WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION :
TEACHING STUDENTS TO UTILIZE PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
by
Jennifer Mary Yun
B.A., Simon Fraser University, 1996

PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION

m
CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
© Jennifer Mary Yun, 2000
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
April 2000

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All rights reserved. This work may not be
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or other means, without the permission of the author.

Prince George, BC

11

Abstract
In the last couple of years on-line courses have burgeoned on the world wide web. However,
despite technological advances, there are a dearth of programs which aid students in developing
problem solving skills. Currently, there are only five programs on the Test of English as a Foreign
Language (TOEFL) exam that are available on the world wide web. All of five are based on a
question, answer and evaluation format. The purpose of this M.Ed project is to develop a program
that teaches students to utilize their cognitive and high order learning skills by providing
multifaceted exercises that work on developing these strategies.

lll

Table Of Contents

Abstract. ...... .................. .... ........................ ... ......................... ....... .. .......................... .... .............. ii
Table Of Contents ........... .. .. ...... .. ........... .. ..... .... .... ... ..................... ... ...... ................... ...... ... ....... iii
Acknowledgements ....... ........ .. .... ... .... ......... ........ .. .. ......... ... ..... ......... .. .. ..... .... .... .. ........... ......... .. iv
Chapter One: Introduction and Theoretical Overview ... .... .... ... .... .... .. ........ ..... ... ... .. .. .... ....... ....... 1
Rationale .... .... .... ....... ..... ....... ... ...... .......... ... .. .. ... .. .. .. ......... ............ ... ....... ... ... ........ .. .... ..... ...... 2
Chapter Two:Background to the Project.. .... ........ ................ ....... .... ..... .................. .. ...... ........... .. 3
Computer Instruction in the Past.. ... .... ..... ......... .. ...... .......... .......... .... ... ........ ... .. ... ...... .. .... .. ..... 4
Cognitive Strategies .. ...... ...... ....... ........... .. .... ... ... ... .. ... ...... ............. ... ... ........ ................. ........ .. 5
Principles of the Design of the TOEFL XL ....... .................. .. .... ........... .......... .... ......... ........ ... .. 6
Incorporating Objectives into the Learning Environment .............. .. .. .. .... ........ ... ...................... 7
Evaluations ............................. ............... .... ............... ... ...... .... ........ ....... .. .. .... ... ......... ............ .. 9
Chapter Three: The Development Process ............. ............. ........ .. ....................... .. .... .... ........ ... 11
Environmental Analysis .......... ...... ... .... .. ........ .. .. .... .... .......... .... .............................................. 14
Chapter Four: Description ofthe Prototype ..... .. ........... ... .......... ..................... .......................... 17
The Structure and Content of the TOEFL Exam .......... .................... ..... ... ..... .... .................... 17
The Structure and Content of the TOEFL XL ... .... ..... .. .. ..... .. ... ......... ........ ............................ 19
Conclusion.. .... .. ... .... ... .... .. .. .......... .... ...... ... ..... .. ....... ......... ... .. ................ ........ .. .... ............ .... ..... 20
References .. ....... ..................... ............... ....... ............. ... ..... .. ..... .... ..... ........ ..... ...... .. ......... ......... 21
Appendix A ............. ....... .... ........... .. ...... ............... ........ .. .... .... ...... ............... ........ ............ ......... 23
Appendix B .... .. .. ....... ............ ....... ..... ..... ...... .... ..... .. .. .... ....... ... ..... .......... ....... ...... ... ...... .. .... ... .. . 24

•

lV

Acknowledgements

My warmest thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Judith Lapadat, whose patience and encouragement has
guided me to the completion of this project. Thanks also to Dr.Han Li, whose regular e-mails
helped me to remain relaxed and calm while completing my project, Dr. Wyn Roberts, whose
continuous belief in me, after all these years, has led me to pursue and complete a Masters Degree,
Sandra Hedley, for showing me the joys of being an educator, Michael McMahon, for helping me
to develop the questions on the TOEFL XL, Sakae, for helping me understand Javascripting, my
dearest colleagues at Pacific North West Language Studies for their insights and inspiration and
Jason Lee for his constructive criticism and constant support . Most of all, my deepest gratitude
goes to my mother and father, for their sacrifices in making all of this possible.

