TOWARDS FIRST NATIONS ENERGY SELF-SUFFICIENCY: ANALYZING THE RENEWABLE ENERGY PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN T'SOU-KE NATION AND SKIDEGATE BAND by Sarah Ozog B.A., University of Victoria, 2008 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN FIRST NATIONS STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA April 2012 © Sarah Ozog, 2012 1+1 Library and Archives Canada Bibliotheque et Archives Canada Published Heritage Branch Direction du Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-87550-6 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-87550-6 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ exclusive license allowing Library and Archives Canada to reproduce, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, communicate to the public by telecommunication or on the Internet, loan, distrbute and sell theses worldwide, for commercial or non­ commercial purposes, in microform, paper, electronic and/or any other formats. L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou autres formats. The author retains copyright ownership and moral rights in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's permission. L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation. In compliance with the Canadian Privacy Act some supporting forms may have been removed from this thesis. Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la protection de la vie privee, quelques formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included in the document page count, their removal does not represent any loss of content from the thesis. Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. Canada ABSTRACT First Nations communities, especially in remote areas, face economic, social, and environmental challenges that threaten their future sustainability. One avenue to enhance sustainability is to achieve energy self-sufficiency. The T'Sou-ke Nation on Vancouver Island, British Columbia is on the road to achieving this. In 2009, they successfully completed a Solar Community Project, which brought numerous benefits to the community and attracted the attention of other First Nations, including the remote First Nation of Skidegate in Haida Gwaii, British Columbia. Thereafter, Skidegate developed a unique partnership with T'Sou-ke Nation in 2010 in which T'Sou-ke became a "solar mentor" to Skidegate. My research evaluated whether this partnership was successful. I assessed the technical (applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to meet Skidegate's energy needs) and social (strength of the relationship) elements of success. Overall, the partnership was deemed highly successful by all parties. I also identified determinants of success that may be useful in creating other First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships for renewable energy development. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF ACRONYMS viii DEDICATION ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Overview 1.2 Origins of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Renewable Energy Partnership 1.3 Research Statement and Questions 1.4 Methodological approaches 1.5 Major Findings 1.5.1 Research Question 1 1.5.2 Research Question 2 1.5.4 Research Question 3 1.6 Value of Research 1.7 Introduction to Chapters 1 3 9 10 12 12 13 14 16 17 CHAPTER 2: A LITERATURE REVIEW OF FIRST NATIONS RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS AND PARTNERSHIPS 18 2.1 Introduction 2.2 First Nations Renewable Energy Development 2.2.1 First Nations Renewable Energy Projects 2.2.2 Supporters of First Nations Renewable Energy Projects 2.3 First Nations-to-First Nations Partnerships 2.4 Conclusion CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 18 18 19 25 29 33 34 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methodological Framework 3.2.1 Indigenous research paradigm 3.2.2 Participatory action research 3.2.3 Intrinsic case study 3.3 Ethical Considerations 3.3 Data Collection 3.3.1 Phase One: Defining the project and defining success 3.3.2 Phase Two: Implementing the project and determining interim success 3.3.3 Phase Three: End of project and determining final success 3.4 Methodological Approach: Step-by-Step Analysis 3.4.1 Step 1: Characterize the organization and execution of the partnership iii 34 34 35 36 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 3.4.2 Step 2: Summarize and characterize the technical elements of the partnership... 42 3.4.4 Step 3: Analyze partnership success and determine lessons learned 43 3.5 Success Defined 44 3.6 Conclusion 45 CHAPTER 4: BACKGROUND ON THE T'SOU-KE-SKIDEGATE PARTNERSHIP .... 46 4.1 Introduction 4.2 First Nations in BC 4.2.1 Background on First Nations in British Columbia 4.2.2 Introduction to T'Sou-ke Nation 4.2.3 Introduction to Skidegate 4.3 Organization and execution of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership 4.3.1 Origins 4.3.3 Funding 4.3.2 Key Participants 4.3.4 Timeline 4.4 Summary of Results CHAPTER 5: TECHNICAL COMPONENT OF THE T'SOU-KE-SKIDEGATE PARTNERSHIP 5.1 Introduction 5.2 T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project 5.2.1 Conservation Program 5.2.2 Solar Hot Water Program 5.2.3 Solar PV Demonstration Project 5.2.4 Summary 5.3 Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis 5.4 Applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project in Skidegate 5.4.1 Conservation Program 5.4.2 Solar Hot Water Program 5.4.3 Solar PV Demonstration Project 5.5 Summary of Results CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 46 46 46 49 51 53 54 55 57 61 64 67 67 67 68 71 72 76 76 84 85 87 89 90 93 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Exploring the Social Relationship of the T'Sou-ke Skidegate Partnership 6.2.1 The Mutual Goal of Relationship Building 6.2.2 Official Sponsorship of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Partnership 6.3 Overall Success 6.4 Key Factors Leading to Success 6.5 Lessons Learned and Recommendations resulting from research 6.6 Contributions of research 6.7 Limitations of research 6.8 Suggestions for further research 6.9 Final thoughts Bibliography 93 94 96 98 100 101 103 105 106 107 107 109 iv APPENDIX A: Ethics approval form APPENDIX B: Information Sheet offered to communities APPENDIX C: Interview Questions APPENDIX D: TSou-ke Solar Community Project 16 funding sources APPENDIX E: Skidegate Housing Survey 2011 v 116 117 121 122 123 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: List of interviews Table 4.1: Funding expenditures Table 4.2: List of key participants Table 4.3: Project timeline Table 5.1: BC Hydro Residential Energy Demand Data, 2010 Table 5.2: Approximate amount of litres per heating fuel source used in Skidegate, 2010 Table 6.1: T'Sou-ke Skidegate interactions vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Location Map of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate Map Figure 5.1: The T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group (T'SEG) Figure 5.2: Solar Hot Water System Installation in T'Sou-ke Figure 5.3: T'Sou-ke Solar PV grid-tied Feed-in Tariff System and the T'Sou-ke Solar Installers Figure 5.4: BC Hydro Sandspit DGS Historical Monthly Generated Energy 2007/08 vii LIST OF ACRONYMS BC British Columbia BCCI British Columbia Capacity Initiative C02e carbon dioxide equivalent CEPs Community Energy Plans CHN Council of the Haida Nation DGS Diesel Generator System FBC Fraser Basin Council FNTC First Nations Technology Council GHG greenhouse gas GWh gigawatt-hour INAC Indian and Northern Affairs Canada IRP Indigenous Research Paradigm IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change KWh kilowatt-hour MAR Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation MEM Ministry of Energy and Mines MOU memorandum of understanding MW Megawatt NGO non-governmental organization OMVC Old Massett Village Council QCPC Queen Charlotte Power Corporation NRCan Natural Resources Canada PAR Participatory Action Research PV photovoltaic RetScreen Renewable Energy Project Analysis Software RCI Remote Community Implementation tonnes 1000 kilograms (kg) T'SEG T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group UNBC University of Northern British Columbia viii DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my family, to my Father, Mother, Brother, Sister and Grandfather, who live so far but who are in my thoughts every moment of the day. Your unconditional love is always felt. I also dedicate it to Trent and Dana Moraes for gifting me a home away from home, sharing their family, meals, and knowledge with me when I visited Haida Gwaii. Cultural differences can be few or many, but it is sharing those same family values that can turn anyone into not only a friend but also family. ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge and thank my co-supervisors, Karyn Sharp and Ken Wilkening. Karyn's wisdom was with me from my first day as a graduate student to the last draft of this thesis. Ken's tireless support, encouragement, understanding, and editing made this thesis possible. I also acknowledge and thank my third committee member, Ross Hoffman, whose steadfast support throughout my graduate journey made it an enjoyable experience. Furthermore, I want to express my deepest appreciation to all who helped me in one way or another with my research. Sue Hanley of the First Nations Technology Council, your vision of partnering communities came true. Thank you. I would like to thank all the individuals who agreed to take part in my research, especially my T'Sou-ke Community supervisor, Andrew Moore; the T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group; Skidegate Community Supervisor, Trent Moraes; and Skidegate Band Manager, Barbara (Babs) Stevens. Also, Nitya Harris of Solar BC, Tanya Hebron, Christina Ianniciello, Heather Davies, and Danielle Myles were always there for me when I needed guidance. Harmony Johnson, through her acceptance and encouragement, helped make this research possible. Lastly, I 'thank' the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC) for providing me with a welcoming environment that was conducive to pursuing my studies and completing this thesis. x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview In our every deliberation, we must consider the impact of our decisions on the next seven generations. - The Great Law of the Iroquois The indigenous people of coastal British Columbia (BC) have for millennia lived sustainably on their lands. For thousands of years they used only renewable resources. Light came from the sun and fires. Heat was generated from wood, and animal furs were used to keep their bodies warm. Homes were constructed from large, dense trees. Transportation was by foot or canoe. Always present in winter months was a log fire shared by many. The rich bounty of the coastal region provided them with food, clothing, shelter, and other necessities of life. Fast forward to the 21st century, hundreds of years after European settlement, and life in coastal BC seems no longer sustainable. British Columbians and First Nations of this region are dependent on non-renewable fossil fuels. Non-renewable fossil fuels provide the world with most of its electricity, heat, and vehicle fuel but it will someday be depleted. Three fossil fuels are used to power today's industrial society—coal, oil, and natural gas. Consumption of all three is increasing due to an increase in the world population and an expansion of the global economy. Nobel Prize winning physicist, Burton Richter, believes oil resources will run out in 75 years, coal resources by 2080, and natural gas by the end of this century.1 In addition to their finite nature, the consumption of fossil fuels is contributing 1 Burton Richter, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Climate Change in the 21s' Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 75. 1 to a dramatic increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in our planet's atmosphere, which in turn is driving global-scale climate change. Climate change will affect all communities in Canada, indigenous and nonindigenous, through such events as increased flooding, droughts, and severe windstorms. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirms that these events are influenced by the significant increases in GHGs, contributing to the rise in average global temperatures. According to the DPCC in 2006, 11 of the last 12 years rank among the warmest years on record and it is inevitable that climate change events, which we are already experiencing, will become more common.3 The issue of climate change is beginning to be recognized by native and non-native communities across Canada and as such many are taking action, one of which is to develop renewable energy projects. BC First Nations are among the leaders—123 out of the 203 First Nations in BC are involved in renewable energy projects.4 Their involvement is due to a variety of reasons associated with social, environmental, and economic development; 2 IPCC, "Energy Supply," in Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. B. Metz et al. (New York : Cambridge University Press, 2007), accessed December 5,2011, http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ch4s4-l.html. 3 IPCC, "Summary for Policymakers," in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S. Solomon et al. (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 5, accessed December 5, 2011, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessmentreport/ar4/wgl /ar4-wg1-spm.pdf. 4Judith Sayers, "Cutting First Nations out of B.C.'s Energy Industry: B.C. Hydro review recommendations would harm independent producers," Times Columnist, October 2, 2011, accessed October 2, 2011. 2 however, James Cowpar, Skidegate Band Councillor, perhaps best expresses the motivation: "it's about respecting Mother Earth."5 Developing community-owned renewable energy projects is a challenging process; it is especially challenging for First Nations because it requires individuals and organizations with expertise in renewable energy systems. Such expertise is commonly found outside the First Nation community, usually in hired consultants. However, as an increasing number of First Nations engage in renewable energy projects, First Nation communities themselves are developing expertise in such systems. Thus, another option is emerging—First Nation communities with renewable energy expertise can assist other First Nations communities. I refer to these as "First Nations-to-First Nations renewable energy partnerships." This is the topic I explore in this thesis. In particular, I conducted a case study of one First Nation mentoring another in a renewable energy project. I researched the process of the T'Sou-ke Nation in lower Vancouver Island, BC mentoring the remote First Nation of Skidegate Band in Haida Gwaii, BC. Scholarship is sparse on the topic of First Nations achievements in renewable energy development and very little has been published on First Nations' ability to mentor one another. In particular, scholarship is sparse on assessing their success and identifying the determinants of successful First Nations partnerships, the topic of this thesis. 1.2 Origins of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Renewable Energy Partnership In 2009, the T'Sou-ke Nation developed a renewable energy project, the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project, which included an on-going energy conservation program, 5James Cowpar (Skidegate Band Councillor) in interview with the author, Skidegate, January 24, 2011. 3 installation of solar hot water systems in 38 homes, and three different applications of solar photovoltaic (PV)6 systems which together have a 75 kW capacity.7 The T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project brought numerous benefits to the community and its success attracted the attention of other First Nations, including the remote First Nation of Skidegate Band in Haida Gwaii, BC. Subsequently, T'Sou-ke and Skidegate began a solar energy partnership in September 2010. This partnership and my involvement in it began serendipitously. Figure 1.1 displays the location of the two communities involved in this study. 6 Solar PV generates electricity from solar energy. Solar hot water uses solar energy to heat water. 7T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), 6. 4 Figure 1.1: Location Map of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate Source: Michael Kantakis B.A. (2011); used with permission. The story begins when I was looking for a research topic for my Master of Arts (MA) degree in First Nation Studies. In August 2010, after hearing a presentation on the 5 T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project, I asked the T'Sou-ke Nation Community Planner, Andrew Moore, if there was any research I could undertake related to their project. Moore, in 2008, had initiated the T'Sou-ke community's "Vision in Progress," from which emerged their goal of pursuing community sustainability.8 This led to the development of the T'Souke Centre for Sustainable Living, founded on four objectives, or pillars: energy autonomy, food self-sufficiency, cultural renaissance, and economic development. To progress towards achieving the energy autonomy objective, T'Sou-ke developed, obtained funding for, and successfully completed their T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. In the spring of 2009, installation of the 38 solar hot water systems and the three solar PV systems was completed. An economic and technical analysis was conducted on the project in August 2009.9 T'Sou-ke concluded that solar energy systems similar to theirs could be even more effective in remote communities that are ofF-grid (i.e. not connected to a central electricity transmission grid). The homes and buildings in T'Sou-ke Nation are tied to BC's major electrical grid; however, there are close to 70 communities, and in particular 29 First Nations in BC, that are not connected to the electrical grid and are considered by government and industry to be "remote communities".10 Although in recent years we are 8The T'Sou-ke Nation vision statement reads as follows: "Our Vision is for a safe and healthy community. We see ourselves as a self-governing, accountable, stewards of our land, generating a respect and understanding for our peoples culture and heritage, united, educated, in sobriety, to provide opportunities for all generations to come." This statement is taken from slide 4 on PowerPoint presentation, "T'Sou-ke Nation Strategic Plan", found on the homepage of the T'Sou-ke Centre for Sustainable Living, http://fnbc.info/sites/default/files/documents/TSouke%20Centre%20for%20Sustainable%20Living%20Part%201and2.pdf (accessed December 8, 2011). 9 Jessica Bekker, "Power Production, Emission and Financial Analysis for T'Sou-ke Nation's Photovoltaic Demonstration Project" (prepared paper, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2009). 10 Province of BC, Ministry of Energy and Mines, "Remote Community Energy," accessed 6 seeing a shift toward renewable energy technologies, the majority of remote communities still use diesel oil to generate electricity. Diesel is both costly and high C02e emitting; solar power on the other hand produces no direct GHGs and, minus the cost of the PV system and installation, produces solar electricity virtually free. Thus, solar power is an option to reduce a remote community's electricity costs as well as its C02e emissions. When I first spoke with Moore in August 2010, he highlighted the relevance and possibility of remote communities implementing projects similar to the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. He felt that replication of T'Sou-ke's project in remote communities could decrease their dependence on diesel oil for generation of electricity thus helping them move toward energy autonomy, and could mitigate their role in depleting resources and exacerbating climate change. After hearing this, I decided that instead of studying the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project itself, I could study the application of their project to a remote First Nation. Therefore, I, with Moore's assistance, set off to find a remote First Nation to work with on testing the applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. In September 2010, Sue Hanley, Coordinator for the First Nations Technology Council (FNTC),11 told me that on a recent visit to Skidegate Band she mentioned T'Souke's project to the Band Manager, Barbara Stevens. Steven's reaction was enthusiastic to say the least. "Her eyes popped!" Hanley told me. By this time, Moore and I had already begun the groundwork for an application for funding to the Canadian federal government's Indian August 1,2011, http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/RET/COMMUNITYENERGYSOLUTIONS/RCCEP/Pages/defau lt.aspx. 11 The First Nations Technology Council is a BC First Nations organization that emerged from a 2002 BC First Nations Summit Resolution to establish a First Nations Summit Technology Plan. (http://fnbc.info/FNTC/About). Hanley visited T'Sou-ke in August 2010 for an FNTC initiative. 7 and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC)12 ecoENERGY for Aboriginal and Northern Communities Program.13 The application was due on October 1, 2010. Although time was tight, I worked with both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate to apply for these funds; we would apply for funds to conduct a "Skidegate Energy Baseline Analysis" in which T'Sou-ke acted as mentor to Skidegate. All parties agreed this was a good idea. I wrote and submitted the application on Skidegate's behalf. The T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership began in September 2010. My role in the project was twofold. First, I facilitated formation of the project and was a consultant to both communities during its execution. Second, I was researching the project partnership in which I was involved. In other words, while working with the communities on actual implementation of the solar project, I was also analyzing the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. During the course of the partnership, in February 2011, Skidegate Housing Co­ ordinator, Trent Moraes, and I, decided that the results of the Skidegate Energy Baseline Analysis (which was also a feasibility study) could be used as the basis for grant 12On May 18, 2011, the name Indian Affairs and Northern Development (INAC) was changed to Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC). However, this name change has not altered the mandate of the department. In this thesis, the department will be referred to as INAC. 13The ecoENERGY for Aboriginal and Northern Communities Program "will work with all Aboriginal and northern communities, including the approximately 150 remote communities that rely on diesel power generation, to improve energy efficiency and adopt alternative energy sources to reduce dependence on diesel fuel. The Program will provide funding assistance to communities through all stages of project development, including project identification and inception, feasibility and planning studies, financial and project management, equity partnerships, power purchase agreements and project completion. Incentives will be directed at renewable energy and energy efficiency projects and will include investment in small and micro hydro projects, wind turbines, improved diesel generation efficiency projects, geothermal and district heating" (http://www.aincinac.gc.ca/enr/clc/pra/ovr-eng.asp). 8 applications to be submitted to Fraser Basin Council (FBC)14 and Solar BC.15 These grants were to be used to construct a renewable energy project. An application was filed in May 2011. On June 11, 2011, it was announced that the application was successful and Skidegate was awarded the funds to develop their own solar demonstration project. Implementation will take place in spring 2012. For this thesis, the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership is explored from its initiation in September 2010 to announcement of the successful grant application in June 2011. 1.3 Research Statement and Questions In my thesis research, I sought to understand the dynamics of the T'Sou-keSkidegate partnership and identify factors which fostered or inhibited its success. The key questions that guided my research were: 1) How was the T'Sou-ke—Skidegate partnership organized and executed? With this first question, I sought to characterize the organization and execution of the partnership; specifically, to understand its origins, how it was conducted, who the participants were, and the cost and time involved. 2) What was the degree of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation? The partnership originated because T'Sou-ke had a desire to test the applicability of their Solar Community Project on a remote community. It began with a Skidegate Energy 14 The Fraser Basin Council (FBC), established in 1997, is a unique organization that is focused on advancing sustainability throughout the entire Fraser River Basin. http://www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/about_us/index.html. 15 Solar BC is a non-profit organization sponsored by the Province of BC. Its stated goal is "to encourage people to be less reliant on fossil fuels, and to join the solar revolution by tapping into the free energy provided by the sun" (http://www.solarbc.ca/about). 9 Baseline Study. I summarized and analyzed the findings of the Skidegate Energy Baseline Study, and sought to characterize the relevance of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate. Thus, part of my evaluation of success was evaluating the degree to which the T'Sou-ke project fit the energy situation of Skidegate. 3) Was the T'Sou-keSkidegate partnership successful? Why or why not? What lessons can be learnedfrom the T'Sou-ke-Skidegatepartnership? I sought to gauge the success level of the partnership and explain reasons for the outcomes that resulted from its execution. In particular I identify factors which advanced or inhibited the partnership. This is based on an analysis of the technical and social dimensions of the partnership. Based on the analysis used to answer Questions 1, 2, and 3,1 offer recommendations designed to assist First Nations in developing and successfully carrying out renewable energy projects. 