FIRST NATIONS WOMEN CLIENTS:
EXPERIENCES IN DUAL RELATIONSHIPS

by
Terry Badine
B.S.W., The University o f Victoria, 1991

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK

© Terry Badine, 2002
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
December 20, 2002
AH rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or
other means, without the permission of the author.

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APPROVAL

Name:

Terry Badine

Degree;

Master o f Social Work

Thesis Title:

FIRST NATIONS WOMEN CLIENTS: EXPERIENCES
IN DUAL RELATIONSHIPS

Examining Committee:

Chair: Dr. Robert W. Tait
Dean of Graduate Studies
UNBC

Supervisor: Glen Schmidt, MSW
Assistant Professor, Social W ork Program
UNBC

Committee Member: Dr. Antonia M ills
Associate Professor, First Nations Studies Program
UNBC

Committee Member: Dr. Barbara Hen^nger
Adjunct Professor, Social Work Program
UNBC

External Exanimer: Lela Zimmer, Ph.D (ABD)
Assistant Proressor, Nursing Program
UNBC

Date Approved:

11

Abstract
Dual relationships are o f concern to professional therapists. All professional regulatory
bodies caution their members to avoid dual relationships with their clients: it is a matter
of ethical boundaries. However, it is now also acknowledged that in small and rural
communities dual or overlapping relationships with clients are unavoidable. The concept
of dual or overlapping relationships is also of concern to professionals who work in First
Nations communities. Nevertheless, like in other small or rural communities, where the
counsellors live and are in constant interaction with the clients, dual relationships in First
Nations Communities do occur.

Using a phenomenological approach, this study explores First Nations women clients’
experiences of dual relationships with alcohol and drug abuse counsellors indigenous to
the clients’ communities. The goal of this study was to provide a description o f the nature
of this experience from First Nations women clients’ perspectives. Descriptive data for
the study was gathered through conversations with three Firsts Nations women who live
in rural communities in British Columbia and Alberta.

The essence of the First Nations women clients’ experiences o f dual relationships, with
alcohol and drug abuse counsellors indigenous to the clients’ communities, was a
“movement from a therapeutic relationship to an enduring relationship.” In this process,
the clients experienced a sense of safety and encouragement to move forward. The
participants described feeling safe because the counsellors were confidential,
nonjudgmental, empathie, and equitable. The participants experienced the

m
“encouragement to move forward” due to their counsellors’ willingness to extend
themselves to engage them in the therapeutic process and due to their identification with
the First Nations counsellors that enabled them to disclose deep issues. The clients were
also encouraged by their counsellors’ presence in the community; the counsellors’ style
of life became something to strive for. After the formal counselling sessions were over,
the therapeutic relationships moved beyond to become enduring relationships. In this
latter phase of the clients’ relationships with their counsellors, the clients continued to be
positively affirmed and supported by their counsellors.

The character of the counsellors is most important. The clients see their counsellors as
role models who offer hope by modeling alternative lifestyles. The availability o f the
counselors is also seen as a benefit, it deepens the therapeutic process. Nevertheless, the
power imbalance in the beginning phase o f the counsellor-client relationship is still very
much an issue with the clients and this study indicates a need for boundary management
initiatives in collaboration with clients in First Nation communities.

A phenomenological study aims to provide insight and understanding and this study does
not claim to be the final conclusion. However the study provides information that may be
considered in practice situations and it may contribute to further studies on the topic.

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
DEDICATION

ii
iv
vii
viii

CHAPTER ONE
Research question and purpose o f the study
Conception of the study
Purpose and objective o f the study
Significance and timeliness o f the study
Definitions as used in the study

1
I
2
2
2
4

CHAPTER TWO
Literature review
Purpose and requirements of the therapeutic relationship
Definition o f power in therapy relationships
Concerns with dual relationships
Types of non-sexual social relationships that are of concern
The positions o f professionals in relation to dual relationships
Suggestions on how to address dual relationships
Planning with the client
Therapist’s responsibilities
Third party help with various issues
Challenges and unanswered questions
Decision-making Models
Summary and discussion o f the literature review
Prelude to the findings
The rural community setting

6
6
7
9
16
18
22
22
23
24
24
27
30
31
31

CHAPTER THREE
Research Design
Methodology
Method
Sampling
Data collection
Data analysis
Issues of quality
Ethics
Reliability and validity
External reliability
Internal reliability
Internal validity
External validity

33
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35
36
37
39
40
41
42
42
42
43
43

CHAPTER FOUR
Presentation o f the experience: First Nations clients in dual relationships
Introduction
Orientation to the structure: First Nations women’s experiences
Background o f the participants
Dana
Kayla
June
The beginning phase
Reluctance to engage in the counselling process
Moving beyond fear to engage in the counselling process
Moving beyond fear o f sharing pain in their community
Establishing trust
Moving beyond fear of judgment
Middle phase
Willingness to disclose
Affirmed and accepted as a fellow community member
Discomfort due to loss o f privacy
Availability: Feeling there is someone I can turn to
Inspired by the counsellor
Gratitude
Termination phase
Enduring trust
Enduring bond
The experience o f being seen
Continuing support
A sense of safety and encouragement to move forward
A sense o f safety
Encouragement to move forward
Movement from a therapeutic relationship to an enduring relationship

45
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45
46
47
47
47
48
48
49
51
53
55
56
56
58
62
64
66
67
69
69
70
71
72
73
74
74
75

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion
Key findings
Significance of the findings
Implications for practice
Implications for further study
Limitations to the study
Summary

77
77
77
80
86
88
88
89

REFERENCES

91

APPENDICES
A. Research Ethics Board Approval letter
Letter of introduction
Letter to potential interviewees

100
101
102
104

VI

Consent to participate form
B. Conversation guide

106
107

vil

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my Thesis Committee members;
Glen Schmidt, chairperson o f my committee, thank you for your patience and your help.
Barbara Herringer, my committee member, thank you for your questions of the definitive
nature and for challenging me to use my voice, “Where’s your voice?” you said to me.
Antonia Mills, my committee member, thank you for your suggestions and your
resourcefulness about Native people.

Thank you, to the three First Nation women that shared their experiences with me.
Without your participation, I would not have completed my thesis.

Thank you to my brother Vernon Lalonde for his inspiring questions, “So how’s your
thesis coming along?” I also say thank you to his wife, my sister-in-law and my friend
Nancy Lalonde for always presuming that I would be finishing my thesis.
Thank you also to my sister Muriel Lee for inspiring me by working on her Master’s
Degree while I contemplated giving up on my mine.
Thank you to my mother, my brothers and sisters, for the determination that you model.

Thank you also to my mentor, Alma Vougeios.
Thank you also to the Muskoti Learning Center for their kind support.
I express my gratitude to the Creator, for the sense o f hope and inspiration during
challenging times.

V lll

Dedication
I dedicate this thesis to my grandmother Madeline Davis; she died at the age o f 95
years, November 21, 2001. She modeled self-respect, self-trust and integrity; she also
modeled unconditional positive regard for others. Her way o f being in the world inspired
me to complete this thesis about boundaries.
I also dedicate this thesis to my daughter Wadeen and my son Jeremy. 1 am
continuously inspired by their love.

1

Chapter One
Research Question and Purpose o f the Study
Conception o f the Study
In my view, dual relationships appear to be a source o f controversy in First
Nations communities. “Dual (or multiple) relationships...occur, when counsellors
assume two (or more) roles, simultaneously or sequentially, with a client” (Corey 2001,
p. 55). The term multiple has come to be more often used than the term dual; however, 1
will use both terms interchangeably throughout this thesis. In this thesis, 1 also focus
primarily on non-sexual, social dual relationships. In my experience, there seems to be a
prevailing opinion that First Nations alcohol and drug counsellors should not be
counselling within their own communities. People in First Nations communities seem to
be uncertain about these multiple relationships; they wonder what the experience o f the
client would be in these relationships.
The client’s experience was also of interest to me. 1 shared in the First Nations
peoples’ uncertainty. 1 wondered what the client’s experience was when her counsellor
was also indigenous (meaning home grown) in her community. 1 wondered what
constructs made up this experience. These questions came to mind when 1 interviewed
three First Nations women, who had lived this experience, and 1 asked them: What is it
that you experienced in a dual relationship with a member o f your community? This
thesis seeks to answer this question.
Purpose and Objective o f the Study
The purpose o f this phenomenological study then was to explore and understand
First Nations women clients’ experiences in dual relationships with alcohol and drug

counsellors who are indigenous to the clients’ communities. The objective o f the study is
to provide a description o f the real life experiences o f clients based on their stories. An
account of the experience is accomplished through conversations and collaboration with
three First Nations female clients.
Significance and Timeliness o f the Study
A study o f the clients’ experiences in dual relationships with alcohol and drug
counsellors is important. Alcoholism is considered to be of great concern in First
Nations communities particularly because alcoholism has been associated with problems
of sexual abuse, family violence, and suicide (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
[RCAP], 1996; National Native Alcohol and Drug Abuse Program [NNADAP], 1998;
Parker, 1999; Lucas, 1989; National Native Association o f Treatment Directors
[NNATD], 1989). From my personal experience living in a First Nation community, I
know that even when the majority o f adults in the family abstain from alcohol, these
members continue to be affected by the alcoholism of those family members who are
still abusing alcohol. This observation is supported by the Report o f the Royal
Commission o f Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP, 1996). Counselling is one of the essential
services that can combat alcoholism and its associated problems in native communities.
Conducting studies o f client experiences in counselling in First Nations communities is
important (Darou, 1987). The client’s experience in dual relationships with alcohol and
drug counsellors is one of these areas that needs investigation and understanding.
This study may be especially important to the National Native Alcohol and Drug
Abuse Program (NNADAP). NNADAP provides support and funding for various
programs to First Nations organizations. The National Native Alcohol and Drug Abuse

Program’s mandate is:
To support First Nations and Inuit people and their communities to establish
operating programs aimed at arresting and offsetting high levels of alcohol, other
drugs, and substance abuse among the target population living on reserve, (p.3)

In a 1998 general review o f the National Native Alcohol and Drug Abuse
Program, the review team found that “NNADAP workers were affected to a large degree
by perceptions regarding confidentiality” (NNADAP, p.34). Although this discussion
focused on the facilities (space) and interruptions to counselling interviews, the review
team recommended that a code o f conduct be developed due to the nature of areas
addressed by the workers, such as family violence and sexual abuse. The code of
conduct would “outline expectations relating to confidentiality, obligations, possible
remedies and penalties, where there are violations”(p. 35). This study of client
experiences in dual relationships may be useful to NNADAP.
The literature I reviewed indicated a view of dual relationships as problematic. It
is important to consider the experiences of the clients in regards to dual relationships
from their perspective. Szoladi (cited in Delaney, Brownlee, Sellick & Tranter, 1998)
supported a study o f this nature in his suggestion "that the client's view should be used
to determine if non-sexual dual relationships are a problem” (p.59). Pope & Vasquez
(1998) also see a need for study regarding the occurrence and effects of dual
relationships. Clearly, conducting research into the issues surrounding dual relationships
is important. This study may represent a beginning of many more insightful studies on
the topic especially in First Nations communities.
I also conducted this study to enable fellow First Nations people to identify with
the findings. First Nations people have a tendency to view research results, based on the

general population, as not being pertinent or of significance to them. I agree with Kirby
and McKenna (1989) who state that, “Focusing from the perspective o f the margins
allows us to see the world differently and, in many ways, more authentically” (p.33). I
hope this research will provide insight that First Nations people can draw on either at the
personal or professional level.
Definitions as used in this Study
There are a number of terms that need to be defined for the purposes of this
study.
1. Registered Indian - (used interchangeably with the terras First Nation, Native and
Aboriginal) means a person who, pursuant to the Indian Act, is registered as an Indian
(Frideres & Gadacz, 2001, p. 26).
2. First Nation client - (used interchangeably with participant) refers to a First Nation
woman who has been involved as a client in a counselling relationship.
3. Counselling- (used interchangeably with the term therapy) refers to a problem
solving process that a practitioner enters, in collaboration with a client, in order to
alleviate the client’s emotional, social and mental suffering.
4. Indigenous- (home grown) refers to a person whose birth occurred in the
community; one who is home grown in that community.
5. Ethic - refers to “a particular moral standard or value” (Neufeldt & Guralnik, 1988, p.
466).
6. Ethical- refers to “conforming to the standards of conduct of a given profession or
group” (p. 466).

7. Boundaries - refers to lines or limits that differentiate appropriate from inappropriate
behavior or interaction in a given role (Katherine, 1991).
This chapter has provided the conception, purpose, objective, the significance
and timeliness o f the study. I have also included the definitions used in this thesis.
Chapter Two presents the literature review. The purpose o f the literature review will be
to illuminate the need for this study. In Chapter Three, the research design used in this
study is described. Chapter Four presents the findings based on the information
gathered from the three First Nations women who were interviewed for this thesis.
The thesis concludes with Chapter Five, which discusses the significance of the study,
implications o f the study, implications for further research and limitations of the study.
The thesis is then summarized. The appendices given at the end o f the paper include all
letters and forms used during this research.

Chapter Two
Literature Review
Introduction
The intent of this literature review is to illuminate the need for conducting a
study of First Nations women’s experiences in dual relationships with alcohol and drug
abuse counsellors. To provide a context for the discussions on dual relationships, the
selective literature review begins with a description of the purpose of and the
requirements in the therapeutic relationship. The definition o f power as it relates to
therapy relationships follows. Then the professionals’ concerns about dual relationships
are discussed. Types of social dual relationships that are o f specific concern are also
discussed. Next, the professionals’ positions are briefly described. Then the
professionals’ suggestions are outlined. N ext unanswered questions regarding dual
relationships are presented. The review ends with a sample of the decision-making
models that are available to assess the risk o f and to safeguard dual relationships. The
literature is then summarized and discussed.
Purpose and Requirements o f the Therapeutic Relationship
A client enters into the therapy relationship to alleviate her distress. The power
difference between the client and the therapist is an inherent factor in this relationship
(Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Gannon, 1982; Gartrell, 1994; Kagel & Giebelhausen,
1994; Peterson, 1992; Rhodes, 1986). It is important to the integrity o f the therapeutic
relationship that the client’s needs are primary; the client must know that the therapist
is there to care for her. The client should be able to form a therapeutic alliance with the
therapist that fosters her growth (A.Vougeios, personal communication, June 15,

2002). A therapeutic alliance is defined as “the feeling that both participants care for
each other and that they can and will work productively toward a shared goal”
(Kokotovic & Tracey 1990, p. 16). Integral to this therapeutic alliance, is the dynamic
of transference; the client must be able to use both the real and the symbolic aspects of
her relationship with the therapist for her healing (Adleman & Barrett, 1990).
Objectivity and professional judgment is required of the therapist. There is also an
understanding and expectation that the therapist must not exploit or harm the client
(Brownlee, 1996).
Definition o f Power in Therapy Relationships
If the therapist only had one relationship with the client; that is, if their roles
did not overlap, boundaries would be clearer. But when a second relationship (a dual
relationship) occurs, dilemmas can occur. It is important to describe the dynamic of
power in therapy relationships as it is an inherent part o f every therapy relationship and
is a very important component in the discussions surrounding dual relationships.
Following Smith and Siegal’s 1983 model. Brown (1985) defined power as the
capacity for impact; in this definition “both covert and overt methods” o f having
impact are defined as ‘power’ (p. 35). The professional is in a power position and the
client is in a vulnerable position in the therapy relationship. The power of the therapist
comes from her knowledge, the status she is given in society, and her personal power
(Peterson, 1992). The client’s dependency on the therapist and the client’s emotional
need imbues in the therapist even more power. The client emotionally needs the
therapist more than the therapist needs the client. The power accumulates as the client
discloses intimate details of her life (Lerman & Rigby, 1990; Peterson, 1992).

