IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT IN MEN AND ITS RELATION TO
PSYCHOSOCIAL DISTRESS AND SELF-CONCEPT

by
Ray Zukanovic
B.Sc. , The University of Northern British Columbia , 1997

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE

In
PSYCHOLOGY

UNIVERSITY 0
BRITISH c6t~~RTHERN
. LIBRARY BIA
Prmce George, Be

© Ray lukanovic, 1999
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
December, 1999
All rights reserved . This work may not be
Reproduced in whole or part, by photocopy or
Other means, without the permission of the author.

ABSTRACT

The major hypothesis addressed in this research was that the experience
of stress is attributable to the quality or clarity of one's identity rather than to age
grouping. Two hundred and seventy-five men of three age groups (earlyadulthood, n = 100; middle-adulthood, n = 100; late-adulthood, n =75) completed
self-report measures of identity (Identity Style Inventory Sixth Grade), distress
(Life Distress Inventory), perceived stress of middle age (Mid-life Crisis Scale) ,
and self-concept (global subscale of the Adult Self-Concept Questionnaire) .
Based on scores on the identity questionnaire, participants were assigned to one
of three identity styles (information, normative, diffused/avoidant). Results
indicated that middle age is not particularly salient as a period of heightened
psychosocial distress. Specifically, young adults had higher levels of distress
compared to middle age and older adults, and middle-age adults had more
distress than did late adults. Those men with an information or diffused/avoidant
identity style had higher levels of distress than those with a normative identity
style (irrespective of age grouping), and those with a diffused/avoidant identity
style had greater perceived stress of middle age scores than did those with a
normative identity style. Additionally, older adults had the lowest levels of selfworth of any age group, whereas middle-age adults had the highest levels of selfworth, and young adults fell in-between. Those with a normative identity style had
the highest levels of self-worth, those with a diffused identity style had the lowest
self-worth , and those with the information identity style fell in-between. These
results are discussed in terms of a lifespan perspective on identity development.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract. ........... ... ..... .. .. ........... . ............. .. .... .. ......... .. . ....... .. ... ... ..... . ... .. iii
Table of Contents ........... .... .......... .. ........... ............ . ...... ........... ...... . ..... . iv
List of Tables ... ........... . ........... .... ... ... ...... ........ . .... .................. ....... . ...... vi
List of Figures ........................................... .... .. .. ....... ...... ..... ...... ... .... ... vii
Acknowledgments ... ...... .... .. ..... . ....... ..... ..... ...... ....... . ... ..... . .. .... ... .... .. ... viii
INTRODUCTION ................. . .. . ........... ............ ... ....... ................. . ........... 1
Background Literature ..... ... .......... ............... ........ . .... .. .. ............... .... .... 2
Development of Identity .... .... ....... ........ ........ .... .. .... ... ......... ... ...... ............. .... . 2
Erikson .. . ...... ... ..... . .... ............... .. ... ......... .......... ... .. ..... ....... ........ . 3
Marcia ............. ... .......... . ... .. .. .. ...... ...... .... .. ........ . ..... . .. . ........... ..... 6
Men at Middle Age ............. .. .. ...... .... .. .. ........ ...... ........ .... .. .. ......... ..... ... 9
Levinson ...... .... ...................... . ... .. . .. ..... .. ... ...... .. ....... ......... ... ... .. .. 9
Farrell and Rosenberg ...... .. . .. ............ . ......... ........... . ..... ............... .12
Measures of Identity ..... ..... .... .......... ........ .... ...... .. .. .. .. ........... ....... ...... .. ....... .. .. 17
Rationale and Goals of the Present Study ...... ........ ........... ... ... ..... .............. .... 20
METHOD .... .... .... ..... .. .. .... .... .... ... ...... ................. ... ....... ............. .................... ... ... 22
Participants ..... ........ .. ... .... ...... ... ......... ............... ............. ....... ... .............. .... .... . 22
Age Group 1 ....... ...... ......... .... ....... ...... ... ............. ............. ..... .............. ......... 22
Age Group 2 ........... ...... .... .. ... ... .............. .......... ............. ... .. .. .... .... ... ..... ....... 23
Age Group 3 ............ ... ......... ....... ........... ................. .... ..... .... ..... ... ...... .. .... .... 23
Procedure ...... ..... ... ... ...... ......... .... ...... ........... .... .... .... ..... ... .. .... ..... .. ...... ........... 24
Participant Recruitment ... ..... ......... ......... .... .... ....... ... ........... ........... ..... .. ... .. .... 24

iv

Testing .... .. ............................... ..... ... .. ......... ..... ........... .... ....... ......................... 25
Measures .... .... ................... ............. ............... ........ ..... ... ..... ............... ........... .. 26
RESULTS .. ... ... ................ ........ .......... ...... ................... ........... .............. ...... .. ....... 31
Overview of the Analyses ..... ....... ........ ..... .......... .. ............ ............... ....... ........ 31
Results for the Total Sample .. ........... .... ........ .................. ................. .... 34
Analyses for the Sample of Middle-Aged Married Fathers ........ .................. 37
DISCUSSION ......... ............. ........ ............................. ...... .................. .................. 42
Stress, Self-Worth and Age .................. .. ... .. ................ .... ... ... ..... ......... 43
Stress, Self-Worth and Identity Style ........... ........ .... ................. ..... .... .... 46
The Psychosocial Development of Men ... .. ........................................... .49
Limitations of the Current Study and Suggestions for Future Research ........ 52
Conclusions ........... ..... ............ ..... ... ...... .. ................................................. ....... 53
REFERENCES ....... ....................... ... .... ... .. ...... ............ ....... .. ..... ...... .. ............ ..... 54
Appendix A- Information Sheet ...... .......................................... ............... ...... 62
Appendix 8- Identity Style Inventory Sixth Grade ......... .... .............. ... ...... 63
Appendix C- Mid-Life Crisis Scale .. .... ....... .. ..... .. ..... ........ . ... ...... ... ... ... .65
Appendix D - Global Subscale -Adult Self-Concept Questionnaire ... ........... 67
Appendix E- Life Distress Inventory ..... ............... .......... .. .... ...... .......... 68
Appendix F - Demographic Questionnaire .... ............... ... ... ..... ... ................. .. . 69

v

List of Tables
1.

Number of participants in each age group
categorized in the 3 Identity Styles ...... .. ...... ......... ........ . ..... ...28

2.

Means (and standard deviations) of the LDI as a function of
age and identity style for the total sample of all participants .. ...... 38

3.

Means (and standard deviations) of the GS-ASCQ as a function
of age and identity style for the total sample of all participant. .... 39

4.

Means (and standard deviations) of the MCS as a function of
age and identity style for the total sample of all participants .... ... .40

5.

Means (and standard deviations) of the MCS as a function of
age and identity style for middle-aged married fathers ....... .... ... .41

vi

List of Figures
1.

Levinson ..... ...... ....... ... ................. ............ ..... ... .. ...... ........ 59

2.

Farrell and Rosenberg ...... .. .. ..... ..... ............... .... ...... .. ... .. .. .. 60

3.

Identity Status versus Identity Style .. ..... .......... .. ............. .... .. .61

vii

Acknowledgments

I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to Dr. Sherry Beaumont for
her supervision and encouragement throughout the many phases of my thesis,
as well to my thesis committee, Professors Anita Hubley, Glen Schmidt, and Tom
Strong. Maria Walsh is thanked for her excellent suggestions on the manuscript.
I would like to thank Laura , Nicole, and Renee for assistance with data collection .
I would like to thank my family and friends who have always been
supportive throughout my university journey. A special thanks goes out to my
friends at UNBC who have encouraged me through their work. Finally, to the
countless people and organizations in the Prince George and surrounding area
that helped me in this research thanks! Without your support, this research could
not have taken place.

viii

1
Identity Development in Men and its Relation to
Psychosocial Distress and Self-Concept
Introduction
Developmental psychologists generally accept that an individual's sense
of self or identity develops gradually throughout childhood culminating in a period
of intensified self-exploration during adolescence (e.g., Erikson, 1963). Several
researchers have further proposed that because of various negative emotional
and social experiences, many individuals do not develop a clear sense of
identity, and this identity "diffusion" may have implications for later psychological
adjustment during early and middle adulthood (e.g., Marcia, 1980). The work of
Levinson (1978) focused on the identity exploration of men during mid-life (ages
40-60). He proposed that all men experienced an unavoidable "mid-life crisis"
during which they re-examined their sense of self. Other researchers dismiss
this period of increased stress in men as a modern myth (see Chiriboga , 1989;
McCrae & Costa , 1990; Tamir, 1989). Although the concept of increasing stress
levels during middle age has become popular, only a few researchers have
examined the nature of this phenomenon in men (Farrell & Rosenberg, 1981;
Josselson, 1996; Julian, McKenry, & Arnold , 1990; Levinson, 1978). The studies
that have been done have focused primarily on measuring men's experience of
psychological stress during middle age (e.g. , Farrell & Rosenberg , 1981 ). In
those studies, the researchers found that some men experienced increased
psychological stress during middle age, whereas others did not. It is possible
that the experience of stress varies as a function of the quality or clarity of one's

2

identity, irrespective of age grouping . The purpose of this thesis was to explore
the relationship between identity status and the experience of psychosocial
stress by men of various ages (i.e. , early adulthood , middle adulthood , and late
adulthood).
Background Literature
Development of Identity
The process of developing a sense of self or identity occurs from birth and
continues throughout a person's life. Identity is defined as "a self-structure - an
internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities , beliefs, and
individual history" (Marcia, 1980, p. 159). Josselson (1996) described it as
knowing who one is and experiencing purpose in life. However, identity is not
solely an individualistic process due to the fact that social environments (e.g.,
family relationships , social class, ethnic background) exert influence on the
individual (Markstrom-Adams, 1992; Farrell & Rosenberg , 1981 ). At birth , infants
are introduced to aspects of an identity- "He looks like his mother" or "He's good
with his hands just like his carpenter father" (Erikson , 1959, 1963; Josselson ,
1996). Each individual "begins with different experiences and realities" in
constructing an identity within the framework of natural talents, social
expectations, and the immediate culture (Josselson , 1996, p. 29) . Identity is a
dynamic structure that continually changes; individuals shed , add , and alter parts
of their identities over time. During identity formation , some individuals develop a
clear sense of identity, whereas others show signs of identity confusion (Erikson ,
1968). According to Markstrom-Adams (1992) , those individuals who had

3
healthy identity understood continuity to their lives and experiences, had a
purpose for their life via goals, had a sense of completeness, and were
recognized by significant others. In contrast, those individuals who were
uncertain of who they were and insecure about who they would become
appeared to possess a less developed and less healthy identity structure
(Kroger, 1993; Marcia, 1980).
Erikson . The pioneering work of Erik Erikson (1959, 1963, 1966) on
lifespan development stimulated all subsequent research on identity
development. Erikson (1959) proposed eight universal, hierarchical psychosocial
stages experienced by individuals throughout their entire lifespan. During each
stage, the individual faces a heightened state of vulnerability combined with an
opportunity for increased personal growth . Each stage has a crisis period or
turning point during which the individual's inner instincts and drives interact with
the outer demands of his or her cultural and social environment (Erikson , 1959).
Specifically, the individual has the potential for either growth or for stagnation at
the climax of that stage. The individual's primary goal during each stage is to
find a balance between the two opposing possibilities (i.e. , adaptive or
maladaptive). This process culminates in a synthesis between the two
possibilities (Erikson , 1966). Erikson (1959) stated emphatically that individuals
do not remain at a particular stage until the demands of that stage are
completed ; rather, maturation and social pressures move individuals through the
psychosocial stages whether they are ready or not. Finally, an individual's
successful resolution of each crisis is dependent on how well the individual
resolved previous psychosocial stages (Erikson , 1959).