Chapter One: Introduction and Theoretical Overview
The focus ofthis project is on constructing a web-based teaching tool for the Test of
English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) based on cognitive learning theory. The teaching tool is
being constructed for those individuals who speak English as a second language, and would like to
attend university in Canada or the United States. At most universities, success on the TOEFL test
is an entrance requirement for all individuals whose native language is not English. The score that
an individual receives on the TOEFL exam allows the admission board to determine whether the
student has adequate English skills for enrollment into his/her chosen university or program. The
test consists of three timed sections: Listening Comprehension, Structure and Written Expression,
and Reading Comprehension. In addition to these three sections there is another test called the
Test of Written English (TWE). The TWE score is combined with the Structure and Written
Expression component.
In the past, the study tools available to English as a Second Language (ESL) students has
comprised of textbook study guides and audiocassette materials. It has not been until recently that
CD-ROM study tools and programs on the Internet have been available to students. Furthermore,
the material that exists in the market today largely consists of study tools which require the student
to memorize, rather than understand the how's and why's of the task in question. As an Academic
Coordinator for an ESL institution, it is my job to ensure that students are well prepared with a
sound understanding of the English language before they enter an institution of higher learning.

2

Rationale
Studies have shown that the use of hypertext media compared to traditional face-to-face
(or correspondence independent study) instruction has shown positive and promising results
( Liao, 1998; Owston , 1997). The web trainer called the "TOEFL XL" that I have designed and
partially developed for this M.Ed. Project will give students an alternative to traditional English
language instruction and give them an active role in their own learning by helping students them to
utilize problem solving strategies. Often when students are studying for standardized tests they
tend to memorize the answers to test questions rather than understanding how or why a particular
answer is appropriate. The benefits of an interactive web design allow students to both take
responsibility and control of their learning.
There will be two parts to this project. In the first part ofthe project, I discuss the theory
and the process involved in constructing the web-site. The implementation and design of the website have their theoretical roots in cognitive strategies and higher order learning. The theoretical
component of this project is crucial to understanding the design and the analysis of the
environment that I have created. The second portion of this project is a prototype of the web based
teaching tool. The prototype may be viewed at the following Internet address:
http://www.intergate.ca/personaVesl. (The password is 'jennifer")The objective of this M.Ed.
project was to design an on-line independent study course that will help ESL students develop
English language proficiency in preparation for taking the TOEFL course.

.·

3
Chapter Two:Background to the Project
The effects of hypermedia tend to be two-sided. In a study conducted by Liao ( 1998), he
Performed a meta-analysis on existing research comparing the effects of hypermedia and traditional
instruction on students' achievement. His study showed that hypertext instruction showed positive
and promising results compared to traditional instruction. Moore ( 1990) also believes that
hypermedia has greatly enhanced learning by providing interactive opportunities for learners to
structure their own learning approach and increase their control over the subject matter. However,
there are those such as Clark (1983), who remarks that there is "consistent evidence found ... that
there are no learning benefits to be gained from employing any specific medium to deliver
instruction" (Clark, p. 445). Havice (1995) purports that students receiving traditional instruction
actually made more gains than those who received media instruction. Despite these claims, there
are many proponents who believe that there are benefits to web learning when presented in an
environment, which allows the learner to control his/her own learning. Owston (1997) proposes to
explore the question of whether the web promotes improved learning. He comes to the conclusion
that if the web is used for a tool it will not help the students to develop any unique skills. The key
to learning is how the web is utilized in a teaching learning situation. In support ofOwston's
findings Clark (1994) remarks that "any improvement in learning that may accrue will come from
the instructional design, not the medium that delivers the instruction (Owston 1997, p. 5).

4

Computer Instruction in the Past
The concept of computer-mediated instruction is not a novel idea. In fact, computer
mediated instruction has been used widely in America for about two decades(Liao 1998 p. 341 ).
In the early days, computer instruction was severely limited by the technology that was available to
both the public and the programmers. The majority of these programs relied on the standard "skill
and drill" format of: presenting information, having the student respond, providing an evaluative
response, and then directing the student to proceed to the next step.
In recent years this standard procedure has diverged somewhat with learners now being
able to choose which topic they would like to explore. There has also been some development in
artificial languages such as Prolog, which deals in relationships and can respond to queries,
(Bruce, 1989, p. 245). Despite these advances, the boundaries of the program are still set up by the
design set by the programmer.
Today, there are many programs on the market that use computer training for the TOEFL
via CD-ROM or the Internet. Although these programs incorporate vicarious interaction by
welcoming the person by name or giving the illusion that there is someone who is corresponding
with the individual, many of these programs still fail to involve the learner in their own learning
process. The inability for the program to help the student understand the principles behind why or
how a question was marked right limits the utility of many computerized learning tools. In order to
increase the utility of computerized programs it is essential that a designer understands how the
construction ofknowledge and roots of higher order learning affect the learning process