According to Rhodes (1986) much power resides in knowing personal information; the
therapist is in a position to penetrate the defenses o f the client (p.67). This relationship
lacks mutuality, because the professional does not reciprocate the client’s disclosing of
intimate details. The therapy relationship is thus considered a fiduciary relationship
where the client’s trust, reliance, and faith reside in the therapist (Simon, 1992). The
therapist has the influence and the authority in the relationship (Kagel & Giebelhausen,
1994).
According to therapists who use the psychodynamic theoretical framework,
further power is covertly accrued in the therapeutic alliance, particularly in the process
of the therapeutic dynamic o f transference; this process is also called dependency.
Another word for this process is projection (Peterson 1992, p. 39). Although this
process operates in all relationships to some degree, it is much more evident with
authority figures than with peers (p. 39). According to Biaggo and Greene (1995), “In
psychoanalytic m odels,...[transference] ...is understood as the client’s transference to
the therapist and refers to feelings, fantasies and memories the client experiences for
the therapist that have their origin in early significant figures important to the client’s
life” (p. 91). The clients project parts o f themselves onto the therapists and through the
therapists may act out their inner conflicts. For instance, they may project their shame
about their dark sides and their longing for acceptance. They may also relate and
respond to professionals out o f their childhood experiences with authority figures
(Peterson 1992, p.39). Working with the therapist on these issues enables the client to
work through her unresolved issues with the help o f the therapist and in the safety of
the therapy relationships (Biaggo & Greene 1995, p. 92). According to Peterson much

power derives from the “client’s emotional truth, its existence is pervasive and strongly
influences the reality o f the professional’s authority in the clients’ lives” (Peterson
1992, p. 40).
The latent power differential in client-counselor relationships is a concept that
is generally accepted in all professions (Rhodes 1986) including the alcohol and drug
abuse counselor profession. However, in reference to the symbolic relationship aspect
of therapy the definition o f boundaries may vary. According to Gutheil and Gabbard
((1993),
a problem with any attempt to derive definitions o f boundaries from the
psychoanalytic concepts of technique is that technique changes with treatments
that are less expressive than analysis. As one moves along the expressivesupportive continuum of psychotherapy, one relies less on interpretation and
more on alternative interventions such as clarification, confrontation, advice
and praise, suggestion, and affirmation. Similarly, partial gratification of
transference wishes is associated with supportive psychotherapy whereas it is
generally eschewed in psychoanalysis or highly expressive psychotherapy.
Hence, there may be a built-in confusion between the notion of therapeutic
boundaries and adjusting the technique to the ego organization o f the patient.
(p. 190)
Concerns with Dual Relationships
One of the ways to learn that professionals are concerned about a particular
phenomenon in counselling, is by the concept’s inclusion in professional ethical
guidelines established for psychologists, social workers, and counsellors. Dual
relationships are dissuaded in most codes of ethics (Brownlee, 1996; Canadian
Association of Social Workers [CASW], 1994; Coleman & Schaefer, 1986; Herlihy &
Corey, 1992; Lerman & Porter, 1990; Rave & Larsen, 1995). The American
Psychological Association’s 1989 and the National Federation o f Societies for Clinical
Social Work’s [NFSCSW] 1985 codes (cited in Herlihy & Corey, 1992) exemplify most

10

professional codes’ exhortations to the professionals to be ‘cognizant of their own needs
and their potentially influential position’ in relation to clients (Herlihy & Corey 1992,
p.4). Professionals are urged to ‘avoid exploiting the trust and dependency o f ... ’ clients
and ‘to make every effort to avoid dual relationships that could impair their professional
judgment or increase the risk of exploitation’ (Herlihy & Corey 1992, p. 5). Some codes,
such as the NFSCSW 1985 code, are more explicit and urge the counsellors to avoid
entering counselling relationships with family members, close associates, and friends
(Herlihy & Corey, 1992).
Nevertheless, it is also now acknowledged that some dual relationships may not
be avoidable (Brownlee, 1996; Herlihy & Corey, 1992)) in rural communities (Lerman
& Porter, 1990), lesbian communities (Sears, 1990a), feminist communities (Brown,
1990), and First Nation communities (Sears, 1990b). This acknowledgement o f the
reality of dual relationships however, is not without concerns and dilemmas. The
professionals’ specific views and concerns regarding dual relationships will now be
explored at a more specific concrete level.
There are four predominant themes and the implications stemming from these
themes that concern professionals in relation to dual relationships. The first three
themes are the therapeutic alliance, the symbolic relationship, and the power
differential; the possibility o f conflicts o f interest developing in relation to these
aspects of the therapeutic relationships is at issue. Blurred boundaries are a further
concern in dual relationships. Other concerns relate to what may be considered
questions related to the blurring o f boundaries and these are counseling friends and
post therapy relationships. These themes are discussed below.

11

There is an underlying worry that, due to conflicting interests that may evolve,
the therapeutic alliance will be affected. Objectivity required for professional judgment
may be compromised and the client may be inhibited from participation in the primary
therapy relationship if the client and the therapist are involved in a dual relationship.
According to Strom-Gottfried and Dunlap (1998), the therapeutic alliance may be
affected if a dual relationship exists, “the worker’s ability to be direct with the client
and to do what he/she feels is necessary to address the problem for work may be
compromised” (Strom-Gottfried & Dunlap 1998, p. 10). As well “the client’s
participation and disclosure may be inhibited.” Further, the relationship may become
“constrained because the worker has knowledge of the client from sources outside the
relationship; by the fear of losing the second relationship; by concerns about
confidentiality; by expectations o f a mutual give-and-take when none is possible, or by
wishes of preferential treatment” (p. 10-11). The therapist may inhibit the client from
exploring certain issues that may affect her social network and likewise the client may
be inhibited from exploring those issues (Pope & Vasquez 1998, p. 193). The therapist
may engage in meeting her own needs to the detriment of the client (p. 193). Citing
other authors (Gabbard & Pope, 1989; Pope, 1991) Biaggo and Greene state.
The therapeutic alliance depends to a large degree on the client’s ability to
explore fantasies and feelings o f all kinds, even if they are directed at the
therapist, without needing to be concerned that the therapist is either listening
vicariously or using the information to manipulate the client. Neither should the
client protect the therapist from the client’s feelings, (p. 95)
Another concern about the possibility o f conflicts of interest developing in the
context of the therapeutic alliance relates to transference issues. The client’s need is the
primary focus in a therapy relationship. One way that the client needs the therapist is in

12

the process o f the therapeutic alliance, particularly as it relates to the symbolic
relationship aspect of therapy (Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Biaggo & Green, 1995).
Citing Brown (1983), Biaggo and Greene (1995) conclude that in this process the
therapist represents “something or someone that the client needs her to symbolize. In
reality, neither the therapist nor the therapy relationship is exactly that which it
symbolically represents to the client” (p.91); however, according to Biaggo and Green
“these symbolic representations in the therapy relationship offer the clients the
opportunity to use therapy to reexperience and examine old feelings and memories in
the safety of the therapy relationship” (p.91). The client uses both the realistic and
symbolic aspects o f the therapy concurrently (p.91). They agree with other authors (see
Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Kagel & Gabelhausen, 1994) that if a second relationship
occurs the therapist and the client may continue to enact their roles outside of the
therapy sessions. Neither may participate authentically. Further, the therapist may use
the client to meet her needs rather than meeting the client’s needs directly (p.92).
Furthermore, if a second relationship occurs and the client learns about the therapist’s
personal life, the client may not be able to create the symbolism that may be helpful to
her in the therapy (p. 92). According to Adleman and Barrett (1990), the clients need to
know that they can rely on and lean on the therapist and that their needs, rather than the
therapist’s needs, take precedence (p. 88).
Another aspect o f the therapeutic alliance that creates concern about conflicting
interests developing, is the power differential. The reality that the therapist has
information that the client does not have about the therapist gives her power over the
client. This includes information about the client that the “therapist has been trained to

13

appreciate in particular ways” (Biaggo & Greene 1995, p.92). Feminist therapists have
explored the potential problems that could result if the therapist does not meet her own
needs directly and meets her needs through the client. The therapist is expected to
design actions in the therapeutic alliance to meet the clients’ rather than her own needs
in order to protect the vulnerability o f the client (Biaggo & Greene, 1995, p.92)
Lerman and Rigby (1990) are especially concerned about the potential o f harm
if the therapists are unaware o f power dynamics. A therapist, who does not understand
power dynamics, may find herself in a relationship that consists of a “swamp of
miscommunication, fantasy projections, misunderstood motivations.” A client may
also be subjected to unintentional emotional abuse by the therapist (Lerman & Rigby
1990, pg.56). The unaware therapist may not realize that a client may have unexplored
needs to please her, that the client still views her as an authority, and that the client still
may be influenced by the effects o f having been with her in therapy (p. 56).
Kagel and Giebelhausen (1994) argue that dual relationships violate
professional boundaries. Fundamental in their arguments are the concepts o f the
inherent power imbalance in the therapist-client relationship and the dynamics of
counter-transference and transference. According to these authors, any second
relationship may subsequently undermine the distinctive nature o f the therapeutic
relationship and subject the client to potential harm because the therapist’s power over,
influence on, and bond with the client carry over into a second relationship. Though
the client and the therapist may pretend to define their relationship around new roles
and expectations, the power, influence and bond remain and the therapist may
prioritize her own needs at the expense o f the client (p.216-217).

14

Kagel and Giebelhausen (1994) attribute this confusion about appropriate
boundaries to the move by therapists who follow the feminist empowerment models to
decrease the social distance between themselves and clients by adopting the use of self­
disclosure and client contracts. These authors argue that the therapists “may falsely
assume that they are engaged in a truly egalitarian partnership” and may begin to put
more focus on their needs rather than the client’s needs (p. 217). According to Kagel
and Giebelhausen, the de-emphasis o f psychodynamic theory may also make therapists
“less sensitive to the potential for exploitation in dual relationships” (p.217). Therapists
who have not undergone their own therapy and who have not trained in
psychodynamic therapy may not recognize the role transference and counter­
transference play in their therapy relationships. These therapists are therefore less
likely to identify dual relationships as unethical (p.217). Kagel and Giebelhausen
(1994), however, qualify the above depiction. They state, "although authorities
disagree on the definition of the psychodynamic theoretical concepts of transference
and counter-transference, most acknowledge that the therapeutic situation encourages
projection of unconscious needs and repetition of significant relationships” (p.216).
Simon agrees with the concept that regardless o f the therapists’ theoretical orientation,
“all therapists must recognize that transference and counter-transference play an
important role in any therapy” (Simon 1992, p.272). According to Kagel and
Giebelhausen (1994), dual relationships violate professional boundaries.
In her book titled. A t personal risk, Marilyn Peterson (1992), a social worker,
discusses the concept of the power differential in fiduciary relationships. She provided
evidence of the abuse o f this power by various professionals such as lawyers, doctors,

15

and other professionals including therapists; she discovered the devastating impact
these abuses had on the clients she has worked with (see Peterson, 1992). Her position
is also that dual relationships violate professional boundaries.
Pope and Vasquez’s (1998) concern about the implications o f conflicting
interests developing also relates to the power differential. In their view any second
relationship would not be engaged in on an equal footing. For instance, if the client is
wronged by the therapist and wanted to redress the wrong in court, the client may be
inhibited. This inhibition may be due to fear that a therapist may use information
learned in therapy to plan a defense. Moreover, the therapist may use complex
diagnostic labels to discredit the client (p. 94).
Blurring o f boundaries is also a concern. Citing other authors (Pope &
Boushoutsos, 1986) Biaggo and Greene (1995) stated that some non-sexual dual
relationships were found to lead to sexual dual relationships that have subsequently
been harmful to clients. Biaggo and Greene (1995) stated however, that non-sexual
dual relationships could be problematic in their own terms. Confusion and erosion of .
clarity regarding expectations in the therapy have been discovered; clarity and
predictability are important elements of a therapeutic relationship (Biaggo & Green
1995, p. 96). According to Stom-Gottfried and Dunlap (1998) acts o f kindness may
also be misinterpreted by the client and may confuse and mislead the client. The
examples used by these authors are actions such as “accepting gifts, offering hugs,
sending greeting cards, or attending the client’s graduation” (p. 11). According to these
authors, these activities could either benefit the client or “lead to further blurring of
boundaries in ways that could be detrimental to the client” (Strom-Gottfried & Dunlap,

16

1998, p. 11).
Types ofNonsexual Social Relationships that are O f Concern
Counselling relationships with friends is considered a violation o f boundaries
(Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Kagel & Giebelhausen, 1994; Strom-Guthiel & Dunlap,
1998). Kieth-Spiegel and Koocher 1985 (cited in Herlihy & Corey, 1992) pointed out
that counselling friends involves ‘faulty expectations, mixed allegiances, and
misinterpretation of motives’ and could result in role conflict that could cause
frustration and confusion (Herlihy & Corey 1992, p. 137). Herlihy and Corey (1992)
suggest that these types o f dual relationships “can lead to disappointment, anger and
dissolution o f the relationship” (p. 137). According to Herlihy and Corey, “it could be
difficult for a friend to avoid crossing the line between empathy and sympathy”(p. 137).
Confrontation may be difficult for the therapist and the client may fear losing the
respect of the counsellor if they disclosed deeper issues. Finally, one o f the
relationships may be compromised (Herlihy & Corey 1992, p. 137). According to
Herlihy and Corey, the question that remains is whether or not one should counsel a
mere acquaintance, a friend of a friend, or a relative o f a friend (p.141).
A survey conducted by Borys in 1988 (cited in Herlihy & Corey, 1992) found
that a majority o f practitioners avoid social relationships with clients. However they
are divided on whether they consider social relationships to be unethical (Herlihy &
Corey, 1992). According to Herlihy and Corey (1992), evidence is increasing that
sexual relationships may be harmful to clients and Herlihy and Corey suggest that
perhaps social relationships may also be harmful although to a lesser extent, (p. 147).
According to these authors, evidence is increasing that post-therapy sexual

