenses.
Finally, some of the logistical and ethical issues to organizing the practicum
observation cycle to support SEC could be onerous to partner schools already committed to

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supporting student teacher practice. Schools and post-secondary institutions running teacher
education programs are only too aware of the balance in any particular school between
quality of provision by a qualified practitioner and delivery by an unqualified teacher-intraining. Also, there may be ethical and emotional considerations regarding classroom visits
with the aim of observing SEC domains with qualified practitioners.
Recommendations
While this proposed course content could have significant impact on nurturing preservice teachers’ ability to transform their own SEC and EI, it is, as with any learned skill,
something that requires repetition and practice. Therefore, continued skill-based training
should be ongoing, holistic, employing a combination of strategies and be drip-fed postteacher training. This paradigm shift according to Weinstein (as cited in Jennings &
Greenberg, 2009) should be “from management as a ‘bag of tricks’ that can be acquired in a
two hour ‘in-service’ to management as a body of knowledge and a set of practices that
require thoughtful decision making and reflection” (p. 507). This, of course, requires the full
support of districts and school administrators, but CASEL (2013), through their
implementation process, encourages dialogue for continued training with all stakeholders.
Further, I would strongly support the inclusion of the educator-specific wellness and
yoga teacher training course (Yoga Alliance Certified), that the team at Breathe For Change
have recently developed, to form part of future initial teacher training programs. In this way,
upon entering the profession, new teachers will be qualified to train teachers already in the
profession, administrators, and other staff and perhaps parents also, and ideally will, like a
drop of ink in water, diffuse and have the potential to enhance the SEC and EI of all
members of the school community. Training to develop SEC and EI needs to be an ongoing

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dialogue involving the education community particularly teachers, but also administrators,
families, students, parents, and wellness professionals.
Reflections
As I reflected on my own personal journey as a teacher and now as a principal, many
of my own philosophies are encapsulated within this work. It is a ‘call to arms’ but without
the hostilities that have come to be associated with much of mainstream education in the last
decade. Education is a human industry where knowledge and understanding are supported
and under-pinned by connection and engagement, and where our greatest resource are
teachers whose job it is every day to nurture and inspire our next generation. The need to
develop more reflective holistic practitioners rather than masters of content is now critical for
the future. Napoli and Bonifas (2011) believed that this kind of practitioner pays as much
attention to the process as they do to the content, and so are “able to respond to and survive
emotionally charged work” (p. 647).
In conclusion, if teachers are our most valuable resource, then we must take action to
establish training that equips them with the protective skill-set necessary to work in our
classrooms. The alarming statistics, stated by Ingersoll (2012), that 40% to 50% of new
teachers in their first 5 years leave the profession make the pre-service years training even
more crucial to get right. When students become disconnected, disenfranchised, and
demoralized by a system set-up to support them we quite rightly condemn this as systemic
failure on the part of government, administrators and teachers alike, and take affirmative
action to remediate. Failing to address the health needs and wellbeing of teachers and not
providing them with the tools necessary to break the cycle of the likely burnout cascade is
also incredulously negligent. Jones et al. (2013) concluded, “educators and students know

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intuitively what research has shown: social and emotional competencies influence everything
from teacher-student relationships to classroom management to effective instruction to
teacher burnout” (p. 62). The SEC course content I have designed was based on current
research and best practice and is a timely reminder that we need a skill-based solution to
make our future inspirational teachers better swimmers in the turbulent waters of education.

127
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Appendix A: The Pro-Social Classroom – A Relationship Model

Figure A1. The pro-social classroom: A relationship model of teacher social and emotional
competence; the dynamics of a pro-social classroom, and student outcomes. Taken from
“The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student
and Classroom Outcomes,” by P. Jennings and M. Greenberg, Review of Educational
Research, 79, p. 494. Copyright 2009 by the American Educational Research Association.







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