1.4 Methodological approaches The above research questions were answered using an overarching framework of an Indigenous Research Paradigm16 (IRP) which involves respecting, relating to, reciprocating, and upholding my responsibility to the communities who have allowed me to work with them. My role as a researcher was determined by the communities' needs and goals. Within the context of the IRP, I followed a Participatory Action Research17 (PAR) model. The goal of PAR is for the researcher to achieve co-construction of knowledge and co-execution of action with their participants relative to a shared goal. Both of the communities and I 16 Shawn Wilson, Research Is Ceremony: Indigenous Research Methods (Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing, 2009), 20. 17 Alice Mclntire, Participatory Action Research (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2008), 1. 10 worked to make their communities more sustainable. This was our shared goal. Specific techniques employed included participant observation (recorded in a journal), interviews, and document analysis. Lastly, I approached this research as an Intrinsic Case Study.18 Intrinsic case studies are examinations of unique phenomenon. The T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership is one of the first successful First Nations renewable energy partnerships in BC, and, to my knowledge, the first subject to scholarly analysis. The first step of my research, designed to answer Question 1, was to outline the essential components of the partnership. By reviewing documents, my journal, and correspondence with both communities, I was able to determine how the partnership was organized and executed. I eventually decided to analyze the partnership as a "socio-technical system." In other words, there was a technological component to the partnership (determining what renewable technologies and techniques were applicable to Skidegate) and social component, which facilitated execution of the technical component. In other words, if T'Sou-ke and Skidegate had not agreed to form a working relationship for the purpose of performing a technical test of applicability, this project and the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership would not have taken place. The second step of my research, designed to answer Question 2, was to analyze the technical dimension of the partnership. This was accomplished through the ecoENERGY funds from INAC. I visited Skidegate and performed a technical analysis of the community's current energy situation with the assistance and guidance of my Skidegate Community Supervisor, Trent Moraes. The results formed the basis for my analysis of the 18 Robert Stake, The Art of Case Study Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995). 11 technical dimension of the partnership and for the funding application for Skidegate's solar demonstration project. The third step of my research, designed to answer Question 3, was to use the data from steps 1, and 2 in addition to data recorded in journal notes and derived from interviews with both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate members, to gauge the success level of the partnership. These results were the basis for making recommendations for how First Nations can develop and successfully carry out renewable energy partnerships. 1.5 Major Findings In this section, major research findings are outlined following the order of the three research questions discussed above. Underlying all research questions is a research-based definition of "success." A definition was determined in consultation with both communities. Success, relative to their socio-technical partnership for renewable energy development, was defined as achieving significant progress towards energy self-sufficiency. Thus, if both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate made notable strides towards energy self-sufficiency, as acknowledged by the communities, then the overall partnership would be judged a success. 1.5.1 Research Question 1 How was the T'Sou-he-Skidegate partnership organized and executed? Four key components were distinguished to answer this question: (1) origins, (2) funding, (3) key participants, (4) timeline. The T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership originated because a common goal was shared between the two communities—to aim toward energy autonomy. The communities agreed to work together not only on conducting an energy baseline analysis in Skidegate and developing an educational component (i.e., Skidegate could learn from T'Sou-ke's renewable energy knowledge and T'Sou-ke could learn by 12 applying their knowledge to the remote community of Skidegate). ENAC awarded Skidegate $15,000 in funding to be used toward this project and partnership. The $15,000 was crucial to the execution of the partnership. The funds were used towards the Skidegate Energy Baseline Analysis, lending to the technical success of the partnership and allowed T'Sou-ke members to visit Skidegate for the educational component. A total of 12 key participants were identified as being the most important contributors to the partnership (see Figure 4.1 in Chapter 4). The success of the partnership, despite few participants, determines it was the quality of the unique participants and not the quantity of participants that was important in the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. A total of 14 key events were identified as being important to the organizing and execution of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership (Table 4.3 in Chapter 4). 1.5.2 Research Question 2 What was the degree of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation? There turned out to be a high degree of applicability. The T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project had three aspects that were tested for applicability in Skidegate. Two of the three aspects were applicable to Skidegate and eventually resulted in the successful bid for funding for what was called the "Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project." Skidegate adopted the energy conservation program and solar hot water components of the T'Sou-ke project. The third aspect of T'Sou-ke's Project, a Solar PV Demonstration Project, was deemed not applicable due the high cost of solar PV systems, the lower sunlight levels in Skidegate compared to T'Sou-ke, and reluctance of government to fund solar PV projects. In the end, the technical component of the partnership was deemed a success by all parties because the T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project was 13 indeed judged applicable to Skidegate though on a reduced scale. 1.5.4 Research Question 3 Was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership successful? Why or why not? What lessons can be learnedfrom the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership that can apply to future partnerships? Overall, the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership was deemed a resounding success. The partnership is best described as a socio-technical partnership because a social relationship was necessary between the communities in order for the technical test of applicability of T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation to have taken place. The T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership, in both its technical and social forms, was deemed highly successful. It was successful in its technical dimension because a jointly conducted and detailed analysis of Skidegate's energy situation determined that T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project was, for the most part, applicable to Skidegate; two out of its major elements proved to be applicable. It was successful in its social dimension because both communities took steps toward achieving energy self-sufficiency (again, Skidegate taking this step for their community, and T'Sou-ke for all First Nations). The communities also made plans to continue the partnership through participation in the FBC Solar Mentorship Program, enhancing formation of a lasting relationship. Seven key factors lending to the success of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership were identified: 1. Sharing the same (sustainability) goal 2. Support from Band management and the community 3. Presence of a community champion in each T'Sou-ke and Skidegate 4. Ensuring cooperation between communities and autonomy (i.e., not telling each other what to do). 14 5. Choosing an impartial facilitator 6. Building a cultural relationship in addition to a professional one 7. Including all stakeholders, maximizing the number of participants and ensuring their continual participation. Based on the analysis used to answer the first three questions, and through discussion with the communities, I offer the following five recommendations for First Nations, government, industry and NGOs, designed to benefit First Nations in developing and successfully carrying out First-Nations-to-First-Nations renewable energy partnerships: • Enhance community engagement: Organize a community open house before beginning a partnership to identify common interests with in your community and to set priorities. All projects must come from the desire of the communities themselves. • Leverage the success of other First Nations: Research other First Nations that have experienced success in the renewable energy your community wishes to pursue and enquire if they are interested in partnering with your community. By establishing a partnership with a community that has already experienced success, valuable lessons learned can be passed along, increasing your own community's chances of success. • Prioritize energy conservation: Energy conservation should be given top priority if energy conservation measures have not already been implemented in the community. By prioritizing energy conservation, a project will more likely be successful when applying for funds from government or NGOs. • Select a community champion and engage a neutral facilitator: Ensure the selection of a community champion in each community and a neutral facilitator who is dedicated to both the partnership and renewable energy development. This will 15 expedite you projects development, thus allowing the opportunity for community goals to be reached sooner. • Encourage communication: Establish a partnership agenda with your project partners that allows for frequent meetings to take place via internet, phone, or in-person. This will build better communication and lend to strengthening the relationships with other partners. • Consider including payment for a First Nations mentor in renewable energy development: In the case of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate, T'Sou-ke was paid for their mentorship, by Skidegate. All monies offered to T'Sou-ke went directly into their community energy conservation programs. Monetary interactions took place without issue and the transaction led to the positive progression of the social relationship. 1.6 Value of Research This research makes a theoretical contribution to First Nations scholarship and a practical contribution to understanding successful First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships. To my knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study of a First Nations-toFirst Nations partnership in the area of renewable energy. As such, it contributes to theorizing on the nature of this type of partnership. In addition, my research can be used to inform the execution of future partnerships. I have identified determinants of success (lessons learned) that can inform other First Nations in initiating and participating in First Nations renewable energy mentorship programs, an underutilized method in developing renewable energy projects. 16 1.7 Introduction to Chapters Following this introductory chapter, Chapter 2 presents a review of the two literatures most relevant to my thesis research: First Nations renewable energy projects, and First Nations partnerships. These literatures provide the context for my thesis research. Chapter 3 contains a description of the methodology adopted for this thesis. Chapters 4-7 contain the analysis of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. Chapter 4 is a description of the partnership. In chapter 5,1 analyze the socio-technical components of the partnership, respectively. And in Chapter 6,1 bring the elements of chapters 4 and 5 together and analyze the overall success of the partnership. Lessons learned and recommendations based on them are also presented. 17 CHAPTER 2: A LITERATURE REVIEW OF FIRST NATIONS RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS AND PARTNERSHIPS 2.1 Introduction This chapter contains a review of the literature on First Nations involvement in renewable energy development. It serves not only to identify gaps in the literature that are addressed by my research, but also to establish the context for understanding the particular focus chosen for my research. The literature review focuses on two areas: (1) successful First Nations renewable energy projects (Section 2.2), and (2) First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships, in particular First Nations partnerships in BC, whether related to renewable energy or not (Section 2.3). 2.2 First Nations Renewable Energy Development The body of scholarship on First Nations or aboriginal renewable energy developments is modest, and most has been published in the past 10 years. However, outside of scholarly publications, a substantial amount of information on the topic is found in the socalled "grey literature" (e.g., newspapers, government documents, NGO pamphlets). Most literature concludes that First Nations involvement in renewable energy will bring benefits to their communities. One author refers to renewable energy as "sparking hope for First Nations."191 divided the literature on First Nations renewable energy development into two areas, each addressed in a separate sub-section in this chapter. The first sub-section discusses First Nations renewable energy projects, and the second discusses and characterizes the supporters of First Nations renewable energy projects. 19 Nick Stewart, "Renewable energy sparking hope for First Nations: several hydroelectric projects already underway," Northern Ontario Business March, (2009): 11. 18 2.2.1 First Nations Renewable Energy Projects First Nations renewable energy projects can be found across Canada. There are projects in Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and BC. Unfortunately, literature on East Coast First Nations involvement in renewable energy projects is limited, despite a recent publication by the Atlantic Aboriginal Economic Development Integrate Research Program (AAEDIRP) titled, More than Wind: Evaluating Renewable Energy Opportunities for First Nations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick20 No First Nations renewable energy project success stories were highlighted in this document. First Nations participation in renewable energy projects in the Yukon are also under represented. First Nations in the Yukon have participated in climate change adaptation plans and programs but I was unable to identify any First Nations renewable energy projects in that area. Renewable energy projects include the use of solar, wind, run-of-river or microhydroelectricity,21 geothermal, and biofuel technologies. Numerous documents discussed these projects; however, few studies exist that discuss, let alone analyze, involvement of First Nations in the projects. There is a strong emphasis on northern aboriginal and remote communities developing renewable energy projects. In the northern territories, where more than half of the population is aboriginal and where the environmental benefits are greater due to their heavy dependence upon oil to heat and diesel to generate electricity, there is strong interest in renewable energy projects. For example, solar energy is widely studied in 20 Diana Campbell, "More that Wind: Evaluating Renewable Energy Opportunities for First Nations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick" (prepared paper, AAEDIRP, 2011). 21 All hydro-electricity projects are not renewable. In this thesis, run-of-river or micro-hydro projects are considered to be the only renewable forms of hydro-electricity. Further information on this can be found on page 25. 19 the Northwest Territories.22 Wind turbines were first installed in Nunavut in 1988,23 five years before the first commercial wind farm in Canada was developed in Alberta.24 Nunavut's energy planning is perceived by government and industry to be highly progressive; in 2007 the government of Nunavut published a comprehensive energy plan identifying options for renewable energy.25 Besides Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, many regions of Canada have seen First Nations success in renewable energy projects. The Ouje-Bougoumou Cree Nation in Quebec developed a district energy system that involved turning waste heat into heating fuel.26 In Ontario, the Ojibway of the Pic River First Nation initiated a run-of-river hydroelectric project, in addition to wind monitoring 27 The Swan Lake First Nation in Manitoba recently initiated development of a wind energy project. In Saskatchewan, a wind 22 Dignard-Bailey, et al., "Photovoltaics for the North: Five Years of Breaking Down Barriers in the Northwest Territories," (commissioned report, Natural Resources Canada, 1998). 23Queens University Applied Sustainability Research Group, "Renewable Energy in Canadian Aboriginal Remote Communities - Lit Review," Appropidia, accessed June 11, 2011, http://www.appropedia.org/Renewable_Energy_in_Canadian_Aboriginal_Remote_Commun ities_-_Lit_Review. 24 Michela Rosano, "On with the Wind: Wind energy in Canada timeline," Canadian Geographic June, (2009), accessed January 5, 2012, http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/jun09/wind_power_timeline.asp. 25 Nunavut, "Ikummatiit: The Government of Nunavut Energy Strategy," (Nunavut, Canada, 2007). 26INAC. "Sharing Knowledge for a Better Future: Adaptation and Clean Energy Experiences in a Changing Climate," (Ottawa, Canada, 2010). 27 Ibid. 20 energy farm is being developed by Cowessess First Nations' corporation.28 The Beaver Lake Cree First Nation of Alberta recently installed a solar heating system in their recreation complex.29 In BC, the Halfway River, McLeod Lake, Saulteau, and West Moberly First Nations of the Treaty 8 Alliance in northeastern BC signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) involving contract opportunities and revenue sharing options with Dokie General Partnership, a company developing a wind farm project on the Treaty 8 First Nation's territory.30 The Hesquiaht First Nation, located 40 km north of Tofino on Vancouver Island, is also pursuing renewable energy through its "Hesquiaht 100% Renewables project."31 In Lytton, BC, the Kanaka Bar Indian Band has recently undertaken a $50 million stake in a run-of-river hydroelectricity project; after 40 years they will take 100% ownership of the project's Kwoiek Creek Power Plant.32 There are also examples of wholly owned Aboriginal companies in BC that are currently producing biofuel from timber waste. Nations Energy Corporation has partnered with Lytton First Nation Development Co. (Nlaka'pamux) and 28 "Cowessess First Nation created a 100% First Nation owned corporate entity," Awasis Nehiyawewini (Cree Child) Energy Development Corporation accessed February 24,2011, http://www.cowessessfh.com/our-departments/economic-development/wind-energy-project. 29 "Renewable Energy for First Nations," Pembina Institute, accessed March 2011, http://www.pembina.org/re/work/first-nations. 30 Plutonic Power Corporation, "Dokie Wind Project," (presentation, Clean Energy BC, Vancouver, BC, November 9-12,2010). 31 Hesquiaht, "Hesquiaht 100% Renewables: The World Is Searching for This," (brochure, Hesquiaht, 2008). 32 Innergex, "Financing First Nations Renewable Energy Projects: Kwoiek Creek Hydroelectric Project a Case Study," (presentation, Clean Energy BC, Vancouver, BC, November 9-12, 2010). 21 Pelltiq't Energy Group (Secwepemc), two energy companies that are wholly owned by Aboriginal peoples.33 Recognition of the need for renewable energy resource development in aboriginal and northern remote communities is growing. Reports from Queens University and the University of British Columbia (UBC) Sauder School of Business highlight the significance of renewable energy development to aboriginal communities. A literature review of renewable energy development was compiled by Queens University's Applied Sustainability Research Group titled, Renewable Energy in Canadian Aboriginal Remote Communities, and posted on Appropedia, a popular website for scholars to share knowledge.34 It provides a comprehensive overview of aboriginal renewable energy development. The UBC Sauder School of Business report, First Nations Renewable Energy Roadmap (2011), in the Coast Opportunity Funds Bulletin Series, provides guidance on the steps towards the development of renewable energy projects, and current funding opportunities available to First Nations.35 As early as 2001, a study involving Australian aboriginal communities and renewable energy was published in the journal Renewable Energy titled "Appropriate renewable hybrid power systems for remote aboriginal communities."36 The authors, 33 "Nations Energy Corporation," Nations Energy Corporation, accessed March 18, 2011, http://www.nationsenergycorp.com/. 34 The website, similar to Wikipedia, is designed for the purpose of the public being able to add to literature reviews, comment and create discussions on such topics. I have added to this list with documents mentioned in this proposal. Renewable Energy in Canadian Aboriginal Remote Communities- Lit Review (accessed Feb 2011) Appropedia online: http://www.appropedia.org/Renewable_Energy_in_Canadian_Aboriginal_Remote_Commun ities_-_Lit_Review. 35 Sauder School of Business, "Coast Opportunity Funds Bulletin Series: First Nations Renewable Energy Roadmap," (Bulletin, UBC, 2011). 36 Stephanie Jennings and John Healey, "Appropriate renewable hybrid power systems for 22 Jennings and Healy, documented successes and failures in Australian aboriginal communities' adoption of hybrid power systems. The authors suggest best practices for system design, installation, and maintenance of these systems to improve chances of success. In 2002, the Mohawk Kanata Solar Housing Project was featured in the Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development,37 The author describes how the community initiated the project because they no longer wanted to be dependent on outside sources of energy, especially a large hydro electrical dam that the community deemed had "devastated the environment and social structure of our indigenous brothers and sisters of the north."38 In 2009, St. Denis and Parker examined 10 case studies of community energy planning in various communities across Canada.39 Of the 10 cases, two involved First Nations communities in the Northwest Territories, the Wha Ti and the Deline. Both communities developed renewable energy systems, solar and wood, respectively; none of the other communities in the study implemented renewable energy projects. The authors concluded that community energy planning should embody three areas: behavioral conservation, energy efficiency upgrades to existing buildings, and renewable energy. All are important factors in energy planning but their study found that renewable energy is sometimes left out of the mix. The significance of renewable energy to aboriginal communities' autonomy and sustainability was identified in a March/April 2010 special issue of the peer-reviewed the remote aboriginal communities," Renewable Energy 22 (2001): 327-333 37 Lynn Katsitsaronkwas Jacobs, "Growing a Sustainable Community from Our Roots: Mowak Experiences in Sustainable Housing - the Kanata Healthy Housing Project," Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development 3 (2002). 38 Ibid., 22. 39 Genevieve St. Denis and Paul Parker, "Community Energy Planning in Canada: The Role of Renewable Energy," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 (2009). 23 magazine, Native Peoples devoted to "Renewable Energy in Indian Country," focusing on successful aboriginal renewable energy developments in the United States.40 In contrast to aboriginal communities involving themselves in renewable energy development voluntarily, Brook and Thomas published a study in Geographies of Energy titled, "Renewable Energy and Human Rights Violations: Illustrative Cases from Indigenous Territories in Panama."41 Noting effects of involuntary renewable energy projects the authors documented human rights violations taking place among indigenous communities in Panama caused by the development of large hydro-electrical dams. Some academics feel aboriginal communities' rights are being violated in Canada as a result of hydro damming in Manitoba and Quebec.42 Thibault Martin, co-editor of Power Struggles: Hydro Development and First Nations in Manitoba and Quebec, argues that although hydro energy is referred to as "renewable" by its proponents, large hydro dams are in fact neither a renewable nor sustainable form of energy.43 In summary, in this section I provided an overview of the literature related to First Nations renewable energy developments with particular focus on Canada. I conclude that the academic literature pertaining to First Nations renewable energy projects is slim. In general, 40 Jodi Rave, "Renewable Energy in Indian Country," Native Peoples 23 (2010): 33. 41 Mary Finley-Brook and Curtis Thomas, "Renewable Energy and Human Rights Violations: Illustrative Cases from Indigenous Territories in Panama," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Special Issue: Geographies of Energy 101 (2011): 863-872. 