17

relationships may have a variety o f harmful consequences for the client. Two
characteristics o f the client-counselor alliance make such relationships difficult; first
“evidence has been found that clients create an internalized image o f the therapist and
that the continuation o f this image after therapy is associated with ongoing
improvement after therapy is ended” (Herlihy & Corey 1992, p. 147). They suggest
that although there is no direct evidence, “it is not hard to imagine that the image o f the
helper would be drastically altered should a sexual encounter occur” as a result, the
benefits of therapy could be destroyed (p. 146). According to these authors, similar
consequences could occur in nonsexual dual relationships; the same dynamics may be
operating although not as intensely. Nevertheless, former clients may feel
disillusioned with their former therapists and feel exploited by them. Citing Vasquez
(1991), Herlihy and Corey (1992) also stated that “reported studies suggest that
memories of the therapeutic relationship remain important for extended periods after
termination, and that many clients consider re-entering therapy with their former
therapists” (p. 147). They contend that this option may be closed to the client if a
second relationship develops.
According to Herlihy and Corey, (1992), the second characteristic of the
therapeutic alliance that makes post-therapy relationships problematic is the power
differential in the relationships which includes transference related issues. They stated
that power of the therapist does not end after therapy and therefore “may limit the
former client’s ability to make clear, rational, and autonomous choices about entering
into the relationship” (p. 147). If the client does not enter into a relationship “freely”,
they may become resentful and this may “cloud the impact o f the former therapeutic

18

alliance, or worse may be experienced as victimization and deeply traumatize the
client” (p. 147). Equality may be limited in this second relationship as well, according
to these authors (p. 147).
According to Herlihy and Corey (1992), if the client is exploited in dual
relationships at any time, “they may feel hurt, confused and betrayed. This erosion of
trust may have lasting consequences, the client may be reluctant to seek help from
other professionals, they may develop ambivalent conflicting feelings of anger, and
fear o f separation”(p. 14). These authors also state that the consequence may be the
same as those involved in the patient-therapist sex syndrome (see Pope, 1988). These
influences are as follows; the clients may feel angry but may feel trapped in a
dependence of the continuing counselling relationship; they may blame themselves;
they may wonder what they did wrong; they may have fear of confronting the
professional because they may feel that the risks are unacceptably high in confronting
the professional; they may feel a sense of isolation and they may feel that there is no
one they can depend on to help them. Any of these feelings could in turn lead to
“depression, despair, and helplessness” (Herlihy & Corey 1992, p. 14).
The Positions o f Professionals in Relation to Dual Relationships
All professionals are in agreement that dual or overlapping relationships
present the potential for harm, and they must deal with the dilemmas presented. Their
concerns, views, and experiences are now presented.
Corey, Corey, and Callanan (1993) do not believe that all dual relationships are
harmful; but in their view the practitioners hold the responsibility to self-monitor and
examine their motivations for engaging in social relationships with clients. In their

19
view, unethical behavior is not being aware o f or concerned about one’s impact on a
client. Their opinion is that one must assess the risk of harm. They state that there are
two positions regarding social relationships with clients, those who “see social contact
as particularly appropriate with clients who are not deeply disturbed and who are
seeking personal growth” for instance peer counsellors (p 149). Others take the
position that counseling and friendship should never be mixed. One of these authors
takes the position that social relationships with clients are never appropriate while the
other two do think it is appropriate given the appropriate circumstances. They question
the “assumption that social involvement with a client other than in the office implies an
unwillingness to challenge the client and automatically makes the therapist less
objective.” Further they “do not think that all forms of out-of- office contact
necessarily preclude honest and effective confrontation” (p. 146). However they argue
that counselors must be aware o f their own motivations, the client’s motivation for
entering the relationships, and they must assess the impact the relationship may have
on the client/counsellor relationship and on the client (p. 146). These authors also
recommend that in an assessment o f the appropriateness of social contact out o f the
office, the counselor could consider the nature o f social contact, the nature of the
client’s problem, the client population, the setting where one works, the kind of
therapy one employs, and their theoretical approach (147).
Kitchener and Harding (cited in Herlihy and Corey, 1992) contend that dual
relationships lie along a continuum. There are those that are potentially very harmful to
those with little potential for harm. They conclude that dual relationships should be
entered into only when there is low risk and when there are “offsetting benefits” to the

20

client (Herlihy & Corey 1992, p. 12). Kitchener (1988) developed a risk assessment
model to assess the potential for harm in dual relationships (see p. 28 in this thesis).
In this section, some feminists’ views and approaches to addressing dual
relationships are explored. Feminists, like First Nations people, have minority status
and experience marginality in society. They have also experienced dual relationships in
their communities. These background similarities lead me to believe that their views of
dual relationships are applicable to dual relationships in First Nations communities.
Some feminist therapists accept the reality o f overlapping relationships in small
communities (Berman, 1990; Gates & Speare, 1990; Lerman & Porter, 1990; Sears,
1990b; Smith, 1990). Although they recommend that dual relationships be avoided,
they recognize that sometimes these relationships may be inevitable (Lerman & Rigby
1990, p. 55). These feminists realize that people who have differing values and
attitudes often seek out therapists with particular backgrounds because the clients feel
they will be understood and cared for by someone who is similar to them (Lerman &
Porter, 1990). Citing other authors (Carkhuff & Pierce, 1976; Sue, 1975; Vontress,
1971) Lerman and Porter (1990) state, “In fact, this has been found to be accurate” (p.
8). These authors cite Brown as suggesting that ethical actions be seen on a continuum
rather than as dichotomous behaviors. The code o f the American Psychological
Association focuses on prohibiting predatory behaviors such as sexual and dual
relationships that are known to harm clients, but does not mention the potential harm
on the opposite end of the continuum-distant, uninvolved therapist-client relationships.
Lerman and Rave (1990) cited Grunebaum’s (1986) finding that “mental health
therapists who had reported aspects o f their therapy as harmful, most frequently cited

21

rigid, distant” uninvolved therapists as the problem. According to these authors, “no
ethical principle in any extant code deals with this phenomenon” (p. 7). These authors
contend that how to acknowledge dilemmas and learning “where to draw the line so
that neither the extremes of under- nor over-involvement are reached”, is a process that
therapists need to participate in (Lerman & Porter 1990, p.8). Acknowledging and
using power responsibly is at the forefront when addressing dilemmas brought on by
dual relationships (Lerman & Porter 1990, p .11). These feminist therapists do not want
to harm their clients. So how do they experience and approach dual relationships?
According to Larsen and Rave (1995), the core issue continues to be the
exploration and understanding of power for feminist therapists. They state that power
inequities should not recur in the therapeutic relationship. They state that previously,
“feminist therapists denied that power differentials existed in the feminist therapeutic
relationship” because “they then believed it possible to achieve equality in power
between client and therapist within the therapeutic relationship” (p. 7). They now
“acknowledge that power differentials are inherent in therapy and other relationships”
(p. 7). According to these authors, therefore, “the tasks o f the therapist are to be
sensitive to power issues, to use power responsibly in the service o f clients, and to assist
the clients in gaining perspective on how power affects them individually” (Larsen &
Rave, 1995, p.7). The Feminist therapist also “seeks to .. .personally empower clients
through understanding and action”(p.7).
Suggestions on How to Address Dual Relationships
This section presents the suggestions that have been made by various therapists,
including feminist therapists, to address dual relationships and associated issues to

22

consider in the process. The underlying principle that is considered is “do not exploit.”
These suggestions are presented thematically; the themes are: planning with the client;
the therapist’s responsibilities, and help o f a third party.
Planning with the client The therapist must plan and evaluate encounters with
the client by discussing concerns and how meetings out in the community will be
handled (Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Brown, 1990; Brown, 1994; Gartrell, 1994; Gates &
Speare, 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Sears, 1990b; Smith, 1990); by discussing risks to
harm (Berman, 1990; Brown, 1990; Gates & Speare, 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992;
Stom-Gottfried & Dunlap, 1998); by evaluating community encounters in the therapy
context (Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Berman 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Sears,
1990a); by discussing referrals when appropriate (Brown, 1990).
Issues to consider in the discussions with clients are as follows: the client’s right
to confidentiality (Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Berman, 1990; Brown, 1990); the
therapist’s and the client’s right to privacy (Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Brown, 1990);
personal boundaries (Adleman & Barret, 1990; Brown, 1990); assessment of behavior
out in the community (Alderman & Barrett, 1990); whether to accept clients from the
same social network (Brown, 1990); empowerment of client with knowledge and
willingness to listen to criticism and concerns of the client (Brown, 1990; Sears, 1990a);
assessment of the amount of contact and how to deal with differences and allegiances to
different political factions (Berman, 1990); the impact of outside contact on the client
(Berman, 1990); assessing whether the client wants to be acknowledged or not (Sears,
1990b); policies on who will be taken as a client and policies o f not discussing other

23
clients (Gates & Speare, 1990; Sears, 1990a); and limits on social contact (Sears,
1990b).
Therapist’s responsibilities Therapists directly and indirectly recommended the
following initiatives that colleagues may take as they address dual relationships. Become
clear on who the client is, what issues they bring, and how the client may interpret the
actions of the therapist, this is one way to determine appropriate boundaries (StromGottfied & Dunlap, 1998); be aware o f power and practise vigilant awareness and
continuous self examination of power needs and how they are acted upon (Adleman &
Barrett, 1990; Berman, 1990; Lerman & Rigby, 1990; Sears, 1990a; Smith, 1990); be
aware of what issues the client triggers to prevent detrimental actions; practice
emotional self-care and prevent burnout symptoms so that unmet needs do not get in the
way (Brown, 1990; Lerman & Rigby, 1990); assume the responsibility for the ethics in
the relationship and meet personal needs in other relationships (Adleman & Barrett,
1990; Gartrell, 1994; Herlihy & Corey, 1992;); practice self-care and train colleagues
and support fellow members to attain training in the field (Adleman & Barrett, 1990);
provide only minimum generic self-disclosures (Gartrell, 1994; Herlihy & Corey, 1992);
develop policies regarding boundaries with clients (Gartrell, 1994; Sears, 1990a); be
aware that you are a role model (Smith, 1990); empower self, attain a sense of personal
pride and emotional well being so that you will not be vulnerable to gratifying your ego
at the expense o f the client (Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Smith 1990); get intermittent
therapy throughout your professional life (Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Strom-Gottfried &
Dunlap, 1998); do not socialize with clients so that the boundaries are clear (Herlihy &

24

Corey, 1992); self-evaluate to keep attuned to transference and counter-transference
issues and value judgments (Sears, 1990a).
Third party help with various issues This list of suggestions pertain to the
therapist enlisting a third party to help with various issues and these are as follows: find
a third person to provide input in managing choices (Gartrell, 1994; Lerman & Rigby,
1990; Strom-Gottfried & Dunlap, 1998); find a peer consultation group to address
therapist vulnerability and misuse o f power (Lerman & Rigby, 1990); get a consultant to
address issues on whether to accept clients from the same social network and to prevent
the clients from feeling betrayed; to ensure that therapeutic effectiveness and ethical
integrity is maintained; to ensure that the client is self-determining; to gain awareness of
the tendency to avoid confronting a client because o f their prominence in the community
or due to fear o f being criticized by friends etc. in the community (Berman, 1990); to
seek supervision if the dual relationship is especially difficult for the following reasons:
for help with cases; help for therapists in relation to clients; to address counter­
transference toward a client; for help with inner conflicts, personal needs and
motivations. As well, find a peer to meet own needs so the therapist will not meet needs
through client due to isolation (Herlihy & Corey, 1992); to get support and debrief the
job (Gates & Speare, 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Sears, 1990a).
These are suggestions then that therapists have made to help make the reality of
dual relationships less difficult.
Challenges, and Unanswered Questions
There are many unanswered questions regarding dual relationships, a few of
which are presented here. There are some professionals who are expressing concerns

25

surrounding norms for interpersonal relations in rural communities.
Biaggo and Green (1995) questioned what course of action would have to be
taken “if the norms for interpersonal relating in the community o f color are different
from the guidelines offered by the therapist’s professional ethics” (p.98). As an
example, Biaggo and Greene 1995 discussed how Sears (1990a), a Native American
lesbian therapist, expressed that “as a member of her tribal community there are
expectations that are a function of her culture, as well as the overt and covert
expectations imposed from the dominant culture”(Biaggo & Greene, 1995 p. 98).
In a similar vein, Delaney, Brownlee, Sellick, and Tranter (1998), cited Szoladi
as suggesting that the rural community practice context “precludes the possibility o f a
worker maintaining a distanced, ‘professional-expert’ status” (p. 98). Unique
relationships are developed. Their view is that not interacting with community
members “creates a problem, it shows a lack o f understanding and respect for the
people being served” (98). Although they were referring to social workers in the
discussion, the perspective could include any professional in the rural community
including alcohol and drug abuse counsellors.
Another issue of concern involves interpretation - the interpretation o f ethical
issues when cultures vary. For instance, and in reference to a major change in the
American Psychological Association AFA (1992) code that urged psychologists to
assess whether a multiple relationship is harmful to the client, Lafromboise, Foster, and
James (1996) wrote:
Determination o f harm is subject to varied interpretation particularly in
multicultural work. For psychologists of color, prohibitions against counseling a
friend or acquaintance may be impossible. ...Avoiding social relationships with
clients may also be difficult in small ethnic communities. The restriction against

26
treating family members may be extremely problematic for Native American
psychologists whose reservation community is made o f extended family
members and could be further complicated by kinship designations that may
require them to address members of their parents' cohort as 'aunt' or 'uncle', (p.
52)
In their view, this example illustrates how the APA guidelines “reflect the prevailing
individualistic orientation (based on majority-culture values) to which most
psychologists are exposed during training” (p. 51-52). These authors see the need for
further training and supervision in multicultural counseling to ensure that competent
services are provided to multicultural populations as outlined in the APA’s Guidelines
fo r providers o f psychological services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse
populations.
In her article, “Social Work Boundaries: The Challenge o f Ethics” (1992),
Rhodes called for "more open discussion of philosophical commitments that underlie
clinical differences" regarding fundamental ethical principles. One of the examples she
used was in the disagreement o f socializing with former clients. She stated, "some
clinicians believe that once a client, always a client, due to the deep nature of
unconscious attachments, transference, and ambiguities in termination" (p.44) She also
stated that others "believe that after a period (a year or longer), it is acceptable to have
social relationships with former clients, and that the possibility o f such relationships
indicates a real respect for the client’s autonomy and the equality which is our
aim"(p.44). She stated that these differences are due in part to ethical "views about
power, equality, respect and human nature” (p.44). Evident in these discussions is the
awareness o f the complexity that seems inherent in the phenomenon o f dual
relationships and the many unanswered questions that exist.