4
The goal of the first four stages (trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus
shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority) , which occur
during infancy and childhood , is to develop a healthy trust in the world in order to
develop self-initiative (Erikson , 1959). Once individuals maintain a healthy
resolution of these four crises , they are confronted with four new crises , which
occur in adolescence and adulthood , beginning with Erikson's fifth stage, Identity
versus Role Confusion (Erikson , 1959). Specifically, this stage marks the end of
childhood and the beginning of adulthood, as the individual explores
occupational , ideological, and sexual values (Erikson , 1966). Erikson described
adolescence and young adulthood as a socially acceptable period in which youth
are encouraged to explore new possibilities, ("a range of possible selves ;"
Josselson, 1996, p. 34). However, at the end of this phase, society demands
that an individual define himself or herself or commit to an identity (Erikson ,
1959). Erikson stated that "those committing to an identity have an accrued
confidence that the inner sameness and continuity prepared in the past were
matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for others, as
evidenced in the tangible promise of a career" (p. 262) . In other words, those
who obtain an identity know who they are and who they would attempt to be in
the future. The individual who does not successfully resolve this identity crisis
was believed to experience "role confusion " or "identity diffusion" in which the
individual is confused , suffered from a sense of not knowing who or what he or
she was , and was, therefore, unable to decide on an occupational role (Erikson ,
1959).

5

Those who successfully resolve Erikson's fifth stage enter adulthood with
an assured sense of identity and are better able to resolve future crises occurring
throughout the rest of the lifespan (i.e. , Intimacy/Isolation, Generativity/
Stagnation , Integrity/Despair). Intimacy versus Isolation is the stage in which the
individual faces the possibility of losing aspects of identity while engaging in
close relationships with other people (romantic relationships and friendships)
(Erikson , 1966). According to Erikson , if one does not have a clear sense of
identity, it is difficult to engage in healthy intimate relationships . Unhealthy or
dissatisfying relationships could lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation .
In the next stage, Generativity versus Stagnation, the middle-aged adult
discovers a sense of contributing to the world through family and work.
Specifically, "man needs to be needed ," and this period offers the opportunity to
guide the next generation (Erikson , 1966). In other words, one needs to develop
interdependence with the youth of the next generation , community, and world.
However, those who fail to enrich the next generation will tend to feel a lack of
purpose and "personal impoverishment," which Erikson described as stagnation.
Finally, in old age, the individual re-evaluates his or her life and feels
either integrity or despair. Erikson described the final stage in the life cycle as a
spiritual one: "an acceptance of one's one and only life cycle as something that
had to be and that, by necessity, permitted no substitutions" (p. 268). Erikson
argued that ego integration is only obtained by building upon the healthy
resolution of the seven crises experienced during one's life. In contrast, those
lacking ego integration tend to experience remorse over opportunities missed
and the fear of death (Erikson , 1966).

6
Although Erikson's psychosocial theory of development has driven
developmental psychology for over forty years (Kroger, 1993; McCrae & Costa,
1990), his theory has not been without its modifications. Using Erikson's theory
of development as a theoretical basis, Vaillant (1977) added an additional stagecareer consolidation, between Erikson's stages of intimacy versus isolation and
generativity versus stagnation. It is during this stage that adults acquire
competence, status, or "master" their chosen career. Vaillant's theory focuses on
how men's adaptive and defensive styles influence their development and how
these styles change over a lifespan. Specifically, people adapt psychologically to
the challenges in their lives by use of defense mechanisms (Vaillant, 1977).
Defense mechanisms were described by Freud , as a set of unconscious
strategies to deny and distort disappointments in one's life. According to Vaillant
(1977) , there are four levels of defense mechanisms (i.e., psychotic, immature,
neurotic, mature) that individuals use to deal with the "anxiety" in their lives. All
individuals use a combination of mechanisms from different levels during their
lives; however, one must ultimately utilize mature defense mechanisms to
successfully cope with life challenges (Vaillant, 1977).
Marcia. Erikson's and later on Vaillant's theories of identity development
were extended by Marcia (1966, 1967, 1976, 1980) in an attempt to develop a
methodological device to measure changes in identity achievement. Marcia's
goal was to examine identity development during adolescence and early
adulthood more closely. Based on his research on the social , emotional, and
psychological characteristics of his participants , he developed a classification of
various identity states depending on the quality of the participants' identity

7
achievement. Specifically, Marcia's Identity Status Paradigm (1980) used
participants' responses to semi-structured questions, in the form of incomplete
sentences, to classify participants into one of four identity states : achievement,
foreclosure , moratorium , and diffusion. Individuals classified into one of the four
identity states were defined "in terms of the presence or absence of a decisionmaking period (crisis) and the extent of personal investment (commitment)"
applied to occupational choice, religion , and political ideology (Marcia , 1980, p.
161 ).
Marcia (1966) described an "identity achieved" individual as one who had
invested time exploring his or her identity and was committed to his or her current
identity. This identity was achieved through an identity crisis period and by
pursuing self-chosen occupational and ideological goals (Marcia , 1980). These
individuals also showed the highest levels of ego development, moral reasoning ,
internal locus of control , self-worth, and intimacy in interpersonal relationships
(Berzonsky & Neimeyer, 1988; Marcia, 1966, 1967; Podd, 1972).
In contrast, an individual who experienced foreclosure did not search for
an identity and experienced no identity crisis. However, this individual is highly
conformed to social norms and parental wishes and has a firm commitment to his
or her "imposed" occupational and ideological position. These individuals
showed the highest levels of authoritarianism , obedience to authority, external
locus of control , dependent relationships with significant others, and the lowest
levels of anxiety (Marcia , 1966, 1967; Matteson , 1974).
Those individuals who were exploring their identity and experiencing an
identity crisis were in the "moratorium" state. Marcia (1966) described

8
moratoriums as experiencing an internal preoccupation with adolescent issues,
as well as high anxiety and fear of success. However, these individuals were
likely to attain identity achievement and high levels of ego development and selfworth (Larkin , 1987; Marcia, 1980). Finally, individuals experiencing identity
diffusion later in development had no occupational or ideological direction, and
therefore, were unable to commit to an identity and may or may not have
experienced an identity crisis period (Marcia, 1966). They demonstrated low
levels of ego development, cognitive complexity, self-certainty, and poor
cooperative abilities in social situations (Adams & Shea , 1979; Berzonsky &
Neimeyer, 1988; Marcia, 1980).
Kroger (1993) reviewed research using Marcia's Identity Status Paradigm
and found that most of the literature focused on the relationship between the
various identity states and family interaction styles, personality characteristics
associated with the identity states, and the stability of the identity states. Much of
the work on family interaction styles began in the early 1980s and relied on
correlational methods (Kroger, 1993). According to Kroger's review, the literature
consistently indicated that parents of adolescents who were high in identity
exploration encouraged autonomy and connectedness , whereas those
adolescents who were low in identity exploration were part of families who were
low in the expression of differences. Achievement adolescents were described
as being able to reason with their parents, whereas moratorium adolescents
were seen as struggling with parental authority. Parents of foreclosed
adolescents were seen as overprotective and overly involved with their children ,

9
whereas parents of diffused adolescents were described as permissive and
unavailable.
Research on the stability of identity states has revealed mixed findings .
For example, Meilman (1979) and Archer's (1982) cross-sectional studies
revealed an increase in the numbers of identity achieved and moratorium state
participants through middle and late adolescence. Longitudinal studies of identity
state change in late adolescence to young or middle adulthood were conducted
by Josselson (1987) , Kroger (1988) , and Marcia (1976). The authors found that,
with age , the numbers of participants experiencing a moratorium state and
identity achievement increased; however, a large percentage of youths remained
in a state of foreclosure or diffusion throughout late adolescence and early
adulthood .
Men at Middle Age
Levinson . The work of Levinson (1978) further expanded on Erikson's
and Marcia's work by focusing on systematic changes in men 's identities during
middle age . Levinson was the first researcher to take a lifespan developmental
approach to the study of the experience of adulthood for men . According to
Levinson (1978) , there was reluctance on the part of scientists to study male
adulthood , particularly the period of mid-life, perhaps due to the fear that
research would reveal that "no life" existed after age 30 . In other words , based
on Erikson's seventh psychosocial stage of development, life for the middle age
man consisted only of routine work. The underlying premise of Levinson 's work
was derived from the work of Sigmund Freud , Carl Jung, and Eric Erikson .

10
Specifically, according to Freud , the development of one's personality was based
on the resolution of unconscious conflicts in the psyche. The successful
resolution of the unconscious conflicts depends on the nature of early childhood
experiences. These early childhood experiences can continue to influence a
person's adjustment throughout adulthood . Freud portrayed adulthood as a time
to re-enact unconscious childhood conflicts, rather than as a time of more
advanced development. Alternatively, in Jung's view, young adults in their
twenties are still caught up in the emotional turmoil and conflicts of childhood
coupled with the immediate demands of their family, work, and community. The
personality continues to develop beyond childhood , according to Jung , with the
next major shift in development beginning at age 40 or "the noon of life."
Levinson (1978) further investigated personality development during
middle age by interviewing men (ages 35 to 45) at their homes, work places or at
his office. Participants were recruited via two companies in the northeastern
United States, which comprised four occupations representing diverse sectors in
society (in Levinson 's opinion) at the time of the study (i.e., hourly workers in
industry, business executives, university biologists, novelists). The participating
men were given a personality assessment using the Thematic Apperception Test
(tell a story for each of five pictures) and a biographical interview that occurred
once to twice per week over a five-week period . In addition, to gain further
insight into the men's lives, the men's occupations and work worlds were
observed , and interviews with the participants' wives were conducted .
Based on his interview data, Levinson (1978) proposed a stage theory to
describe the universal path through which all men developed during adulthood.