42 Thiabault Martin and Steven M. Hoffman, ed., Power Struggles: Hydro Development and First Nations in Manitoba and Quebec. (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2008). 43 William Osbourne, "Part II The Manitoba Experience: A legacy of Disrespect," in Power Struggles: Hydro Development and First Nations in Manitoba and Quebec, ed. Thiabault Martin and Steven M. Hoffman (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2008), 99. 24 it is acknowledged that First Nations involvement in renewable energy projects is largely positive but that project development will be different for every community; geographical locations are different and the needs and priorities as identified by the communities are different. The case study in this thesis concurs with this message—the circumstances of both the T'Sou-ke and Skidegate communities were unique, and their partnership was unique. 2.2.2 Supporters of First Nations Renewable Energy Projects My second area of literature review is of organizations and institutions that are supporting First Nation renewable energy projects. As far as I am aware, all renewable energy developments initiated by First Nations communities have involved some sort of outside support by government, industry, or other organizations. I reviewed the government and non-governmental support for First Nations renewable energy development, emphasizing those in BC. All of the material I examined exists in the grey literature. In addition, I relied on information obtained from attending conferences and on discussions with colleagues. Support for First Nations renewable energy development is occurring all across Canada. Funding for renewable energy project development for aboriginal communities at the federal level is primarily through INAC and Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), at the provincial level it is primarily through the Ministry of Energy and Mines and the Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation (MAR), and at the public level it is primarily through non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as Sustainable Development Technology Canada.44 44 "Sustainable Development Technology Canada," Sustainable Development Technology Canada, accessed September 1, 2011, http://www.sdtc.ca/. 25 In 2009, INAC released its first report detailing its support for Indigenous renewable energy, "Sharing the Story: Aboriginal and Northern Energy Experiences."45 This was followed in 2010 by "Sharing the Knowledge for a Better Future: Adaptation and Clean Energy Experiences in a Changing Climate."46 In this document, four out of the seven success stories were First Nations in BC. Projects funded through INAC's ecoENERGY for Northern and Aboriginal Community Program from 2007-2011 were also summarized for five regions (Quebec, Ontario, the Prairie region, BC, and the territories). Total funding was $10.12 million, of which the largest share ($4.41 million) was for projects in BC. Although not all of the communities that received funding were First Nations, a large majority were. Ontario received the second largest share at $3.84 million. The many rivers and streams located in BC may account for the province's share, as the majority of successful renewable energy projects in BC were for run-of-river projects. INAC also encourages the development of Community Energy Plans (CEPs). In 2004, the Wha Ti First Nation of the Northwest Territories received support for the development of a CEP 47 T'Sou-ke and Skidegate have both been awarded funds by the INAC ecoENERGY for Aboriginal and Northern Communities Program to conduct studies that assisted in the development of their own CEPs 48 NRCan administers the ecoENERGY 45 INAC. "Sharing the Story:Aboriginal and Northern Energy Experiences" (Ottawa, Canada, 2004). 46 INAC. "Sharing Knowledge for a Better Future: Adaptation and Clean Energy Experiences in a Changing Climate" (Ottawa, Canada, 2010). 47 INAC. "Community Energy Plan for Wha Ti by the Government of Canada" (Ottawa, Canada, 2008). 48 "EcoENERGY for Aboriginal and Northern Communities," Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, accessed March 24,2011, http://www.ecoaction.gc.ca/ecoenergyecoenergie/aborignorth-autochnord-eng.cfm. 26 for Renewable Power Program which accepted applications through an Innovation Initiative Fund which has funded 104 projects, representing investments of about $1.4 billion over 14 years and almost 4500 MW of renewable power capacity. How many of these projects are aboriginal communities or businesses are not identified.49 Provinces in Canada are also supporting First Nations renewable energy developments. Ontario and their crown corporation, the Ontario Power Authority, that services all electrical grid-connected communities in Ontario, has numerous programs dedicated to First Nations and renewable energy development.50 BC established an Innovative Clean Energy (ICE) Fund in 2007; its purpose is to "support the development of clean power and energy efficiency technologies in the electricity, alternative energy, transportation and oil and gas sectors."51 A report released in 2009 stated that the ICE Fund has invested over $54 million in 39 clean energy projects in communities across BC.52 T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project was supported in part by this fund. Their project, along with one other First Nations Project, the Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations hydro project, was highlighted in the report. There is also a fund offered by MAR designed specifically for First Nations involvement in clean energy. The $5 million fund, "First Nations Clean Energy 49 "EcoENERGY for renewable power program," EcoAction Canada, assessed September 3, 2011, http://www.ecoaction.gc.ca/ecoenergy-ecoenergie/power-electricite/index-eng.cfm. 50 "Aboriginal Renewable Energy Network Program," Ontario Power Authority, accessed March 20,2011, http://www.aboriginalenergy.ca/. 51 "The BC Energy Plan: A Vision for Clean Energy Leadership," Province of BC, accessed February 6 2011, http://www.energyplan.gov.be.ca/bcep/default.aspx?hash=6. 52 "Innovative Clean Energy Fund Report," Province of BC, accessed March 7 2011, www.sted.gov.bc.ca/ICEFund/Documents/ICEReport_FINAL.pdf. 27 Business Fund," emerged out of the 2010 BC Clean Energy Act.53 MAR manages the First Nations Clean Energy Business Fund which aims to "promote increased Aboriginal community participation in the clean energy sector."54 Ontario's similar fund, designed to encourage First Nations participation in renewable energy development, totals $250 million.55 NGOs are also supporting First Nations renewable energy development. At the national level, Sustainable Development Technologies Canada has invested $200 million.56 The national-level NGO, EcoTrust Canada,57 is working with the Clayoquot Sound First CO Nations to achieve their renewable energy goals, and the Pembina Institute has worked with over 50 First Nations in Canada on renewable energy and energy efficiency projects. At the provincial level, one of the most important NGOs is Clean Energy BC, whose mandate is to lobby government on behalf of the independent power producers of BC. Clean Energy BC holds the largest renewable energy conferences in the province, and brings together the private and public sectors, and First Nations. First Nations' presentations at the conferences 53 "First Nations Clean Energy Business Fund," Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation, Government of British Columbia, accessed June 9, 2011, http://www.gov.bc.ca/arr/economic/fiicebf.html. 54 Ibid. 55 "Support for First Nation and Metis Communities in Green Energy Development," Ontario, accessed September 2010, http://news.ontario.ca/mei/en/2009/09/support-for-firstnation-and-metis-communities-in-green-energy-development.html. 57 "Powering the Conservation Economy," EcoTrust Canada, accessed January 10, 2012, http://ecotrust.ca/program_area_overview/energy. 58 "Renewable Energy for First Nations," Pembina Institute, accessed December 20, 2010, http://www.pembina.org/re/work/first-nations. 28 are published on Clean Energy BC's website.59 Other NGOs involved in the issue of First Nations renewable energy development include the Fraser Basin Council (FBC),60 and Solar BC,61 both of which supported T'Sou-ke and Skidegate in not only their renewable energy projects but their partnership as well. In summary, there exists significant support for First Nations renewable energy developments; however, the literature describing it appears to be only in grey literataure; peer-reviewed academic literature focusing on support seems to be non-existent. It appears that more federal support for First Nations renewable energy development has been awarded to communities located in BC than any other region identified by INAC. All First Nations renewable energy developments, as far as I am aware, have involved some form of support from the federal government, provincial government, NGOs, and/or industry. These players, therefore, have a major role in a project's success. 2.3 First Nations-to-First Nations Partnerships All of the renewable energy developments mentioned above involve some form of partnership between a First Nation and a non-aboriginal organization. While there are numerous instances of successful partnerships or alliances among First Nations, I uncovered few scholarly works pertaining to the topic of First Nation-to-First Nations partnerships or alliances, and no scholarly work focusing on First Nation-to-First Nations partnerships on developing renewable energy. 59 "Clean Energy BC," Clean Energy BC, accessed June 4,2011, www.cleanenergybc.com. 60 "Remote Community Implementation Program," Fraser Basin Council, accessed March 4, 2012, http://www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/programs/caee_rci.html. 61 "Solar BC," Solar BC, accessed June 11, 2011, http://www.solarbc.com. 29 On the topic of First Nations partnerships in general, the body of scholarly work is focused on First Nations partnering with non-First Nations organizations, such as First Nations-to-government, First Nations-to-private sector, First Nations-to-NGO, and First Nations-to-academic institutions. For example, in one article written by geographer Soren Larsen, "Promoting Aboriginal Territoriality through Interethnic Alliances: The Case of the Cheslatta T'en in Northern British Columbia," the focus is the Cheslatta T'en's partnership formed with non-native residents.62 First Nations or aboriginal partnerships that involve non-aboriginal organizations are referred to as "interethnic" alliances by Larsen and "crosscultural partnerships" by P.O'B Lyver.63 Aboriginal-to-Aboriginal partnerships in Australia created for business development were analyzed in "Aboriginal Business: Alliances in a Remote Australian Town."64 The author notes the importance of community ownership and identified a rise in the number of aboriginal alliances created for business purposes, suggesting that alliances will set the stage for a new future for the aboriginal people of Australia. The importance of aboriginal alliances in BC for economic development is well known among First Nations as an increasing number of First Nations organizations and networking opportunities emerge. Thousands of alliances between First Nations exist throughout Canada. BC in particular has approximately 41 Tribal Councils, which involve the participation of more 62 Soren. C. Larsen, "Promoting Aboriginal Territoriality Through Interethnic Alliances: The Case of the Cheslatta T'en in Northern British Columbia," Human Organization 62 (2003): 74-84. 63 Phil Lyver, "Co-Managing Environmental Research: Lessons from Two Cross-Cultural Research Partnerships in New Zealand," Environmental Conservation 32 (2005). ^Kimberly Christen, Aboriginal Business: Alliances in a Remote Australian Town (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 2008). 30 than one First Nation in close proximity to each other. BC publishes a bi-annual guide titled, "A Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia."65 It lists contact information on the 203 First Nations in BC and also lists 800 community-based services and organizations, in addition to the 41 Tribal Councils. Reasons for creating these alliances vary—treaty negotiations, resource agreements, environmental protection, and overall capacity development are common reasons for formation of an alliance. For example, the Canadian Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fisheries Commission,66 the Carrier Sekani Tribal Council,67 and the Nicola Tribal Association,68 all include more than one First Nation. The Okanagan Nation Transition Emergency House (ONTEH) includes the involvement of both the Penticton Indian Band and the Okanagan Nation for the purposes of supporting woman during times of transition.69 Partnerships designed for urgent initiatives are also created by First Nations; for example, the Four Host First Nations70 of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games and the unprecedented alliance, the Gathering of Nations, dedicated to fighting a 65 "A guide to Aboriginal organizations and services in British Columbia 2011/2012," Province of BC, Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation, accessed January 4, 2012, http://www.gov.bc.ca/arr/services/guide.html. 66 "Okanagan Nation Alliance," Province of BC, Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation, accessed Febrary 5,2011, http://www.gov.bc.ca/arr/firstnation/okanagan_nation_alliance/default.html. 67 "Carrier Sekani Tribal Council," CSTC, accessed April 15, 2011, http://www.cstc.bc.ca/cstc. 68 "Nicola Tribal Association," Nicola Tribal Association, accessed January 4, 2012, http://nicolatribal.com/. 69 "Okanagan Nation Family Intervention Services & Society," Okanagan Nation Transition Emergency House, accessed January 4, 2011, http://www.onteh.org/. 70 "Four Host First Nations," Four Host First Nations, accessed March 10, 2011, http://www.fourhostfirstnations.com/. 31 proposed pipeline (the Northern Gateway Pipeline) in northern BC promoted by the oil company, Enbridge, Inc.71 There are only a few examples of First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships created for the purpose of advancing renewable energy. A First Nation-to-First Nations renewable energy partnership was undertaken by the Hupacasath First Nation located on Vancouver Island in 2008. The project involved the construction of a micro-hydro dam that is 72.5% Hupacasath owned with minority partners, Ucluelet First Nation, Synex International Subsidiaries, and the City of Port Alberni.72 The Hupacsath-Ucluelet partnership is said to be a great success with economic and community benefits going to both bands. The Huspacasath micro-hydro project is an example of a successful First Nation-to-First Nations renewable energy partnership; however, no studies have been conducted on the workings of the partnership or what led to its success. In 2009, First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships were supported by the BC's Ministry of Energy and Mines, whereby several First Nations who have had success with micro-hydro projects were partnered for the purpose of mentorship. This was a pilot mentorship program in which First Nations mentored one another in developing microhydro projects. In 2010, a similar pilot program was developed for solar project development. T'Sou-ke Nation and Xeni Gwet'in agreed to act as mentors to remote 71 "Save the Fraser: Protecting our watershed from oil" Gathering of Nations, accessed January 4,2012, http://savethefraser.ca/. 72 "Governance Tool Kit Best Practices," National Centre for Aboriginal Governance NCFNG, accessed March 9, 2011, http://fngovernance.org/resources_docs/ER_Hupacasath.pdf. 32 communities seeking to develop the use of solar energy.73 No data has been published on these programs, however. In summary, I was unable to find any scholarly literature on First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships on renewable energy. There exists descriptions of such partnerships in the grey literature; however, the partnerships have not been subject to scholarly analysis. 2.4 Conclusion Numerous renewable energy projects involving aboriginal people exist in Canada. They have to varying degrees been supported by the Canadian federal government, provincial governments, and NGOs. The advantages for these projects identified in the literature include: environmental benefits through reduced GHG emissions and lessening dependence on damaging forms of energy such as large hydro electrical dams and diesel generated electricity; capacity development opportunities through training; economic development opportunities such as revenue sharing; and networking opportunities to further advance a community's project success. It is clear that partnerships are crucial in successful renewable energy development; however, there is no scholarly work focusing on First Nations partnering with any other entity, and, in particular, partnering with other First Nations. This is a significant gap in literature that my research hopes to fill. 73 The Solar Community Mentorship Initiative is conducted by Fraser Basin Council's Remote Community Implementation Program and is sponsored by the Province of BC's Ministry of Energy and Mines. 33 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction In my survey of the literature on First Nation-to-First Nations partnerships created for renewable energy development, I did not find any research similar to what is contained in this thesis. Since I found no methodology to follow, I devised my own approach, which is explained in this chapter in three parts. First, I explain in Section 3.2 the overarching framework used to guide my methodology, namely a layering of an Indigenous research paradigm, participatory action research, and an intrinsic case study. Second, I discuss in Section 3.3 the three phases of the partnership used to assist in organizing data collection and analysis. And third, I discuss in Section 3.4 the specific steps used to answer my four research questions. 3.2 Methodological Framework The approach I took to answering my research questions is multilayered. First I used what is called an "Indigenous research paradigm" to guide the general conduct of my research. Second, I used methods of participatory action research and conducted this participatory action research within the context of an Indigenous research paradigm. Third, I utilized the strategy of an intrinsic case study. An intrinsic case study can be used to study situations for which there are no precedent case studies to follow. Each of the three layers of my methodological framework is explained. 34 3.2.1 Indigenous research paradigm An Indigenous research paradigm is applicable not only to research conducted by Indigenous scholars but also to research conducted by non-Indigenous scholars.74 As a nonIndigenous person conducting research in Indigenous communities, I followed what is known as an "Indigenous research paradigm" to guide me in respecting, relating to, reciprocating, and upholding my responsibility to the Indigenous communities who allowed me to work with them.75 To implement an Indigenous research paradigm, I chose to employ the framework developed by Graham Hingangaroa Smith.76 Smith suggests four modes of conduct to guide non-Indigenous researchers who conduct Indigenous research. I utilized three of the four modes. The first mode is tiaki, a mentoring model whereby the Indigenous community members themselves play a major role in guiding the research. In my research, both T'Souke and Skidegate assigned a community supervisor to work with me; they were Andrew Moore and Trent Moraes, respectively. Together we shaped the research. The second mode is power sharing, whereby communities support the development of the research. Both Moore and Moraes encouraged participation by other community members in the research. The third mode is empowering outcomes, whereby the researcher addresses questions that 74 Shawn Wilson, Research Is Ceremony: Indigenous Research Methods (Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing, 2009).18 75 Verna J. Kirkness and Ray Barnhardt, "First Nations and Higher Education: The Four R's- -Respect, Relevance, Reciprocity, Responsibility," Journal of American Indian Education 30, no.3 (1991):1. 76 Graham Hingangaroa Smith. "Research issues related to Maori education" (paper presented, NZARE Special Interests Conference, Education Department, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, 1990). 35 the communities themselves are interested in.77 My participation was determined by Skidegate's desire to develop their own renewable energy project as well as T'Sou-ke's desire to share their success by testing the applicability and transferability of their project to a remote community. My role therefore was determined by both communities' needs and goals. 3.2.2 Participatory action research A second element of my research approach was participatory action research (PAR). Indigenous researcher, Shawn Wilson, refers to PAR as "a complimentary framework for accepting the uniqueness of an Indigenous research paradigm."78 O'Brian defines PAR as: a dual commitment in action research to study a system and concurrently to collaborate with members of the system in changing it into what is together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin goal requires the active collaboration of researcher and client, and thus it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the research process.79 Thus, there are two components to PAR: (1) to work with members in a system to change it in a desirable direction, and (2) to study the process of changing the system. The "system" that was the object of my research is the energy system of Skidegate. The desirable direction, or action, was to progress towards energy self-sufficiency, an objective shared by T'Sou-ke, Skidegate, and myself. Both communities felt they were headed in an undesirable 77 The fourth model is the whangi or adoption model, whereby researchers are, "incorporated into the daily life of the Maori people." I did not conscientiously pursue this to the extent I believe Smith implies. 78 Shawn Wilson, Research Is Ceremony: Indigenous Research Methods (Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing, 2009), 16. 79 R. O'Brien, "Um Exame Da Abordagem Metodologica Da Pesquisa A9S0 [an Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action Research]." working paper, Pratica da Pesquisa Afao [Theory and Practice of Action Research], 2001. http://www.web.net/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html#_Toc26184667. 36 direction and hoped this project could help them change course. Skidegate was concerned about their dependence on fossil fuels, the pollution generated by their use, and rising energy costs. T'Sou-ke also felt they were headed in an undesirable direction, "the combination of climate change, peak oil and global economic instability could leave us in a very vulnerable position in the not too distant future."801 studied the partnership between the communities that was directed toward the goal of energy self-sufficiency; in particular, increasing the use of renewable energy sources. There were two aspects to my 'active' role in the partnership. First, I facilitated formation of the project and was involved in its ongoing conduct, and second, I was a consultant who assisted in the completion of the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis and formulation of Skidegate's first capital funding proposal. Thus, I played both an active technical and social role. 3.2.3 Intrinsic case study In this PAR project, I followed an intrinsic case study approach. Intrinsic case studies are useful for in-depth analysis of a particular human activity for which there is no previously published research, as is the situation for First Nations-to-First Nations renewable energy partnerships. According to Robert Stake, "We are interested in it [the chosen case], not because by studying it we learn about other cases or about some general problem, but because we need to learn about that particular case. We have an intrinsic interest in the case, and we may call our work intrinsic case study."81 According to Stake, 80 T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (prepared report,T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), 3. 81 Robert Stake, The Art of Case Study Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995), 5. 37 the inability to make propositions before being imbedded within a project is a key characteristic of an intrinsic case study. When beginning my case study, I quickly discovered there was no "experience, knowledge, or information from the literature upon which to base any propositions." 82 Multiple sources of data were used to obtain the unique "history of the case, the chronology of events, [and] a day-by-day rendering of the activities of the case."83 Common themes were extracted from these data relative to factors that have enhanced and inhibited the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. Based on this, "lessons learned" from the partnership were formulated. My intent was to use the results and lessons learned from what seems to be the first known study of a First Nations-to-First Nation renewable energy partnership in order to suggest guidelines for other similar projects. 3.3 Ethical Considerations This research was evaluated by the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC)'s Research Ethics Board. Prior to beginning my data collection, an internal ethics review was held. The review involved a panel of academics who assessed this study's various ethical elements, including obtaining informed consent, the handling of data, and my dual roles as a consultant and independent researcher. My research was conducted in accordance with the Tri-Council Policy Statement on the Ethical Conduct for Research involving Human Subjects. See Appendix A for the UNBC Ethics Approval form. Both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate were aware of, and supported, my role as a consultant to both communities and participant observer conducting research. This meant that I was in a 82Robert Stake, The Art of Case Study Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995), 9. 