5
(Young, 1997).
Cognitive Strategies
There are three components involved in higher order learning that interact with each other.
The first component called cognitive strategies, can "guide learners' subsequent thinking
behavior"( Gagne, 1985, p. 17). Cognitive Strategies can be described as intellectual skills that are
used by the learner when processing information. Strategies such as highlighting, underlining,
posing adjunct questions, and outlining support the information-processing stage of attention and
selective perception. Cognitive strategies such as paraphrasing, chunking, and imagery support the
information-processing stage of rehearsal. Encoding can be supported by such cognitive strategies
as concept mapping, and analogies. Retrieval can be supported by such things as mnemonics and
imagery.
Metacognitive strategies are the second component in higher order learning. These involve
activities such as: planning a problem-solving approach, using a solution strategy, monitoring
understanding, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress towards one's goals. The
effectiveness and efficiency of solution strategies and modifYing one's approach to problem solving
are directly related to metacognitive strategies (Young, 1997, p. 38). A learner who utilizes
metacognitive strategies may control their learning by self-evaluating themselves through their
learning process.
Another component ofhigher order learning is called non-strategic or domain-specific
knowledge. This type of knowledge is also referred to as prerequisite knowledge. When a learner

6

is presented with a problem, their domain-specific knowledge helps them to determine the most
efficient use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies. This forms a collection of previously
acquired ideas and relationships organized in categories that are understood by the individual and
are known as schemas (Young 1997). [t is paramount for a designer to understand cognitive and
higher order learning in order to create multifaceted exercises and situations that work on
cognitive, metacognitive and domain specific knowledge.
Principles of the Design of the TOEFL XL
Effective strategy interventions for designing a learning environment to facilitate higher order
thinking skills are elucidated in the following guidelines constructed by Hattie, Biggs, and
Purdies ( 1996). The first guideline recommends that a designer should utilize a multitude of
cognitive and metacognitive strategies. In the TOEFL XL this is achieved through outlining,
questioning, paraphrasing, and imagery. Braten et al. suggest that designers "use embedded
strategy training interventions which are specific to the context, linked to the curriculum content,
and require learners to draw upon their own knowledge" ( Young, 1997, p. 40). This is achieved in
the TOEFL XL through prompting, step-by-step directions on thought processes, and encouraging
the individual to build on their domain-specific and to develop knowledge and to develop
additional schemas. Their third guideline advises the designer to provide opportunities for the
student to practice and thus retain their new knowledge. This is achieved in the TOEFL XL
through practice exercises and quizzes presented throughout the TOEFL XL. The fourth guideline
proposes that the intervention that the designer creates must evoke, support, reinforce, and

7

maintain the specific target. The TOEFL XL evokes situations, which require the learner to draw
upon their skills by presenting the learner with challenging exercises. The TOEFL XL supports
higher order learning by aiding in the learning process through temporary instructional support.
After the learner is presented with new material he/she is led through step-by-step instructions on
how to resolve a particular problem. This gives the student an opportunity to build on their existing
knowledge to create new schemas. The absence of temporary instructional support could prevent a
student from knowing how to solve a particular problem. There are two ways in which the TOEFL
XL maintains and reinforces strategy use. The program gives consistent feedback to the end user
and encourages the student to take ideas and concepts outside ofthe classroom.
Incorporating the above skills as a target of instruction is viewed by some to be preferable
and more efficient than traditional learning environments (Hattie et al. 1996, Honebein, Dufi:Y and
Fisherman 1993) because it emphasizes problem learning tasks and it provides for a more learner
controlled environment. The outcome is that the learning process is not as stringently dominated by
an instructor or a program.
Incorporating Objectives into the Learning Environment
The content of the program must provide opportunities for cognitive knowledge and
acquisition

n

l~

to take place. Tennyson (1990) suggests that 70% of instruction be

devoted to learning and thinking situations rather than the 70% being directed to content
instructional

r

~. Designers, therefore, should focus on the planning of a learning

environment that facilitates students' acquisition of knowledge and improves their cognitive