27

Decision-Making Models
In this final section, I include ethical decision making models that professionals
have provided to address dilemmas encountered relative to dual relationships. Ethical
dilemmas arise when the clinician experiences conflict, especially, when one’s
principles or ethical code does not address the conflict. Various professionals have
developed ethical decision-making models to address ethical dilemmas surrounding dual
relationships; four o f these models are presented here. The “Feminist Model for Ethical
Decision-making” is introduced first (Hill, Glaser, & Harden (1995); next. Kitchener’s
(1988) model is introduced, this model assists in' determining the extent of the
probability of harm in dual relationships (Kitchener, 1988); then Gottlieb’s model is
presented, this is useful for assessing whether an ethical issue exists in dual relationships
(Brownlee, 1996); and finally, Herlihy and Corey’s (1992) suggestions for safeguarding
dual relationships are outlined.
The Feminist Model for Ethical Decision involves the following stages:
“Recognizing a Problem; Defining the Problem; Developing Solutions; Choosing a
solution; Reviewing Process; Implementing and Evaluating the Decision; Continuing
Reflection” (Hill, Glaser, & Harden 1995, ch. p. 18-37).
In the first stage o f this model, the existence o f a problem is acknowledged. In
this “defining the problem” stage, the therapist identifies laws, ethical codes, general
ethical principles and obligations that pertain to the dilemma. As well, the needs of
people, institutions whose needs must be considered are identified. Cultural issues are
also considered and consultation with other professionals occurs. Finally, the therapist
collaborates with the client (Hill, Glaser, & Harden 1995, p.29). In the “development of

28

the solution” stage the therapist assesses the risks to the client, taking into consideration
the principles o f “do no harm” and “do the greatest good”. In the “choosing a solution”
stage, the therapist ensures that the solution fits for the client both cognitively and
emotionally. In the “reviewing process” stage, the therapist self-examines to determine
how her own values and attributes may be influencing the decision. Cognizant of the
power she holds, she asks herself if she would want to be treated this way and if she
would feel comfortable with having a third party scrutinize her decision (p.30). The
therapist then communicates the decision to the client and asks for their responses and
input. The implementation stage involves carrying out the decision. The evaluation stage
consists of continually evaluating the action taken. The “reflecting” stage requires that
the therapist take the lessons learned from the action and use the lessons to inform future
character and practice (Hill et al. 1995, p.31). This is one o f the models that feminist
therapists use to guide them as they make ethical decisions relative to dual relationships.
Kitchener (1988) offered guidelines that help to assess the risks o f harming the
client in dual relationships (Kitchener 1988, p. 217).) She states.
First, as the extent o f incompatibility o f expectations between roles increase, so
the risk of harm will increase; Second, as the obligations associated with each of
the roles diverge, so the risk of divided loyalties increases and objectivity
decreases; and third, the greater the difference in prestige and power between the
therapist and the client, the greater the risk o f exploitation. To the extent that
each o f these guidelines is violated, the potential for harm in dual relationships
increases (p. 217).
Brownlee (1996) presented Gottlieb’s decision-making model that would be
helpful in determining whether an ethical issue in a dual relationship exists. Gottlieb’s
model is “based on the assumption that not all dual relationships are inevitably
exploitative.” This model is based on the three dimensions o f power, duration, and

29
termination.” Power is the extent of personal influence in the relationship, from
minimal to profound. Duration refers to the length o f the intervention and that can be
brief or extended. Termination refers to “whether a specific time span for the
intervention and post-intervention phase can be decided upon” or whether the client is
likely to require the therapeutic relationship for an indefinite period (Brownlee 1996, p.
501).
The model is based on five steps, in the first step, the therapist assesses the
current relationship on the three dimensions (Brownlee 1996). The second step requires
the therapist to assess future relationships on these dimensions. Step three requires the
therapist to assess the role incompatibility of these relationships. Gottlieb (cited in
Brownlee, 1996) suggests that if the relationship appears to be low to mid range in
power differential and conflict on these three dimensions then the therapist may proceed
with the dual relationship. In step four the therapist is advised to consult an objective
colleague. Step five requires the therapist to discuss the decision with the client with
special reference to the possible risks of the dual relationship (p.501).
Herlihy and Corey (1992) suggested some “safeguards to reduce the potential for
harm” in dual relationships as follows:
Securing the informed consent of clients and discussing with them both the
potential risks and benefits of dual relationships
Remaining willing to talk with clients about any unforeseen problems and
conflicts that may arise
Consulting other professionals as a means o f resolving any dilemmas
Seeking supervision when dual relationships become particularly problematic
and when the risk for harm is high
Documenting any dual relationships in clinical case notes and examining one’s
motivations for being involved in such relationships, (p.17)

30

These four decision-making models have been presented to exemplify a few o f the
methods professionals have found useful when confronted with dual relationships.
Summary and Discussion o f the Literature Review
The purpose of this literature review was to provide the professional context that
this study enters into. To accomplish this objective, the purpose and requirements of the
therapy relationship were introduced; power as understood in therapy relationships was
defined; the concerns o f professionals were described; the professional’s specific views
were noted; suggestions for addressing dual relationships were outlined; unanswered
questions were noted, and decision-making models were outlined. What is clear is that
the main concern about dual relationships stems from the inherent power differential and
the importance of maintaining boundaries in such a way so that the client and the
therapeutic relationship will be safeguarded. What is also clear is that while there is
much concern and many unanswered questions on the part o f the professionals regarding
dual relationships, there seems to be no consensus, no simple solutions, and no absolute
answers in the area o f dual relationships (Corey, Corey, & Callanan 1993, p. 142).
I found the literature to be limited. There was no literature that spoke to the
issue of dual relationships from the alcohol and drug abuse counsellor’s perspective.
Instead the views presented are from psychotherapists and psychologists. Secondly, the
client’s perspective was missing, particularly the First Nations perspective. An account
provided by First Nations women of their experiences in dual relationships may be of
value to therapists, social workers, alcohol and drug abuse counsellors, clients, and
First Nations people. This study may provide ideas for further studies that may
contribute to this ongoing conversation about dual relationships.

31

Prelude to the Findings
It is important to introduce the First Nations context prior to presenting the
research findings. Providing a context may further help in the appreciation o f the First
Nations women’s experiences in dual relationships with members o f their communities.
The rural community setting.
A rural First Nation community is similar to other rural or small communities but
it also consists of a social system that is unique. A rural community consists of people
who live in close proximity, in a small space o f land, where everyone knows everyone
else (Peterson, 1996). Rural communities are often located in isolated areas, it is likely
that in rural and small communities the counsellor and the client live in the same
community; therefore the counsellor and the client are visible to and in constant
interaction with one another (Fenby, 1978; Peterson 1996; Whittington, 1985). In rural
communities dual or overlapping roles and relationships are a given (Brownlee, 1996;
Delaney, Brownlee, Sellick, & Tranter, 1998; Gates & Speare, 1990; Pederson, 1996;
Sears, 1990a). Anonymity of the client and counsellor, between counselling sessions, is
a privilege that does not exist in rural First Nations communities. Rural First Nations
communities could be likened to small communities such as feminist and lesbian
communities; in these latter communities, overlapping relationships are also a given
(Adleman & Barrett, 1990; Berman, 1990; Biaggo & Greene, 1995; Brown, 1990; Gates
& Speare, 1990; Moss, 1990; Sears, 1990b; Smith, 1990).
However, First Nations communities may differ from other rural communities,
and this difference includes added expectations and kin relationships. While some
professionals may move away from their communities for employment, many stay at

32
home to work with their own people (Dreschsler, 1996; Sears, 1990a). But for those who
stay, they are with people who have their own unique cultural and historical background,
who have been marginalized in society, they are in a kin relationship with their clients
and their communities are informal.
First Nations communities usually consist o f people who come from major
family groups that have lived in the same home community for generations, and most,
although not all, o f the people are interrelated either by blood or marriage (LaFromboise
et al, 1996; Sears, 1990a). As a professional in your community, your belonging has
implications. You belong to an interrelated, interdependent extended family system.
While your individuality is respected, you are also required to cooperate with the
extended family and even the whole community in the responsibilities of continuing the
culture and maintaining the health o f the community. It is expected that you can be
counted on (Sears, 1990a, p. 206). Further, you are expected to be able to walk in
various roles. As a First Nation person in society, you acquired the skill to walk in two
worlds, the Indian world and the white world. This skill “allows you to be yourself
among your own people and a different person, though still honest, when with nonNative Americans” (Sears, 1990a, p.206). In a similar manner, as a professional in your
community, you learn to use this skill to function in several roles (Sears, 1990a).

33

Chapter Three
Research Design
Methodology
Researching is like embarking on a voyage of discovery. As the voyage takes
place, the researcher maps and charts the process of exploration (Kirby & McKenna,
1989, p.43). In order to explore and describe the First Nations women clients'
experiences of dual relationships with counsellors who are indigenous to their
communities, I had to map out my design. I chose to conduct the study using an
exploratory descriptive phenomenological approach.
According to Rubin and Babbie (1993), an exploratory study can be undertaken
to explore a topic "to provide a beginning familiarity with a topic,” and although the
findings cannot be generalized to the rest of the population, the insight attained may
point the way towards more definitive studies (107-108). This study o f the experiences
of First Nations clients in dual relationships with counselors (who are also members of
the clients’ communities) can be considered a new topic in research and is exploratory;
there have been no studies o f this topic conducted in First Nations communities.
The phenomenological approach was conducive to this exploratory study.
Phenomenology was difficult to understand and 1 read numerous articles and also
several chapters (Beck, 1992; Boyd, 1993; Cohen, 1987; Collaizzi, 1978; Giorgio, 1985;
Munhall, 1993; Munhall & Oiler, 1986; Oiler, 1986; Reimer, 1986), in various books, in
order to grasp the essentials o f the methodology and to eventually choose an approach.
Phenomenology is both a philosophical movement and a research methodology
(Munhall & Oiler, 1986; Swanson-Kauffinan & Schonwald, 1988). Phenomenology as

34

a philosophy frames all qualitative approaches, such as Grounded theory, Ethnography
and also the Descriptive Phenomenology method among others. Phenomenology is a
philosophical term, "used to emphasize a focus on people's subjective experiences and
interpretations o f the world” (Rubin & Babbie, 1993). “An important phenomenological
principle in qualitative research is the German term verstehen, which means
'understanding’” (p, 362). Research is conducted “to understand people from their own
perspective- to understand their feelings, their views of reality, and the ...meanings of
[their experiences] to them” (Rubin & Babbie, 1993, p.362). One seeks to understand
what a particular experience is like in order to understand its nature (Giorgio, 1985;van
Manen, 1990). Citing Spielberg, Beck (1992), noted that the main objective in
phenomenology is to examine and describe a phenomenon as it is experienced.
Descriptive phenomenological research provides an account o f the particular experience
and was appropriate for the question: what is it that First Nations women clients
experience in dual relationships with counselors indigenous to their communities?
A descriptive phenomenological study was also suitable because I wanted to do a
study that would allow native people to speak for themselves as much as possible. I
wanted their voices to be heard. It was also important to me that my study would be
comprehensible for the grass roots people, the results had to be in words they would
understand. As well, I wanted this study to be in a form o f a story as much as possible.
Finally, I wanted the inquiry to be unintrusive as it could possibly be. This is in
accordance with a native ethic (Brant, 1990; Darou, 1987; Ross 1992, p .12).
I chose this type o f method as well because of my background o f oral tradition
with my grandmother. My grandmother died November 21, 2001 at ninety-five years in

35

age and she spoke very little English. 1 spoke to her in the Cree language. Our
intergenerational bonding occurred, for the most part, from her telling me stories while I
listened. In this way stories have always been close to my heart; she has influenced my
life with her words. Many times, I had asked my grandmother, what was your life like?
Her stories have provided me with understanding. For me description is like a story, it
comes close to understanding a person’s experience in a deeper and more personal way.
So it was natural for me to be drawn to descriptive phenomenology as an appropriate
methodology and method to use in this study that seeks to provide meaningful
understanding o f First Nations clients’ experiences.
Method
Although other phenomenological methods were available to choose from (see
Collaizzi, 1978; Giorgio, 1985), I followed van Manen’s (1990) guidance to come up
with a descriptive phenomenology. I followed four themes in van Manen’s method. I
have done the first, which was to find a topic that interested me. This was discussed in
the introduction. The second step was to seek the people who had lived the experience
(refer to the section on sampling). Thirdly, I had to analyze the data; I had to find a way
to search out the structure (themes) o f the lived experience (see the section on Data
Analysis). In the fourth and final step I was to write the presentation o f findings section
(see the following chapter).
This study was undertaken to answer the question: What is it that native clients
experience in dual relationships with counsellors from their community? The objective
was to describe the essence o f the First Nations women clients’ experiences in dual

36
relationships. The qualitative phenomenological descriptive method was appropriate for
studying First Nations clients’ experiences. Phenomenology affirms lived experience.
Sampling.
The sample for this study consisted of three First Nations women who were
chosen purposefully because they had experienced being counselled by a member of
their own community within the past ten years and they would have had to live on the
reserve or in a native community during the time they were counselled. The women
would have to be Indians as defined by the Indian Act. I have used pseudonyms in place
of the real names o f the clients namely Kayla, June and Dana. Kayla lived on a reserve
in Northern British Columbia and received counselling for eight months within the past
two years; Kayla is a single mom with two small children, she is 27 years old. June
lived in a town in British Columbia at the time of the interview, however she had lived
on the reserve during her six month counselling and moved back to southern British
Columbia a couple o f months after the interview took place. June had received
counselling within the past seven years. June is a single mom with 3 teenage daughters
and one teenage son. She is 43 years old. Dana lived in a hamlet (a very small village
populated by registered Indians ) in Alberta and had received counseling for two years
within the past ten years. Dana is living in a common-law relationship and has five
children including three teenage daughters; she is 34 years old. A participant sample of
three is acceptable in the phenomenological method. Phenomenology is also very
concerned with actual individual cases (Cohen, 1987, p. 32) and this is in agreement
with van Manen’s conceptualization o f phenomenology as a theory o f the unique.