83 John Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing Amoung Five Approaches, Second Edition ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2008), 75. 38 "privileged position, in terms of access to potential participants and the gathering of relevant data."84 I had to be clear that participants understood my role as consultant researcher, especially since participant observation notes were one of my main modes of data collection. To prevent potential problems, I provided an "Information Sheet to the Communities" that addressed "the purpose and significance of the study, in addition to my position within the study."85 Appendix B of this thesis includes both the information sheet offered to communities and a copy of the informed consent form offered to participants. In the end, I believe I was able to conduct my research in a manner that was considerate and respectful to the First Nations communities and rigorous according to high academic standards. 3.3 Data Collection In this section, I explain the three phases of the partnership and data collection, which extended from September 2010 to June 2011. Partnership discussions began in September 2010 and final interviews were conducted in June 2011 after Skidegate was awarded funds for their solar demonstration project. The primary data collection methods were participant observation, interviews, and document analysis. 3.3. J Phase One: Defining the project and defining success Phase One began on September 27, 2010 when Skidegate Band Manger, Barbara Stevens, first contacted me regarding a potential partnership with T'Sou-ke. The communities, with my involvement, discussed this idea and determined that T'Sou-ke would 84 Qingxia Yang, "Partnership for Facilitating Sustainable Protected Area Management: A Case Study of Jiuzhaigou National Park in South-Western China" (Masters thesis, Massey University, 2011), 67. 85 Ibid. 39 mentor Skidegate. The communities also identified how they would determine what constituted "success" for the partnership. Project participants were chosen by the community supervisors. Participants included any willing community member who possessed interest in, or knowledge of, their respective community's energy situation. Interviews with these project participants were used to identify criteria for success. They were held in T'Sou-ke on January 13, 2011 and in Skidegate on January 24, 2011. 3.3.2 Phase Two: Implementing the project and determining interim success Phase Two began with the actual implementation of the project on January 25, 2011 when members of both communities came together for a three-day Energy Conservation Workshop (held in Skidegate, January 25-27, 2011). On the first day, two T'Sou-ke members and I made presentations to the Skidegate Band Council. On the second day, an Eco-Kids workshop was held for 50 students in Skidegate's elementary school. On the third day, work began on identifying and collecting technical data pertaining to Skidegate's energy situation. Following the workshop, I conducted interviews on January 27 with Skidegate participants and on February 5 with T'Sou-ke participants, to evaluate the partnership thus far. Collection of technical data was an ongoing process throughout this phase. Phase Two ended with the completion of the Skidegate Energy Baseline Analysis and its submission to INAC on March 31, 2011. 3.3.3 Phase Three: End ofproject and determining final success Phase Three began on April 1, 2011. During this phase, Moraes and I prepared a capital funding proposal for the Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project, which was submitted to the FBC in May. On June 14,2011, Skidegate was awarded funding, and on June 30,1 conducted my final interview with Moore and interview (>£ • questions were sent to Moraes via email. Questions were asked regarding execution of the partnership, applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project, the success of the partnership, and the lessons learned. These interviews marked the end of Phase Three and of my T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Partnership study. 3.4 Methodological Approach: Step-by-Step Analysis My research questions were answered through collection and analysis of both technical and social data relevant to the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. During the abovedescribed three phases, I collected both technical data in my role as an energy consultant on the project and social data for my MA research project. The technical component refers to data collection and analysis related to the Skidegate INAC ecoENERGY project and technological aspects of the renewable energy systems of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project and their applicability to Skidegate's energy situation. The social component refers to the dynamics of the partnership between the two communities in executing this project. The methodologies I employed for collecting the technical energy baseline data in Skidegate are not considered in this thesis. However, energy information is summarized and analyzed briefly as it is relevant to determining the success of the partnership. The methodologies I employed for collecting the social data are explained below. The steps used to answer my research questions were as follows. 3.4. J Step 1: Characterize the organization and execution of the partnership Step 1 was to collect and analyze data in order to answer my first research question: How was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership organized and executed? I sought to identify 86 The expense and time of visiting Skidegate did not allow for a final interview in person. 41 how it originated, who the key actors were, what the key events were, what the costs involved were, and how the partnership was conducted overall. The purpose of this analysis was to provide necessary background for the project and partnership. A qualitative approach was chosen in this step. The methods employed were document analysis, analysis of emails shared between myself and the communities, participant observation notes recorded in a journal, and interviews. Three types of documents were analyzed: (1) documents related to renewable energy programs of the governments and NGOs that were involved in this partnership, (2) written proposals associated with the partnership or communities, and (3) my written reports resulting from the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. Email correspondence with the communities was frequent, as was participant observation note-taking, from September 2010 to June 2011. Interviews were conducted in January 2011. Interview questions are listed in Appendix C. Results of Step 1 are presented in Chapter 4. 3.4.2 Step 2: Summarize and characterize the technical elements of the partnership Step 2 was to collect and analyze data in order to answer my second research question: What was the degree of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation? In this step, the technical dimension of the partnership was characterized. This involved (1) outlining the essential elements of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project, (2) summarizing the technical energy data from the Skidegate ecoENERGY baseline Analysis, and (3) summarizing the relevance (i.e., transferability and applicability) of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to the Skidegate situation. Data were drawn primarily from documents related to the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project and the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis. The technical dimension is one element 42 determining the success of the partnership. Results of Step 2 are presented in Chapter 5. 3.4.4 Step 3: Analyze partnership success and determine lessons learned Step 3 was to collect and analyze data in order to answer my third research questions: Was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership successful? Why or why not? What lessons can be learned from the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership? Data from Step 2 was used to gauge the success level of the partnership. The necessary social relationship between T'Sou-ke and Skidegate was investigated primarily through semi-structured interviews with project participants. Additional data came from my participant observations recorded in a journal throughout the project, and document analysis. Both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate were aware of, and supported, my role as a participant observer. In particular, my observation notes and interviews provided insight into the inner-workings of the partnership. Interviews and observation notes were used to assess the social dimension of the partnership as well as to determine the success of the partnership. Interviewees included my Community Supervisor Moore and representatives of T'Sou-ke as chosen by Moore, and my Community Supervisor Moraes and representatives of Skidegate as chosen by Moraes. One interview was held with each community in each phase of the partnership. Interview participants were not constant throughout all phases. A total of six interviews were conducted. Table 3.1 lists the interviews for all three phases of the partnership. They were conducted in person with the exception of Moraes' interview in phase 3; this was conducted via email. 43 Phase of Partnership Phase One: Defining the Project and Defining Success (Sept 27-Jan 24) Phase Two: Implementing the Project and Interim Success (Jan 25- March 31) Phase Three: End of Project and Determination of Success (April 1-June 30) Table 3.1: Interviews Interview Date/Form Interviewees First Interview held with T'Sou-ke (Jan 13 in-person) Andrew Moore, Angie Bristol First Interview held with Skidegate (Jan 24 in-person) Second Interview held with T'Sou-ke (Feb 28 in-person) Trent Moraes, James Cowpar Andrew Moore, Elizabeth Planes Second Interview held with Skidegate (Jan 26 in-person) Third Interview held with T'Sou-ke (June 30 in-person) Trent Moraes, James Cowpar Andrew Moore Third Interview held with Skidegate (June 30 via email) Trent Moraes I used data from both the technical and social dimensions to identify factors that advanced or inhibited the partnership. As part of this step, I also extracted from my data, lessons learned. Results from Step 3 were the basis for making recommendations for how First Nations can develop and successfully carry out renewable energy partnerships; they are presented in Chapter 6. 3.5 Success Defined Success of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership was the central focus of my research. Thus, to understand my research results presented in the following chapters, it is necessary to understand how success was defined and evaluated. In this thesis, "success," relative to a socio-technical partnership designed for renewable energy development, is defined as making significant progress towards energy self-sufficiency. Thus, if both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate made significant strides towards energy self-sufficiency, as acknowledged by the communities, then the overall partnership would be judged a success. This definition was 44 based on discussions with both communities. Evaluation of success was based on my analysis of interview responses, participant observations notes, and documents relating to the communities of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate. 3.6 Conclusion The methodologies used to answer my three research questions were described in this chapter. The following Chapter 4 contains my answer to the first research question— How was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership organized and executed? Chapter 5 focuses on the technological component of the partnership and contains my answer to the second research question—What was the degree of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Energy Demonstration Project to Skidegate's energy situation? And the final Chapter 6 contains the answer to the third research questions—Was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership successful? Why or why not? What lessons can be learned from the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership that can apply to future partnerships? 45 CHAPTER 4: BACKGROUND ON THE T'SOU-KE-SKIDEGATE PARTNERSHIP 4.1 Introduction The T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership was one of the first of its kind among First Nations in BC. In this chapter, background is provided on this partnership. In Section 4.2, a brief overview of the history of First Nations in BC, including an introduction to the communities of both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate, is provided. In Section 4.2, the nature of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership is explained in the following order: (1) origins, (2) key participants, (3) funding, and (4) timeline. This section constitutes my answer to my first research question: How was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership organized and executed? A summary of results is provided in Section 4.3. 4.2 First Nations in BC In this section, I first provide an overview of the history of First Nations in BC so as to situate the communities that were the focus in this research, T'Sou-ke and Skidegate. I then provide a background on how T'Sou-ke Nation came to develop their T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. I then provide background information on Skidegate, explaining select recent events that led the community to their current position on energy. 4.2.1 Background on First Nations in British Columbia According to many First Nations, they have lived in the landscape now called "British Columbia" since time immemorial. However, a major transformation in their existence here began in the late 18th Century with the arrival of Europeans. This set in motion a long period of colonization. European colonization has been described as a process of "geographical incursion, sociocultural dislocation, the provision of low level social services, and finally the creation of ideological formulations around race and skin colour, 46 which position the colonizers at a higher evolutionary level than the colonized."87 The process began on the west coast of BC with the European fur trade. Europeans travelled by ship to the northwest coast in search of animal furs that were highly desired by the European elite. The explorers/traders brought goods that were foreign to aboriginal peoples, such as wool articles, firearms, metals, and alcohol, and they also brought diseases to which aboriginal peoples had no natural immunity.88 Rates of disease and death became depressingly high for aboriginal communities. Colonialism in BC took a dramatic turn in the mid-19th century when reserves and residential schools were established. In 1861, the Coqualeetza residential school opened in BC, the first of hundreds of residential schools to begin operations in western Canada.89 These schools were perceived as "a means to save aboriginal children from the insalubrious influences of home life on reserve."90 They were an attempt to assimilate aboriginal peoples into Western European culture.91 In 1864, the first reserves were established. The Douglas reserves in BC's lower mainland were the first to be settled in the Province.92 The 87Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and healing in British Columbia 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press,1999), xviii. 88 James Robert Muckle, The First Nations of British Columbia: An anthropological Perspective (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998), 60. 89 "Historical Timeline," Union of BC Indian Chiefs, accessed March 10, 2011, http://www.ubcic.bc.ca/Resources/timeline.htm#axzz1pEwEDCa7 90 Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and healing in British Columbia 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press,1999), 57 . 91 John S. Milloy, A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System 1879-1986 (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1999), 6,27,37. 92 "Historical Timeline," Union of BC Indian Chiefs, accessed March 10, 2011, http://www.ubcic.bc.ca/Resources/timeline.htm#axzzlpEwEIKa7 47 establishment of approximately 200 more reserves followed, in some cases only providing a few hectares of land for First Nations to live. For many aboriginal families in BC, the reserve system and residential schooling led to social and economic hardships due to a loss of traditional culture. In the first half of the 20th century, when residential schooling and reserves were strictly enforced, the aboriginal population reached its lowest point. But then, in Helm's words, "with sorrow came hope," and slowly First Nations began to rise again. 93 By the second half of the 20th century, some aboriginal leaders became more proactive in working to better the plight of their people. In 1949, Nisga'a Chief Frank Calder was the first aboriginal person to be elected to the BC legislature.94 And with this, a revitalization of First Nations peoples and culture began in BC. For example, in 1953, world renowned Kwakwaka'wakw95 carver, Mungo Martin, held the first legal potlatch96 in BC in the 20th century. Shortly after this time, First Nations in BC became participants in the modern resource-based economy such as the fishing and forestry industries. However, beginning in the 1990s, to the disappointment and distress of coastal First Nations, the fisheries industry started to slow. Dolan et al., refers to the overfishing of salmon on the west coast as a major contributing factor.97 And on a global scale, the Food and Agriculture 93 Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and healing in British Columbia 1900-50 (Vancouver:UBC Press, 1999), 3. 94Hanna Foster, Heather Raven and Jeremy Webber, Let Right be Done: Aboriginal Title, the Calder Case, and the Future of Indigenous Rights (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007), 219. 95 First Nations culture group located around northern Vancouver island 96 A potlatch is a traditional First Nations celebratory ceremony and feast. The Potlatch was made illegal in Canada in 1884 through an amendment to the Indian Act. The ban was not be lifted until 1953. 97 Holly Dolan et a\,.Restructuring and Health in Canadian Coastal Communities, EcoHealth 2, (2005), 198. 48 Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reported that at the beginning of the 1990s, 69% of the world's conventional fish species were, "fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, or rebuilding from a depleted state."98 The deceleration of the forest industry was also being felt by First Nations in BC through mill closures, such as the 2001 Skeena Cellulose pulp mill closure in Prince Rupert that resulted in a loss of over 1300 jobs, many of them held by First Nations people." As a result of the declines and challenges faced in these industries in the province, many First Nations have recently sought to increase community sustainability and self-sufficiency. Such is the situation with both the T'Sou-ke and Skidegate communities. Below I provide an introduction, focusing on their efforts to achieve selfsufficiency and pursue new economic opportunities. 4.2.2 Introduction to T'Sou-ke Nation T'Sou-ke Nation is located on Vancouver Island, approximately 30 km northwest of the city of Victoria (Figure 1.1). Approximately 200 T'Sou-ke Nation members live on the reserve that until recently thrived off the fishery and forestry industries. With the decline of these industries, T'Sou-ke recognized they had to reinvent themselves. In 2008, they began development of their T'Sou-ke Comprehensive Community Plan (CCP). CCP development involved all members of the community; elders, youth, and family representatives all provided input on community needs, values, and priorities.100 98 Parliament of Canada, "World Fisheries: the Current Crisis, 1997," (public report, Parliamentary Information and research Service: Science and Technology Driven, 2007). 99 Holly Dolan et d\,.Restructuring and Health in Canadian Coastal Communities, EcoHealth 2, (2005), 198. i°° j'Sou.ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), 5. 49 The first phase of the T'Sou-ke planning process lasted approximately two years, from 2007-2009, supported by funds from the ENAC First Nations Infrastructure Fund and the British Columbia Capacity Initiative (BCCI). From this, a Vision emerged. As Chief Gordon Planes commented, "Unless you have your own vision, you will always be a part of someone else's vision."101 In the visioning stage, each member was asked, "If you had the power to improve your community, what would you do?" t (Y) A Vision in Progress team, locally referred to as the VIP team, consisted of 12 community members. The team represented all families on the reserve; they posted progress on the Band Hall notice board to encourage others to take part in the process. Members met every three weeks for the first year and received a $30 honorarium to participate in each meeting. Using a CCP Handbook from INAC as a guide, the team members were also asked, "How sustainable do you think our community is?" The VIP team spent much time looking at options for the community. From these, one choice became clear—pursuing an energy secure future, "Facing climate change and increasing global oil prices, we knew that we wanted to become energy selfsufficient, and to not have to rely on the grid for power for evermore."103 With a new T'Sou-ke vision of sustainability, the community next moved to deciding what renewable projects to implement. Solar energy seemed like a natural fit because one of T'Sou-ke's staff had previous experiences with solar technology.104 Also, it is perceived by the renewable energy industry to be the easiest technology for people and communities with 101 Ibid. 6 102 Ibid. 7 103 Ibid. 9 104 Ibid. 12 50 little experience in energy technology to understand. It could also come with training opportunities in installation and maintenance for band members, providing economic development opportunities, "The Fishing industry ain't what it used to be, so this gives us new skills and a new economic option."105 Eventually, the $400,000 from the BC ICE Fund allowed T'Sou-ke to implements its Solar Community Project.106 4.2.3 Introduction to Skidegate The village of Skidegate is located on the southeast corner of Graham Island, in Haida Gwaii, BC (See Figure 4.1). According to Band Manager Barbara Stevens, Skidegate's social assistance is high for the community of approximately 1080 residents.107 Stevens believes, "one way to alleviate the high social assistance is to reduce energy costs through a reduction in consumption, and by eliminating the use of diesel to generate electricity, doing so by creating jobs and training opportunities for band members in the alternative energy industry."108 Creating jobs is of crucial importance to Skidegate because, like T'Sou-ke, the community has been negatively affected by the decline of the forestry and fishery industries in the past decade. Skidegate's online welcome page explains, 105 Rick Underwood (T'Sou-ke Solar Installer), in informal discussion with the author, T'Sou-ke, October 12, 2010. 106 T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), 15. 107 Skidegate Band Council. "Comprehensive Community Development Plan," (prepared report, Skidegate Band Council), 1. 108 Barbara Steven (Skidegate Band Manager), words in the proposal submitted to INAC, Skidegate, September 30, 2010. 51 "Commercial fishing and logging, once the main sources of employment, are slowly being replaced with ecotourism and cultural-related work." 109 Skidegate is not the only First Nation on Haida Gwaii feeling the negative effects of the unsustainable fishing and logging practices that started in the 20th century and continues to this day. The Village of Old Massett, located 100 km north of Skidegate on Haida Gwaii, has also been negatively affected. Skidegate and Old Massett are the only First Nations villages located on Haida Gwaii, and together they are represented by the Council of the Haida Nations (CHN).110 In 2007, the CHN, knowing the importance of ecotourism to the islands, decided to commission a report with BC Hydro to investigate the island's energy situation and possible solutions for making energy generation more efficient, less costly, and possibly free from carbon emissions. The Haida Community Energy Plan (CEP), released in 2008, provided an analysis of the island population's energy usage, and included several other communities and towns in addition to the two First Nations. The report recommended options for improvement. In the report, the feasibility of solar hot water is mentioned, for example: 109 "Visiting Skidegate," Skidegate Band Council, accessed October 30, 2010, http://www.skidegate.ca/Pages/VisitingSkg.html. 110 The CHN website describes the itself: "The Council of the Haida Nation was formed in 1974 by a handful of people with a vision to organize Haida people into one political entity. Part of the vision was a clear mandate to settle land claims." The CHN is comprised of Regional Representatives who are elected by the Haida Citizens in each of those regions, four (4) representatives from Skidegate and Massett and two (2) representatives from Prince Rupert and Vancouver. There are also seats for representatives from the Skidegate and Old Massett Band Councils. For more information see http://www.haidanation.ca/. 52 Solar Hot Water Heating System Almost 75% of homes heat their water using electricity. Provide incentives for homeowners to install solar hot water heating systems for electrically heated hot water. It is proposed that BC Hydro pay 90 per cent of the full cost of the system to encourage uptake.111 Following the report, Old Massett and Skidegate, and the entire island began to get excited about renewable energy options. In 2010, Old Massett Village Council (OMVC) submitted an unsuccessful funding application to the FBC Remote Community Implementation (RCI) program, the same program Old Massett and Skidegate successfully applied to in May 2011. Skidegate was also keen; for instance, in 2008 they investigated geothermal energy technologies for their new Haida Heritage Centre. 