8

abilities to employ and extend their knowledge. Without the necessary contextual knowledge it is
difficult for the student to elaborate and utilize their content knowledge. As part ofthe knowledge
acquisition goal, learning time must focus on contextual knowledge, and away from the usual
practice of heavily emphasizing on the quantity of information. Therefore, in the TOEFL XL, the
focus is not on the information per se, but rather on presenting the material in a meaningful context
that provides opportunities to promote higher order thinking skills.
The design of the TOEFL XL emphasizes learning and thinking processes in several ways.
First, it presents what Tennyson ( 1990) calls the Best Example. The Best Example helps the
student to establish a clear concept and understanding of the point in question.
Second, it provides the learner an opportunity to extend their existing knowledge and
utilize that to

li~h new knowledge. This is accomplished in the TOEFL XL through presenting

the learner with information, helping the learner to link the new information with existing
knowledge, then giving the learner an opportunity to practice this new knowledge and finally
helping the learner to use the new knowledge in various ways. The alternative instructional
situations that are provided in the TOEFL XL allow for a variety of ways for the student to learn
the new information. Tennyson ( 1990) states that "personalizing the context to student
background knowledge improves understanding of the information by connecting, within working
memory, knowledge that easily retrieved. Thus, the new knowledge becomes directly linked or
associated with existing schemas"(p. 13). By providing multiple paths through the material, and by
encouraging students to incorporate examples from their daily lives, the TOEFL XL will deepen

9

and elaborate students' knowledge of English grammar and usage.
Evaluations
It is necessary for us to move beyond the behaviouristic paradigm whereby evaluation

focuses only on the students' performance. Rather, evaluation should serve the purpose of helping
to diagnose what the learner is doing and why. The student needs to be diagnosed during
instruction and the achievement of that student must be measured in meaningful and complex
situations. When a student receives feedback such as "That is correct" or "That is incorrect," it
circumscribes their abilities to utilize their cognitive, metacognitive and domain-specific strategies.
In the TOEFL XL, the feedback is constant and pertains to the student's direct performance and
not just his/her ability. For example when a student ' s answer is correct, the TOEFL XL feedback
tells the student why it is correct. If the student does not answer correctly, the feedback helps
him/her draw on their domain-specific knowledge to solve the problem for himselfl'herselfby
providing a prompt or explanation that reminds the student of the key concepts in the lesson. If the
student continues to respond incorrectly to the practice questions, an option appears on the screen
allowing the student to refer back to the BEST EXAMPLE and practice the point more
thoroughly. Therefore evaluation becomes more than just checking to see whether objectives have
been met. Instead it is used formatively and thus becomes part of the learning process at the same
time. Similarly, the approach of taking the instruction out of the lab and into the real world gives
students an opportunity to analyze and control their own learning process through self-evaluation.
This is accomplished through a section called "Take it out of the classroom." These sections give

10

the Ieamer exercises to practice outside ofthe classroom. These metacognitive strategies helps
students to evaluate the processes involved in achieving their goals.

-

11

Chapter Three: The Development Process
The Development of the TOEFL XL was an arduous task. Since only one component of
this prototype is interactive it was hard to envision the progression of the end user because I would
not be able to determine how he/she would work through the program. Therefore, mapping out the
navigational structure ofthe site was difficult to do. However, there are tools that can be used to
help with website planning. To create the web site, I used a program called Macro media
Dreamweaver. One ofthe advantages of using this program is that it has a site map that allowed
me to see where my pages were in relation to one another. The site map was instrumental in
helping me to create a skeleton frame. The frame consisted of the pretest, evaluation, weak areas,
practice, post-test and the TWE sections.

Figure I. Skeleton Frame

TOEFL
XL

+

I Pretest I

+

Evaluation

+

I

+

G c:J
as

Figure I. Replica of the site map in the Dreamweaver program.