37

As defined at the end of the first chapter, First Nations here refer to Indians who
are registered as Indians, pursuant to the Indian Act, with Indian and Northern Affairs
Canada. Many o f the First Nations people live in close proximity to their extended
families on nearby reserves or they live on reserves (Reserves are lands set aside for
Indians in accordance with the Indian Act). Therefore, they are part of the social context
in rural communities. It is important to note that Dana lived in a hamlet but is a
registered Indian as defined under the Indian Act. The hamlet Dana lives in is a small
community that is populated primarily by Indians. This study focused on the experiences
of registered Indians because of the possible importance of the similarity in culture and
ethnicity and because registered Indians seem more homogenous; other people, like the
people of Metis descent, may have different experiences as a result of their cultural and
ethnic background, and thus were not included in this study.
To solicit interviewees for the study I attempted to put ads in the papers but each
paper required a high fee. So I then phoned and spoke to a few counsellors who had
counselled people from their community and asked them if they would ask previous
clients if they would be interested in taking part in my study; fortunately, Dana agreed to
participate through this process. I happened to meet June and was telling her about my
study and she told me she had lived the experience. We then agreed that I would
interview her. Kayla was from a nearby reserve and she agreed to participate in the
Study.
Data collection.
Upon receipt o f approval from the Ethics Committee o f the University of
Northern British Columbia, I began the process o f collecting the data. The data collected

38

are the interviewees’ descriptions of their experiences. All interviews took place at the
interviewee’s place of residence as I thought they would be more comfortable and secure
in their home. I presented to each o f the interviewees, my “Letter o f Introduction” to the
study; “Letter to Potential Interviewees”; and the “Consent to Participate Form” (see
appendix A). I asked the participants if I could record the interviews and told them that I
would destroy the tapes upon completion o f the thesis. Two o f the participants however,
said that they would like the tapes at the conclusion of this study. I asked each
interviewee to sign a letter o f consent form and gave them a copy. I assured them that in
this study their names, the names o f the counsellors, and the names o f the community
would be kept anonymous and that their interviews would be kept confidential. I asked
the interviewees if I could mail them a copy of the transcriptions of the interviews in
order to get clarifications and they agreed. I also asked if I may call them on the
telephone as I conducted my analysis should I require clarification on the topic, and they
agreed with this arrangement. I also promised that they would see the research findings
prior to final submission and they agreed.
I gave the interviewees a copy o f the Conversation Guide to view before we
began so that they would get a sense of the direction I wanted to take during the
interview. I had formulated these questions by writing down my presuppositions on
what this experience might be like, and from readings (Collaizzi 1978, p.58). We had
coffee and got comfortable prior to the interviews. The basic question I asked the
participants was, “What was it like to be counselled by a member of your community,
please tell me about your experience, like in a story, tell me your feelings and thoughts
about your experience. Start at the beginning.” I recorded the interviews with an audio

39

tape recorder and as I interviewed, I referred as closely as possible to the Conversation
Guide (see Appendix B). However, some questions would have been repetitive because
as I asked the initial questions, other consecutive questions listed in the conversation
guide would be answered in the process. Prompts were used to clarify what the client
meant. I then concluded the interviews by expressing my gratitude. All interviews were
transcribed verbatim onto a computer hard drive. All interviews took place between the
months of June and October, in the year 2000, however I did phone the participants for
clarification and elaboration on their comments on a few occasions during data analysis.
Data analysis.
The third part of this methodology is the analysis o f the data. O f the three
approaches, outlined by van Manen (1990), I chose to analyze the data thematically,
thematic analysis refers to “the process of recovering the theme or themes that are
embodied and dramatized in the evolving meanings and imagery o f the work”. “Theme
is an aspect o f the experience that is identified in order to build the structure of the lived
experience”(p.87). Themes also“give control and order to our research and writing “ (p.
79).
Data analysis consisted of transcribing, printing and reading the copies o f each of
the interviews. Then I pasted them all onto a wall, page by page. I then conducted the
analysis inductively. In this process I chose the selective or highlighting approach that
consists of reading a text several times and asking, “what statements seem essential or
revealing about the experience being described” (van Manen 1990, 93). I then
highlighted the statements (p; 93). In this way the themes of the experience were
revealed. I wrote summaries of the statements on the margins o f the text (Brazzoni,

40

1998). Some of my units of analysis were paragraphs, and some were one or two
sentences. Once I highlighted the themes for each o f the participants, I then compared
the data provided by each participant. There were similar recurring themes so I colorcoded the recurring themes in the descriptions. I then transferred the thematic
collections in the word processor and ensured that they were in the appropriate grouping.
In order to describe each o f the themes, I had to read and ask o f the data, “what is
this participant’s experience, what is it that this theme reveals?” (van Manen, 1990, p.
97) This was a process o f making the implicit explicit (p.97). I described the
experience and titled the theme based on its’ essence. I then analyzed the initial
collection o f themes and summarized them in two more abstract themes that served to
describe the experiences. The analysis ended with a dominant theme (the structure) that
unified all o f the themes and reveals the essence o f this experience (van Manen, 1990 p.
93). “Structure is ...a dominant them e,... a unit o f meaning... that belongs to a
particular lived experience that gives this experience its’ particular quality “(van
Manen, 1984 p.39). According to vanManen (1984), "The essence or nature of an
experience has been adequately described when the description reawakens or shows us
the lived meaning or significance o f the experience in a fuller or deeper manner" (p.38).
The result of this analysis, the description of this experience, is provided in the
Presentation of Findings in the following chapter.
Issues o f Quality
The quality o f a study is of utmost importance and speaks to the ethics followed
in the research procedures and to the reliability and validity o f the findings and the
conclusions that are based on the findings (Miles & Huberman 1990, p.277).

41

Ethics.
Ethical principles that I followed were confidentiality, anonymity, and informed
consent. Due to the sensitive nature o f this topic, I assured the participants that this
study was confidential and therefore that the specific nature surrounding the
commentaries would not be revealed. That is, I would not include, in the text, the names
of the people mentioned by the participants. I also promised that the tapes would be
destroyed upon completion o f the study. I used open-ended questions so that the clients
would reveal only as much as they wanted of their experience. It is ethical to be as
unintrusive as possible when asking information Ifom First Nations people. As well, I
promised anonymity. In this respect, I told the participants that their names, the names
of their counsellors and the names o f their communities would not be publicly identified.
To preserve anonymity therefore, pseudonyms have replaced the clients’ names. In
accordance with the requirements of informed consent, I informed the participants o f the
study through the letter of introduction and verbally o f the intent o f the research and the
procedures that would be followed with the information provided (see data collection
procedures). I also informed the participants that this study would be a part o f a thesis
and would be published by the University of Northern British Columbia. I also informed
the First Nation women that their participation was strictly voluntary and that they could
withdraw from the study at any time if they so chose. In these ways I conformed to
ethics required o f research.

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Reliability and Validity
According to Miles & Huberman (1994) there are four categories o f reliability and
validity: external and internal reliability and external and internal validity (p.277). I
think that my research met the requirements outlined in these categories.
External reliability.
To be externally reliable a study must be based on the subjects and the conditions
of the inquiry rather than on the researcher. Researcher bias must be acknowledged.
And the raw data must be retained and available for reanalysis (Miles & Huberman
19194,p. :278).
In terms o f researcher bias, I have to admit that due to the literature I read prior
to this study and the negative evaluations I have heard from various people regarding
dual relationships, I was a little skeptical, throughout my conversations with the
participants, about the possibility o f there being a positive aspect to dual relationships. I
was looking for the negative it seems, so it was quite an experience to find that the
experience of dual relationships was a positive one for the participants. So this study is
based on the subjects rather than my bias as the researcher. I have kept copies of the
transcripts and they are available (see ethics).
Internal reliability.
The issue o f internal reliability speaks to dependability and auditability. To prove
reliability o f methods and the procedures followed, I have outlined them in this chapter.
I think the processes followed in this study are dependable and could be replicated.
While the study can be replicated, the resulting data may be different as there are

43

variations in the experiences of people of any phenomenon. This study represents a
description of the experiences o f three people.
Internal validity.
In confirming the internal validity o f a study, do the findings o f the study make
sense? Are they credible to the people we study and to our readers. Do we have an
authentic portrait of what we are looking at? (Miles & Huberbman 1994, p.278). The
validity of a study requires that the description o f the experience reflect the truth of the
participants’ experiences. Is what is described true o f the First Nation women’s
experiences is the question of validity in this study (Kirby and McKenna 1989, p.36).
All o f the participants were given copies o f the findings to review to ensure that the
descriptions the researcher formulated represented the essence of their original
experience. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggested “member checks,” that is “referring
data and interpretations back to the data sources for correction/verification/challenge as
a way of ensuring the validity o f findings” (p. 109). The clients were asked if the words
they used in their interview had the same essential meaning as the terminology used by
the researcher. They confirmed that the descriptions were valid. When the researcher
was unclear about the client’s statements, the participants elaborated on their statements
in parts of the interview data. Any new data was then worked into the fundamental
structure o f the experience. Validation was in this way ensured. The participants agree
that the findings make sense and represent true descriptions o f their experience.
External validity.
External Validity of a study refers to its’ transferability and its fit. Transferability
requires that the conclusions be transferable to other contexts and populations (Miles &

44

Huberman, 1994, p.279). Descriptive phenomenology as a method is not conducive to a
generalization o f the findings (p.224), as a methodology its aim is deeper understanding
and insight; however, the findings in this study can be considered in general practices
and theories o f clients’ experiences in small and rural communities. The fit o f the study
was increased by choosing First Nations participants who had, as clients, experienced
dual relationships with counselors who were indigenous to their communities and who
in their own way were able to articulate their experiences and the data was taken tfom
the transcripts and elaborations provided by the participants (Beck, 1992, p. 168).

45

Chapter Four
Presentation O f The Experience: First Nations Clients In Dual Relationships.
Introduction
In this chapter I describe the experiences o f First Nations clients in dual
relationships with counsellors indigenous to their communities. I will first orient the
reader to the structure o f the First Nations clients’ experiences in dual relationships. I then
orient the reader by providing a background o f the clients and their initial involvement in
their counselling relationships. Finally, I present a description o f the clients’ experiences.
Orientation to the Structure: First Nations Women’s Experiences
Structure means a dominant theme. This means that the experience is presented
in themes; each theme represents an aspect o f the participants’ experiences. The
description of the experience is carried out in an inductive and evolutionary fashion. The
sub-themes that describe the experiences at the most concrete level are presented first.
Then two more sub-themes are presented that describe the women’s experiences at a more
abstract level. They unity the preliminary sub-themes. Finally, the last theme unifies and
summarizes all o f the sub-themes, it encapsulates what it is that the First Nations women
experienced. There is one other aspect to the presentation. I chose to present the themes
under the three therapy relationship stages o f the beginning phase, action phase, and
termination phase. These headings seem to fit the themes and help provide clarity and
order to the descriptions of the clients’ experiences.
The initial more concrete sub themes are presented first and they are as follows:
Beginning phase: “reluctance to engage in the therapeutic process”; “moving beyond fear
to engage in the counselling process”; “moving beyond the fear o f sharing pain in their

46

community”; “establishing trust”; and “moving beyond the fear o f judgment”. The action
phase consisted o f the following themes: “willingness to disclose”; “affirmed and
accepted as a fellow community member”; “discomfort due to loss o f privacy”;
“availability: feeling that there is someone I can turn to”; “inspired by the therapist”; and
“gratitude” . Termination phase themes included the following themes: “enduring trust”;
“enduring bond”; “the experience of being seen”; and “continuing support”.
The two themes that summarize the above themes are then presented and these
are “a sense o f safety” and “encouragement to move forward.” Finally, the most abstract,
dominant theme descriptive of the experience is presented and this is titled, “the
movement from a therapeutic relationship to an enduring relationship”. This final theme
unifies the sub themes and it describes at the most abstract level, the essence of the
experience.
Background o f the Participants
Each o f the First Nations women lived in a small rural native community with a
population that numbered between 350 and 400 people. Their counsellors lived in their
communities; therefore, each participant had a dual relationship with their counsellor that
consisted o f the primary therapeutic relationship and the secondary fellow community
member relationship. These three First Nations women clients participated and told me
about their experiences. The First Nations women had issues that required them to reach
out for help and go to addictions counsellors who were from their communities. Dana
was the most articulate during the interviews, perhaps she had more words for her
experience because she is trained in the field o f social work or it may be because she had
more contact with her counsellor due to the longevity of their relationship.

47

Dana
Dana, who is now 34 years in age, was 23 years in age at the time when she first
started going to counselling. She is from northern Alberta. Dana’s sister-in-law had asked
the counselor to become involved and to pay Dana a visit because the sister-in-law had
learned that Dana had attempted suicide. Dana then attended sessions regularly for two
years with her counsellor. The counsellor moved away to work elsewhere; however,
during the past eight years Dana has maintained contact with her counsellor who visits the
community regularly and especially for holidays.
Kayla
Kayla who is now 27 years in age, attended counselling sessions, on her own
initiative, with her counsellor for approximately 8 months beginning in September of
1999 until April 2000. Kayla is from Northern British Columbia. Her counsellor lives in
the same community although she is no longer employed as the community counsellor.
Kayla and her counsellor developed a relationship before the counselling sessions took
place. They had both attended the same catholic pilgrimage and had been healing partners
during this pilgrimage. A Catholic pilgrimage is a gathering sponsored by the church to
assist people in their healing process. During this time Kayla and her counsellor had
mutually shared similar stories of pain and had thus bonded in this safe environment prior
to Kayla becoming her healing partner’s client. A year after the pilgrimage, Kayla’s
healing partner became the counsellor in the community.
June
June attended group counselling in her community for 6 consecutive months,
within the past eight years. June is from southern British Columbia. Her counsellor still

48

lives in the same community and remains in the position as counsellor in the community.
June decided to attend counselling group sessions in her home community when the
counsellors sent out letters to the homes inviting the people to attend.
I hope the reader will accept the following description as presenting the nature of
these participants’ experiences in dual relationship with counsellors who are indigenous to
their communities. Further, I hope that the reader will understand these experiences
through the words o f these three First Nations women.
The Beginning Phase
Reluctance to engage in the counseling process.
The participants reported “feeling resistant” to engage in the counselling
relationship and they tried to find ways to cope with this fear. After learning that Dana
had attempted suicide, the counsellor paid a visit to Dana.
Dana explained' her response,
I guess my thought at the time was she [the counsellor] introduced herself briefly
and told me what she did, and my reaction to her, my thought at the time was,
‘well there’s people worse o ff in this community, what the hell is she doing here,
i f she really wants to help someone she should go help those people. ’ That’s
what my thought was.
Dana was fearful about engaging, her way o f keeping herself safe was to deflect her
anger on to other people and it allowed her to not have to address her crisis.
Kayla was afraid to go to counselling as well. She stated,
I was apprehensive, unsure at first, well all throughout my life, I always wanted
to go to counselling, but it was the trust, Iw a sn ’t very proud o f the things that I
did and the person that I was, I was ashamed to be that person.
Her sense o f shame required trust that she did not have at first.