11
He conceptualized lifespan development occurring in four eras or "seasons": preadulthood (birth to age 22), early adulthood (22 to 40) , middle adulthood (40 to
60) , and late adulthood (60 until death). Within each era , men passed through a
sequence of alternating periods of change and stability, during which the
individual modified and then committed to his "life structure" or dreams and
goals. This process of modification of the life structure occurred as the individual
encountered various life tasks associated with adult development. Most of these
life tasks had to do with the frequently changing roles of worker, husband , and
father (see illustration in Figure 1).
According to Levinson , there were major transitional periods between
eras: the Early Adult Transition (age 17-22), the Mid-life Transition (age 40-45) ,
and the Late Adult Transition (age 60-65) . These era-transitional periods were
seen to be the most crucial turning points in a man's life (Levinson , 1978).
Specifically, during these transitions, men reflected on the era that was ending
and began to develop a new life structure to meet with the new tasks of the
approaching era (Levinson , 1978). In addition , Levinson stated that these
transitional periods were the sources of renewal or of stagnation that shaped the
character of the individual. Research by Levinson (1978) suggested that all men
choose how they react and respond to the psychosocial change of their
environment, during adolescence and mid-life, with some men experiencing a
less stressful crisis period compared to other men .
Levinson studied a distinct period of change called the mid-life transition
period which occurred in the transition from early adulthood to middle adulthood
(approximately age 40) and lasted about four to five years. Overall , Levinson

12
found that there were no concrete markers or single events that triggered the
mid-life transition period in men . Rather, it was a universal developmental stage
that all men passed through during their lifespan. Levinson described the mid-life
period as a "painful" growth period that no middle-aged man could escape. For
some males, stress during the mid-life transition could be mild ; in contrast, when
it involved considerable turmoil and disruption, Levinson spoke of a volum inous
mid-life crisis. He suggested that if conditions for a man 's development were
reasonably favourable, and impairments from the past were not too severe,
middle adulthood could be an era of personal fulfillment. During the mid-life
transition , the neglected parts of a man's self more urgently sought expression
and stimulated the modification of his existing internal blueprint (subculture) . In
other words, during the course of a transitional period, a man might have
embraced or repudiated his marriage, family, chosen profession, and social
networks or "established different relationships and lived out different aspects of
the self' (Levinson , 1978, p. 318) .
Farrell and Rosenberg. Although Levinson (1978) acknowledged that
there might be individual differences in the quality of men's life structures , he did
not fully explore the possible individual differences in the experience of mid-life
stress. In one of the few studies that examined the notion of male stress during
mid-life more closely, Farrell and Rosenberg (198 1) found that men had a variety
of experiences during mid-life. They had 200 young adult men (age 25 to 30)
and 300 middle-aged men (age 38 to 48) participate in their study, which
represented an urban and rural population of the northeastern United States. All
male participants were interviewed and completed various identity scales,

13
including the Mid-Life Crisis Scale. Each interview lasted roughly ninety minutes
to two hours. The authors conducted follow-up interviews for 20 of the original
500 participants to explore their family interaction and developmental history.
Having examined the entire quantitative and qualitative data from their research ,
Farrell and Rosenberg concluded that men's experiences during mid-life were
really what they termed "masks" (or types) . The authors found four types
(masks) of response to the experiences of mid-life stress and characterized them
as follows: the Anti-Hero, the Transcendent-Generative, the Pseudo-Developed ,
and the Punitive-Disenchanted. Specifically, the patterns of responses to mid-life
stress were classified on two dimensions: (1) denial of stress or open
confrontation with stress, and (2) satisfaction with life or dissatisfaction with life
(see illustration in Figure 2) . In their words:
.. . men's experience emphasize the subjective experience of men and
their presentations of self. Underlying the typology is that personal
disorientation, distress, and fears associated with entering middle age are
often denied under direct questioning . Nonetheless, these emotional
responses have a greater degree of emotional saliency than is overtly
admitted. Many men entering mid-life work to deny any weakness or
distress they may be experiencing (Farrell and Rosenberg , 1981 , p. 3132) .
Farrell and Rosenberg (1981) describe the Anti-Hero or Dissenter as
being self-reflective and "overtly dissatisfied with life and work" (p . 32) and
comprised 12 percent of their sample. These individuals reflected identity
diffused men who were closest to experiencing a mid-life crisis. The authors

14
described these men as highly ego-oriented , resulting in little involvement with
their children , community, and popular culture . Twenty-five percent of these men
reported that their children were defiant towards them . The Anti-Hero type
scored the lowest on work satisfaction , and they reported that there was little or
no future opportunity in work advancement. The authors suggested that these
men were more egalitarian in the home as 50% of their wives work compared to
30% of the wives of the other three types of men. Compared to the other three
types of men , the Anti-Hero group was the least likely to "present a socially
desirable fagade and openly admit to everyday faults" (p . 81) and was the most
overtly anxious . Farrell and Rosenberg described these men as reporting the
highest occurrence of headaches (nearly two-thirds of the group) of all the four
types , being extremely dissatisfied with what they achieved in their work life, and
as the heaviest consumers of alcohol compared to the other types .
The Transcendent-Generative type of middle-aged man comprised
roughly one-third (32%) of the men in Farrell and Rosenberg's sample. The
authors described these men as "able to assess their past and present and
match them to inner feelings with a positive sense of satisfaction" (p. 33) . The
Transcendent-Generative type was found to have few symptoms of psychological
distress, positive thoughts on their marriage and children , and a positive,
accepting sense of identity. In other words, they did not experience a mid-life
crisis. Over 90% of these men found middle age fulfilling, suggesting that these
men still found life challenging and rewarding with age. In addition , the authors
found that these men reported that they felt "in control " of their lives, and they
were the least prejudiced and authoritarian towards others. The authors

15
concluded that the Transcendent-Generative type was " ... open and accepting of
their own feelings" and was successfully able to cope with challenges in life "with
relative ease and a growing sense of self-assurance" (p. 82).
The Pseudo-Developed type comprised 26% of the men in the sample.
On the outside, these men appeared to have "mastered all the basic problems in
life" (p . 33} , and they reported high satisfaction with their marriages, children , and
occupations, while scoring low on stress measures. However, this type of man
scored highest in social desirability, was least likely to tolerate ambiguity, and
was most likely to be authoritarian in his child-rearing practices. The PseudoDeveloped type was found to have a highly controlled and structured life and
engaged in constant "avoidance of new situations, people, or ideas" (p. 34) .
Farrell and Rosenberg suggested that these men dealt with their mid-life stress
through religion, alcoholism, and hypochondriasis. The authors concluded that
these men continued to deny their feelings of a changing self during mid-life
through the use of "psychological defenses [such as denial] to avoid confronting
the stress of mid-life" (p. 84).
Finally, the fourth type of man was the Punitive-Disenchanted type which
comprised 30% of the authors' sample. These men were described by Farrell
and Rosenberg as the most "symptomatic and unhappy group of our typology
scoring highest on the mid-life crisis scale as well as on other measures of
alienation and identity diffusion" (p. 85) . Over half of these men reported being
unhappy with their lives (53%), and 80% reported reflecting on their lives with the
"wish to start over" (p. 85). The authors reported that these men were the most
depressed of all the four types, and they scored high in authoritarianism and

16
bigotry. These men ascribed their lack of happiness and fulfillment in their lives
to external circumstances, and tended to cope "unsuccessfully" by use of
repression , projection, and denial defense strategies "in the situation of
increasing loss of esteem and diminishing hope" (p . 86). Farrell and Rosenberg
concluded that these men experienced a chronic sense of alienation , identity
diffusion , and depression rather than a mid-life crisis.
Although Farrell and Rosenberg 's work was the most exhaustive
examination of male stress during mid-life, few researchers have used the ir
questionnaire measuring the experience of stress during mid-life. In fact, library
searches revealed only one research team who used Farrell and Rosenberg 's
questionnaire to measure stress during mid-life (Julian , McKenry, & Arnold ,
1990). In an attempt to understand the effects of role adjustment (i.e ., marital
satisfaction , quality of parent-adolescent relationship , intrinsic job orientation) on
the psychological stress associated with the male mid-life transition , Julian et al.
(1990) asked 36 middle-aged men to complete various questionnaires. Their
goal was to determine whether role adjustment variables could predict the stress
associated with middle age. Participants completed various questionnaire
instruments, including Farrell and Rosenberg 's (1981) Mid-life Crisis Scale , which
was described as a scale of "perceived stress" of middle age. Julian et al. found
that the best predictors of stress associated with the mid-life transition were the
quality of the parent-adolescent relationship and marital satisfaction . The
participants who reported more conflict and lower marital satisfaction
experienced greater stress during mid-life.

17
Measures of Identity
The study of identity, in the past thirty years, has developed primarily from
Erikson's theoretical writings on identity (Kroger, 1993; McCrae & Costa , 1990).
Marcia's (1966, 1967, 1980) research , and subsequent development of a
measurement instrument on the psychosocial aspects of identity, has created a
large body of research in the area . Although Marcia's Identity Status Paradigm
(1980) was one of the first comprehensive instruments to assess ego identity and
has been utilized in over 300 studies to date (Kroger, 1993; Waterman , 1992),
alternative measures were also developed (e.g. , Tan , 1977; Grotevant & Adams,
1984; Berzonsky 1989, 1992).
Tan (1977) created a 12-item Ego Identity Scale based on Erikson's
(1959) concept of ego identity. His goal was to develop a measure that was
short, objective, and free from response set contamination . Participants were
asked to choose between two statements that reflected the qualities of either ego
identity achieved or identity diffused individuals. Although the psychometric
properties of the Ego Identity Scale are acceptable, the simplicity of the
instrument provides only limited information on identity.
The Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status (EOM-EIS)
developed by Adams , Shea , & Fitch (1979) and Grotevant & Adams (1984) was
one of the first self-report paper and pencil instruments to assess Marcia's
identity statuses. The questionnaire has "undergone extensive psychometric
work" (Kroger, 1993, p. 7) since its inception over 20 years ago. Participants are
presented with 64 statements reflecting characteristics of Marcia's four identity
statuses. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 indicating "strongly

18
agree" to 5 indicating "strongly disagree," in eight areas that relate to identity:
occupation, religion, politics, philosophy, friendship , dating, sex roles , and
recreation . The EOM-EIS is scored by computing the means for each of the four
identity scales and converting each into z-scores. An individual is classified if
their z-score is greater than +1 standard deviation (SO) from the mean on only
one of the four identity scales (Grotevant & Adams , 1984), which leaves 60% to
70% of the sample without a single identity status and consequently
unclassifiable (Jones, Akers , & White, 1994). The instrument is highly reliable
and valid ; however, it classifies few participants into one of the four identity
statuses.
More recently, Berzonsky (1989 , 1992) focused on developing a
questionnaire for measuring identity that classified all participants. The Identity
Style Inventory (lSI) is an easily administered , self-report paper and pencil
objective instrument that classifies individuals into one of three identity styles:
Information , Normative, and Diffuse/Avoidant (Berzonsky, 1992). According to
Berzonsky (1989 , 1992), the lSI is similar to the EOM-EIS in that the lSI identity
style classifications are correlated with the EOM-EIS identity statuses (refer to
illustration in Figure 3). Berzonsky indicated that those individuals categorized
as having a Diffuse/Avoidant identity style tended to procrastinate and were
reluctant to deal with personal problems and decisions . This style was similar to
the diffusion identity status of the EOM-EIS. Individuals categorized as having a
normative identity style tended to be conformers, closed minded , and focused on
the expectations of other people, which was similar to the foreclosure identity
status. Finally, those individuals categorized with an Information identity style

19
tended to be introspective and explorers with either high or low commitment
(Berzonsky, 1989, 1992). Thus, they would be described as being similar to an
achievement or moratorium identity status. White, Wampler, & Winn (1998)
elucidated Berzonsky's decision to combine both the Achievement and
Moratorium identity statuses into one Information identity style. In their words:
Some people with an Information style have committed to certain values,
goals, and beliefs, whereas others continue to search . However, both
groups share a unique and active openness to options. In contrast,
individuals in both the Diffuse/Avoidant and Normative groups have no
such interest in exploration. Recognition of the distinct characteristics of
each style can help specify the nature of personality and behavioral
differences found within the individual (White et al., 1998, p. 241 ).
The lSI instrument consists of 40 statements concerning an individual's
identity. Eleven items are used to assess the information scale, nine items for
the normative scale, 10 items for the diffuse/avoidant scale, and 10 items are
used for the commitment scale in a secondary analysis. Participants indicate
their responses on a 5-point Likert scale, where a score of 1 indicates "strongly
disagree" and a score of 5 indicates "strongly agree." Scoring requires the
computing of means for each scale, transformation to z-scores, and then
assigning an identity style (i.e., I, N, D) based on the highest z-score. This
scoring procedure classifies virtually all participants into one of the three identity
styles created by Berzonsky (1989, 1992). In addition , the z-score transformation
adjusts for any potential problem of social desirability that may be present from
participants (Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992; White, Wampler, & Winn , 1998).