1

I Po,t-Te" I

0

1

12

Initially, l had designed the listening, structure and writing, and reading sections to be on
one page. l soon realized that this would be very overwhelming for the end user because it resulted
in a cognitive overhead. Conklin ( 1987) defines cognitive overhead as " the additional mental
overhead required to create, name and keep track of links"( Ebersole,l997, p. 5). Turing (1995)

has argued that there are relationships between cognition and hypermedia. One of these
relationships is the experience ofbeing guided through electronic documents. He states that by:
facilitating the construction of semantic relations between information units, and
freeing processing capacities that otherwise would have been bound by orientation,
navigation, and user-interface adjustment, interactive multimedia authors can increase
the effectiveness of their product. (p.61)
In this prototype the evaluation section is not interactive due to the similarity to the
pretest. The weak areas page was particularly difficult because I needed to imagine that the student
had already completed the pretest and evaluation in order to demonstrate the weak areas of this
hypothetical student. The weak areas section involved a lot ofjavascripting which is one of my
weak areas in terms of programming. Javascripting involves an understanding of an object-oriented
language. Many of the scripts that I borrowed from other designers were slightly flawed and
created problems that I could not fix. For the corrections in the scripting I enlisted the help of
several programmers. The bugs in the script caused a delay in the development of the web site. At
this point, l have left the post-test page incomplete. It is similar to the pre-test and will be
developed in the future. The TWE page is similar to what the finished product will look like. The
student sends his/her essay directly to me via e-mail. The next page I created was the instruction

13
page. The creation of this page required the presentation of icons that would create the appropriate
imagery for the students to familiarize themselves with. For this I chose an icon of a boy at a
computer, animated paws, and an icon of a mouse. Whenever the student sees the boy at the
computer it means that he/she must type out an answer, the animated paws represent taking a point
out of the classroom, and the icon of the mouse tells the user that they can press on a link to get a
definition. The use of visual imagery was used to reduce the load on the cognitive process and
minimize the user ability for comprehension and learning. Every effort was made in the design to
limit distractions and thereby increasing comprehension.
Another aspect that I had to consider while designing the TOEFL XL was the use of
sounds, pictures and animation. Salomon (1979) argued that there are two ways in which the
differences in media are apparent. First, they differ " with respect to the amount of mental
translation from external symbol system to internal mode that they require." Secondly, they differ
"with respect to the kinds of mental skills that they invoked in the process ofknowledge
extraction" ( Ebersole, 1997, p. 6). Saloman believed that the mental resources available for
recoding would minimize the user's ability to comprehend areas of the web page. In order to
increase coherence and comprehension, I used a number of metaphors that are consistent
throughout the web page. For example, the animated GIF of the paws moving symbolizes moving
away or taking the point outside of the classroom. This icon was selected to make reference to
authentic tasks. Another strategy I used to reduce cognitive overhead and to increase coherence
was the provision of cues to help the student navigate through cyberspace. For example, I used the

14

ubiquitous arrow keys that are seen throughout many web sites.
The last page, the cover page, was created using Adobe Photoshop and embedded sounds.
The final page that was created was the congratulation page, which was intended to keep the
student asking himself7herself questions even though he/she had finished the exam. Although this
document and the accompanying website constitute the full M.Ed. project the project as a whole is
only partially completed. I plan to complete it in the near future with the help of computer
programmers. Presently, the TOEFL XL will remain as a prototype due to the lack of funding to
fully produce it. Before I release the finished product for public use, I plan to field test it
thoroughly with the existing TOEFL classes at my place of employment.
Environmental Analysis
While designing my web site I realized that there are many designers who follow
procedures and models for instructional design and yet fail in the implementation of their product.
According to Tessmer and Harris ( 1990) materials can fail because there was little or no focus on
doing thing right in the development process. In order to do things right, it was necessary for me
to see the development and implementation of the product as the end goal rather than just
focussing on the creation of the content material. Tessmer and Harris (1990) have called this
environmental analysis. Environmental analysis "is the analysis of the context of instructional
systems, ofthe physical and instructional characteristics of product use" (p. 16). The purpose of
this analysis is two-fold. The first is to describe where instruction occurs, who uses it, and how it
is used. The second purpose of environmental analysis is to identify the way in which data effects

15
the product to be designed.
There are two aspects to consider in environmental analysis. The first, is the instructional
environment, which encompasses both the learner' s and the instructor's roles. In order for me to
design my product I needed to consider the role of the learners as they used the product.
According Harris and Bell ( 1986) there are a several categories that describe a learner. These are:
receiver (receives, sorts, and organizes stimuli), detective (the student discovers knowledge by
searching, analyzing, and communicating) and generator (the student generates new ideas,
communications, and ways of viewing events) (Tessmer and Harris, 1990, p. 18). I needed to keep
these categories in mind as I selected my use of imagery and presentation of the web site.