112 The Centre was a centerpiece in Haida Gwaii's eco-tourism initiative, and the geothermal system demonstrated their commitment to renewable energy. It was a first step toward making Skidegate a sustainable community. 4.3 Organization and execution of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership From the above introduction, it is clear that before their partnership developed both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate shared a commitment to development of renewable energy. In this section, the origin, organization, and execution of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership is described. I identified four key components of the partnership: its origins, funding, key participants, and project timeline. Each is described below. 111 Council of the Haida Nation and Sheltair Group, "Haida Gwaii Community Electricity Plan," Prepared report, Sheltair Group, Haida Gwaii, BC, 2008, 5-18. 1,2 The Haida Heritage Centre at K'aay Llnagaay Centre (locally referred to as the K'aay Centre) in Skidegate, is a world renowned and award winning museum that includes a priceless collection of Haida Art as well as tours and activities. More information can be found at http://www.haidaheritagecentre.com/home.html. 53 4.3.1 Origins In Chapter 1, part of the story of how the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project originated was discussed. I pick up the storyline again here. To determine the origins of the partnership I analyzed all of my email correspondences with the communities from August to October 2010. T'Sou-ke renewable energy goals were: (1) reduce T'Sou-ke Nation's energy consumption and energy costs, (2) demonstrate for all BC First Nations how they too could progress toward energy autonomy, particularly for those nations that were off-grid, (3) reduce greenhouse gas emission, and (4) ensure First Nations resiliency. The second goal inspired my research. After being accepted by Andrew Moore and T'Sou-ke Nation to work with their community for the completion of my Master's program, emails and meetings between myself and Moore became common. I decided in early September 2010 to begin the hunt to find out how I could apply the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to remote First Nations. In September 2010, upon Moore's instruction, I began investigating the IN AC ecoENERGY Program.113 On the IN AC website, I noticed that their ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis funding opportunity could possibly help T'Sou-ke achieve their second goal. Moore agreed. We therefore set out to find a community that was interested in partnering with T'Sou-ke. Moore's first suggestion, a remote band located in the interior of BC, proved unsuccessful as they had already participated in an INAC ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis. However, through my contacts at the FNTC, I was put in touch with the Skidegate Band through Sue Hanley, coordinator at FNTC, who wanted to be active in "partnering 113 The program was a Canada-wide initiative for Aboriginal and Northern communities, designed to improve the energy efficiency of communities as well as their overall capacity development. 54 communities." I was put in touch with the Skidegate Band Manager, Barbara Stevens. Skidegate's goals, as identified by Stevens, were to alleviate their high social assistance by reducing energy costs through the replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy that could be installed and maintained by their own Band members, Stevens and I together successfully applied for $15,000 in funding from the INAC ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis on October 1, 2010. In summary, before the partnership began, T'Sou-ke and Skidegate shared similar goals regarding renewable energy. T'Sou-ke wanted to demonstrate how renewable energy could assist a remote community toward energy autonomy, and Skidegate, a remote community, was looking for new economic development opportunities that could reduce their high social assistance, thus allowing them greater autonomy from the federal government. Both communities aimed for First Nations self-sufficiency, and this partnership represented a step in that direction. Thus, the partnership originated due to fortuitous timing and the energy and enthusiasm of several individuals who were keen on partnering communities for achieving energy self-sufficiency. 4.3.3 Funding The ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis grant was received from INAC in October 2010. The expenditures are shown in Table 4.1. The funds were deposited with the Skidegate Band Council account in November 2010.1, with Moraes as my supervisor, managed these funds. 55 Table 4.1: INAC Funding Expenditure Details Funds Expenditure Details: Report on the actual project expenses vs. the project costs estimated in the original project proposal to ecoENERGY1 Project task Estimated cost1 Actual cost Salaries and wages: Youth Apprenticeship $500.00 Youth-apprentice #1: $250 Youth-apprentice #2: $250 Travel $6,300.00 Travel: $6,870.00 Professional fess $8,000.00 $7430 Operating Cost (honoraria for participants in Housing survey) $200.00 Gwaii Co-op: $200.00 TOTAL $15,000.00 $15,000.00 1 As described in project budget section of approved ecoENERGY proposal. Initially, the majority of professional fees were to be used to hire an outside consulting firm. In November 2010,1 spoke with the Pembina Institute, a nationally recognized environmental organization that performs consulting duties, regarding the cost of having them involved in the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis. The Pembina Institute offered a quote for assisting in the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis that was consistent with their rates. However, after discussing with Moore, Nitya Harris of Solar BC, and colleagues at the Ministry of Energy and Mines, I decided that I could perform the analysis myself with T'Sou-ke's help, resulting in lower costs which permitted a greater portion of funds to be used for T'SEG's visit to Skidegate. Moore decided that it was in my best interest to act as an employee of T'Sou-ke and by doing this T'Sou-ke was paid the consulting fees, which were approximately half the cost of the quote received by the 56 Pembina Institute. All of the money paid to T'Sou-ke, besides my fee, went towards T'SEG operations, in addition to honoraria offered to T'Sou-ke's Chief Planes. To assure the ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis was to professional standards, I arranged for an engineer to perform a third party review of the final report. Other expenditures included paying two Skidegate youth to carry out the housing surveys, and honoraria of a $10 co-op card was offered to those Skidegate residents who participated in the surveys. Travel was the second largest expenditure next to professional fees, this amount slightly increased from the original proposal by $570, because of late bookings. In summary, the INAC funds were crucial to the formation and implementation of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. They were used for a T'SEG visit to Skidegate for the Skidegate Conservation workshop, lending to the positive social progression of the partnership. In addition, the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis report was the basis for successful capital funding applications to FBC and Solar BC for the Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project. 4.3.2 Key Participants From the beginning it was known that creating a partnership between two communities required a dedicated representative from each community. Each of my community supervisors, Andrew Moore of T'Sou-ke and Trent Moraes of Skidegate, possessed a thorough knowledge of their communities, and thus ensured the partnership was directed in a fashion that was acceptable to all community members. Thankfully, community support for this partnership was established prior to the initiation of this project, through 57 previous community visioning efforts, e.g. the T'Sou-ke Renewable Energy Toolkit and the Haida CEP. As partnership facilitator, I spent on average seven to eight hours per week from September to June 2011 on the project. The time spent by Moore from September to June 2011 is estimated to be approximately one hour per week. The time spent by Moraes from September to June 2011 is estimated to be two to three hours per week. In addition to Moore, Moraes, and myself, a total of 11 other individuals or organizations were identified as key participants throughout the active organizing and executing of the T'Sou-keSkidegate partnership. Table 4.2 lists the key participants and their role in the partnership. Table 4.2: T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Partnership Key Participants Community/Organization Key Participant Name(s) T'Sou-ke Nation Andrew Moore Community Planner, Project Supervisor Skidegate Band Trent Moraes Housing Coordinator, Project Supervisor Skidegate Band Barbara Stevens Band Manager, partnership initiator T'Sou-ke Nation Chief Gordon Planes Chief Councilor, authorized partnership Skidegate Band Chief Councilor Robert Mills Chief Councilor, authorized partnership T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group (T'SEG) Angie Bristol, and Elizabeth Planes Eco-Kids workshop facilitators Solar BC Nitya Harris Mentor to T'Sou-ke and partnership supporter Fraser Basin Council (FBC) FBC partnership supporter Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) MEM T'Sou-ke funders and partnership supporter Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) INAC Funded partnership 58 Role Old Massett Village Council Patricia Moore, Kristen Schulberg Solar energy supporters and joined partnership in May 2011 Relative to the identified key participants, my role as both a consultant to the communities during its formation and execution, and as a researcher of the partnership, was explained in Chapter 1. Barbara Stevens, Andrew Moore, and Trent Moraes' roles were also explained, as was INAC's role as a funder. The T'SEG's role was to conduct an Eco-Kids workshop in Skidegate. And the key participants identified as supporters of the partnership offered moral as well as in-kind support. Nitya Harris, professional engineer from Solar BC, visited Skidegate with me in March 2011 to perform a solar feasibility test and select appropriate homes and buildings for solar hot water system installation. FBC offered moral support and encouraged our applications to the FBC RCI program and the FBC Solar Mentorship Program. The Ministry of Energy and Mines pointed me in the direction of the Haida CEP in November 2010, and employed the engineer who performed the third party review of my Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis prior to submitting it to INAC. Lastly, OMVC joined the partnership in May 2011. Figure 4.1, demonstrates the interconnectedness and level of involvement of the key participants. 59 Figure 4.1: Key particpants in the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Partnership Fraser Basil Council Patricia Moore, Economic Development Officer of the OMVC, had been investigating solar energy potential for two years prior. Patricia continually sent me relevant solar data she had already collected, which was used in helping determine the feasibility of solar power in both Skidegate and Old Massett. In February 2010, Patricia Moore asked the new OMVC Housing Coordinator, Kristen Schulberg, to continue the project with Skidegate's support. In May 2011, OMVC and Skidegate submitted a successful joint application to the FBC RCI program for the Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project. 60 In summary, even though there were few participants involved in the partnership, those who were involved were absolutely vital to the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership's success. Due to a variety of reasons, such as community priorities, the relatively small amount of time investment required by my community supervisors in the project, and the obvious acceptance of a project of this nature by the community, greater community involvement was not encouraged by my community supervisors. Also, for a large size community like Skidegate, it was a relatively small project. However, each Chief Band Councillor supported it, and a Band Council Resolution from each community was passed. 4.3.4 Timeline To determine the sequence of major events in the partnership, I analyzed my participant observation notes and all emails related to the project from September to June 2011. A total of 14 events were identified as key events in the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. Table 4.3 lists these events as project milestones, the tasks related to them, and the participants involved. Table 4.3 Project Milestones in the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Partnership Partnership Milestones Submit successful proposal to INAC Tasks • Write proposal • Gain at least 2 Skidegate Band Councilor signatures on proposal Gain formal support by Chief Planes to pursue partnership • Write letter to Chief Planes, requesting his approval of partnership, cc Band Manager Have successful first meeting with • I visited Skidegate on T'Sou-ke's behalf and 61 Participants Sarah Ozog • Barbara Stevens • Consent by Andrew Moore • Sarah Ozog • Andrew Moore • Chief Planes • Sarah Ozog • Barbara • Completion Date October 1, 2010 November 2010 December 15, 2010 Skidegate Plan and confirm T'SEG Eco-kids workshop in Skidegate Have Chief Councilors' discuss plans for T'SEG visit met Stevens as well as my community supervisor Trent Moraes, as chosen by her • Discuss informal contract and partnership plans Contact schools Plan budget Get approval from T'Souke for budget (as expenditures were reimbursed by Skidegate) • Book travel and accommodation • Prepare materials • Design agenda • Write letter to Chief Planes updating him on partnership progress and plans • Have T'Sou-ke Chief Planes phone Skidegate Chief Councilor Mills inperson • • • • • • • • • • • • • Stevens Trent Moraes Informal contract reviewed by Andrew Moore Sarah Ozog Andrew Moore Trent Moraes Skidegate school principle Angie Bristol Elizabeth Planes Sarah Ozog Andrew Moore January 15, 2011 January 16, 2011 Perform Conservation presentation at Skidegate Band Council Present power point presentation on select energy data/potential plans Present T'Sou-ke video on their project Angie to present T'Souke Conservation Program Sarah Ozog Trent Moraes Angie Bristol Elizabeth Planes Skidegate Band Council Members OMVC(as invited by Trent Moraes) CHN members (as invited by Trent Moraes January 24, 2011 Perform Eco-Kids workshop Follow agenda Receive testimonials from teachers for T'SEG to use in marketing Angie Bristol Elizabeth Planes Sarah Ozog Trent Moraes January 25,2011 62 Collect energy data while in Skidegate Test solar feasibility Submit successful ecoENERGY Baseline project to INAC Attend Skidegate Band Council Open House Submit successful FBC Solar Mentorship application for Skidegate Submit successful FBC Solar Mentorship Application for Old Massett Submit successful FBC RCI project application for Skidegate and Old Massett • Go through and sum all 2010 electricity bills of Band Administration buildings • Assess home heat situation • Prepare Skidegate Housing Survey 2011 Carry-out Skidegate Housing Survey Hire contractor to perform RetScreen analysis • Sarah Ozog January 26,2011 Sarah Ozog Trent Moraes Dana Moraes Nitya Harris Island Energy"4 Sarah Ozog MEM (third party review performed) March 12, 2011 Sarah Ozog Trent Moraes April 9,2011 Trent Moraes Sarah Ozog April 15,2011 Prepare proposal and • send to applicant from the community for them to • submit Kristen Schulburg Sarah Ozog April 15,2011 Have communities agree to work together on a joint project/submission Prepare proposal for Skidegate Prepare proposal for Old Massett Sarah Ozog Trent Moraes Kristen Shulbert MEM FBC Island Energy May 16,2011 Submit Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis Submit INAC ecoENERGY Baseline project Summary Report • Poster board for partnership/ project • Engage with community residents on project • Prepare proposal and send to applicant from the community for them to submit March 31, 2011 114 Island Energy was the chosen contractor to perform the RetScreen analysis as well as installations involved in the Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project. Island Energy is located in Victoria, BC. More information can be found at www.islandenergyinc.com/. 63 The 14 project milestones were not all necessarily part of the original plan in the beginning of the partnership in September 2010; instead, most emerged organically as the partnership progressed. These events contributed to both the technical and social aspects of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. Section 6.3 of this thesis explains in greater detail the important social interactions that took place between T'Sou-ke and Skidegate throughout the partnership. The purpose of table 4.3 is to provide a clear overview of the sequence of events that took place. In summary, other than the submission of the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis deadline of March 31,2011 decided by EN AC, all project milestones were decided by T'Sou-ke and Skidegate., The community supervisors suggested project next-steps to me as facilitator of the partnership. Without the communities' agreement through discussion and dialogue, though, achieving project milestones could not have occurred. 4.4 Summary of Results In this chapter, I presented the origins, organization, and timeline of the partnership, and answered my first research questions: How was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership organized and executed? After presenting background history of First Nations in BC and introduced the communities of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate, I discussed the four key components of the partnership necessary to understand it: origins, funding, key participants and timeline. An alignment of community goals—in this case both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate shared the goal of energy self-sufficiency—and identifying an individual aware of each community's goals was crucial to the origins of the partnership. In this case, Sue Hanley 64 knew both of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate's goals and took it upon her-self to introduce the two communities with the hopes of a partnership forming. The $15,000 in funding received by Skidegate from the IN AC ecoENERGY program was important in the execution of the partnership. All funds used for travel were crucial in the execution of the partnership; however professional fees were considered a bonus, Moore explained that if there were no additional funds, T'Sou-ke would still perform the T'SEG Eco-Kids Workshop in other communities as part of their usual program. In addition, honoraria to participants and Chief Planes was an important function of the funds as this demonstrated the desire to continue the cultural traditions of First Nations cultural practices and their working together. Key participants were identified by myself, Moore and Moraes as influential in the organization and execution of the partnership. It is expected that without these participants, the proposal to the FBC RCI program would have been unsuccessful. Success of the proposal helps both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate progress toward their goal of energy self-sufficiency. T'Sou-ke was able to build on the success of their own project by showing another First Nation how to progress toward energy self-sufficiency and Skidegate through the approved proposed FBC RCI project was one step closer in getting there. The project timeline, in this case for T'Souke-Skidegate partnership continually changed and evolved. The milestones identified in the timeline were based on the three other project criteria identified in this section: origins, funding, and key participants. However several milestones were identified as being most important for the successful facilitation of this partnership. First, a successful funding application allowed for travel of one community to the other. Second, the Chief and Councillors discussing the partnership and approving of its goals was important to continue cultural practices and ensure good relations. Third, the Conservation workshop put on by 65 T'SEG in T'Sou-ke was very important to T'Sou-ke's goals of teaching other communities about conservation. Lastly, the successful application submitted by Skidegate to the FBC further exemplified the applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to the community of Skidegate. Now that a picture of the organization and execution of the partnership has been constructed, I turn to the technical applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to the remote community of Skidegate. This is the focus of the next chapter. 66 CHAPTER 5: TECHNICAL COMPONENT OF THE T'SOU-KE-SKIDEGATE PARTNERSHIP 5.1 Introduction In this chapter, I assess whether the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership was successful in relation to its technical dimension. As discussed in Chapter 3, partnership success is defined as achieving significant progress toward energy self-sufficiency. Determining technical success was premised on answering my second research question: What was the degree of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation? Data for making a rigorous and sound judgement of the degree of applicability were drawn primarily from documents related to the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project and the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis. The applicability of each of three components of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project are discussed: (1) Conservation Program, (2) Solar Hot Water Systems, and (3) Solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems. In Section 5.2, the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project is discussed, and in Section 5.3 the Skidegate Baseline Energy Analysis is outlined. This positioned me to determine applicability, which is the subject of Section 5.4. The chapter ends with a summary of results. 5.2 T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project The T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project was designed to be potentially applicable to other communities. It consisted of three components. The first was an on-going energy conservation program that is now headed by the T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group (T'SEG). The second was installation of solar hot water systems in 38 homes as well as the training of nine band members in installation and maintenance of solar systems. The third was a solar PV demonstration project which included three different applications of solar PV systems. 67 T'Sou-ke was awarded $400,000 in capital funding from the BC government's ICE Fund. T'Sou-ke used this to leverage an additional $850,000 from 16 different sources (see Appendix D for a list). The cost of the Conservation Program was $150,000; the cost of the Solar Hot Water Program was $300,000; and the cost of the Solar PV Demonstration Project was approximately $800,000. To understand the technical aspects of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project, I relied mainly on the T'Sou-ke Solar Community's Renewable Energy Toolkit.115 In addition, I have taken several personal tours of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project with Andrew Moore. Each of the three components of the project is discussed below. 5.2.1 Conservation Program Energy conservation was initially not a high priority in T'Sou-ke's renewable energy plan. However, they quickly learned that without a conservation program, "all of that great renewable energy you produce goes right out the leaky windows."116 T'Sou-ke's Conservation Program had two components: (1) reducing energy through behavioural changes and (2) reducing energy through small technical changes to existing buildings' energy systems, and structural components. To promote conservation-oriented behavioural changes, the T'Sou-ke Centre for Sustainable Living established the T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group (T'SEG) (see Figure 5.1). T'SEG encouraged community residents to, for example, turn off their lights and electronics when not in use, and bundle up instead of turn up the heat. They also designed an Eco-Kids 115 TSou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010). 116 Andrew Moore (T'Sou-ke Community Planner) in interview with the author, T'Sou-ke, January 16, 2011. 68 workshop to teach children aged six to ten that energy-use is directly connected to pollution and the quality of nature. T'Sou-ke estimated (based on electricity and heating bills), that behavioural changes resulted in a 10% reduction in electricity use.117 Encouraging behavioural change was identified by T'Sou-ke as being the cheapest way to conserve energy. Figure 5.1 The T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group (T'SEG) Source: T'Sou-ke Renewable Energy Toolkit (2010); used with permission. Performing relatively small technical changes to existing buildings' energy systems was identified by T'Sou-ke as another cheap way to reduce energy and its carbon footprint.118 T'Sou-ke had 86 home energy audits performed by the non-profit organization City Green Solutions.119 The organization tested for air leakage through windows, doors, 1,7 TSou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, TSou-ke Nation, 2010). 16. 118 TSou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, TSou-ke Nation, 2010).26. 