49
June was also reluctant to engage in the counselling process and her way of
dealing with her fear was to run away, as she stated:
I was ju st nervous and then the people we got was six people in our group and I
wanted to hack out because one o f the people that was in my group was one o f
my offenders. And that just, like you know like when you ’re spilled with cold
water your body ju st goes numb, and Iju st got up and walked out andjust
started walking and the lady (the counselor) came after me and sh e’s asking me,
‘how come you ’re leaving? ’
I said, ‘I want to move to a different group, ’ and they already started all the
groups and she said that they started all the groups already, and I couldn ’t shift
to another group and she asked me, ‘why? ’ and I said, ‘one o f my, I have one o f
the offenders in my group ’
She was afraid she would not be safe because her offender was in the group and this
reality was compounded by a sense o f hopelessness she felt because she felt she had no
choice but to stay. Her way of providing safety for herself was to numb out, a way of
withdrawing, so she didn’t have to be there.
Moving beyond fea r to engage in the counselling process.
Although the participants were afraid of engaging in the counselling process, the
counsellor’s help made it possible to move beyond their fear. As Dana explained,
Well I wasn ’t sure really, i f I could trust her i f she was the right person to talk to
and you know, I guess what kept going through my mind is, ‘why does she keep
coming back, doesn ’t she you know understand ‘no, leave me alone ’, because
that’s what I told her you know, 7 don’t need to talk to you and I shut the door.
Dana was uncertain if she would have safety with the counsellor. Her response was to
shut the counsellor out for a second time. However, she had misgivings as she reported,
The second time I did that [slammed the door on the counselor], I fe lt bad that I
was rude. That she had taken the time o f her day to come by and check on me
and at that time, by then I decided you know i f she comes back again. I ’m going
to invite her in this time fo r coffee.

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The thoughtfulness o f the addictions counsellor helped Dana to begin to be open, to
engage. As Dana reported,
I think it had to do with the way I was feeling on a daily basis, feeling alone and
nobody to confide in, and feeling that I really needed to talk to someone.
She had become more aware that she couldn’t continue without support. Fortunately, the
counsellor came for the third time, as Dana said.
By the third time ...I asked her you know, ‘Do you have an office, w hat’s your
office hours and i f somebody really needed to talk to you in the evening, you
know could they ju st phone you or go to your house? ’ A nd I asked her a lot o f
questions and she said, 'Oh yeah, ’ she said, ‘and i f you need to talk to me, i f
something comes up in the evening, that didn ’t happen in the day or whatever, ’
she said, ‘come to my house, you know where Hive, ’ she said, ’ju st knock on the
door’.
During her third visit, the counsellor gave Dana a lot o f options that created the beginning
o f some sense o f safety. The counsellor had also built a safety net for her, instilling hope
and a sense of equality as Dana stated.
A nd then when I got to the point where I really needed to talk, I remembered
what she said, ‘y ou know. I ’m here to listen and I ’m not here to judge you and
I ’m not any better than you, but I understand what you ’re going through, I
understand how you fe el ’.
The impact of the statement of the counsellor enabled Dana to make the commitment to
engage. The counsellor’s willingness to extend herself also enabled Dana to engage. As
Dana recalled.
It was close to a weekend where we would normally do our drinking. I thought
about her coming there and having coffee with me, and listening; I didn’t feel
like drinking that weekend. So H old my spouse, ‘i f you want to drink, go ahead,
but not in the house, go somewhere else. ...I’m going to stay home with the
kids; I don’t want to drink. ’ I told him, ‘N ext week I ’m going to go and see the
addictions counsellor and get help, I want to quit. But I can’t do it alone, and
I ’m going to start going to AA too. ’ H old him, ‘Whether you are going to come
with me or not, ’ I said, ‘that’s your choice, this is what I am going to do and
you ’re not going to stop me, ’ I told him. Because by then my mind was already
made up, I had had enough.

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She came to the realization that she wanted to begin to make changes in her life.
June was also afraid to engage in the group therapy process, June reported,
She said, ‘it would he a good start fo r you to stay in here and be one o f the first
to state he was your offender’. And, but I, ju st like a real numb feeling, like
you ’re really cold, but you ’re sweating. I ju st had a, my hands were all sweaty
and that, but I was ju st like, numb cold and. And she ju s t said that, ‘It would be a
good start fo r you ’ and I said, ‘Ok, then I ’ll try it. ’A nd when we had that first
meeting...I was scared and all these thoughts and everything going through...
She was in a way aided by the counsellor challenging her, she was able to meet the
challenge that the therapist presented to her and that’s what helped her move beyond her
fear.
Kayla had been in a pilgrimage with fellow community members, including her
counsellor, prior to the counselling sessions and this prior experience encouraged her to
engage in the counselling relationship as she stated,
A lot o f me remembered what had happened at the pilgrimage where it was scary
to talk about my problems but it fe lt good, letting go o f things and talking so then
I decided to go to counselling.
Moving beyond the fear o f sharing pain in their community.
The participants reported experiencing a deep fear o f disclosing about past
personal lives in their community but they did take the risk as Dana states.
A nd really too in a small community, my biggest fear too, I think I did at the
beginning, I did have a great fea r o f seeking counselling in my own community
and the biggest fear is that I ’d be totally honest with this person about my fears,
my dreams, things I ’ve done wrong.
Despite the fear, she became willing to risk, deepening the engagement process as she
stated.
Well at that time I thought well, 7 need to talk to someone and who better to talk
to than someone who is willing to listen. ’ A nd I thought you know, ‘I ’m going to
take a risk and try it and see what happens ’.

52
June was extremely fearful, but she realized that she wanted to move beyond her
fear. As she stated,
We went to workshops and aah they had us all in groups so they had about five
groups and when 1first went I was very scared and they have our own people
from our the reserve as counsellors too and to trust them. ...and what they would
do too.... A nd like I ju st really wanted to start working on m yself and that this
was the best place fo r me to start, so even though I knew the whole community
too, everyone knows everybody and they know your family, but then, to talk
about your personal life - the past, trusting the people that were in it and what
they would do too.
June’s realization that she didn’t want to hang on to her pain anymore and her
desire to work on her issues helped to move beyond the fear of disclosing to her
counsellor and members of her community. And although it was “real scary, ” June was
able to “go through i t ”.
Kayla was afraid o f attending counselling in her home community, because she
didn’t want fellow people to know what she had done, but her remembrance o f
attendance at a pilgrimage with others allowed her to move beyond the fear o f sharing
pain in her community.
Well I didn’t want to go to my home community because I didn Ywant anyone to
know the things I had done, because I was not proud, but when I went to the
pilgrimage, it was the people who knew me that made me realize that it was
okay, like. I became aware o f what a person can do. It (the experience at the
pilgrimage) opened doors fo r me. I knew I didn Yhave to carry the problem like,
I knew what to do. I could talk about it. So I went to counselling.
The counsellor Kayla went to for counselling was also the person who had been her
healing partner in the pilgrimage as Kayla states.
She had been assigned as my partner, we were in a safe environment, I fe lt good
enough with her, safe and comfortable, and she told her story and stuff, she
talked about her life.... We had bonded during the pilgrimage she was one o f the
leaders. No not a leader. She was one o f the people that had already stopped
drinking. We walked and talked a lot. That’s when I started opening up and
talking about my life and I did it mostly with her. She opened up to me too and

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so she didn’t judge. I didn’t have to he afraid because it was in a safe
environment.
Her partner in this healing context was to later become her counsellor she felt safe with.
The counsellor’s prior willingness to mutually share o f herself allowed Kayla to
subsequently feel safe with the counsellor in the context o f the counselling relationship.
The counsellor’s willingness to share o f herself during the pilgrimage was therefore also
a way of engaging Kayla in the therapeutic process even though it might not have been
preconceived.
Establishing trust.
Each o f the participants wanted to see if she could depend on her counsellor to
keep her confidence and to determine if the counsellor could create a space for her to
begin the process o f healing. All found ways to determine their safety with their
counsellors. Dana relates her experience in this way,
So I sought out this counsellor a few times, went to her office, I guess, I initially
went, to kind o f check her out. What this person is all about, can I trust her, so I
had to test her first, three times I tested her in her office, different little ways.
And I thought I ’m going to listen carefully now in the community, see i f what I
have told her - I ’ll hear out here. Then I thought i f I d o n ’t hear it then I can trust
her. I p a id attention, I asked other people about this counselor, aah what do you
think o f her and you know stuff like that and everybody spoke highly o f her, you
know and I told them that ah I had gone to see her a few times, ju st kind o f
checked out what she was all about.
Assessing the safety o f the counsellor and the counselling process was of utmost
importance to Dana. She had three strategies. One was to assess the counsellor’s
character by observing her in the sessions and another way was to ask community
members about the counsellor’s character. A final way she determined safety was to
listen out in the community for the counsellor’s disclosures o f her stories. She explains,

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I think what I was doing, because, being an alcoholic, I come to lie on a daily
basis, but I had to learn to speak the truth on a daily basis, and I didn’t know
how and I did n ’t trust very many people. So I had to test her, to see i f she was
trustworthy, and i f when she spoke confidentiality, did she really know what it
meant. So how I did that, I would go into her office and I would tell her little bits
and pieces. I wanted to see i f I would hear it at the local store or anywhere, but
I never did and that’s where I knew, at that point that I could trust her.
Speaking her truths was new to her and put her in a vulnerable place, she wanted to be
assured that she could depend on the counsellor to keep her confidence. The counsellor
proved she could provide a safe space for her and that’s when Dana knew that she could
trust her.
June also wanted to see if she could depend on, not only the counsellor but also
fellow community members, to create a safe space for her to do her work. She related,
I guess i t ’s really trusting, because a lot o f things that go on, it usually gets out
andjust waiting to see w hat’s going to be talked about on the reserve or not. And
ju st waiting fo r that to happen and saying okay, nothing, never heard anything
about me out there so, you know the trust is there. Saying okay, I can trust this
person and the other people in it, in the group. A nd it was, yeah I guess ju st
waiting and listening, to see i f the trust could be there or not and it was, so that
was good.
She watched, watched to see if she could depend on the counsellor and her fellow
community members to provide a safe place for her to do her healing, when she was
satisfied that they could keep her confidence, she was ready to trust.
Kayla was not sure if she could depend on her counsellor as she states,
At first I was a bit uneasy because w e ’ve known each other before, I was a bit
uneasy about the confidentiality issue; but after as the counselling progressed, I
realized, I came to know that it was all confidential. It was all between her and
I.... I fe lt uneasy because her [relative] was dating my [relative] and I was giving
her a lot o f personal information that I never gave to anybody. I w asn’t sure if
she would actually be confidential because her [relative] was going out with my
[relative] and because she was a community member.... she hung out with a lot
o f the people I hung out with and I was afraid that in one coffee conversation
that she might have with one friend o f hers, that an issue might come up like
what I ’d went through and she might say, ‘well I have this client and she went

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through the same thing’ and like Iw a s n ’t sure, ...Iw a sn ’t sure i f she ’d share my
issues that I had shared with her.
Initially, Kayla was not sure if the counsellor would keep her confidence and protect her
anonymity but as time went on, she knew that she could depend on the counsellor.
Moving beyond the fea r o f judgment.
All the participants expressed a fear o f being judged, acceptance was an essential
ingredient to engage in the therapeutic relationship. Dana shares her experience with
judgment in this way,
About the fourth time, I went in there to her office and I told her, ‘y ou know, I
feel comfortable with you and Ife e l like I can say anything and you ’re not going
to judge me. A nd you seem to understand how I fe e l and where I am at and right
now I need that really bad’ I told her. A nd I told her. I ’ve come here three times
before to kind o f check you out to see i f I could trust y o u ’ and we laughed, and
she said, 7 kind o f thought so, you know, I had to leave it up to you ’ I said, ‘and
this is my fourth visit and I fe e l really comfortable sitting here talking to you ’.
And I told her, ‘You know I really want to quit’, and ‘can you help me ’ and ‘how
do I do it, i t ’s not, you know, ju st saying no, I can do that, but that’s not enough,
what else can I do ? ’ I asked her. Well she suggested that we start one on one
counselling as often as I needed it, and to start attending AA [meetings]
regularly.
Dana felt respected and accepted by the counsellor and that allowed her to move deeper
into the counselling process.
In the sessions, Kayla wondered whether or not the counsellor really did accept
her, as she stated,
Because o f the fa c t that she seen me out, at the bars and stuff, and after she ’d
seen me out. I ’d go to my sessions, my appointed sessions. I always wondered
what she thought o f me, because she ’d seen me a few nights before you know, yes
there was this wonderment. ..just badjudgment toward me because I was
drinking alcohol, alcohol consumption or i f I actedfoolish.
At first seeing her, I was kinda o f ...wellju s t like any other counsellor, I guess
you ju st have to get to know the person after I got comfortable with her (having
no more anxiety or fear o f being judged and now feeling at ease) and Umm, fo r
the first little while i f I had confided in like... i f I ’d would talk to her about a

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problem o f mine and stu ff like I was kinda leery to see her like... ahh hut then
that only lasted fo r a little while cause Iju s t kept seeing her and 1 became more
open with her.
Over time she began sharing of herself and finding herself comfortable with the
counsellor; however, a constant question at the back o f her mind was “what does she
think o f me?” and eventually she felt her acceptance.
June too worried about judgment and being treated differently out in the
community after revealing her pain. She states.
I guess the trust and, to really, seeing them around and then “is things going to
change? Are they going to accept me or reject me? Treat me different as less
than not worth as much or and but I ju st talked to them, ju st talking to them
again when you meet them and the things they ’re going through. So 1felt
accepted and knowing that others were going through the same things helped me
to fe e l comfortable because I was not the only one that had been abused.
June feared judgment, devaluation, and rejection; she felt relief that these were non­
existent in the counselling situation.
Middle Phase
Willingness to disclose.
Although the women were initially afraid to engage because of personal
familiarity with the counsellors and community members, it was their identification with
the First Nations counsellors that facilitated their willingness to disclose their deepest
issues. According to each of the First Nations women, the counsellor’s similarity in
ethnicity and past painful experiences facilitated their courage to disclose their feelings
and sources o f shame. Each related the facilitative aspects o f identification in their
ability to disclose.