20
However, a major flaw of this instrument is the high reading level (grade 9.2)
required to complete it (as reported by White et al. , 1998).
White et al. (1998) updated the lSI instrument for use with a population
with a sixth grade reading level. The Identity Style Inventory Sixth Grade (ISI6G) was created in an attempt to retain the conceptual structure of the lSI (i.e.,
three identity styles , 5-point Likert Scale) with simplified grammar and sentence
structure. In other words, only the items were rewritten , to facilitate a sixth grade
reading level of the instrument. In the end , there was "good [loading] agreement
between the factor structures of both measures" combined with high criterion
validity between the ISI-6G with behaviour and personality measures (White et
al. , 1998, p. 234) . In other words, the ISI-6G is a modified version of the lSI for
use with a sixth grade reading level population and retains the original
psychometric properties of the lSI.
Rationale and Goals of the Present Study
The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the period of
middle age by examining the relation between identity style, self-worth and the
experience of psychological stress in early, middle, and late adulthood men . In
particular, it was expected that the experience of stress during middle age would
not be unique to this life period compared to early and late adulthood, but rather
a function of an individual's identity style. There is currently no literature in this
area that links identity style with psychological age-related stress. Therefore,
based on the previously cited literature on the relation between identity status
and psychological adjustment during adulthood , it was expected that, irrespective

21
of age grouping , (a) a Normative identity style would be related to low levels of
stress ; (b) a Diffuse/Avoidant identity style would be related to high levels of
stress; and , (c) an Information identity style would be related to low to moderate
levels of stress .
The present study will contribute to the existing literature in many ways.
For example, no previous studies have considered that the possible experience
of men's stress may vary as a function of the clarity of one's identity, irrespective
of age grouping . Other studies on men's stress levels have focused , primarily,
on measuring men's experience of psychological stress during middle age only.
Thus, this study will compare the stress levels of middle-aged men with those of
young and older men , a focus which has been absent from the literature.
Specifically, this study will explore if there is anything unique about middle age
for men in regards to stress and self-worth. Furthermore, research on the
identity, distress, and self-worth of older men (age 65 to 87) typically has been
overlooked .

22
METHOD
Participants
The participants included 275 men who lived in the Central-Interior of
British Columbia (B.C.). Three specific age groups were targeted using Erikson's
(1959, 1963, 1966) theory of development as a general guideline. The age
range of the younger group was chosen to represent men who had completed
adolescence and began early adulthood , the middle-aged group was chosen to
represent men who were broadly in the period of middle age, and the older group
was chosen to represent men who were well into their senior years and retired .
The excluded age groups (e.g., 26-34 , 56-64 years) were not the focus of this
thesis and were not recruited.
Age Group 1. The participants for group 1 included 100 men rang ing in
age from 19 to 25 years (M= 23.17 , SO= 1.54) . Twenty-four percent of the men
had a high school diploma or less, 14% had either a college diploma or trade
school certificate, 52% had some university, and 10% of the men had a university
degree. The majority of men indicated that they were Caucasian (85%) , followed
by Asian (1 0%) , and Other (5%). Eighty-nine percent of the men indicated that
their mother tongue was English, followed by an Asian language (e.g .,
Cantonese) (4%) , and Other (7%) . Eighty-nine percent of the men were single,
9% were married or common law, and 1% were separated. Forty-seven percent
of men indicated that they worked full-time , 31% indicated that they worked parttime, and 20% of the men in this age group were unemployed . Overall , then , this

23
group of men could be characterized as young English-speaking , well educated ,
Caucasian , single, and employed.
Age Group 2. The participants for group 2 included 100 men who ranged
in age from 35 to 55 years (M= 45 .72 , SO= 5.97). Seventeen percent of the men
had a high school diploma or less, 25% had completed a trade or technical
school , 11% had completed some college, 8% obtained a college diploma, 11%
had completed some university, 22% had obtained a university degree, and 6%
of the men had a post-graduate degree. The majority of men indicated that they
were Caucasian (88%) , followed by Aboriginal (8%) , Asian (3%) , and Other (1 %).
Eighty-nine percent of the men indicated that their mother tongue was English ,
followed by a European language (e.g. , German) (5%) , and Other (6%) . Eightytwo percent of the men were married or living with a common-law spouse , 9%
were single, 6% were divorced , and 3% were separated. Eighty-three percent of
those men indicated that they worked full-time , 2% indicated that they worked
part-time, and 13% of the men were unemployed . Overall , then , this group of
men could be characterized as middle-aged English-speaking , Caucasian , welleducated , married , and employed.
Age Group 3. The participants for group 3 included 75 men who ranged in
age from 65 to 87 years (M= 73.75, SO= 6.52) . Twenty percent of the men had
an elementary school education , 25% had completed a secondary school
education (i.e. , grade 11), 16% had a high school diploma, 16% obtained a
college diploma, 16% had completed a trade or technical school , 7% had
completed some college , 1% obtained a college diploma, 8% had completed

24
some university, 5% obtained a university degree, and 2% of the men had
obtained a post-graduate degree. The majority of these men indicated that they
were Caucasian (93%) , followed by Other (7%) . Eighty-seven percent of the
men indicated that their mother tongue was English , followed by a European
language (5%) and French (5%), and Other (3%). Sixty-one percent of the men
were married or living with a common-law spouse, 11% were single, 15% were
divorced , and 13% were widowed. Sixty-nine percent of men indicated they were
retired , 15% worked full-time , and 4% of the men worked part-time. Overall ,
then , this group of men could be characterized as aged , English-speaking ,
Caucasian , moderately-educated , married or divorced/widowed , and retired .
Procedure
Participant Recruitment.

Men were recruited in six ways, throughout the

Interior of British Columbia , during the months of February and March 1999.
First, the researcher maintained a display table at a large Prince George, B.C.
shopping mall during the first two weekends in February. Behind the table, an
easel board was set up with the following eight by eleven laser printed posters:
(a) Men Wanted; (b) Questionnaire for men ; (c) We are not selling anything ; and
(d) University of Northern B.C. Research Study. The researcher would
approach men who were walking by and ask them if they had a few minutes to
complete a questionnaire. If the researcher was not rejected outright, the men
were given an information sheet about the study (refer to Appendix A for a
description). Second , the researcher approached student clubs at the University
of Northern British Columbia and the College of New Caledonia in Prince
George. Information sheets about the study were handed out to male club

25
members to read and consider. Third , the researcher visited four Toastmaster
International Clubs in the Prince George region . Men at the clubs were
approached and handed the information sheet for their consideration. Fourth ,
information on the study was sent to Senior Centre management for
consideration and subsequent approval. A display table was set up at four
Senior Centres in Prince George, two in Quesnel , and three in Penticton.
Similarly to the shopping mall recruitment, an easel board was set up with
information to garner the attention of senior men. Those men who were
interested were handed an information sheet. Fifth , four Senior Care homes
were approached and subsequently, with the approval of management, the
researcher had their Wellness Coordinators distribute the information sheets and
questionnaire packages to male seniors who had no documented dementia.
Finally, the researcher met with people individually from referrals and a local
newspaper article to hand out the information sheet.
After the researcher answered any individual questions or concerns
regarding the study, questionnaire packages and a stamped , self-addressed
return envelope were distributed to those consenting males. Although not
formally assessed , participants declining to take part in the study gave reasons
ranging from "I don't have the time" to one man indicating that he was unable to
read.
Testing. Participants who had read the information sheet and agreed to
the conditions and limitations contained within it were deemed as having given
informed consent to this study. These men then were given a questionnaire
package to complete, which included the Identity Style Inventory: Sixth-Grade

26
Reading Level (ISI-6G; Appendix B) , the Mid-life Crisis Scale (MCS; Appendix
C), the global subscale of the Adult Self-Concept Questionnaire (GS-ASCQ ;
Appendix D), the Life Distress Inventory (LDI; Appendix E), and a demographic
questionnaire (Appendix F). Participating men had the choice of completing the
questionnaire package upon receipt or at their convenience and mail it back to
the researcher. Questionnaires were expected to take approximately 20 to 30
minutes to complete. The participants were assured that all information would
remain confidential.
Measures. The ISI-6G questionnaire, created by White, Wampler, and
Winn (1998), consisted of 40 statements concerning the individuals' identity.
These 40 statements "reflected the cognitive processes involved in coping and
problem solving among individuals at various stages of the identity crisis" (White
et al. , 1998, p. 225). Eleven items were used to assess the information style,
nine items for the normative style, 10 items for the diffuse/avoidant style, and 10
items were used for the commitment scale in a secondary analysis (used only
when two identity styles are tied for the highest mean score). The men were
asked to indicate their disagreement/agreement with each statement by rating
each on a 5-point Likert scale, where a score of 1 indicated, "strongly disagree"
and a score of 5 indicated "strongly agree." The ISI-6G categorized all
participants into one of three identity styles: Information, Normative, and
Diffuse/Avoidant (see Table 1). Scoring required the computing of the mean
ratings for each scale, converting the raw scores into z-scores, and then
assigning an identity style (i.e., I, N, D) based on the individual's highest z-score.
As reported by White et al. (1998) , the scales demonstrated reliability

27
(Cronbach 's alphas were Information= .59, Normative= .64 , Diffuse/Avoidant=
.78) , whereas evidence for convergent construct validity between the original lSI
and the ISI-6G were significant (Information , I= .81 , Q = <.001; Normative, I=
.85, Q < .001 ; Diffused/Avoidant, I= .85, Q <.001).
Farrell and Rosenberg 's ( 1981) Mid-life Crisis Scale consisted of 12
statements concerning the individuals' stress during mid-life and four open-ended
physical health questions that are believed to contribute to the stress of men
during mid-life. Farrell and Rosenberg 's conceptualization of stress during midlife involved the importance of a man's sense of isolation and denial during
middle age. Therefore, the MCS was developed as a measure of the degree to
which a man "experienced difficulty in coping with the stress of middle age" in the
areas of work, career, family system , and health (Farrell & Rosenberg , 1981 , p.
7) . Julian, McKenry, & McKelvey (1990) describe the MCS as a scale reflecting
men's perceived stress of middle age . The men were asked to indicate their
agreement/disagreement with the first eleven statements by rating each on a 6point Likert scale, where a score of 1 indicated "strongly agree" and a score of 6
indicated "strongly disagree." The remaining statement, pertaining to the
participant's relationship with his wife , was rated on a 5-point Likert scale , where
a score of 1 indicated "very close" and a score of 5 indicated "far apart." Items 1,
4, 5, and 12 on the MCS were modified to allow for an additional choice, "not
applicable, " for those participants with no occupation , wife, and/or children .
Higher scores reflect greater perceived stress of middle age. Those items
selected as not applicable were given a score of 3.5 points (midpoint between 1
and 6) , recognizing that this was an arbitrary score, due to the nature of Likert