1,9 City Green Solutions is the only BC non-profit that provides home energy audits for the 69 and electrical outlets in addition to determining if more insulation could be added to the walls. City Green Solutions identified options to seal up the "envelope" of the house. Other small technical applications included wrapping hot water pipes in foam, wrapping hot water tanks in blankets, and using low flow shower heads. Linda Bristol, T'Sou-ke member and founding member of the Vision in Progress, explained: While conservation alone offers great savings, it is even better when it is combined with renewable power production. After all, electricity for a light bulb and running appliances still has to come from somewhere. When we noticed that our hard-won electricity was literally flying out a poorly insulated window or being wasted by lights left on in an empty room, we were even more motivated to conserve what we had.120 The most important lesson learned by T'Sou-ke was the value and importance of conservation and the logic of instituting conservation first before other measures were implemented. "We did this backwards", says Andrew Moore, referring to T'Sou-ke's experience of installing expensive renewable energy systems first before realizing the importance of conservation.121 One reason T'Sou-ke desired to pursue mentorships was to convey that energy conservation must be a community's first step in any renewable energy project. ecoENERGY retrofit homes program in BC. For more information, see their website (http://www.citygreen.ca/). 120 T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), 17. 121 Andrew Moore (T'Sou-ke Community Planner) in interview with the author, T'Sou-ke, January 25, 2011. 70 5.2.2 Solar Hot Water Program T'Sou-ke's Solar Hot Water Program was the second major component of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. Once funding was approved, T'Sou-ke put out a call to all band members to see who was interested in receiving solar hot water systems on their homes. Over one-half of the community responded. Solar hot water systems were installed in a total of 38 residences. T'Sou-ke hopes all 86 homes on the reserve will eventually have solar hot water systems. Figure 5.2 shows a solar hot water installation in T'Sou-ke. Figure 5.2 Solar Hot Water System Installation in T'Sou-ke Source: T'Sou-ke Renewable Energy Toolkit (2010); used with permission In addition to solar hot water system installations in the 38 houses, a training and certification program for T'Sou-ke band members took place. Nine T'Sou-ke Band members 71 (representing 5% of the T'Sou-ke population) have been trained in solar installation and maintenance. This represents a new economic opportunity for those who were previously dependent on employment from the forestry and fishery industries. These members are now employed by T'Sou-ke and at the time of this writing are installing solar hot water systems for the Solar Colwood project. Colwood is a nearby community that was inspired by the success of T'Sou-ke's program. Colwood developed their own Solar Colwood project and in 2010 was awarded funds by NRCan (Natural Resources Canada) to implement it. The $12 million project involves the installation of approximately 1500 solar hot water installations, a solar PV demonstration project at the local fire station, and as well a conservation program. T'Sou-ke learned that solar hot water systems were more cost effective than solar PV systems, in part because the mechanical components of solar hot water systems are cheaper. For the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project, T'Sou-ke Nation invested 10% of the total projects costs, at current electricity prices however, if T'Sou-ke had paid 100% of the solar hot water system costs, they believe the money saved could pay for the cost of the system well before the expected lifetime of the system,122 approximately 20-40 years.123 However, no formal cost-benefit analysis was performed. 5.2.3 Solar PV Demonstration Project T'Sou-ke's Solar PV Demonstration Project was the third major component of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. T'Sou-ke's three solar PV systems were intended to 122 Jessica Bekker, "Power Production, Emission and Financial Analysis for T'Sou-ke Nation's Photovoltaic Demonstration Project" (prepared paper, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2009), 74. 123 "Learn about Solar Hot Water," Solar BC, accessed June 1, 2011, http://www.solarbc.ca/learn. demonstrate three different applications of solar PV technology. Their largest solar PV system was a large, detached solar PV array designed to demonstrate "selling surplus clean energy to BC Hydro"124 is called their Grid-Tied Feed-In Tariff System (see Figure 5.3). This system ties into the provincial electrical grid and T'Sou-ke sells produced electricity to BC Hydro. Figure 5.3 T'Sou-ke Solar PV grid-tied Feed-in Tariff System and the T'Sou-ke Solar Installers Source: T'Sou-ke Renewable Energy Toolkit (2010); used with permission The remaining two solar PV applications were each installed on the roof of their community building. One, called the Off-Grid System produces electricity with solar PV panels but also uses electricity purchased from BC Hydro as a back-up. This system is designed to simulate a diesel generating system that is used as back-up energy in off-grid 124 T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: TSou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), Appendix D. 73 remote communities. The other application, called the Emergency Battery Back-up Net Zero System, sells solar electricity to BC Hydro through the grid when a suiplus is generated but buys electricity when there is not enough solar power is produced by the system. According to the T'Sou-ke Renewable Energy Toolkit, "By the end of the year the cost of power consumed is offset by the power sold back to the hydro grid, potentially resulting in a hydro bill of $0 (Net Zero)".125 Overall, the T'Sou-ke Solar PV Demonstration Project provided a wealth of lessons for T'Sou-ke that they hope other communities could learn from. These lessons (advantages and disadvantages of using solar PV) are as follows:126 Advantages included: • silent electricity generation (i.e. very little noise is generated by this method of electricity production) • environmentally friendly (i.e. no air pollutants or GHGs are generated by the system) • self-autonomous power production (i.e. reducing dependence on an outside company (BC Hydro) to provide power to the community in addition to reducing dependence on the federal government to fund their energy costs). Disadvantages included: • high start-up costs • intermittent production depending on sunshine 125 T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: TSou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), 17. 126 T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: TSou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), Appendix D. 74 • storage batteries need maintenance and periodic replacement (for the Off-Grid System). In the end, T'Sou-ke concluded that solar PV is not at present a cost effective option for non-remote community electricity generation in the province of BC. The high initial cost of solar PV and the relative low cost of electricity in BC, makes it difficult for Solar PV to be economically feasible.127 Furthermore, when a surplus of electricity is produced which T'Sou-ke sells back to BC Hydro, BC Hydro only pays $0.08/kWh, which is the same price T'Sou-ke pays for electricity from BC Hydro.128 For solar PV to be cost effective, this feedin-tariff rate must be significantly higher so that the solar PV system can be paid off with the energy savings, before the system expires. For the second application, the Off-Grid System, T'Sou-ke learned that it is most important to engage in energy conservation before installation of solar PV systems. Also, this system has not produced sufficient electricity for the building; however, it could be used in conjunction with other renewable energy sources such as micro-hydro or geothermal. For the third application of solar PV, the Emergency Battery Back-up Net Zero System, T'Souke also learned that extensive conservation measures must be taken prior to installation of , solar systems. 129 127 Ibid., 12 128 Ibid., 1 129 T'Sou-ke Nation, "Renewable Energy Toolkit: T'Sou-Ke Solar Project," (unpublished report, T'Sou-ke Nation, 2010), Appendix D. 75 5.2.4 Summary In summary, the three components of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community ProjectConservation Program, the Solar Hot Water Program, and Solar PV Demonstration Project—each provided valuable lessons potentially useful to other First Nation communities. The Conservation Program was clearly identified as the most crucial component to the success of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. The Solar Hot Water Program was identified as not only cost feasible but also led to unexpected economic opportunities, such as community members being trained and certified in solar hot water system installation. The Solar PV Demonstration Project installation was deemed to be uneconomical for other communities in BC connected to the major hydro electrical grid, however the Off-Grid System is projected to be a viable system, to be used in conjunction with other renewable energy sources, especially for remote community buildings relying 100% on diesel generated electricity. These lessons were conveyed to Skidegate as the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership progressed. 5.3 Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis In this section, the results of the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis130 are presented. These results were used to test the applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to the remote community of Skidegate. The Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis took place from December 2010 to March 2011. A variety of information 130 Sarah Ozog, "Skidegate Energy Baseline Analysis," (prepared report, Skidegate Band Council, 2011). 76 sources were used for the analysis and are listed in the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Energy Analysis bibliography.131 For a thorough analysis of Skidegate's energy baseline to be performed, it was necessary to have a housing survey conducted. The Skidegate Housing Survey was managed by the Skidegate Housing Coordinator and two youth apprentices. A prior study, the Skidegate Housing Inventory,132 identified 346 homes in Skidegate and 30 out of the 346 houses were chosen at random for the Skidegate Housing Survey. The survey included questions pertaining to energy consumption, electricity, heat and hot water use, and improvements that occupants desired to see made to their home; in addition, an on-site inspection of the mechanical equipment in the houses was conducted. A copy of the Skidegate Housing Survey questions is included as Appendix E. The ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis was designed to answer four questions: (1) how much energy was used in Skidegate in 2010, (2) how was power generated in Skidegate in 2010, (3) how much GHG emissions were produced in Skidegate in 2010, and (4) what was the total annual cost of diesel-generated electricity for Skidegate Administration buildings in 2010. The answers to these questions were crucial in testing the transferability and applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate. In the rest of this section, this assessment is discussed. All numerical data in this section are from the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis133 unless otherwise stated. 131 Ibid. 132 Skidegate Band Council, "Skidegate Housing Inventory 2008/2009" (prepared report, Skidegate Band Office, 2009). 133 Sarah Ozog, "Skidegate Energy Baseline Analysis," (prepared report, Skidegate Band Council, 2011). 77 How much energy was used in Skidegate in 2010? Assessing how much energy the community used helped determine what conservation measures were already in place through a comparison of their annual average consumption per residence to other residences in the same region; all electricity information was provided by BC Hydro. Table 5.1 summarizes Skidegate's 2010 total annual consumption and average annual consumption per residence. The average annual consumption per residence in 2010 for the northern region of BC was 10,600 kWh, and for all of BC was 11,000 kWh.134 Skidegate's average annual consumption per residence was 2429 kWh more than the average annual residential consumption of other homes in the northern region of BC in 2010. This 10-20% difference in average annual consumption per residence implies that Skidegate could be conserving more energy than what they were.135 Poor housing construction could account for some of their relatively high average load. However, in 2009 BC Hydro ESK Kits were installed in all homes in Skidegate accounting for an approximate 5-10% reduction in energy consumption.136 These kits are designed to conserve electricity through the use of Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFLs), hot water pipe wrap, low flow shower heads, electrical power saving bars, and weather stripping too keep 134 "Conservation Rate Frequently Asked Questions." Province of BC, BC Hydro, accessed March 4, 2011. https://www.bchydro.com/youraccount/content/conservation_rate_faqs.jsp. 135 Skidegate's economy and social life were taken into account in this implication. For example communities that rely more on technology, Silicone Valley in California for instance, require more electricity than other communities. Skidegate's economy and social life were considered to be no more dependent on technology than most other communities in the northern region of BC. 136 BC Hydro ESK Kits are offered free to all low income BC Hydro customers in BC. For more information see: http://www.bchydro.com/powersmart/residential/ps_low_income/energy_saving_kits.html? WT.mc_id=freekit 78 the heat in. In addition to this information, the Skidegate Housing Coordinator was well aware of what other conservation measures had already taken place in Skidegate homes. Skidegate concluded from this information that more energy conservation measures could be taken and with this determined that T'Sou-ke's Conservation Program, both its behaviour and technical aspects, was applicable to Skidegate. Table 5-1: BC Hydro Skidegate Energy Demand Data, 2010 Sector Residential Primary Heating Type #of Service Locations Annual Consumpti on (kWh) Electrical NonElectrical 100 1,602,304 Average Annual Consumption per residence (kWh) 16,023 246 2,905,631 11,812 346 4,507,935 13,029 Residential Total In addition to electricity, heating sources for both space heat, water, and vehicle fuel are other components of a community's energy use. Space heat in Skidegate varies. In some homes more than one source of heat is used. As shown in Table 5.1,100 of the 346 residences use electricity as a primary heating source, typically electric baseboards. If electricity is not a primary heating source it is still sometimes used as a secondary heating source, for example having one space heater in the living room where a family spends most of their time. Other heating sources used in Skidegate were oil, propane, and wood. For Skidegate, residences and Band operated buildings together, approximately 175,000 litres of oil and 36,000 litres of propane are used each year for heat. As wood was considered a renewable resource, it was not assessed. 79 How was power generated in Skidegate in 2010? Answering this question helped detennine if solar power was suitable for Skidegate's current energy situation. A complete understanding of Skidegate's energy situation was needed prior to pursuing feasibility testing for solar power; BC Hydro reports were used to answer this question. The community of Skidegate, in addition to the nearby communities of Sandspit, Queen Charlotte, and Tlell are powered by both the Sandspit Diesel Generator System (DGS) and the Queen Charlotte Power Corporation (QCPC) hydroelectric facility on Moresby Island. These two systems together are referred to as the South Grid System. The 5.7 MW QCPC hydroelectric facility supplies on average 70% of the local electricity demand and is the primary source of power for the system; BC Hydro has a purchase agreement with the QCPC, the details of which are unknown.137 The residual demand and backup power is supplied by the Sandspit DGS, also on Moresby Island, which was built in 1962 and has a total capacity of 10.2 MW. All electricity demand in Skidegate is met by BC Hydro.138 The amount of diesel-generated electricity per month varies, however July through September are consistently the months with the highest generation of diesel. This is due to seasonal low flow of water in the river in summer where the QCPC micro-hydro electrical dam is located. A common occurrence with hydroelectricity power production is that it 137 Council of the Haida Nation and Sheltair Group, "Haida Gwaii Community Electricity Plan," Prepared report, Sheltair Group, Haida Gwaii, BC, 2008, 3-5. 138 BC Hydro 2010. Haida Gwaii Draft Technical Information - Schedule 7. http://www.bchydro.com/planning_regulatory/acquiring_power/Haida_Gwaii_Queen_Charl otte_Islands_RFP.html Accessed December 15, 2011 80 decreases in summer months as the river flow slows due to hotter and drier temperatures resulting in increased reliance upon the back-up electricity generator, which in this case is a diesel generator. Figure 5-4 depicts the historical monthly generated energy for both the QCPC and the Sandspit DGS in GWh, this system together supplies the community of Skidegate with electricity. Figure 4-1: BC Hydro Sandspit DGS Historical Monthly Generated Energy 2007/08 Sandspit DGSHistorical Monthly Generated Energy Gwli 2007/08 4,00 350 I 3.00 2.50 200 I Sandspit DGS GWh 1 50 QCPC Hydro 1.00 0.50 0,00 / J" J" # £ ^ $ # # j3> It should also be noted that power outages from the South Grid System number from 15-20 per year.139 Most homes in Skidegate have no back up electricity in the case of a power outage. These power outages are high when compared to those communities connected to the major hydro electrical grid. Thus solar power either for electricity or hot 139 Council of the Haida Nation and Sheltair Group, "Haida Gwaii Community Electricity Plan," Prepared report, Sheltair Group, Haida Gwaii, BC, 2008, 3-7. 81 water could be of greater use in Skidegate compared to communities experiencing few power outages on an annual basis. How much GHG emissions were generated in Skidegate in 2010? The third question was important in testing the applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project because all funding opportunities available for Skidegate renewable energy development take into consideration GHG reductions of the proposed project in determining the success of an application. A reduction in GHG emissions was a goal of both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate's and it was clear from T'Sou-ke's project that outside funding sources were required for project success. Skidegate's proposed project also needed to show a reduction in GHG emissions for the project to receive outside funding sources and thus be applicable. In this case, a "minor project" requesting up to $45,000 in funding from FBC must be designed to reduce community-wide GHG emissions by at least 33%. Without outside funding sources, any solar project Skidegate proposes could not be implemented due to other community priorities. To answer this question, the result of the first question, "How much energy was used in Skidegate in 2010?" was used to estimate CC^e emissions. BC Hydro data was used to summarize electricity consumption and a GHG emission calculator available on the FBC website140 was used to determine GHG emissions produced. As Skidegate electricity generation is approximately 70% micro-hydro and 30% diesel generated, 1 kWh of hydroelectricity was assumed as being equal to 0 tonnes C02e as it virtually produces no carbon emissions, and 1 kWh of diesel generated electricity was assumed as being equal to 140 Calculator no longer found on FBC website, see LiveSmart BC for a similar C02e calculator http://www.livesmartbc.ca/homes/h_calc.html 82 0.001 tonnes of C02e, which is the industry standard. Additionally, NRCan publishes averages for energy content represented in gigajoules, per fuel type141 and Statistics Canada offers the average British Columbia home energy consumption rate according to fuel type.142 Table 5.2 provides an estimate of approximate total amount of litres of fuel for each non­ renewable fuel source used for home heating in Skidegate. Table 5.1: Approximate amount of litres per heating fuel source used in Skidegate* Fuel as Primary Heat Source Oil Propane Approximate # of homes* Avg. BC energy use by fuel type/home (NRCan) 142 47GJ 35 26 GJ Total GJs of fuel used in Skidegate Energy Total Content per Liters fuel (NRCan) of Fuel 6674 38.2GJ/1000L 910 25.3GJ/1000L 174,712 35,980 * based on Skidegate Housing Survey 2011. The above data and the GHG emissions calculator was then used to approximate tonnes of CC^e annually displaced. The calculator found on the FBC website already had assumptions. It assumed 1L of heating oil as being equal to 0.003 tonnes CC^e and 1L of propane as being equal to 0.002 tonnes C02e. Therefore it was determined, Skidegate generated GHG emissions equivalent to 2554 tonnes CC>2e in 2010. The proposal submitted to FBC, suggested funding for three buildings in the community to have energy efficiency 141 For more information see NRCan, Selecting your fuel source at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/equipment/heating/3713 142 For more information see, Statistics Canada: Household energy use, by fuel type and by province 2007, at http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/! l-526-s/2010001/t004-eng.htm 83 retrofits, representing a "demonstration" project. Following the energy efficiency retrofits, the three buildings are to be monitored for one year; GHG reduction effectiveness and cost saving could then be assessed for confirmation of predicted results. The predicted results identified in the proposal, suggested that if all buildings in the community were to implement those energy efficiency retrofits a community-wide GHG emissions reduction of 35% will occur, thus fulfilling one criterion for an approved project application. What was the total annual cost of diesel-generated electricity for Skidegate Administration buildings in 2010? Cost effectiveness is a crucial component of any proposed project. BC's low electricity rates proved to T'Sou-ke that solar PV is an uneconomical option for residences paying approximately $0.08/kWh, which represent the majority of residences in BC, including those on Haida Gwaii as their electricity is subsidized by BC Hydro. Each building's annual cost of diesel generated electricity was summarized in the report. In total, for all six Skidegate Band Administration buildings, $29,830 was used to pay for diesel generated electricity for the Band Administration buildings in 2010. However, besides the Haida Heritage Centre which will soon have a working geothermal system in place, the Skidegate Day Care centre was identified as having the highest energy costs of Skidegate's Administration buildings. The Skidegate Day Care centre thus becomes the proposed community building for the FBC RCI minor project application. 5.4 Applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project in Skidegate Based on the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis, Skidegate determined that two of the three elements of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project were applicable to Skidegate. Skidegate's conservation measures could be improved through both changes and implementation of small technical applications to existing buildings. Skidegate agreed that 84 having a youth group such as T'SEG, could immensely help with the community's energy conservation. Thus, Skidegate determined that T'Sou-ke's Conservation Program was indeed applicable. The Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis provided substantial evidence to pursue a RetScreen analysis,143 determining with greater detail the applicability of solar hot water systems in Skidegate. The RetScreen analysis, based on current weather data and the Skidegate Housing Survey, concluded that solar hot water systems will be an effective source to heat hot water. This information was used to apply to the FBC RCI program and Solar BC for the Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project. This application was successful and thus confirming Skidegate's impression that solar hot water systems were applicable to their situation, in that Skidegate's GHG emissions and Skidegate Band Council's electricity expenses will be reduced through its implementation. Thus, Skidegate determined that T'Sou-ke's Solar Hot Water Program was applicable. T'Sou-ke's Solar PV Demonstration Project however, was not applicable to Skidegate. 