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Dana preferred talking to native people because she felt oneness with them.
According to Dana, that was a prerequisite to staying in the counselling process, as Dana
recalled,
H ook back now and I think, I was very fortunate that that counsellor was here to
help me and had she not been here, I d o n ’t think I would ever have went fo r help
because I w asn’t comfortable with talking to non-native people.
...I think, they’re [First Nation people] your kind, they’re your kin, they have the
same upbringing and similar experiences, ideals are probably the same in
general and you know their view o f things are probably the same....
She believed that fellow natives had the same frame of reference as her and with them
she felt a sense o f belonging. This context was the deciding factor to stay in therapy and
to eventually benefit from it, as she stated,
I saw that natives were non-judgmental.... They didn’t care where you came
from, what you did, ...I thought i f I have to choose between going to somebody
that’s not going to judge me and understand and possibly have gone through
what I have, then that’s the person I need to seek out right now.
Dana felt accepted and understood in this relationship context and she was adamant that
this is what she required to take part in the counselling process.
According to Kayla the First Nation counsellor’s ability to identify with her
background as well as her painful experiences was a prerequisite to disclosing, she
stated,
...Cause I think a lot o f First Nations people have the same umm, hurts, umm a
lot o f them grew up kind o f the same way you know with ahh, I think they
understand more. Like umm either they’ve grown up that way or they’ve seen it
or something and they’re ju st more understanding and I ’d want somebody who
had experienced the same thing as me or close to it or whose witnessed it or been
a part o f it you know. Its easier to bring it all up because its ju st easier cause
sh e’s been there so she knows where I ’m coming from and it was ju st easy to
bring them up, cause saying some o f the things I said to her I ju st couldn’t say to
ju st anybody. Cause it’s embarrassing! Yeah, i t ’s shame.
F d like so that they know what i t ’s like, they know how Ifeel. They fe e l my pain

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or they know what it’s like and I like that I ’ve gone to other counsellors and ahh,
it’s ju s t not as comfortable discussing real intimate stu ff or not intimate hut
really hurtful things that have happened in my past. I t ’s ju s t not the same. Like I
think counselling comes a lot from experience and it’s way more meaningful
when it comes from experience cause they’ve been there.
She experienced deep shame and she felt that only a First Nation counsellor could
possibly understand and accept the depth of her because she felt the counsellor would
have experienced similar pain in her life.
June also expressed her preference for her First Nation counsellor, but it was her
counsellor’s willingness to disclose life experiences that were similar to June’s that
helped June disclose as she explained,
... her telling her side o f her story about her life and what she went through. And
saying that I ’m not the only person that went through all this pain and not the
only one being a victim and that she is also a victim too and learning to deal
with that. ...And i t ’s good to know, when she talks about herself, not only me
talking about my offences and it’s easy to talk to her about it... Because I know
she went through the same thing.
She felt relieved that she was not alone in her pain and she felt safe to disclose. She also
felt her counsellor’s support and reassurance that enabled her to move through her pain
and realize that she could survive. As June stated.
You can make it along... when you have a hard time, when you ’re ju st coming
out o f it like a roller coaster. A nd the [counsellor] like, my kids understand a lot
o f things that I go through and they help me along, really different, they know
about you and your struggles.
The participants found solace in their identification with their counsellors; they
were able to address their deepest issues and move beyond their shame.
Affirmed and accepted as a fellow community member.
Being involved in two types o f relationships, the fellow community member
relationship and client-counsellor relationship (Dual Relationship), is a reality for the

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client in the rural native community. Part o f this reality means that a client sees the
counsellor constantly out in the community. The participants described this experience
as one o f being accepted as equal and respected fellow community members. Dana
described her experience in this way,
Well I think that the first few times I ran into her at the local store, I fe lt a little
uncomfortable, because I thought about what I had shared with her in the
session whether it was the day before or last week, but she was always friendly...
Well I guess what I assumed at the time was, we ju s t had a counsellor/client
relationship in the office and ....Ijust assumed that i f I saw her in the community
I ’d, sh e ’d ju st walk past me and to my surprise, she didn’t.
I often wondered how I ’m going to react, how she would react, ju st the total
opposite o f what I thought.
A nd you know anywhere I saw her she ’d talk to me. What I thought was that she
w ouldn’t acknowledge me, she w ouldn’t talk to me and the opposite was she
acknowledged me, wherever I was in the community, and she always talked to
me.
Seeing the counsellor out in the community was initially a discomfort to Dana, her
unease stemmed from her disclosures that left her feeling vulnerable to the counsellor.
Dana had been uncertain about how the interaction out in the community would be. Her
expectation was that the counsellor would be distant and avoid her. All her assumptions
proved to be false because the counsellor treated her as an equal and because she treated
her as an equal she felt accepted and, as she reflected,
... / fe lt like I mattered to someone, it was only one person in the world that took
the time o f day to think, to acknowledge me as a person. It made a major
difference to fe e l that acceptance.
Nobody had ever valued her as a person before, and the feeling o f acceptance was so
profound that she began to see possibilities for herself as she states,
It made me want to continue to change where I guess I began to think at that
point already that I wanted to be that way someday. That I would hope that

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somebody would he able to approach me in the way I am able to approach her.
You know and I thought you know, who knows what the future is going to hold
fo r me. But i f this is how you treat people because you want to treat them, not
because you have to, because you want to. And that’s where I saw the difference,
that’s when I saw she didn’t have to treat me like this. She chose to treat me like
this. I t ’s something she wanted to do. And I thought ‘g ees ’.
Dana was amazed that the counsellor could be so accepting and generous of herself and
that could have such an impact. It made her realize that maybe she could do something
that could have that same impact on others too. As Dana continued,
...and um anywhere I saw her in the community or town she ’d stop and talk to
me, you know it w a s, w asn’t like she was my counsellor, she treated me with
respect and I really enjoyed her company. I fe lt at ease being around her and I
began to build a trust really quickly with her. And I began to search inside
m yself and I started to deal with stu ff and look at the way I was living and had
lived.... Well it made me want to continue to look at me and continue to change.
... The things I told the counselor at that time was, it was really hard to admit
that I was an alcoholic.
The acknowledgment and acceptance shown by the counsellor, out in the community,
deepened the therapeutic relationship and process.
June’s meetings with the counsellor out in the community were comfortable as
she reported,
I didn’t aah, Iju st talked to her or and knowing I could trust her, Iju st fe lt okay
with her knowing that I could trust her and that she wouldn’t talk about what we
were talking about in group or anything. So I ju st fe lt okay with her and
sometimes I ’d meet her andjust talk normal, like talk about the weather and
other stu ff that other community people talk about, and or else sometimes ju st
talk about whatever she wanted. She ’d tell her stu ff too, so that was good, so
there was trust in me too.
The trust developed in the therapeutic relationship allowed June to feel at ease when she
saw her counsellor out in the community. Trust in the counsellor was strengthened when
June realized that the counsellor would respect her boundaries by not discussing prior
counselling sessions out in the community. The counselor’s acceptance o f her as a

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mutual and equal fellow community member out in the community further deepened her
trust.
Kayla answered the question of what it was like to see her counsellor out in the
community this way,
Just ahh you know I ju st poured my heart out to this woman and 1 seen her
almost everyday, so it was kind of.. J was wondering i f she thought... what she
thought... what she thought o f me I was ju st wondering i f she ...or i f she ju st
looked at me, at me instead o f what I told her about all my things that I told her
about. But then I got close to her and it was good; I knew she wasn’t looking at
me and judging me, I knew she was looking at me, as me, and being my
counsellor.
It was alright ju s t at first it was a little bit weird, because, basically she knew
everything about me and I wondered i f she thought about those things I had told
her. I was thinking is she thinking about what happened to me and
looking down at me, like. But then, like I said I got close to her (having no more
anxiety or fear o f being judged and now feeling at ease), she was something like
a counsellor, like a friend. I was confident then that she w ouldn’t look down at
me.
Kayla felt uneasy about seeing the counsellor out in the community; she had doubts
about the counselor’s acceptance o f her. Kayla recalled,
I f I thought she was looking down at me I would never have trusted her or felt
comfortable with her. and a h h , well sometimes i f I was drinking I didn’t want to
see her but, she didn’t, sh e ’d that was the time when she 'd be more you know like
in her own way letting me know that was OK like sh e’s not like she w asn’t there
to judge me she ’d be really she didn’t care whether... you know ...what I was
doing. ...I didn’t fe el like she was judging me, she accepted me.... it made me
fe el good it made me fe el comfortable to know I was not being judged.
The counsellor was able to maintain neutrality and acceptance o f her even though she
was struggling with her alcoholism. She appreciated her for that. Kayla also felt
accepted by her counsellor out in community as a fellow community member. As she
reported, “She treated me like normal, regular. She totally left the counselling out o f it.

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she was always happy and respected me and accepted me, regular, not like one o f her
clients
Discomfort due to loss o f privacy.
In small communities, relationships are overlapping and intermeshed; all o f the
women reported feeling discomfort due to loss o f privacy. In the early stages o f her
counselling, Dana reported her difficulty due to visibility. She states:
(Laughs) Yes there was, one thing that was very difficult. Because I was such a
liar in my alcoholism, in my drinking days, I had to learn how to live an honest
life and be honest with people around me all the time. A nd Iw a s n ’t sure I was
capable o f doing that and being in a small community. I remember what she told
me early into our counsellor-client relationship, she had once told me that, ‘It
doesn’t matter what you do and d on’t do, or what you d o n ’t tell you ’re doing,
people know. I t ’s a small community, you can’t hide, you ca n ’t even hide from
yourself, let alone anyone else ’, she used to tell me. A nd I used to think, you
know, ‘how dare she ’, that’s what I thought when she first said that to me, ‘how
dare she say that. Who the hell is she? ’ I was still defensive. I was thinking, ‘oh
gees, you know sh e ’s right, you can’t hide ’.
In the early stages o f her sobriety, at a time when one feels vulnerable, Dana felt
discomfort in having to be honest and open in her life. Perhaps this was because
alcoholism is one way o f hiding or denying reality and in her early phase of sobriety,
openness was difficult for her. In any case, she felt that living an honest life was in a
sense an invasion o f her private life and she resented it.
Kayla experienced hearing stories about her counsellor and stopped seeing her
counsellor for awhile due to her loss of confidence as Kayla explains,
I had a lot o f trust well I still do trust her but ahh, other community members
didn’t and ahh. I didn’t want to see her at one point in time because I had heard
a lot o f what other people said, and I think she knew that that’s why I w asn’t
going to her or something. I d on’t know i f she knew o fju st but ahh when I did go
see her she had told me about you know people talking about her and what not
and you know well we were talking and my problem came up first and I was
telling her how rumors are and stu ff like that, cause I had a very upsetting rumor
spread about me and I went and seen her and ahh and she told me about how

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rumors were being spread about her and um, I think it was her way o f telling me
that people ju st talk like that you know, so those feelings left, those distrust
feelings.
I had people who knew that I seen her fo r a counsellor and ahh, they would give
me their opinion o f her and kind o fp u t her down and I d id n ’t like to hear about it
because she didn’t do anything to me like. A nd a lot o f rumors always go around
anyway...
Kayla felt discomfort due to the invasion of her privacy after she allowed other
community members’ opinions about her counsellor to lead her to doubt her counsellor’s
integrity and her own sense o f judgment. Fortunately, the trust was reestablished.
In a small community where people have close emotional ties, sexual abuse
charges by one member against another member o f the community can have an impact
on people. For instance, June’s counsellor was involved in advocating that a sexual
abuse charge be laid, by another client, against a person who happened to be one of
June’s offenders and June feared that her counsellor would coerce her to serve as a
witness in the court case. June states:
I guess there was, I fe lt okay with it because I guess she puts different clients in
different places, and I could trust her enough with my case, and counselling, I
seen her through some cases where she had to bring them to court and that, so
on those parts, that’s where I was scared, in case, like one offender had to be
brought to court and then I was scared, he was my offender and I said, 7 don’t
want to go through that’. But she didn’t even mention, me or anything. So I was,
but when you ’re like in that part o f it, it was scary. Like, ‘is she gonna pull my
files out and bring it to court? ’ and would I have to be, what do you call it when
they have to bring you to court and that’s what I was really scared of. When
they were going through that part o f it, I was ju st scared and I guess I couldn’t
function straight or something, ju st waiting, ‘Is she going to today or not? ’, and
that was scary fo r me, but she didn’t even mention me or do anything so when
that court case was over I was, could breathe again.
June was afraid that her painful life would be made public; she would have felt that it
was an invasion o f her privacy. She was relieved when she wasn’t called to witness and
her privacy remained intact.

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June was also concerned about her files because she was afraid that they would
be made public. That would have been an invasion o f her privacy. This added to June’s
experience of anxiety about being exposed to the community. As June reported,
...it’s ju st that my files are open and I ’m ju s t wondering i f they have access to my
files and what they are going to do with it. A nd are they allowed to read my files
...if they have access to my files and i f they keep them open fo r the new
counselors that are going in , and I ju s t wonder about that....just don't know i f
they do keep them. I tried to ask fo r my files once and nothing happened. But
then I wrote a letter and I asked to have my files closed and sent to me, because I
don’t know i f they keep them open....
It was a sense o f uncertainty about what was going to happen to her files.
Availability: Feeling there is someone I can turn to.
In traditional counselling there are boundaries around time and place of sessions.
In these rural communities, counselling session times were flexible, the women referred
to this as availability. Because the counsellor lived in the community, the clients felt that
they had someone to turn to and this reliance on the counsellors during crisis times
allowed them to continue to make changes in their lives. Dana saw her counsellor out in
the community and this was her experience.
And I think the other thing that always helped me in the beginning was it didn’t
matter how busy the counsellor was, I could seek her out anywhere in the
community and she’d drop whatever she was doing to come listen to me, and that
really made me want to work towards sobriety and begin to address things
because she always was available. And she was always friendly and it ju st made
it easier to keep going back. A t first the first few sessions I didn’t really say
much Iju s t kind o f rambled on. Gradually over each session she would ask me
questions and I ’d start opening up more ...
And it got to a point... by then I had been in counselling a year, I was attending
AA regularly, in my community and surrounding communities, I was starting to
become comfortable with being sober, but I still knew there was a lot o f work
ahead o f me. That scared me to death that I had to look at Dana and the things
she’s done and the people sh e’s hurt because o f her drinking. A nd when I began
to look at things like that, the fear and the anger and the shame, I wanted to
drink so badly. That’s when I sought out the counsellor anywhere in the

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community, weekends, holidays. I ’d go right to her house, knock on the door tell
her, ‘I ’m having a rough time right now, I need to talk. ’ She ’d drop what she
was doing and say, ‘le t’s go fo r a drive in my car. ’ We ’d drive around and she ’d
ask me, 'what’s happening, what's happening right now what do you feel, what
do you think. ’ I said, 7 fe el guilty, I feel ashamed, every day, and when I fe e l
this way, I want to drink, but yet I don’t want to drink ’ I told her.
And we would talk and I fe lt better after I talked to her, I ’d go home and have a
good sleep. I was releasing all this garbage in me that I had never talked to
anyone about in my life before. A nd over the months, you know, I saw my
attitudes changing, my beliefs, my views and I began to see there is a future fo r
me and my kids. You know things can be different. By then I had a year o f
sobriety, it was pretty tough but I was very fortunate.
The counsellor’s receptiveness helped Dana to feel accepted, and this acceptance
encouraged her to continue to go to counselling and to deepen the therapeutic process.
Over time, there was a major shift in her view o f the world; she discovered that there
was indeed hope for her beyond the pain that she felt.
For Kayla the availability o f the counsellor was positive. She states:
She was always close and always available She was ju st there whenever I needed
her. ...I’d see her, you know, places and i f I needed to talk to her at that time like
an event or something we could go o ff and walk and talk and be alone and it was
ju st you know, like ju st a mini counseling session where she was ju st there.
It was like a reliable thing, she was reliable, you know i f I seen her outside, like
she was there. It made me fe el better, ...because sometimes on a weekend you
know, when you don’t have the sessions to rely on, you know to bring it out, and
to give you that strength you know. And I ’d see her you know and we ’d have
little chats, that would make me fe e l like refreshed like you know, that yes life is
good.
She felt supported and reassured because she could rely on the counsellor to be there for
her outside the regular sessions.
In June’s experience, not only was the counsellor available for her outside
regular sessions, fellow community members were available as well. As June states:
When those memories start coming back, you could phone them fthe counsellor
and the community members] up anytime and ju st talk to them, what you are
going through.