28
Table 1
Number of participants in each Age Group categorized according to the 3 Identity
Styles
IDENTITY STYLE
AGE GROUP

Information

Normative

Diffused

Total

Young

36

29

35

100

Middle

31

30

39

100

Old

27

21

27

75

Total

94

80

101

275

29
scales. The MCS was a measure of men's overall perceived stress of middle
age. Farrell and Rosenberg (1981) did not report any reliability and validity
information for the MCS.
As an additional measure of self-development, Messer and Harter's
(1986) Adult Self-Concept Questionnaire (ASCQ) was used. The ASCQ consists
of 50 forced-choice statements rated on a 4-point scale. Twelve subscales
comprise the ASCQ. Only the global subscale of the ASCQ (GS-ASCQ) was
administered in this study. The remaining 11 subscales were not considered due
to the lack of applicability to th is thesis and the additional burden it placed on
participants (e.g., additional time, complexity) . The GS-ASCQ consisted of six
forced-choice statements rated on a 4-point scale. These six statements
measured an individual's overall perception of worth (i.e., how much one likes
oneself as a person). The men were asked to select one of two statements per
item and indicated either that the statement was "sort of true for me" or "really
true for me. " Each item was scored from 1 to 4 , where a score of 1 indicated
"low perceived adequacy" and a score of 4 reflected "high perceived adequacy"
for the participant. Higher scores reflect greater perception of one's worth.
Global self-worth scores were obtained for each participant by summing their
ratings on those six items. As reported by Messer and Harter (1986) , the scale
demonstrated reliability (Cronbach's alpha was global self-worth = .87) , whereas
evidence for validity was not reported.
The Life Distress Inventory (Thomas, Yoshioka , & Ager, 1993) was a
measure of current general distress in 18 areas of the individual's life: marriage,
sex, relationship to children , relationship to other relatives , household

30
management, financial situation, employment, education, recreation/leisure,
social life, religion, management of time, physical health, personal independence,
role of alcohol in home, satisfaction with life, and expectations for the future. The
men were asked to assess their level of distress for each item using a 7-point
Likert scale, where a score of 1 indicated "no distress" and a score of 7 indicates,
"the most distress I've ever felt." Higher scores reflect greater life distress. The
LDI provides a global measure of overall current life distress by summing an
individual's ratings on all 18 items. Thomas et al. (1993) did not report any
reliability and validity information for the LDI.
Finally, the men completed a demographic questionnaire in which they
indicated their date of birth, mother tongue, ethnicity, marital status, education,
occupation, number of children, ages of their children, and health. Certain
demographics (e.g., mother tongue, education, occupation) and the health items
were not the focus of this thesis and were not included in the analysis.

31
RESULTS
Overview of Analyses
Before conducting inferential statistics, the data for all three dependent
variables (LDI, GS-ASCQ, MCS) were examined for missing data, outliers, and
normality. No missing data were present on the items that comprised the LDI,
resulting in 275 completed life distress inventories. However, the GS-ASCQ had
11 missing cases (distributed evenly among each age group) that were
subsequently replaced by the mean value on that case for the relevant age
1

group. The group mean replacement method was used as it assumes the group
mean best represents the missing data.
With regard to the MCS, there were 69 missing items, evenly distributed
among the 17 questions that comprised the MCS. These missing items were
subsequently replaced with the age group mean for the same reasons as above.
As discussed in the Method section , items 1, 4, 5, and 12 had an option of not
applicable, which was scored as 3.52 (midpoint between 1 and 6). For item 1,
36% (.o.=99) of all 275 participants chose not applicable as their response, item
4=17% (.o.=47) , item 5=53% (.o.=145), and for item 12=46% (.o.=126) . Because of
the high number of not applicable selections in these items, it was decided that
an additional analysis in this thesis would examine the data for the MCS for those
participants who were married and had children and had completed items 1, 5,
and 12 without indicating not applicable. This data reduction resulted in a

1

A mean replacement (irrespective of age group) of missing data was also tried for all dependent
variables with essentially the same outcome.
2
No method proved ideal to deal with data on the Mid-life Crisis Scale labeled as not applicable.
Different methods were attempted (e.g ., deletion of items 1, 5 and 12 for all participants, mean
replacement) and the results were essentially the same.

32
sample of 56 out of the total1 00 middle-aged men and only 18 of the total 75
older men (none of the men in the young adult group completed all of items 1, 5,
and 12 on the scale without indicating not applicable at least twice). As a result,
a decision was made to analyze data for the MCS only for the 56 men who were
middle-aged married fathers and had completed all items on the scale without
indicating not applicable.
Examination of the data for normality revealed three outliers for the
dependent variable LDI and two outliers for the dependent variable MCS.
However, the data for both of those variables were not significantly skewed , and
a Levene test revealed that the assumption of homogeneous variances was met
for the data for the MCS (Q = .92, for the total sample; Q = .76 , for the reduced
sample of middle-aged married fathers) . Similarly, the data for the dependent
variable GS-ASCQ were distributed normally and met the assumption of
homogeneous variances according to the Levene's test (Q =.41, for the total
sample) . In contrast, though, the Levene test was significant for the LDI data (Q
< .001, for the total sample). Attempts to normalize the data by dropping outliers

or transforming data (using square root or logarithm methods) were not
successful in making the variances more homogeneous. Nevertheless, as
suggested by Harris (1975; cited in Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996), the ratio of
largest to smallest sample sizes for groups was not larger than 4:1, and the ratio
of largest to smallest variance was not greater than 20:1; therefore, results of
subsequent analyses of variance were still considered robust.
Two sets of analyses were conducted. The first set included data for the
LDI, GS-ASCQ and MCS measures for the total sample of all participants . The

33
data for the total sample were analyzed by conducting separate 3 (age) by 3
(identity style) analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with age (early, middle, and late
adulthood) and identity style (information, normative, diffusion) as betweensubjects variables. Rather than conduct a MANOVA, a decision was made on
the suggestion of Huberty and Morris (1989) to conduct multiple ANOVAs,
because there was "no interest in seeking any linear composite of the outcome
[response] variables" and "the research being conducted was exploratory in
nature" (p. 303) . If significant two-way interactions were present, I would conduct
multiple comparisons, one-way ANOVAs, to examine differences among means.
By using multiple ANOVAs, I set out to answer these three questions:
1)

Does age (young, middle, and older) make a difference for men
in their levels of distress, self-worth, and perceived middle age
stress levels, overall?

2)

Does identity style (information, normative, and diffused) make a
difference for men in their levels of distress, self-worth, and
perceived middle age stress, overall?

3)

Whatever the difference in distress, self-worth, and perceived
middle age stress of young, middle, and older aged men, is this
difference the same for an information, normative or diffused
identity style?

A significant interaction means that the effect of identity style on one or
more of the DVs (LDI, GS-ASCQ, MCS) is different for the three age groups. If
no two-way interactions were present for the three DVs, the effect of identity style
for the DVs would be the same for all three age groups, which is consistent with

34
Hypothesis 3. A main effect of age would mean that age makes a difference in
distress, self-worth, and perceived middle age stress levels, overall , which is
consistent with Hypothesis 1. A main effect of identity style would mean that
identity style makes a difference in distress, self-worth , and perceived middle age
stress levels, overall , which is consistent with Hypothesis 2. The ANOVAs will be
supplemented by effect sizes (using eta-squared) , which allows one to "judge the
size of the statistical effect" between the independent and dependent variables in
terms of a small , moderate, or large interpretation (Zumbo, 1997, p. 48) . Kirk's
(1996) criteria of omega-squared was used for interpretation of all effect sizes in
this thesis . 3 In addition, the effect size will provide the size of difference between
ANOVA A and ANOVA B. For a review of effect size, see Cohen (1992) .
The second analysis included the MCS data for the sample of middleaged married fathers. Data were analyzed by conducting a separate one-way
ANOVA with identity style (information , normative, diffusion) as the betweensubjects independent variable. A significant E ratio would be followed by Tukey's
HSD test for differences among means. A main effect of identity style would
mean that identity style makes a difference in perceived middle age stress levels,
overall. An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests.

Results for the Total Sample
Means and standard deviations are presented in Tables 2-4. There were
no significant two-way age x identity style interactions for any of the three

3

Kirk (1996) refers to omega-squared ; Zumbo (1997) states that you can interpret eta-squared
the same way as omega-squared .

35
dependent variables: LDI, E(4, 266) = .224, Q = .925, n2 (eta-squared)= .003,
which is a trivial effect size (Kirk, 1996); GS-ASCQ, E(4 , 266) = 1.35, Q = .252 , n2
= .020 , which is a small effect size (Kirk, 1996); MCS, E(4, 266) = 1.69 , Q = .154,

n2 = .029, which is a small effect size (Kirk, 1996).
The ANOVA results revealed a significant main effect of age for the LDI ,
E(2 , 266) = 21 .51 , Q < .001 , n2 = .139, which is a large effect size (Kirk, 1996)
and for the GS-ASCQ, E(2 , 266) = 5.65, Q = .004, n2 = .041 , which is a small
effect size (Kirk, 1996). Specifically, 13% of the variance in the LDI can be
accounted for by the main effect of age and four percent of the variance in the
GS-ASCQ can be accounted for by the main effect of age. There was no
significant main effect of age for the MCS, E(2 , 266) = 2.66 , Q = .072, n2 = .019,
which is a small effect size (Kirk, 1996). Examination of the relevant means for
the main effect of age for the LDI , using Tukey's HSD, indicated that all three age
groups were significantly different from each other. Specifically, the young adults
(M = 40.33, SD = 10.54) reported significantly greater distress than either the
middle adult or late adult groups (M = 35.88 , SD = 8.54; M = 31 .02 , SD = 9.77 ,
respectively) , and the middle-aged adults reported significantly more distress
than the older adults.
Tukey's HSD post-hoc test, examining the relevant means for the main
effect of age for the GS-ASCQ, ind icated that the older age group (M = 2.98 , SD
= .52) had significantly lower ratings of self-worth than either the young adult or
middle adult age groups (M = 3.17 , SD = .51 ; M = 3.24 , SD =.50, respectively) ,