5.4.1 Conservation Program The first aspect of T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project was the Conservation program. Skidegate learned from T'Sou-ke that energy conservation is the most important step to any renewable energy project. The two components of T'Sou-ke's Conservation Program were behavioural changes and energy efficiency upgrades to existing homes. Skidegate pursued both. 143 For more information on the NRCan RetScreen Analysis software visit, http://www.retscreen.net/ang/home.php. 85 Behavioural changes were successfully encouraged through the T'SEG Eco-kids Workshop in Skidegate. And conserving energy through upgrades to existing buildings energy systems and structure was exemplified in the proposal submitted to FBC in May, 2011. In order for the FBC proposal to be successful, the majority of the $45,000 funds applied for must be used for envelope work or improving the energy efficiency of existing energy systems, such as implementing a ground source heat pump to be used in conjunction with an electric heat source.144 Skidegate needed to demonstrate a good understanding that ensuring energy efficiency was the most important aspect of their proposed project. Therefore, they proposed that $35,000 of the $45,000 grant was to be applied towards energy efficiency upgrades of the buildings and $10,000 was to go towards solar hot water systems. Skidegate kept in mind the conditional acceptance of $20,000 by Solar BC if the FBC RCI application was approved. Proposed energy Efficiency upgrades included air sealing, the installation of an ENERGY STAR® qualified air-source heat pump, and new ENERGY STAR® windows and doors. Measuring conservation through the reduction of CC>2e we estimated that the proposed energy efficiency upgrades to Skidegate's Day Care Centre and the two residential buildings could reduce C02e emissions by approximately 19 tonnes per year. Old Massett, and Skidegate would submit separate proposals to the FBC, however the proposals represented a joint project between the two communities. Old Massett's proposal mirrored Skidegate's proposal except for the inclusion of their own community building and homes. The purpose of the joint Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water 144 For more information on heat pumps and their efficiencies can be found at Natural Resource Canada, What is a Heat Pump and How does it work?, at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/residential/heating-heat-pump/10686 86 Project was to keep solar hot water system costs lower by purchasing a larger bulk, and to keep the cost of installation lower by having all systems installed at the same time. Also, the demonstration of two First Nations' willingness to work on the same project is highly desirable to the FBC, and the proposals would only be accepted together or not at all. Hence, since Old Massett's proposal was also successful, Old Massett also learned a lesson in energy conservation. The proposal submitted to FBC, which emphasised energy conservation was approved on June 15, 2011 for $45,000 each to Skidegate and Old Massett. Based on this, Solar BC also offered $20,000 each to Skidegate and Old Massett. Skidegate concluded that both the behavioural aspect and the energy efficiency upgrade aspect to T'Sou-ke's energy conservation program were applicable to Skidegate. 5.4.2 Solar Hot Water Program The second aspect of T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project was installation of solar hot water systems. T'Sou-ke learned from their own Solar Community Project that solar hot water systems were more cost effective than solar PV systems. Following the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis there was substantial evidence proving the suitability of solar energy in Skidegate. As the ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis showed, approximately 68% of homes in Skidegate heat their hot water electrically, this is compared to nearly 100% of homes in T'Sou-ke and those other communities connected to the major hydro electrical grid in BC. Skidegate currently pays the same rates as T'Sou-ke for their electricity, as electricity is subsidized by BC Hydro. However, T'Sou-ke's electricity is 100% generated from hydro-power, Skidegate's electricity is approximately 70% generated from hydropower and the remaining 30% is diesel generated. The diesel generated electricity is 87 primarily produced in summer months when river flows are low resulting in less effective hydro power. These summer months of high diesel generated electricity also happen to be the months when sunshine hours are at their peak for the community. As such, this provides significant opportunity to offset diesel usage in the summer, a load of 3-4 MW for approximately four months. Knowing this information, a RetScreen analysis was required to truly test the feasibility and cost effectiveness of solar hot water systems in Skidegate. The RetScreen analysis utilized NRCan weather data and the results of the 2011 Skidegate Housing Survey which focused on residential water usage, to determine feasibility. The RetScreen analysis concluded that solar hot water systems in Skidegate have the potential to overtake approximately 60% of the energy load from electric water heaters. Therefore, if all 364 homes in Skidegate were installed with solar hot water systems, it was determined that the community of Skidegate could reduce its GHG emissions by 364 tonnes per year, representing a 14% reduction in community wide GHG emissions.145 In addition to the solar hot water system installation in Skidegate reducing a greater percentage of GHGs in the community compared to T'Sou-ke's because of the high C02e emitting use of diesel, there may also be an opportunity for solar hot water installation to be a more cost-effective option for BC Hydro. Further analysis is recommended. The efficacy of solar hot water was demonstrated on Haida Gwaii via non-reserve homes. The positive results of these installations were used in support of the application to the FBC. This supplemental information played a role in the successful application made by Skidegate. 145 "Fraser Basin Council RCI Proposal," Skidegate Band Council, prepared by Sarah Ozog, May 16, 2011. 88 5.4.3 Solar PVDemonstration Project The third aspect of T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project was a Solar PV Demonstration project. T'Sou-ke's Off-Grid System demonstrated solar PV as a useful source of electricity generation for remote communities. However, although Skidegate is a remote community and is not connected to the major grid, the community pays the same electricity prices as T'Sou-ke due to BC Hydro's mandate to set up a "micro-grid," and subsidize the electricity for remote communities who request their operation. Therefore solar PV was not cost feasible for the Skidegate Band Council, however, there was the potential of solar PV to be economically feasible for BC Hydro. BC Hydro loses an estimated $3.5 million per year subsidizing electricity to Skidegate and surrounding communities powered by the South Grid System, so the potential for solar PV to be cost-effective for hydro was investigated.146 However due to technical and fiscal related issues solar PV was not considered further. Firstly, Skidegate receives less sunlight than T'Sou-ke which means solar PV systems there could not be as effective. Secondly, the remote location of Skidegate meant that system costs were higher as a direct result of transportation costs. Lastly, through networking and dialogue with industry and government, it became known, to myself and Moraes, that solar PV was simply not something government and BC Hydro was likely to fund in the future due to the comparably high system cost for electricity generation. Although T'Sou-ke's project was recognized as a great success, the high cost of PV systems made them undesirable candidates in energy funding applications. For these reasons 146 Council of the Haida Nation and Sheltair Group, "Haida Gwaii Community Electricity Plan," Prepared report, Sheltair Group, Haida Gwaii, BC, 2008, 4-9. 89 Skidegate decided not to pursue testing the applicability of solar PV at this time; other options for electricity generation such as, geothermal and biofuel are identified as having a far greater chance at receiving funding than solar PV. Therefore the solar PV aspect of T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project was not pursued further by the community of Skidegate. 5.5 Summary of Results In this Chapter I answered my second research question: What was the degree of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation? The three components of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project: (1) the Conservation Program, (2) the Solar Hot Water Program, and (3) the Solar PV Demonstration Project, were each tested for applicability in Skidegate. The Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis funded by INAC answered the four proposed questions stated in the initial proposal. The answers helped determine the applicability T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project to Skidegate. 1) How much energy was used in Skidegate in 2010? Skidegate uses approximately 13,029 kWh of electricity, 175,000 litres of oil, and 36,000 litres of propane each year. The amount of electricity consumed is greater than other communities in the northern region of BC. In addition Skidegate depends mostly on non-renewable resources for heat generation. The Skidegate Housing Coordinator, based on knowledge of the conservation measures Skidegate had taken up to that point, knew that Skidegate could significantly improve its energy efficiency. 90 2) How was power generated in Skidegate in 2010? Skidegate uses approximately 70% hydro-generated electricity (from BC Hydro) and 30% diesel-generated electricity as backup. The majority of diesel-generated electricity is produced in the summer months, during which time sunshine hours are at their peak for the community. This presents potential for solar power to "firm-up" the already renewable energy electricity generation in Skidegate, which is the micro-hydro generated electricity. 3) How much GHG emissions were generated in Skidegate in 20JO? Skidegate generated GHG emissions equivalent to 2554 tonnes CC>2e in 2010. Knowing this amount was crucial for renewable energy funding applications in order to calculate emissions reductions that resulted from a proposed project. In the case of Skidegate's submission to the FBC, Skidegate calculated that their proposed demonstration project, if implemented in all 346 homes in the community, could represent a 35% reduction in emissions, thus fulfilling one minor project criteria required for approval. 4) What was the total annual cost of diesel-generated electricity for Skidegate Administration buildings in 2010? In total, for all six Skidegate Band Administration buildings, $29,830 was used to pay for diesel generated electricity for the Band Administration buildings in 2010. The data generated to arrive at this conclusion was then used to determine that the Skidegate Day Care centre was the most appropriate building to be chosen as the proposed community building for the FBC application. 91 This information, in addition to the RetScreen analysis and T'Sou-ke's lessons learned, provided sufficient information to determine the applicability of each of the T'Souke Solar Community Project's three components. Two of the components were deemed applicable to Skidegate—the Conservation Program and the Solar Hot Water Program. The Solar PV Demonstration Project was found inapplicable at this time mainly due to the high cost of solar PV systems. From this test of applicability, the Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project was developed. Each community was awarded $45,000 from FBC, which leveraged an additional $20,000 for each community from Solar BC. Now that I have summarized the technical component of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership, I am in a position to answer my third and final research question which will be the subject of Chapter 6. 92 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 6.1 Introduction The goal of my research was to assess the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate renewable energy partnership. To conduct this assessment required answering three questions: (1) How was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership organized and executed; (2) What was the degree of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Energy Demonstration Project to Skidegate's energy situation; and (3) Was the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership successful? Why or why not? What lessons can be learned from the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership? Chapter 1 set the context for undertaking this study. A global reliance on fossil fuels cannot continue to be the choice for electricity and heat generation if we are to consider not only the next generation's wellbeing but also the wellbeing of the next seven generations. First Nations are leading the way in renewable energy development. Chapter 2 presented a literature review that highlighted the sparse scholarly work on First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships and identified that seemingly no scholarly work exists on First Nations-to-First Nations partnerships created for the purpose of renewable energy development. My methodology for this research was presented in Chapter 3.1 utilized a three-layered approach involving an Indigenous research paradigm, participatory action research and the intrinsic case study methods. Also I defined "success" in relation to the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. In Chapter 4, the origins, cost, key participants and timeline is explained in regards to the organization and execution of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. Chapter 5 contains an explanation of the technical feasibility of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to the remote community of Skidegate. Here it was identified that two of the three components of T'Sou-ke's project were indeed applicable: the Conservation Program and 93 the Solar Hot Water Program. Consequently in this final chapter I synthesize the results of the previous chapters. In Section 6.2,1explore the social relationship that resulted from the T'Sou-keSkidegate partnership. This section answers the part of research question 3 which asks, "why" the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership was successful or not. It is explained that without good social relations, technical success would not have occurred. In section 6.3,1 evaluate the overall success of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership. I advance key factors explaining its success in section 6.4. This is followed in Section 6.5 by lessons learned from the T'Souke-Skidegate partnership and recommendations on how First Nations and external organization can improve success in First Nations-to-First Nations renewable energy partnerships. Contributions of research, limitations of research and suggestions for further research are presented in Sections 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8, respectively. Lastly, in Section 6.9 contains my final thoughts. 6.2 Exploring the Social Relationship of the T'Sou-ke Skidegate Partnership In order for the technical application of T'Sou-ke's Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation to be successful, good social relations must have occurred between the communities. Although interactions were few between the communities due to the challenge of distance (approximately 1200km), what interactions that did occur were positive and beneficial. Table 6.1 below displays select social interactions between T'Sou-ke and Skidegate that illustrate the positive nature of the relationship. 94 September 2010 Table 6.1: Interaction between T'Sou-ke and Skidegate In the application submitted to INAC, Skidegate Band Manager, Barbara Stevens, was the first to use the word "partnership." She stated: "If we were able to partner with TSou-ke Nation's Solar Community Project, we see that partnership as an integral piece to our goal, which is to be economically successful by training our band members, creating jobs, creating a world class business, and to partner with other First Nations." December 2010 On Moore's instruction, I wrote and submitted a contract to Skidegate on behalf the T'SEG, of which I was an affiliate. I submitted this to Skidegate in person on my first visit to the community to meet Stevens and Moraes. January 2011 T'Sou-ke Chief Gordon Planes telephoned Skidegate Band Chief Counselor to discuss T'SEGs upcoming visit and formal start of the partnership. January 2011 T'SEG visited Skidegate in January 2011 to perform a two-day conservation workshop. T'SEG interacted with the Skidegate Band Council and OMVC on Day 1 and conducted the Eco-Kids Workshop at Skidegate's elementary school on Day 2. Here I noticed the interest from Skidegate members in T'Sou-ke's culture (e.g., what were their differences in traditions and food preparation). It was seen as a special opportunity to learn about other First Nations. February 2011 Skidegate Band Manager Stevens sent an email to T'Sou-ke Project Supervisor Moore regarding the success of the Eco-Kids Workshop. Moore considered this an "unexpected surprise." February 2011 T'Sou-ke paid travel fees for their visit to Skidegate up front. They then submitted an invoice to Skidegate. Trust in the relationship must have been present for this to occur. February 2011 Moraes and Moore first met at the second annual First Nations Renewable Energy Conference at the University of Victoria. Moore encouraged Moraes to apply to the FBC Solar Mentorship Program. February 2011 Skidegate mailed a cheque to T'Sou-ke in response to their sent invoice. Solidifying trust in the partnership. June 2011 Both Skidegate and Old Massett submitted proposals to the FBC Solar Mentorship Program in March 2011. In June, their applications were approved and both communities were officially invited to become solar mentees of T'Sou-ke Nation and Xeni Gwetin'. Through analysing my participant observation notes, and journal responses I discovered that the positive social relationship occurring between T'Sou-ke and Skidegate 95 was based on their shared overarching goal of First Nations energy self-sufficiency. Skidegate wished to take steps to become more energy self-sufficient, and T'Sou-ke was seeking to demonstrate to Skidegate how to make greater progress toward energy selfsufficiency and to gain skills as a mentor. They also shared other subsidiary objectives: (1) to foster a relationship with each other's community and with other First Nations to promote and develop renewable energy projects; (2) to reduce community-wide GHG emissions, and, for Moore, this included the entire "community of First Nations"; and (3) to reduce energy costs through the adoption of renewable resources. By achieving the objective of building a social relationship T'Sou-ke and Skidegate were able to successfully test the applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate's energy situation. The importance of building a lasting relationship for T'Sou-ke-e and Skidegate is fiirther described below. 6.2.1 The Mutual Goal of Relationship Building The importance of building good relationships was emphasized by Moraes in my first interview with him. I asked him, "How will you determine if this partnership was a success?" He responded by saying, "Success is measured in many ways, one important factor to consider is that the relationships that are formed through the engagement of simple discussions, continue in a meaningful and mutual beneficial partnership. The partnership is a success if the relationship is formed and continued."147 Relationships were also important to T'Sou-ke. In my second interview with Moore, I asked, "What part of the partnership was most beneficial to T'Sou-ke? Moore answered, "building that relationship and building that 147 Trent Moraes (Skidegate Housing Coordinator) in interview with the author, Skidegate, January 24, 2011. 96 network is what I see as one of the big benefits of coming out of this."1481 interpreted Moore's words of "relationship" and "network" to imply that gaining partners and allies in the field of First Nations renewable energy development is important in the progression toward achieving energy self-sufficiency; this can come in the form of building lasting relationships as Moraes described, or building professional networks as Moore mentioned. Building a relationship was identified as being an unexpected benefit of the partnership for T'SEG youth member, Elizabeth Planes. She responded in an interview saying, "the friendship with Trent [Moraes] was an unexpected benefit... I see a good relationship starting with Skidegate and not ending soon."149 For Moraes and Moore, building a lasting relationship, or in Moore's words, building a network of First Nations involved in renewable energy was a common step in achieving energy self-sufficiency. Both communities were also asked in Phase two of the partnership, "How do you see the relationship progressing." Andrew from T'Sou-ke answered, "It would be great if they could come down and see the project, and when they are a part of the Solar Mentorship Program it would be official and we can get paid for it too. What we would like to do, if they were to send some youth down and we could give them a workshop on how they could do it themselves, build capacity."150 Moraes responded to the same question with the thought that acceptance into the Solar Mentorship Program would be a positive move for Skidegate because "mentorship is a big inspiration to overcoming the unknown and lessening the 148 Andrew Moore (T'Sou-ke Community Planner) in interview with the author, T'Sou-ke, January 13, 2011. 149 Elizabeth Planes, (T'SEG member), in interview with the author, T'Sou-ke, January 13, 2011. 150 Andrew Moore (T'Sou-ke Community Planner) in interview with the author, T'Sou-ke, February, 25, 2011. risks."151 Thus, both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate held similar attitudes to making progress toward energy self-sufficiency; namely, building a constructive and lasting relationship around promoting First Nations involvement in renewable energy development. T'Sou-ke and Skidegate also made plans to continue their relationship after my involvement had passed through the official Solar Mentorship Program sponsored by the Fraser Basin Council and the Ministry of Energy and Mines, details of this program and T'Sou-ke's and Skidegate's involvement are described below. 6.2.2 Official Sponsorship of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate Partnership After being encouraged by Moore, FBC, and Solar BC in February 2011, Skidegate applied for the FBC RCI Solar Mentorship Program. The Program was the second in a series designed by the FBC with support from the Ministry of Energy and Mines. The first series was referred to as a pilot program and involved the mentoring of Hartley Bay and Dease River First Nation by the Taku River Tlingit (TRT) First Nation. The TRT owns and operates a 2 MW run-of-river hydroelectric project on Pine Creek, located in northwestern BC. This successful renewable energy project displaces 1.5 million liters of diesel per year!152 In 2010, the FBC developed the Solar Mentorship Program, largely based on T'Souke's success. T'Sou-ke Nation and Xeni Gwetin' First Nation became its first mentors.153 151 Trent Moraes (Skidegate Housing Coordinator) in interview with the author, Skidegate, January 27, 2011. 152 "Fraser basin Council. Remote Community Implementation Program: Mentorship," Fraser Basin Council, accessed September 1, 2010, http://www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/programs/caee_rci_mentorship.html. 153 Xeni Gwet'in is located 145 miles north west of Williams Lake and has made the community decision to not have their electricity operated by BC Hydro. The community has 98 FBC encourages a submission to the program by communities applying for RCI funding whose projects involve solar energy. In Chapter 4, it was mentioned that the OMVC unsuccessfully applied for funding to the RCI and mentorship programs in the fall of 2010 because of evidence on the feasibility of solar energy in their community. However, after the Skidegate ecoENERGY Baseline Analysis and gathering of other information, including the RetScreen analysis, both Skidegate and OMVC had sufficient data to apply. They submitted a joint application to keep the costs of system equipment and installation down. Funding and acceptance into the Program was approved in June 2011. On June 23, 2011, the mentorship between mentors T'Sou-ke and Xeni Gwetin' and mentees Skidegate and OMVC officially began with a webinar held by the FBC and MEM. T'Sou-ke was the mentor that could better explain the steps in behavioural conservation and describe the economic development opportunities that can result, placing particular emphasis on T'SEG and having youth involved. Xeni Gwetin' was the mentor that could better explain the technical aspects of solar energy. Thus between T'Sou-ke and Xeni Gwetin' both the social and technical aspects to solar energy were presented to the mentees, Skidegate and Old Massett. The FBC Solar Mentorship agenda included presentations by both T'Sou-ke and Xeni Gwetin', and focused on energy efficiency prior to installing solar systems, and next steps such as setting timelines and deliverables. Following this, all four communities entered into a contract with the FBC. All parties agreed to participate in two webinars, and it was agreed that T'Sou-ke and Xeni Gwetin' would be compensated for their time. However, T'Sou-ke felt very strongly that they wanted to share this compensation with several solar PV demonstration projects. For more information see the presentation, http://www.fraserbasin.bc.ca/programs/documents/CAEE_RC/November_2010_Solar_Ment orship_Workshop/6_Project_Implementation_Xeni_Gwetin_George_Colgate.pdf 99 the solar mentees, hoping they too could start their own youth energy programs. This was accepted. From the beginning of the partnership, T'Sou-ke was passionate about the idea of mentorship. T'Sou-ke felt they were mentored by Solar BC through their own project and wanted to do the same for Skidegate. The acceptance into the Solar Mentorship Program meant that Skidegate and T'Sou-ke's relationship continued after my involvement had ended, implying that not only a positive relationship existed between the communities but a long-term relationship was developing. 