In

addition to this I needed to consider the role of the instructor. Although the TOEFL XL was
originally designed to be used for individualized self-study, I realized that many teachers may also
use it as part of their TOEFL course. For these reasons, I needed to consider how the instructor
would implement my product in their course. Harris and Bell ( 1996) state that there are four
categories to describe the instructor's role. The instructor could be any one ofthe following:
composer (the instructor develops a range oflearning experiences), conductor (enabling a group of
student to learn how to learn, organizing and supporting students during learning), performer
(providing information and examples with little explicit student activity, or critic (reviewing and
commenting on students' performances, assignment written work). These roles are very important
because the teacher' s role might not match the individualized design of this program.
The second component of environmental analysis of paramount importance is support. As a

16

designer, I needed to consider the production and the delivery of the program. (Currently, due to
funds required to commercialize this product, I was only able to make a prototype.) I have already
established a business plan for the production of the materials and the distribution of the product. "
One of the project planning failure is that the dissemination capability of the support system cannot
satisfy the production and delivery needs of the design project" (Tessmer and Harris, 1990, p. 19).
Failure of the support system or the instructional system can cause a failure of the program as a
whole. As my site progressed I realized how detrimental it would be to my end product if! did not
consider these issues in my development of the TOEFL XL.

17

Chapter Four: Description of the Prototype
I was responsible for the instructional design and the development of the on-line prototype.
The content (test questions) and instructional activities were written by a TOEFL teacher and
myself The program was designed to give the instructor the flexibility ability to change the
database. One ofthe limitations of CD programs and on-line programs is that the same questions
can reappear. If the questions are changed frequently on a regular basis then the students will not
have an opportunity to merely memorize the answers.
The Structure and Content of the TOEFL Exam
The TOEFL exam is divided into four sections that assess potential students' English
Language proficiency in the domains of listening, structural knowledge, reading, and writing

(See

Appendix A) . The first section is the listening component presented as sound files in wav, format.
The listening component is reflective of conversations and academic lectures that are similar to
those that the student may hear in institutions ofhigher learning. There are two parts in the listening
section. Section A comprises of short conversations between two people. In the conversations, the
student hears one or two different speakers talking. Following each conversation, the student is
asked to answer questions that are specific to the dialogue. In Section B of the listening component,
the student hears several longer conversations or talks. The talks may include several people or just
one. Each conversation or talk is followed by several questions.
The structure component measures the ability to recognize grammar and appropriate
vocabulary of standard written English. There are two sections. The first section comprises of

18

incomplete sentences. The student selects one word or phrase that best completes the sentence.
The second section comprises four underlined words or phrases. The student must fill in the oval of
the word or phrase that would make the sentence correct.
The reading component ofthe TOEFL exam measures the student's ability to read and
comprehend passages that may be similar to those found in academic subjects at the University or
College level. The student reads the passage and answers the questions that follow. There are
several types of questions that the student is asked on the exam. The most common questions that
are asked are about the main idea or an inference question. The exam also asks questions about
vocabulary, implied or unimplied structural clauses and questions that ask for specific details about
the paragraph.
The final section is the writing section. This section tests the students' ability to generate
and organize ideas in response to a given topic. The student has approximately 30 minutes to write
his/her essay on that topic. The student can either write the exam on paper or he/she can type it on
the computer. The total score of the TOEFL exam is based on all four components: listening,
structure, writing and reading. On the TOEFL exam administered by Educational Testing Services
(ETS) the student is given a combined score for the structure and writing sections. The score on the
TOEFL exam ranges from 217-677 on the paper-based exam and 0-300 on the computer based
exam (Refer to the current TOEFL bulletin for score conversions). Universities and colleges
typically set the cut-off level (the score above which an applicant is deemed admissible) in the 540590 range.