36
and there was no significant difference in the self-worth ratings of the young adult
and middle adult groups.
The ANOVA results revealed a significant main effect of identity style for
each of the three dependent variables: LOI, f(2 , 266) = 13.68, Q < .001 , 112 =
.093 , which is a moderate effect size (Kirk, 1996); GS-ASCQ , f(2 , 266) = 9.01 ,
Q < .001,

n2 = .063 , which is a moderate effect size (Kirk, 1996); and MCS, f(2 ,

266) = 7.02, Q = .001 , n = .043, which is a small effect size (Kirk, 1996).
2

Specifically, nine percent of the variance in the LOI can be accounted for by the
main effect of identity style, six percent of the variance in the GS-ASCQ can be
accounted for by the main effect of identity style, and four percent of the variance
in the MCS can be accounted for by the main effect of identity style. Examination
of the relevant means for the main effect of identity style for the LOI , using
Tukey's HSO, indicated that there was no significant difference between ratings
of distress for individuals with an information style (M = 37.01 , SO= 10.87) and
those with a diffusion style (M = 38 .91, SO= 10.95) ; however, individuals with the
normative style reported significantly lower distress (M = 31.74, SO= 6.81) than
individuals with the other two identity styles.
Tukey's HSO post-hoc test, examining the means for the main effect of
identity style for the GS-ASCQ indicated that individuals with the normative style
(M = 3.31 , SO= .49) reported significantly higher levels of self-worth than the
individuals with a diffusion style (M = 3.01 , SO= .55) , and there were no
significant differences between either the normative style or the diffusion style
and the information style (M = 3.14, SO= .47). In addition , examination of the
relevant means for the main effect of identity style for the MCS indicated that

37
there was no significant difference between perceived stress of middle age
scores for individuals with an information style (M =40.39, SD = 6.16) and those
with a diffusion style (M

=41.05, SD =7.70); however, individuals with the

normative style reported significantly lower perceived stress of middle age (M =
38 .06 , SD = 6.45) than individuals with the other two identity styles .
The eta-squared values of age and identity style for the three dependent
variables (LDI , GS-ASCQ , MCS) were compared . For the LDI , age had a
meaningfully larger eta-squared value (n2

=.139) compared to identity style (n2 =

.093) . In other words, age plays more of a role in distress than does identity
style. Conversely, for the GS-ASCQ, identity style had a slightly larger etasquared value (n

2

=.063) compared to age (n2 =.041 ). In other words , identity

style plays slightly more of a role in self-worth than does age. Similarly, for the
MCS, identity style had a larger eta-squared value (n
(n2

2

=.043) compared to age

=.019). In other words, identity style plays more of a role of one's perceived

stress of middle age than does age.
Analysis for the Sample of Middle-Aged Married Fathers
Means and standard deviations for the MCS are presented in Table 5.
ANOVA results for the analysis of the MCS scores for middle-aged married
fathers indicated that there was no significant effect of identity style, E(2 , 53) =
.906 , Q

=.41 0, n2 =.033, which is a small effect size (Kirk, 1996).

38
Table 2
Means (and standard deviations) of the LDI as a function of age and identity style
for the total sample of all participants

IDENTITY STYLE
AGE

Information Normative

Diffusion

Total

n

19-25 years

40.78
(11.24)

35.28
(7.44)

44 .06
(1 0.58)

40 .33
(1 0.54)

100

35-55 years

37.16
(9 .17)

31.54
(4.98)

38.21
(9.1 0)

35 .88
(8.54)

100

65-87 years

31.81
(1 0.38)

27 .14
(5 .39)

33.23
(11 .12)

31 .02
(9 .77)

75

Total

37 .01
(1 0.87)

31 .74
(6.81)

38.91
(1 0.95)

n

94

80

101

275

275

39
Table 3
Means (and standard deviations) of the GS-ASCQ as a function of age and
identity style for the total sample of all participants

IDENTITY STYLE
AGE

Information

Normative

Diffusion

Total

n

19-25 years

3.12
(.52)

3.29
(.41)

3.10
(.57)

3.17
(.51)

100

35-55 years

3.22
(.48)

3.39
(.48)

3.14
(.50)

3.24
(.50)

100

65-87 years

3.08
(.39)

3.22
(.60)

2.70
(.46)

2.98
(.52)

75

Total

3.14
(.47)

3.31
(.49)

3.01
(.55)

n

94

80

101

275

275

40
Table 4
Means (and standard deviations) of the MCS as a function of age and identity
style for the total sample of all participants

IDENTITY STYLE
AGE

Information

Normative

Diffusion

Total

n

19-25 years

41.34
(5.29)

40 .57
(4.87)

41.48
(8 .05)

41 .16
(6 .25)

100

35-55 years

39.55
(6.94)

37.08
(6.66)

40 .11
(7.17)

39.03
(7.00)

100

65-87 years

40.10
(6.36)

36.01
(7.21)

43.54
(7.78)

40 .19
(7 .65)

75

Total

40 .39
(6.16)

38 .06
(6.45)

41 .50
(7.69)

n

94

80

101

275

275

41
Table 5
Means (and standard deviations) of the MCS as a function of age and identity
style for middle-aged married fathers
IDENTITY STYLE
VARIABLE

Information

Normative

Diffusion

n

MCS

38.27
(5.80)

36.48
(6.59)

39.36
(7.22)

56

n

15

16

25

42
DISCUSSION
In this study, the roles of identity style and age on general distress and
self-worth in young , middle-aged, and older men were investigated. The ultimate
goal was to gain a better understanding of men's identity development across the
lifespan and men's experience of stress in various age groupings. Current level
of distress, self-worth, and perceived stress of middle age were measured for
adult men at three different age periods (early, middle, and late adulthood) . It
was hypothesized that the experience of stress during middle age would not be
unique to this life period compared to early and late adulthood, but rather a
function of an individual's identity style. In addition , it was hypothesized ,
irrespective of age grouping, that: (a) a normative identity style would be related
to low levels of stress; (b) a diffuse/avoidant (diffusion) identity style would be
related to high levels of stress; and, (c) an information identity style would be
related to low to moderate levels of stress.
These hypotheses were confirmed. There was nothing unique about the
period of middle age for men, in regards to distress or the perceived stress of
middle age, compared to young and older men . Although middle-aged men
experienced more distress than older men, young adults experienced the highest
levels of distress. In contrast, though, older men experienced lower levels of
self-worth than either young or middle-aged men . In addition , as predicted, men
with a diffusion identity style reported higher levels of overall distress and lower
levels of general self-worth than men with a normative identity style, irrespective
of age grouping. In other words, the normative identity style had the lowest
distress levels, those with a diffusion identity style had the highest distress levels,

43
and those with the information identity style fell in-between. However, this same
picture did not emerge for the sample of the 56 middle-aged married fathers ,
perhaps due to the small sample size. In other words, for the sample of middleaged married fathers using the MCS, there was no difference in their levels of
perceived stress of middle age for an information, normative or diffused identity
style .
Stress. Self-Worth and Age
As discussed in the Introduction, Erikson was instrumental in providing a
framework for psychologists to study adult development with his psychosocial
stage theory. Erikson suggested that individuals confront eight specific issues
throughout their lifespan , building upon the experiences of previously resolved
stages. With increasing age, there are new dilemmas that individuals are
propelled to face by virtue of biological maturation (Erikson, 1959). Erikson 's
sequential stage of dilemmas for individuals over their lifespan suggests
continuous development. Specifically, the older the man, the better he is able to
unravel life's challenges due to his exposure and resolution of earlier
psychosocial dilemmas. For example, the middle-aged man is expected to have
more experience and success with relationships after having resolved Erikson's
sixth psychosocial dilemma of "intimacy." Thus, the present study showed
support for Erikson's theory. Specifically, as a man becomes older, he
experiences less overall life stress or distress, perhaps as a result of maturity
developed from coping with the sequence of Erikson's psychosocial dilemmas.

44
In addition , this study demonstrated a unique experience for older men , a
phenomenon which Erikson discussed in his psychosocial theory of
development. That is, the older men in the study reported lower ratings of selfworth than the other age groups. Erikson (1959 , 1966) stressed the importance
of ego integration for men during their old age. Toward the end of their lifespan ,
individuals reach the eighth and final psychosocial stage of development, ego
integrity versus despair. In Erikson's words: "Only he who in some way has
taken care of things and people and has adapted himself to the triumphs and
disappointments of being , by necessity, the originator of others and the generator
of things and ideas- only he may gradually grow the fruit of the seven stages"
(Erikson , 1959, p. 104) . It is during this stage that man reviews the life that he
has lived and either accepts his failures and disappointments, combined with the
contributions he has made to the world , or chooses to hold on to the guilt,
distrust, and hopelessness of the past, thus feeling a sense of despair. Erikson
(1959) described those individuals having a sense of integrity as accepting their
mortality; whereas, those individuals lacking ego integration fear death.
Similarly, Sheehy (1998) described those men who feel a sense of despair as
"feeling worthless .. . having worked their whole life and having nothing to show
for it. .. emotionally bankrupt, alone inside" (p . 228) .
Other research has focused on the stress during mid-life or the mid-life
crisis period for men. The present study found nothing unique about the period
of middle age for men , in regards to distress or perceived stress of middle age ,
compared to younger and older men. Previous research, focusing on the period
of young adulthood and middle age, has also found no universal peaking of

45
stress during middle age in men (Farrell & Rosenberg, 1981; Sheehy, 1998) and
in research on middle-aged women (Josselson, 1996). Farrell and Rosenberg
(1981) examined the period of middle age for men and found that rather than all
middle-aged men experiencing stress during mid-life; men have a variety of
experiences . From the current study, it is also clear that men's experiences of
stress during mid-life are influenced by one's identity style. Farrell and
Rosenberg's (1981) Mid-life Crisis Scale (MCS) was included in this study as an
additional measure of the perceived stress that men face during the middle age
period . The presence of missing data and the high utilization of the choice "not
applicable" on the MCS, in this study, suggested that this scale is only applicable
to a specific group of men. That is, men who are middle-aged, married , have
children, and who are currently employed. Particularly, it is interesting to note
that at least a third of the participants (mostly young adults) in this study
complained to the researcher that the MCS was not applicable to their present
circumstances . What becomes evident is that the MCS is a scale that was
designed for a very specific group of middle-aged men . Using the MCS outside
of a middle-aged population was a challenge, particularly given the lack of
applicability to a younger and older male population.
The current findings are contradictory to those reported by Levinson
(1978). Levinson (1978) studied the mid-life transition period in men, and found
that all men experienced a universal heightened period of stress or crisis, which
was inescapable, during middle age. Levinson's highly educated and specific
sample may explain the contradictory finding . Three quarters of his sample
consisted of highly educated university professors, writers, and business

46
executives. These people would have been exposed to a wide range of personal
and academic experiences and opportunities to think about their lives in detail.
Tamir (1989) suggests that the life course of the working class and the uppermiddle-class are different inherently. Particularly, social forces "influence daily
routine, economic stability, interpersonal relations, and philosophy of life" based
on which social class a man resides (p. 158).
Stress. Self-Worth and Identity Style
The process of developing a sense of self or identity occurs from birth and
continues throughout a person's life. Identity is defined as "a self-structure - an
internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs, and
individual history" (Marcia, 1980, p. 159). Josselson (1996) described it as
knowing who one is and experiencing purpose in life. However, identity is not
solely an individualistic process due to the fact that social environments (e.g.,
family relationships, social class, ethnic background) exert influence on the
individual (Markstrom-Adams, 1992; Farrell & Rosenberg, 1981 ). Identity is a
dynamic structure that continually changes; individuals shed, add, and alter parts
of their identities over time. During identity formation, some individuals develop a
clear sense of identity, whereas others show signs of a diffused identity style
(Erikson, 1968).
In the present study, men with a normative identity style were found to be
more "protected" from stress and low self-worth compared to those with a
diffused identity style who were more "threatened" with stress and low self-worth.
Additionally, those with an information identity style experienced stress and self-