6.3 Overall Success My conclusion is that the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership revolved around more than just a test of applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community project to a remote community, the relationship between the two communities was a socio-technical partnership. T'Sou-ke and Skidegate's social relationship was nested in the same overarching goal of wanting to achieve energy self-sufficiency through the same courses of action: building relationships, reducing community-wide GHGs, and reducing community energy costs. In the final interviews, community representatives were asked if it was a success; all replied positively. T'Sou-ke's Moore responded, "I think so, we just got a cheque in for reimbursement. It worked at a chief to chief level, professional level, networking level, and that we can carry on doing this type of work and take it to other bands."154 Skidegate's Moraes responded, "Yes. The benefits of our partnership with T'Souke was evident in our collaboration in researching new technologies that a similar Band had 154 Andrew Moore (T'Sou-ke Community Planner) in interview with the author, T'Sou-ke, June 30,2011. 100 already pioneered. T'Sou-ke was instrumental in the pros and cons which allowed us to dismiss some of the risks involved. The history allowed our Band to be successful when applying for funding as it was proven in the field."155 The overall success of the T'Sou-keSkidegate socio-technical partnership is summarized below. Determining partnership success was based on whether or not progress was made toward energy self-sufficiency relative to the applicability of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project to Skidegate. Both the energy conservation and solar hot water systems were deemed applicable. This was confirmed by Skidegate's success in funding their own energy efficiency and solar hot water project. The technical applicability lent to the communities' progression toward energy self-sufficiency. The social relationship between the two communities was necessary for this to occur. The relationship was founded on the common objectives of building a lasting relationship, reducing community-wide GHGs, and reducing community energy costs. All parties agree the relationship was positive and beneficial. The social relationship lent to the communities' progression toward energy self-sufficiency. In summary, the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership is best described as a sociotechnical partnership . The partnership therefore, in both its technical and social forms was deemed highly successful. Key factors leading to its success are identified below. 6.4 Key Factors Leading to Success Based on my interview responses, participant observation notes and document analysis, I identified seven key factors that led to the overall success of the partnership. 155 Trent Moraes (Skidegate Housing Coordinator) in interview with the author, Skidegate, June 30, 2011. 101 1. Share the same overarching goal: T'Sou-ke and Skidegate shared the same goal of wanting to progress toward energy self-sufficiency. They embraced the same courses of action to achieve this goal: building a lasting relationship, reducing community-wide GHGs, and reducing community energy costs. 2. Support from Band management and the community: In the case of both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate, they knew their communities would support efforts taken toward energy autonomy. This support in addition to the support of the Chief Councillors and Band Managers strengthened the position of the Community Supervisors to conduct the partnership. 3. Presence of a community champion in each T'Sou-ke and Skidegate: In both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate community champions emerged at different stages of the partnership. Moore and Moraes were unarguably the community champions throughout the project; however Skidegate Band Manager Stevens (initial phase) and T'Sou-ke's T'SEG (interim phase) also acted as community champions. 4. Ensure community autonomy: Although T' Sou-ke represented the "experienced" partner in the partnership, and Skidegate paid T'Sou-ke as a consultant, each community maintained its autonomy of action. Neither "told the other what to do." 5. Choose a neutral facilitator: Identifying a dedicated neutral partnership facilitator who could facilitate the partnership to reflect the goals and objectives of both communities. 6. Build a cultural relationship in addition to a professional one: For the T'Sou-ke youth involved in the project, they were encouraged to participate in the project because they desired to keep a "First Nations-to-First Nations exchange of knowledge," in the area of 102 energy conservation. Members of Skidegate too, were excited to have members of another Nation, visit their community. 7. Involve all stakeholders and encourage participation: In one sense, the partnership grew as the number of supporters grew. The support of government and other organizations was gained through networking, requesting meetings, and building connections. The continual action of all participants involved was also a key success factor. 6.5 Lessons Learned and Recommendations resulting from research The following section is in response to the part of research question 4 that asks, "What lessons can be learned from the T'Sou-ke Skidegate partnership?" I have formulated five recommendations for First Nations, government, industry and NGOs (based on lessons learned as conveyed to me by the communities) designed to enhance the success of First Nations-to-First Nations renewable energy partnerships. Recommendation 1; Enhance community engagement and gain a community vision First and foremost, it is identified by both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate that all projects must come from within the communities themselves. Enhance community engagement by organizing a community open house before beginning a renewable energy project or partnership. Thus, identify common interests within your own community and allow an opportunity for communal priorities to emerge. This also allows a greater opportunity for a community champion to emerge. T'Sou-ke utilized funding from INAC's Comprehensive Community Plan to formulate their vision for a Sustainable Community and from this came their T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. Encourage participation through honorarium or community feasts and gatherings. 103 Recommendation 2: Leverage the success of other First Nations Research First Nations that have experienced success in renewable energy. Establishing a partnership with a community that has already experienced success; this will increase your own community's chances of success. There also is an increasing number of conferences and networking opportunities available for First Nations interested in renewable energy, many of which have been identified in this thesis. Recommendation 3: Energy Conservation The importance of energy conservation was T'Sou-ke's greatest lesson learned in their T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. Energy conservation measures must be prioritized when applying for capital funding for renewable energy as it is now recognised by government and NGOs that energy conservation should be the bulk of any project (if not already been implemented), as was the case for the Skidegate and Old Massett Energy Efficiency and Solar Hot Water Project. Recommendation 4: Select a Community Champion and Engage a Neutral Facilitator Ensure the selection of a community champion that is dedicated to both the partnership and renewable energy development. When engaging a neutral facilitator, consider developing an intern or co-op position within your own First Nations or organization that allows an impartial individual156 to facilitate partnerships with other First Nations. As in the case of the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership, I recommend the facilitator be guided by the community supervisor in each community. An internship or co-op position 156 Impartiality can be identified by the First Nation themselves. 104 can be discussed with the First Nations/Indigenous Studies Departments located at Universities and colleges throughout BC. Recommendation 5: Encourage Communication Establish a partnership agenda that allows for frequent meetings between the two communities via internet, phone, or in-person. The FBC Solar Mentorship Program emphasizes communication. These meetings allow communities to address questions and concerns to keep best efforts from being derailed. Recommendation 6: Consider including payment for a First Nations mentor When developing a renewable energy project, consider including payment for the First Nations representing a mentor in a First Nations-to-First Nations partnership. In the case of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate, T'Sou-ke was paid for their mentorship, similar to that of a consultant, by Skidegate. All monies offered to T'Sou-ke went directly into their community energy conservation programs. Monetary interactions took place without issue and the transaction lent to the positive progression of the social relationship. 6.6 Contributions of research This research contributed on both a theoretical and practical level. On a theoretical level, my analysis is, to the best of my knowledge, the first academic study of a FirstNation-to-First-Nation partnership related to renewable energy. On a practical level, this research contributed to building capacity in the communities of T'Sou-ke and Skidegate, in part because it contributed to successful funding applications. The $130,000 awarded to Skidegate and Old Massett will go toward the installation of energy efficiency upgrades and solar hot water systems for community buildings and low income homes. For this 105 installation, band members will be trained in the installation and monitoring of the energy efficiency and solar hot water equipment. For T'Sou-ke, this partnership offered T'SEG the opportunity to conduct their Eco-Kids workshop in another community, and thus help build their reputation as professional conservation consultants. Lastly, this research helped carry the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project into its next stage which was to demonstrate to remote First Nations how they too can progress toward energy autonomy. 6.7 Limitations of research Limitations of the research include an inadequate number of interviews, short duration of the research period and the uniqueness of the participants involved. These limitations hinder the generalizability of this case study. Firstly, more interview participants from each community would have better represented the values of both T'Sou-ke and Skidegate. There are numerous reasons for why more interview participants were not sought, some of these reasons include, limited time, community priorities, and my confidence as a non-community member. I am basing my analysis on thus a very small sample size. Secondly, the timeframe for this research is short. My research ended in June, 2011, just as the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership became officially sponsored, and just as Skidegate would begin implementation of their own renewable energy project. Lastly, the participants involved in the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership are unique to this situation. Success of the partnership could have resulted from a perfect combination of project participants that could not be replicated. Other communities if participating in a First Nations renewable energy partnership require their own community champions and supervisors. However, as of the time of this writing, government and NGOs involved in this project are still participating in First Nations Renewable Energy development. 106 6.8 Suggestions for further research Firstly, there has yet to be a cost benefit analysis performed on the solar hot water component of the T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project. I suggest this be undertaken so that the applicability of T'Sou-ke's solar hot water program could be further tested for applicability to grid connected First Nations and communities in BC. Secondly, other renewable energy partnerships were mentioned in this thesis. The FBC Mentorship programs involving the Taku River Tlinget's run-of-river mentorship and T'Sou-ke and Xeni Gwetin's solar mentorship could be researched to help further understand First Nations-to First Nations partnership designed for renewable energy development. A multiple case study could be performed, allowing a greater generalization of results. Lastly, rather than researching another First Nations-to-First Nations renewable energy partnership, I suggest a continuation of research on the T'Sou-ke-Skdiegate partnership. Skidegate's own renewable energy project was implemented in March 2012, after monitoring for one year, research identifying the cost benefit of the solar systems and energy efficiency upgrades could take place. GHG emission reduction could also be assessed. Also, the relationship between T'Sou-ke and Skidegate two years after this research period ended could be analyzed. 6.9 Final thoughts After talking to an economist at the University of Alberta on the topic of my research, he asked, "What is the incentive for First Nations to develop their renewable energy projects, as their energy costs are government funded anyway; it's not like they are saving money." This made me realise that many people do not understand the drive some First Nations have in wanting to be energy autonomous or self-sufficient in general. In both 107 of my case study communities, they deeply desire to break their dependence on INAC for electricity and heating costs, and the federal government in general for economic development. From attending many conferences on the topic of First Nations involvement in renewable energy, I came to realise the pride that goes along with self-sufficiency. As the T'Sou-ke Nation states: "For the T'Sou-ke people, this story is about resiliency, about overcoming the many challenges of the times. Just as important as clean energy, new jobs, and training, is the need to integrate this technology with our own sustainable culture—language, art, values, and traditions. 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MA thes., Massey University, 2011 115 APPENDIX A: Ethics approval form UmVERSTTYOFNOKraERNBRfflSH COLUMBIA RESEARCH ETHICS BOARD MEMORANDUM To: CC: Sarah Ozog Karyn Sharp, Ken Widening From: Henry Harder, Chair Research Ethics Board Date: January 12,2011 Re: E2010.1118.194 Toward Energy Self-Sufficiency in First nations Communities: Analyzing the Solar partnership between TSou-ke Nation and Skidegate Band Thank you for submitting the above-noted proposal with amendments to the Research Ethics Board. Your proposal has now been approved. We are pleased to issue approval for the above named study for a period of 12 months from the date of this letter. Continuation beyond that date will require further review and renewal of REB approval. Any changes or amendments to the protocol or consent form must be approved by the Research Ethics Board. Good luck with your research. Or. Henry Harder Chair, Research Ethics Board 116 APPENDIX B: Information Sheet offered to communities INFORMATION SHEET TOWARD ENERGY SELF SUFFICIENCY: ANALYZING THE RENEWABLE ENERGY PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN T'SOU-KE NATION AND SKIDEGATE BAND The purpose of this research is to promote renewable energy development through effective First Nations partnerships. The analysis will involve assessing the results of the quantitative data associated with Skidegate energy usage and solar hot water feasibility. This research project, through participant observation and semi-structured personal or group interviews, plans to further identify the level of success and lessons learned from this partnership. This research is being conducted by Sarah Ozoe in order to complete her Master's thesis in First Nations Studies at UNBC. DATES: JANUARY 17TH-JANUARY 25TH 2011 Interviews will be held for participants interested in this project and who have knowledge in energy efficiency and renewable energy development. Participant Observation will also be taking place throughout this time. Please be aware of the following: • I will be documenting relevant observations on the partnership. o Personal information will not be used unless I am directed by you to do so • For any information I wish to use in my research paper for the University of Northern BC I will: o Allow you the opportunity to withdraw, approve, or change the information I have written down. o Verify all information with you that is shared, further minimizing any potential misinterpretations • All information collected throughout this project will be held in strict confidence. You will be given the opportunity to decide if you would like your information to appear or be withdrawn from my report before any other individual sees these findings. • This information will only be used for educational purposes and to encourage the development of Solar Hot Water systems in Skidegate as well as all renewable energy systems through First Nations partnerships. If vou would like to share vour knowledge on renewable energy please contact me at: Sarah Ozog 203-2529 Wark St Victoria, BC V2L 1L5 Phone: (250) 686-3763 Email: ozog@unbc.ca Any complaints about this project should be directed to the Office of Research by phone (250) 960-5820 or by e-mail reb@unbc.ca. 117 CONSENT FORM Project Title: A Partnership between T'Sou-ke Nation and Skidegate Band: Testing the Operability of Solar Energy Name of Participant: Name of Researcher: Sarah Ozog Project Information The purpose of this research is to promote energy efficient measures, while encouraging the reduction of oil dependence through a cost analysis of diesel generated electricity for participating off-grid First Nations. The analysis will involve comparing those diesel costs to the costs associated with Solar Power as demonstrated by T'Sou-ke's power initiative. This thesis, through personal and group interviews, plans to further investigate the argument that INAC should invest substantial capital costs involved with developing a renewable energy project for off-grid First Nations. This research is being conducted by Sarah Ozog in order to complete her Masters thesis in First Nations Studies at UNBC. This research is also part of the larger T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Mentorship Program Participant Selection: You were invited to participate in this interview because you are a member of T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group and are considered an expert in this area of study. Details of Participation: Your participation in this research project is voluntary. If you agree to participate you will be asked questions relating to your knowledge of Energy Efficiency and the benefits of the T'Sou-ke Smart Energy Group. You have the right to answer only the questions vou feel comfortable answering. You may withdraw from the project at any time. If vou choose to withdraw from the project, any information vou mav have given to the researcher will also be withdrawn. Before submitting anv research findings to the University, vour responses will be sent to vou for your approval and to keep for vour own records. Risks and Benefits of Participation: There are no foreseen risks involved with this research. We would like you to know that any information you may chose to share will not be used unless we have received your consent first and it will only be used in ways you deem appropriate. You will be asked to verify all information shared with the myself, further minimizing any potential misinterpretations. By sharing this information we hope that the information may be used for educational purposes and to encourage the development of renewable energy systems. Confidentiality: All of the information collected from you throughout this project will be held in strict confidence by the researcher. You will be given the opportunity to decide if you would like your name to appear in any research findings. All procedures will follow the University of Northern British Columbia Policies and Procedures for General Research Ethics, and the Tri-Council Guidelines for Research Ethics 118 I would like my name to appear in the research findings OR I do not want my name to appear in the research findings Any audio recordings, photos, or written material resulting from your participation in this research project may be used for Sarah Ozog's UNBC masters' thesis, and for T'Sou-ke Nation. You have the option to allow us to use any written transcripts, audio and video recordings or photos of you. I would like any written transcripts of me used OR I do not want any written transcripts of me used I would like any audio and video recordings of me used OR I do not want any audio and video recordings of me used I would like any photos of me used OR I do not want any photos of me used You have the option to allow us to use your name in any of the above materials. I would like my name associated with direct quotes OR I would not like my name associated with direct quotes 119 Storage of Interview Materials: I give permission to deposit copies for use and safe keeping of any written transcripts, photographs, and audio or video recordings in T'Sou-ke Nation Archives. I give permission to Sarah Ozog to keep copies of any written transcripts, photographs, and audio or video recordings in a locked filing cabinet in her home for up to three years after the project is finished. At this time all documents and disks will be shredded, and electronic copies will be erased. I understand that 1 may place restrictions on access to all or parts of mv information. Final research results will be presented in the community following the completion of the study in May 2011. It is at this time you can request a written copy of the thesis. I have carefully read and understand the description of the study and the conditions of my participation. I agree to participate in this research. Signature of Participant Date I believe the person signing this form understands the study. I agree to use their information according to the conditions stated above. Signature of Researcher Date Contact Information: Any questions or suggestions regarding this project or any requests for additional copies of research results should be directed to Sarah Ozog, who can be reached by phone (250) 6863763 or by email ozog@unbc.ca. Questions or concerns related to this research project can also be directed to either: Andrew Moore T'Sou-ke Solar Program Manager T'Sou-ke Nation Sooke, BC Phone: (250) 642-3957 Email: Andrew@tsoukenation.com Karyn Sharp Thesis Supervisor University of Northern BC Prince George, BC Phone: (250)960-5118 Email: sharp@unbc.ca Any complaints about this project should be directed to the Office of Research by phone (250) 960-5820 or by e-mail reb@unbc.ca. 120 APPENDIX C: Interview Questions 1} Interview Questions: First Phase. T'Sou-ke. January 13. 2012 and Skideeate. January 24. 2012. Partnership Questions • • • • How will you determine if this partnership was a success? What do you believe are the barriers to success? How do you believe we can overcome those barriers or gaps? What do you think the benefits of this partnership will be? Renewable Energy Development Questions • Why was developing a renewable energy project an initiative your community wanted to take on? • What have been the biggest challenges in developing a renewable energy project? • From your experience what do you think the provincial and federal government's role should be in regards to renewable energy development for First Nations AND remote First Nations? 2} Interview Questions: Second Phase. T'Sou-ke February 5.2012 and Skideeate. January 27. 2012. Partnership Questions • • • • • • • • Has your initial "idea " of the partnership been altered since its beginnings? What part of the partnership has been most valuable to T'Sou-ke/Skidegate? And why? If you could start all over, what would you have done differently What lessons did you learn ? Were there unexpected benefits to this partnership. What were they? What have been the greatest challenges of this project so far? How do you see the relationship with Skidegate and T'Sou-ke progressing? Has this experience led you to thinking up new programs and initiatives for your community? Overall has this partnership been a success so far? Renewable Energy Development Questions • What have been the biggest challenges in developing a renewable energy project? • From your experience what do you think the provincial and federal government's role should be in regards to renewable energy development for First Nations AND remote First Nations? 3) Interviews Questions: Third Phase asked June 30. 2012 • • • • • What was crucial to the organization and execution of this partnership? What aspects of the T'Sou-ke Solar Energy Demonstration Project were applicable to the partnership? Was the T'Sou-ke-Skxdegate partnership successful? What lessons did you learn from the T'Sou-ke-Skidegate partnership? If you were to start all over, what would you have done differently 121 APPENDIX P: T'Sou-ke Solar Community Project 16 TlSoO~te funding »m.r^ SC'l^R fffr]BCf im ice mu> mvc to? mm Wn 4" fa TpFki ~WKTccp WM Phi IF AjUO , v mcM pcm~sm% fee Be smm i 77///i 300, **0 | " " , T (m$BpMoN mm m &0q -fCtlcH jW "THP Source: Andrew Moore (2009); used wi with permission 122 APPENDIX E: Skidegate Housing Survey 2011 Address: Contact Name and Phone Number: Consumption questions: How many people are living in your home? How many children? How many teenagers? How many people and children occupy your home during the day? and night? Electricity/Heat Use questions: What is the approximate cost of electricity/year for your home? How is your home heated? Electrical, heating/stove oil, kerosene jet fuel, propane or wood burner? What is the approximate cost to heat your home /year? Hot Water use questions: How is your hot water heated? Electrical, propane or oil? How many showers/baths are taken per day in your home? When are those taken? Do you have a dishwasher or hand wash? when? Do you have a washing machine or hand wash? when? Does anyone in your house use hot water at any other time other than what you have already mentioned? Mechanical observations: Is the roof facing south? How many levels to the house? Does the house have vaulted or flat ceilings? Does the house have an attic? Is your family home most of the summer? Where do you most need home improvements? 123 124