19

The Structure and Content ofthe TOEFL XL
The student begins by taking a TOEFL exam (See Appendix B) and is given a pre-test
score (the TWE is omitted in the pre-test). The purpose of the pre-test score is to establish a
baseline for the student to compare his/her progress after he/she completes the TOEFL XL posttest. After the pre-test is completed, the student proceeds to an evaluation section. The evaluation
section is comprised of a shorter version of the pre-test and is used to examine the student's weak
areas based on the number of incorrect answers the student provides. The student has a choice as to
where he/she plans to begin his/her study program. After the student chooses a topic to work on
he/she is presented with a quick review and explanation. Next, the program asks the student about
the specific grammar question that he/she learned about. Then, the student proceeds to questions
similar to those on the TOEFL test. If the student fails to achieve 80% or more he/she is taken
back to the review section and must practice the point again. If the student fails for the third time
the area of weakness is logged and the student must come back to it before she writes the posttest
for this section. (If the student continues to exhibit weak areas these areas will be noted for the
student to work on before he/she takes the actual TOEFL exam.) If the student passes, he/she may
proceed to the next area of weakness. Both the reading section and the listening section will follow
the same procedure.

20
Conclusion

The central tenet ofthe TOEFL XL is to help students acknowledge and use their higher order
learning and cognitive skills. Presently, there are a dearth of programs that allow learners to take
control and responsibility for their own learning. In my design of the TOEFL XL, students are able
to take control and responsibility by not only understanding problems but also having the
opportunity to learn outside of the classroom. The TOEFL XL helps students to seek intrinsic
rewards by helping students to understand the problems presented to them and in the process
strengthening their skills. Although it is my goal to commercialize a product such as the TOEFL
XL, the limitations of bringing this project to completion is that it requires a budget of
approximately $100,000 dollars that will be needed for marketing and technical support costs. It
is my hope that one day, in this mired web oftechnology, we will see programs such as the
"TOEFL XL" that will supplant the standard question, answer, and evaluation approach.

21

References
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Appendix A

The Structure of the

TOEFL EXAM

Listening
Component
(30-50 questions)
Section A-Short Talks
(Short Dialogue)
Section B-Longer
conversations/lectures

Structure Component
(20-25 questions)

Reading Component
(44-60 questions)

Test of Written English
(I question)

Section A-Incomplete
Sentences
Section B-Four phrases
are underlined-one is
incorrect

Student reads academic
passages-answers several
questions following the
passage

The student is given a
topic. Must demonstrate
ability to write in English

Appendix B-One Possible Path a Student May Take

The Structure of the

TOEFL XL

Pre-test
Evaluation

questions)
academic passages
several questions following the

•

Listening Component ( 15 questions)

•

Structure Component ( 15 questions)

•

Reading Component (20 questions)

WEAK AREAS ARE INDICA TED

What area would
you like to work on
first?
0

./
0

Listening
Comprehension
Structure
Reading
Comprehension

Areas of Weakness
Listening Comprehension
•
Long Talks/Lectures
Structure
•
Objects of
Prepositions
•
Articles
•
Appositives
Reading Comprehension
•
Pronoun referents

Review of Objects
Of Prepositions

Structure Section
Structure
../ Objects of
Prepositions
o Articles
0
Appositives

•
•

Definition
Best Example

Practice Preposition
Recognition
Exercise-Find the
prepositins

D
TOEFL QuestionsUsing Objects of
Prepositions
I 0 Questions

Fail

Pass
80% or more

Less than 80%

Fail-2nd time
Return to this section
Before taking the post
test for this section

Which section would you
like to work on ?

o

../

Articles
Appositives

Which section would you
like to work on ?
D

../

Articles
Appositives

D

POST-TEST for the
Structure Section

All sections will be follow
the same format as the
Structure Section of the
study guide. There will
be a post-test for each
section . All second
attempts at weaker skills
must be practiced before
taking the post test for
each section

Which section would you
like ?
D

../

Listening
Comprehension
Reading
Comprehension

POST TEST FOR
THE TOEFL XL

D

After the student has
completed the Structure
Component he/she will
then take the post-test for
this section .

POST TEST SCORE
Listening-22
Structure/W riting-3-23
Reading 22
Total Score
Computer Based Score
157-223
Paper Based Score
480-563

What do you want to do
next?

o

Take the TOEFL XL
one more time

./

Take th e Test of
Written English

Test of Written Eng li sh
You have 30 minutes to
write on the following
topic :
Some students prefer to
study a lone. Other prefer
to study with a group of
students. Which do you
prefer? Use specific
reasons and exampl es to
support your answer.

Congratulations!
Make sure you contact
ETS and schedule an
appropriate testing time!