47
worth at a level between that found for a normative and diffused identity style .
These results are consistent with those found in previous research on identity
style. Marcia (1967) reported that those with a normative identity style had the
lowest levels of anxiety and the highest levels of authoritarianism , whereas those
with a diffused identity style possessed the lowest self-confidence and were
found to be difficult to deal with socially, compared with the other identities.
Josselson (1996) examined identity in women over a 25-year period and
found significant differences in the behaviour and personality between those with
a normative and diffusion identity style. She found that normatives grew up in
homes that had provided rigid structure, had overly involved authoritarian
parents, and were expected to silence any inner thoughts that deviated from that
of the family. Josselson (1996) noted that normatives think in terms or "right" or
"wrong" rather than contemplating their own decisions and consequently, "feel
secure and certain of themselves" (p. 46). In her words:
The Guardians [normatives] idealized their families and experienced them
as warm havens, places filled with love and appreciation of their
goodness. Their self-worth was high and their anxiety was low. Secure in
knowing what was right and certain of their family's approval of them , they
could press forward on their path , undistracted by temptation or inner
crisis (Josselson , 1996, p. 46-47).
Perhaps normatives have the security and luxury of not having to expend
the mental energy to contemplate decisions before them , as they have the inner
security and knowledge of what is the "right" choice to make, based on their
parent's or authority figure's good perceptions or positive regard for them. This

48
auto-response type system, allows normatives to respond confidently to
immediate tasks and pressures with the knowledge that they have made the right
decision and have the support of authority figures . Thus, those with a normative
identity style have the advantage of lower stress by knowing the appropriate
choices to make , and knowing that they have approval of their parents and
society. This results in the increased self-worth and confidence for these
individuals.
With regard to those with a diffused identity style, previous research has
shown that these individuals grew up in homes with parents who were permissive
and unavailable, with little stability in the environment (Marcia, 1980).
Specifically, as diffused individuals aged , Josselson (1996) found they live only in
the present, in a "lost" state, without any linkage to their past or future . She
described these individuals as having no stability and direction in their lives,
which results in this group having the "most learning and the most adjusting to
do" of all the identities (p . 143). However, Josselson (1996) described diffused
women as the most creative of her sample; unequivocally, these women had
inner dreams and wishes, but "the voices of their inner selves were unintelligible
and hard to translate into the language of plans, beliefs, or goals" (p . 146).
Nevertheless, the constant bombardment of instability combined with little or no
real or perceived social support from their parents' or authority figures , may
explain why diffused individuals exhibit behaviour that is reactive at a crisis level
rather than responsive.
Cialdini (1993) , who studied human behaviour, found that society values
personal consistency over inconsistency in individuals. Those individuals with

49
high internal consistency are respected by society and seen as honest and
rational , whereas those individuals with inconsistency are not highly regarded in
society and are even seen , in some cases, as mentally unstable (Cialdini, 1993).
Perhaps, this may help explain how the lack of commitment and foresight into the
future that diffused individuals possess , combined with little or no approval of
their actions from their parents and society in general , contribute to their low selfworth and high level of stress.
The Psychosocial Development of Men
With regard to distress at a particular period in a man's life, this study
found that younger men experienced the highest levels of overall distress in their
lives compared to middle-aged and older men. This finding is not surprising in
the society in which we live. Pollack (1998) suggested that mixed messages
exist about what it is to be a man in today's society. Specifically, adolescence
has changed dramatically over the course of a couple of generations;
adolescence is no longer a safe place for a boy to discover himself. Rather,
today adolescence is a period of intense identity confusion and peril that Pollack
suggests is due to two underlying psychological factors. First, today's society
places contradictory expectations on young men. That is, society wants boys to
be macho, confident, and assertive, while at the same time sharing their feelings ,
being sensitive, and egalitarian towards women. "In short, we want our boys to
be sensitive New Age guys and still be cool dudes" (Pollack, p. xxiii) . Second ,
boys are unsure that becoming a man in the adult world will be fulfilling . Pollack
suggested that no appealing , attainable male role model might be seen to exist.

50
As an informal follow-up to this study, I asked 20 young adult men between the
ages of 20 and 24, "Do you personally know of an appealing male role model?"
Unequivocally, all but one of the 20 males replied "no." One male taking part in
this interview offered the words: "The role models of my father's era are no
longer acceptable in today's society. Society dictates what men need, when , in
reality, we need something else."
Similarly, Erikson (1959, 1966) found that young adulthood is the
beginning of occupational, ideological , and sexual exploration during which time
a man confronts his identity- who he is today and who he will become in the
future . Those men who do not discover who they are and what occupational role
to pursue are at risk of experiencing great turmoil in their lives (Erikson , 1966).
Others such as Sheehy (1998) suggested that, with the changing priorities of
businesses during the 1990s and the collapse of the traditional work hierarchy,
young men do not have a clear understanding of where they stand as an
employee . On a similar note, Jung (1971) postulated that men in their early
twenties faced the emotional challenge of negotiating their adolescence coupled
with their new and immediate demands of work and family. These theoretical
treatises, together with the present study, strongly suggest that young adulthood
is a period of heightened stress in a man's life. This finding suggests the need
for society to develop an understanding of the challenges all young men face on
their journey to becoming "real" men in the future .
Although the present study found that the experience of stress in men
during middle age was not unique to this life period compared to early and late
adulthood , there is support that suggests middle-aged men re-evaluate their

."

.
·

51
"authenticity." For example, Sheehy (1998) described young men in their
twenties as "generally preoccupied with crafting a false self- a front tailored to
please or pass- that is useful in earning approval, rewards, and recognition from
the external world" (p. 34). Thus, young men are actors in the movie of life with a
non-negotiable script that society expects these men to follow while pursuing
their chosen identity. During middle age, Sheehy describes a dissonance that
develops between "the made to order self and his more authentic self' (p. 34) . In
other words, the tightly developed false self that man has developed through
young adulthood is questioned in middle age. Jung (1971) called middle age the
noon of life in which men begin to focus on individualization of the self. Perhaps
men grow tired of living by the unwritten rules that society has placed on them
and develop the confidence to shed the tiring, false self. Similarly, middle-aged
women also reported experiencing a re-evaluation of their selves rather than a
period of heightened stress in their lives (Josselson, 1996).
With regard to the experiences of older men, those 65 years and older,
little research exists. Perhaps this is due to the difficulty in obtaining participants
for scientific research. In this study, the researcher found it challenging to have
senior men participate in this research. One male senior stated on his refusal,
"I've reached a certain age where I don't have to do things that I don't feel like
anymore." Sheehy (1998) describes those men who are over 65 years of age as
having the worst behind them, surviving a critical period of high risk of heart
attacks, strokes, or illness. Clearly, future research on identity and stress must
attempt to include, an often-overlooked segment of our population , senior men.

52
Limitations of the Current Study and Suggestions for Future Research
It is important to note the possible limitations in the current study. First, an
unusually high number of diffused individuals may have avoided taking part in
this study, as they tend to have some difficulty with making commitments (e.g.,
completing the questionnaires) and in some cases, are uncooperative in social
situations . Conversely, an unusually high number of normative identity styled
men, compared to the other two identity styles, may have participated in this
study due to their highly conforming nature and obedience to authority. In
addition, it is likely that the social desirability level of the participants affected
their self-report questionnaire responses to some extent.
As this study was not longitudinal in design, another potential challenge
was the impact of cohort effects. Older men in this study, who once faced a
world war, a depression, and political instability around the world, no longer face
these challenges in their lives. Therefore, these older men, today, may be kinder
in constructing the experiences of their lives and what constitutes distress to
them. For example, some of the older and middle-aged men may have been part
of the Vietnam War in their late teens to 20's, whereas the young men in this
study were likely far removed from war participation. Alternatively, today's young
men face increased challenges finding meaningful or steady employment.
Presently, educators tell young men that they will have three to five different
careers over their lifetime and a university degree no longer guarantees
employment in today's market, which may reduce the certainty in men's lives.
Therefore, longitudinal research of men would be valuable in better

53
understanding the complex links between identity style and stress for men at
various developmental stages.
Generalization of the study's findings is also limited by the particular
method of data collection used. Specifically, because the study was not a true
random sample of the population, it is possible that a certain portion of the
population was not represented in the study (i.e., Asian-Canadian, IndoCanadian, individuals from a lower socio-economic class) . In addition, as the
Central-Interior of British Columbia generally has a high Caucasian population
compared to that of other large urban Canadian cities, generalization of the
results would have to be made with caution. Overall, the sample obtained in this
study is representative of male Caucasian, middle-class families . Future
research is needed to compare the identity styles and stress levels of young,
middle, and older men from a variety of social classes using a longitudinal
design .
Conclusions
Results of the present study demonstrated that men of different ages and
identity styles experience significant differences in their stress levels. Middleaged and older men experienced less overall stress than do young men.
Regardless of age, those men with a normative identity style experienced less
overall stress than do those with a diffusion identity style. Men with an
information identity style are found to experience stress at a level between that
found for normative and diffusion identity styles.

54
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Psychology, 34, 38-45.
Levinson , D. J. (1978). The seasons of a man's life. New York: Ballantine
Books .
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of the ego identity
status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(5), 551-558.
Marcia , J. E. (1967). Ego identity status : Relationship to in self-esteem ,
'general maladjustment,' and authoritarianism . Journal of Personality, 35, 118133.
Marcia , J. E. (1976) . Identity six years after: A follow-up study. Journal of
Youth and Adolescence , 5, 145-150.
Marcia, J. E. (1980) . Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson, (Ed.),
Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 102-138). New York, NY: Wiley.

57
Markstrom-Adams, C. (1992) . A consideration of intervening factors in
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(Eds.), Adolescent identity formation (pp . 173-192). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T. (1990). Personality in adulthood . New York:
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Meilman , P. W . (1979) . Cross-sectional age changes in ego identity
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Podd, M. H. (1972) . Ego identity status and mortality: The relationship
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Pollack, W . S. (1998). Real boys: Rescuing our sons from the myths of
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58
Tan , A. L. , Kendis , R. J. , Fine, J. T. , & Parae, J. (1977). A short measure
of Erikson ian ego identity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41 (3) , 279-284 .
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Prince George, BC : University of Northern British Columbia Copy and Publishing
Services.

59
Figure 1 - Levinson

Late adulthood

65
60
55
50

Age fifty
transition

Middle adulthood

45
Mid-life transition

28

Early adulthood

22
17

Childhood and
adolescence

Source: Levinson, 1978

-

60
Figure 2- Farrell and Rosenberg

~
'

f<

1

·.·
:··

,,:·1

)
Denial of Stress

Open Confrontation with Stress

Punitive-Disenchanted

Anti-Hero

Pseudo-Developed

Transcendent-Generative

~

:.J

..c
+-'

'§
"'C
Q)

t+=

C/)

:;::::;

ro

C/)
C/)

0

~

:.J
..c
+-'

'§
"'C
Q)

t+=

C/)

:;::::;

ro

en

Source: Farrell & Rosenberg, 1981

61
Figure 3 - Identity Status versus Identity Style

Identity Status

z

0

i=

<(

r::t:
0

..c

.2'

I

Moratorium

Achievement

Diffusion

Foreclosure

Low

High

...1

a..

><
w

LL

0

...1

w
>
w

...1

$:

0

_J

LEVEL OF COMMITMENT

Identity Style
Grotevant & Adams (1984) Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity
Berzonsky (1989, 1992) Identity Style Inventory
White et al. (1998) Identity Style Inventory Sixth Grade

Low

High

LEVEL OF COMMITMENT

62

Appendix A- Information Sheet
[Printed on UNBC letter head paper]
Dear Sir:
We are conducting a very exciting research project involving men over the
age of 19 in the Prince George area. The goal of this project is to learn about the
feelings of normal men in the areas of family life, health, and work. This is one of
the first studies to be done in Prince George that focuses solely on men, and it is
being fully supported by the University of Northern British Columbia Office of
Research . This study is extremely valuable to both men and to psychologists
because little is known about how men feel about their families, health, and work.
The purpose of this letter is to ensure that you understand the purpose of this
exercise, the nature of your involvement, and your rights as a participant. This
information sheet should provide sufficient information for you to determine
whether or not you wish to participate in the study.
Your participation, which is strictly voluntary, would involve completing 5
short questionnaires, at your convenience, in your home, at work, or at a public
venue (e.g., library) and will take about 15 minutes to complete.
The
questionnaires are not a test; we are simply interested in each person's own
feelings . Please be assured that completed questionnaires will be kept in a
locked and secure place at the university. Your name will NOT appear on any
questionnaires. Completed questionnaires will remain in a locked and secure
place at the university after the study is completed.
Although we cannot give you individual feedback about your individual
performance on the questionnaires, if you would like more information about the
study, a summary of the results, or have any questions, please contact Ray
Zukanovic at (250) 960-6062.

Sincerely,

Ray Zukanovic,
M.Sc. candidate

Sherry Beaumont,
Professor of Psychology

YOU MAY KEEP THIS SHEET FOR YOUR OWN RECORDS.

63
Appendix B - Identity Style Inventory Sixth Grade

.
Please circle a number between 1 and 5 that best reflects how much you disagree or agree
w1th the sentence. There are no right or wrong answers .

YOUR FIRST REACTION TO EACH QUESTION SHOULD BE YOUR ANSWER.
1
Strongly
Disagree

2

somewhat
disagree

3
unsure

4

somewhat
agree

5

Strongly
Agree

1.

I know what I believe about religion .

1 2 3 4 5

2.

I've spent a lot of time thinking about what I should do with my life.

2 3 4 5

3.

I'm not sure what I'm doing in life.

2 3 4 5

4.

I act the way I do because of the values I was brought up with .

1 2 3 4 5

5.

I've spent a lot of time reading and/or talking to others about religious ideas.

1 2 3 4 5

6.

When I talk to someone about a problem , I try and see their point of view.

1 2 3 4 5

7.

I know what I want to do with my future .

1 2 3 4 5

8.

I don't worry about values ahead of time ; I decide things as they happen .

1 2 3 4 5

9.

I'm not really sure what I believe about religion.

1 2 3 4 5

10.

I was brought up to know what to work for.

1 2 3 4 5

11 .

I'm not sure which values I really hold .

1 2 3 4 5

12.

I know where the government and country should be going.

1 2 3 4 5

13.

If I don't worry about my problems they usually work themselves out.

1 2 3 4 5

14.

I'm not sure what I want to do in the future.

1 2 3 4 5

15.

I feel like the work I do (or have done in the past) is right for me.

1 2 3 4 5

16.

I've spent a lot of time reading about and/or trying to understand political
issues.

1 2 3 4 5

17.

I'm not thinking about my future now- it's still a long way off.

1 2 3 4 5

18.

I've spent a lot of time talking to people to find a set of beliefs that works
for me.

19.

I've never had any serious doubts about my religious beliefs.

2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

64

1
Strongly
Disagree

2

somewhat
disagree

3
unsure

4
somewhat
agree

5
Strongly
Agree

20.

I'm not sure what job is right for me.

1 2 3 4 5

21 .

I've known since I was young what I wanted to be.

1 2 3 4 5

22.

I have a strong set of beliefs that I use when I make a decision.

2 3 4 5

23.

It's better to have a firm set of beliefs than to be open to different ideas.

2 3 4 5

24.

When I have to make a decision , I wait as long as I can to see what will
happen .

2 3 4 5

25.

When I have a problem, I do a lot of thinking to understand it.

26.

It's best to get advice from experts (preachers, doctors, lawyers, teachers)
when I have a problem.

2 3 4 5

27 .

I don't take life too serious. I just try to enjoy it.

2 3 4 5

28.

It's better to have one set of values than to consider other value options.

2 3 4 5

29.

I try not to think about or deal with problems as long as I can.

2 3 4 5

30.

My problems can be interesting challenges.

2 3 4 5

31 .

I try to avoid problems that make me think.

2 3 4 5

32 .

Once I know how to solve a problem, I like to stick with it.

33 .

When I make decisions, I take a lot of time to think about my choices .

34 .

I like to deal with things the way my parents said I should.

1 2 3 4 5

35.

I like to think through my problems and deal with them on my own .

1 2 3 4 5

36.

When I ignore a potential problem , things usually work out.

37 .

When I have to make a big decision, I like to know as much as I can
about it.

1 2 3 4 5

38 .

When I know a problem will cause me stress, I try to avoid it.

1 2 3 4 5

39.

People need to be committed to a set of values to live a full life.

1 2 3 4 5

40.

It's best to get advice from friends or family when I have a problem .

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

65
Appendix C - Mid-Life Stress Scale

.
~ otherwise noted, circle the number that indicates the extent to which you agree or
d1sagree w1th each statement, according the following scale :

1. Strongly Agree
4. Slightly Disagree
N/A
1.

2.

2 . Agree
5 . Disagree

3 . Slightly Agree
6. Strongly Disagree

=not applicable

Marriage is as rewarding and enjoyable after 15 or 20 years as
it is in the earlier years.

2

3

4

5

6

N/A

Many men I know are undergoing what you would call a change
of life or a middle-age identity crisis.

1

2

3

4

5

6

Almost any job or occupation becomes routine and dull if you
keep at it for many years.

1

2

3

4

5

6

4.

I am still finding new challenges and interest in my work .

1

2

3

4

5

6

N/A

5.

In some ways, I wish my children were young again .

2

3

4

5

6

N/A

6.

When your child grows up, he is almost bound to disappoint you.

2

3

4

5

6

7.

Many people claim that middle age is one of the most difficult
time of life . Has it been (or do you think it will be) that way for you?

2

3

4

5

6

8.

I wish I had the opportunity to start afresh and do things over.
knowing what I do now.

2

3

4

5

6

9.

Many of the things you seek when you are young don't bring true
happiness.

2

3

4

5

6

10.

I find myself thinking about what kind of person I am and what
I really want out of life.

2

3

4

5

6

11 .

A person must remain loyal to his commitments if they do not
turn out the way he expected.

2

3

4

5

6

12

How would you characterize your relationship to your wife now?

2

3

4

5

N/A

3.

(1 . Very Close; 2. Close; 3. Neither Close Nor Distant; 4. Distant; 5. Far Apart)

1

1

66

Physical Health Questions
1. Do you have any particular physical or health trouble?
If yes, what is i t ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2. Have you ever had the following diseases?
Asthma
If yes, when was t h a t ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hay fever
If yes, when was t h a t ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Skin trouble
If yes, when was t h a t ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Stomach ulcer
If yes, when was t h a t ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. Do you feel you are bothered by all sorts of pains and ailments in different parts of your body?
4. Have you ever felt you were going to have a nervous breakdown?

67

Appendix D - Global Subscale -Adult Self-Concept Questionnaire

These are statements that allow people to describe themselves. There are no right or wrong
answers since people differ markedly. Please read the entire sentence across. First decide which
one of the two parts of each statement best describes you; then go to that side of the statement
and check whether that is just sort of true for you or really true for you . You will just check ONE of
the four boxes for each statement.
Really
True
for Me

Sort of
True
for Me

Sort of
True
for Me

Really
True
for Me

Example :
A.

D

[8]

Some adults can really laugh
at themselves

BUT

Other adults have a hard time
laughing at themselves .

0

D

1.

D

0

Some adults like the way
they are leading their lives

BUT

Other adults don't like the
way they are leading their lives.

0

D

2.

D

0

Some adults are very happy
being the way they are

BUT

Other adults would like
to be different.

D

D

3.

D

0

Some adults sometimes
question whether they are a
worthwhile person

BUT

Other adults feel that they
are a worthwhile person .

D

D

4.

D

0

Some adults are disappointed
with themselves

BUT

Other adults are quite pleased
with themselves.

D

D

5.

D

0

Some adults are dissatisfied
with themselves

BUT

Other adults are satisfied
with themselves .

D

D

6.

D

0

Some adults like the kind
of person they are

BUT

Other adults would like to
be someone else .

D

D

68
Appendix E- Life Distress Inventory
This scale is intended to estimate your current level of distress with each of the eighteen
areas of your life listed below. Please circle one of the numbers ( 1-7) beside each area .
Please answer ALL questions even if they don't immediately seem applicable.
(E.g., if NOT married, how distressed does that make you feel?)
'0

'0

"'"'~

--"'
~

'OQ)

0

Q)

Q)

~
Q)

"'"'~

{jj

'0

>-

Qj

"'"'~

'0

{jj

Q)

"'"'~

iii

..2::-'0
~

~

'0

iii

.t:

:!:
Q)
E

"'"'~

{jj

'0
Q)

~

"'"'

~

E ~

E

.s:: >

Q)

>

~

0

'0

w

~

1-=-

Q)Q)
'O,l:,
0<1>

(/')

~

z

Marriage

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Sex

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Relationship to children

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Relationship to other relatives

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Household management

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Financial situation

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Employment

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Education

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Recreation/leisure

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Social life

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Religion

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Management of time

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Physical health

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Personal independence

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Role of alcohol in home

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Satisfaction with life

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Expectations for future

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Q)Q)

~

;(

'0

~

iii
0

69

Appendix F - Demographic Questionnaire
Demographic Questionnaire
The following demographic information is collected to help describe the sample.
1.

Date of birth: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

2.

Mother tongue : - - - - - - - - - - -

3.

Ethnicity:

4.

Marital Status:

5.

Check your highest education level completed :
__ elementary school {please specify grade completed) __
__ secondary school (please specify grade completed) __
__ high school diploma
trade/technical school (please specify: _ _ _ _ _ _ __
__ some college
__ college diploma (please specify: - - - - - - - - - - - some university
__ university degree
__ Other: (please specify: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

6.

Your occupation or previous occupation: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
_

Full-time

FIT

__ Aboriginal
Asian
Caucasian

_

African-Canadian
Black
Other: _ _ _ _ _ _ __

married I common law
divorced

Part-time

P/T

_retired

_single
_separated

_currently unemployed

7.

Number of children you have: _ _

8.

Ages of your children : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

9.

In general, how would you rate your health?
Excellent
__ Very good
Good
Fair
Poor

10.

Compared to others your age, how would you rate your health?
Excellent
__ Very good
Good

Fair
Poor

widowed