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She felt safe because there was always someone there she could turn to for support.
Inspired by the counsellor.
In these small rural communities where visibility is a reality, the women were
able to see the way their counsellors lived their lives. The counsellor’s presence was
inspiring for each o f the clients. As Dana reflected,
So in my second year o f sobriety, I started listening more and paid more
attention to what was happening in the community, where before I didn ’t give a
shit.
You know I was too busy drinking and lost in my own little bottle and I saw her
[the counsellor] doing things, on weekends, round dances and recognition
dinners and stu ff like that and I started volunteering and aah really enjoying
that. So I thought, “you know i f I feel this good doing little things like this, why
don’t I go out into the community and do more? ” So I started volunteering all
over. As a youth worker, I went and volunteered there, aah, I went and
volunteered at the school, anywhere, the seniors. So fo r about a year straight I
ju st did, straight volunteer work, to keep busy, because basically what I needed
to do was keep busy and not to think about drinking, not to worry about not
drinking - but to get on to a different fram e o f mind.
In her second year o f sobriety, she began opening up to new directions. Through her
counsellor’s example, she began to try new things in life and discovered that these were
meaningful for her.
In a similar way June followed her counsellor’s example o f how to live. June
states:
.. .just seeing that sh e’s a family, she has a fam ily o f her own, and the things that
she goes through, that she has a busy life like the rest o f us. A nd that she does,
she takes her kids to hockey or the figure skating, the baseball, she does the same
things as we do and that’s good. ... That sh e ’s a mother. I guess ju st being a
mother too and bringing her fam ily along and that she has the knowledge o f
helping her own people and that’s what she wants to do, so that’s, help her own
people through therapy and however she can. : Good role model ...Ijust fin d
her very smart. ...

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June saw her counsellor as very dedicated to her profession, to her family and her
community and this gave her options to make changes in her life and she elaborated on
how her life has changed,
Yeah, doing things fo r your own family, like getting into sports and that.
I never had my kids in figure skating or anything like that, then finally I started
putting them in the sports. Just seeing that, it was, time managing and money
managing and to do that, to bring your kids out to figure skating and baseball
and the kids fe lt good about that. ...I come a long way from the start o f my
therapy, like I ’ve become. I ’m not so shy as I was before and I ’m more talkative
to people, ju s t getting out and meeting people and I ‘m not so shy. And a lot o f
people notice that and they tell me how fa r I have come since my therapy the
things I do with helping. I guess ju s t going out and getting into the community
with their gatherings and helping. Especially in my work, I thought I couldn ’t do
things before, I was afraid to go out to do landscaping, I had to go to school fo r
that and Ife lt like I couldn’t do it but I did it anyway. So that ju st got brought
out that I can do things...
With pride and confidence, and like the counsellor, she too became dedicated to her
trade, her family, and her community.
Kayla also saw her counsellor as a role model as she states,
I learned from watching her attitude she was always happy and involved in a lot
o f things, like organizing things, like the AA walks, bingos, and speaking up at
workshops. And because I have a hard time getting involved in a lot o f things,
because I have low self-esteem. I d o n ’t fe e l comfortable getting involved with the
community happenings. From watching her I wanted to be like that and that
became my goal and I still do have that goal, to have a good attitude, to be
happy and to get involved and stuff.
After observing her counsellor, Kayla is inspired to gain self-esteem and self-confidence
and to get involved in the community.
Gratitude.
There are many ways in which a client expresses her experience of the therapy
relationship. One o f the ways is through a verbal report. June expresses her gratitude in
this way,

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Yeah its, it has to do with a lot o f trust fo r me to have her and knowing her as a
community member and meeting her outside the counselling and that and the
fea r o f her telling my story elsewhere, but I know now that I trust her that sh e’s,
the things she does is helping the community and she helped me a lot on my path
o f healing and I ’m real glad that I went through the therapy that I went through
to help myself, my selfesteem and i t ’s like coming out o f a shell or something
and able to say, ‘Hey, I can do this! ’ Yes like taking my kids to baseball and we
got into the powwows, and traveling and before I thought I couldn’t do
anything because o f my common-law. Iju st fe lt like I had to stay home and be a
mother and (laughs) I know there’s other things out there that I could go to,
instead o f just staying home and being a mother. So it brought out a lot in me....
June feels deep gratitude for the joy and the sense of direction she has received from the
therapist.
Kayla expressed her gratitude in this way,
It was very helpful because even through the uneasy feelings I had, it was I
learned a little bit o f lesson in trust and in trust basically.... Like I never trusted
before like even talking to fam ily members, it was a bit hard to have that trust so
aah, I came out o f my shell. ...I kept a lot o f stuff inside, it was a hard shell, like I
never wanted to talk, express, because I didn’t want to seem weak. And like I
didn’t know, like without knowledge. A nd throughout the sessions, I learned to
trust, that bridge was built on trust. And I, becoming to realize that I am not a
weak person I am stronger than I thought I ever was, I didn’t have self-esteem.
My self-esteem was very low and throughout the sessions, I gained some selfconfidence and some self-esteem. I don’t feel like I ’m an inch tall anymore, I feel
the five fo o t two that la m .
Overall, I am grateful fo r the counsellor. I ’m grateful that she was always there
throughout everything. She watched me grow from the person that I never want
to be again, to the person that I am now. Like I gained strength. I ’m grateful
because she made me a bit stronger, notju st a bit, but a lot.
Kayla appreciated her counsellor’s help for knowledge that allowed her to gain self­
acceptance and a sense o f her inner strength.
Dana expresses her gratitude in the following statement:
And the counsellor that I was seeing at the time, that I was seeing regularly fo r
two years, left the community, took another job. I thanked her fo r her time, and I
thanked her fo r coming that first time and the first three times, after that when I
slammed the door on her face. I told her, ‘y ou know, I ’m very grateful fo r
everything you have done, and I ’ll always remember this and I want you to know

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that no matter where you are or what I do in my life. ’ I told her, ‘this is ju s t the
beginning and you played a major role in it. ’And I thanked her.
I ’m glad 1 saw the counsellor because that was the turning point in my life. I
was ready to change and she was there to give me her fullest support, fo r that I
will always be grateful!
Dana, similar to the other participants, felt deep appreciation to the counsellor for the
benefits the therapeutic relationship had brought.
Termination Phase
After the regular counselling sessions ended, one wonders how this would affect
the relationship between client and counsellor. The connection between the participant
and counsellor continued. June’s counsellor is still employed in the community. Dana’s
counsellor has moved away but visits the community on weekends and holidays.
Kayla’s counsellor still lives in the community but is no longer employed as counsellor.
Enduring trust.
I presumed that once the regular client counsellor relationship ended that having
the counsellor constantly in their lives would be a source o f anxiety for the clients, so I
questioned this experience. The clients described an enduring trust in their counsellor.
This is evident in the following conversations.
Terry.' What is it like fo r you to know that you have confided in your counsellor
and that you will probably see them fo r the rest o f your life?
Kayla: Nothing, I still trust her, I don’t think she would take advantage o f me.
Yeah she knows about me but that is good, this way she will always be there fo r
me too and she kept telling me this all the way through and even to this day, she
tells me and I know she will be there fo r me.
Kayla trusts her counsellor and sees the counsellor’s continuing presence in her life as a
benefit; it is a safe space that is available when she needs support.

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When I asked June the same question she stated, "I never thought o f that" then
she laughed. On a more serious note, June stated, “I would still trust her".
I asked Dana this same question in slightly a different way and she stated,
I never really thought about that, hut well like 1 told you I tested the waters at the
beginning and I told you that I asked the community members about her, and I
tested her, I listened out in the community, and when I didn’t hear anything, I
realized I could trust her and that is the way it still is.
Dana still feels safe with her counsellor because she still trusts her. One would have
fear o f the misuse o f power on the part o f the counsellor because she knows your
secrets; but for these First Nations women the enduring trust they have in the counsellors
contributes to their ongoing sense o f security.
Enduring bond.
All of the women reported their acceptance o f their counsellor as a friend.
Friends are people you have a bond with, someone that is dear to you. All o f the clients
referred to their counsellor as a friend. As June stated.
Yes, she fe lt like a friend, and knowing that there [were] other people in the
group you can talk to when you ’re having a hard time. When those memories
start coming back, you could phone them [the counsellor and the community
members] up anytime and ju st talk to them, what you are going through.
June accepted her counsellor as friend because her counsellor, along with other fellow
community members, was always there for her when she needed help.
Kayla reported that as time went on she felt that the counselor was “...starting to
be more my friend that’s how I felt". As Kayla explained,
you know, she started asking me like, she told me it was ok fo r me to call her
whenever well, most counsellors do that but umm. I d on’t even know I think it
was ju st we didn’t ju st talk about umm my problem ’s and stu ff like that we ju st
talked sometimes about whatever any thing, the weather yeah.

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sh e ’s still my friend, we chat umm, every time I see her she tells me to give her a
call she no longer works ...here, hut yeah she welcomes my calls ju st to tell her
how I ’m doing and stuff. As a friend, and i f I need her she tells me to call her so.
She accepted her counsellor as a friend and as a source of support.
Dana’s relationship moved beyond the client-counsellor relationship to become a
friendship as is evident in the following statement,
A nd over the years I ’ve maintained a friendship with her and sh e ’s always kept
in touch with me and I have done the same and I continue to share with her
things that happened in my life both good and bad. Whenever I see her and talk
to her, I can still fe e l the inner acceptance and respect she has fo r me and I am
sure she knows that I fe e l the same way about her.
Dana feels the enduring bond that has gone beyond the therapeutic relationship.
The experience o f being seen.
There are some people who have known you for a long time and they have
watched you and know that you have struggled. They see how things have changed in
your life, they understand you, and they know where you are now. Then there comes a
moment when from their authenticity to yours, they look at you and in a few words they
say to you, “I see you!” The participants experienced being seen by their counsellors.
Dana’s counsellor consistently encouraged her to look beyond and to take risks and
would affirm her with statements such as the following: “You’ve made a lot o f progress
in the last fe w years. ” The counsellor’s encouragement allowed her to take more and
more risks.
June had left the community and had started a new life. However, she saw the
counsellor when she went home for a visit and as June recalled,
I ju st talked to her, lately but I haven’t really gone which is to have women’s
meetings at night. A nd she said, ‘Yeah, y o u ’ve really come a long way and
you ’re not shy anymore ’, and that was good to hear, and she said, ‘yeah, you
really took a big step and ju st keep doing what you ’re doing ’.

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The counsellor commented on how June’s life had changed since the therapy ended.
June appreciated the feedback because the counsellor reinforced the growth that she bad
gone through.
Kayla confirms this aspect of her experience in this way,
Yup, she knew me, she knew me from when Ifirst started she knew me when I
was ahh kind o f wild and crazy and she commended me a lot on the person I ’d
grown to he like she seen me from you know, and she ’d always say, ‘You ’re
doing good you know I remember way hack when you know, you ’d you know do
nothing hut party, ’ and whatever and she ’d say, ‘look at you now, ’ so she was
able to look hack and... Yeah, and encourage me. Yeah, take the goodfrom that
she was good with that, taking the goodfrom what I ’d done. It made me fe el
good, it made me fe el proud, that I really can do things, and yes, that I really
have come a long way. And I know I can do more, I can make it in this world.
Kayla felt her inner strength due to the counsellor’s affirmations.
Continuing support.
All the women reported receiving continuing support from the counsellors
outside the therapeutic relationship. Kayla sums up her experience with her previous
counsellor in this way,
She knows me and I like it cause i f I have a problem and she ’II she can
understand cause she knows and I could ju st talk to her about it any time you
know, sh e ’s understanding, do you understand what I ’m saying? Ha, ha, ha. I f 1
was faced with a situation and it was upsetting to me and she seen me being
upset she ’d ask me what was wrong, and I ’d tell and she ’d say, “oh... ” ya
know, and she ’d understand. That’s how it is now anyway, i f she sees me upset
she asks me w hat’s wrong and tells me to call her or whatever.
Kayla’s counsellor is still available to her and because of this Kayla still feels supported,
accepted and understood.
June does not have much contact with her counsellor, however the relationship is
still positive. As she stated,
S h e ’s easy to talk to and like she knows a lot about you and i t ’s. I was talking to
her ju st lately and telling her what I was going through and she said, ‘I t ’s

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nobody’s business what you do, nobody’s. ’ Yeah, its like you can talk to her and
still easy to talk to her yet.
June’s relationship with her previous counsellor consists of support and affirmation and
June is comfortable with that.
Dana’s counsellor left the community after Dana attended two years of
counselling with her. The counsellor promised Dana, ‘I ’ll always keep in touch, i f I ’m
around, i f I see you. Phone me occasionally, let me know how you are doing’. Dana
received an open invitation and over the years Dana has phoned her counsellor many
times for encouragement. She phoned her when she got accepted to the adult upgrading
program and needed encouragement, she phoned her when she was having marital
problems and needed emotional support, she phoned her for strength when she was
afraid of going to college, and during each of these times, her friend was there to support
her. Dana summarizes how she felt about this ongoing support in the following
statement: “And knowing that I had someone out there that I could always turn to, made
me even stronger. ”
In the New World Webster’s Dictionary, the term support means, “to give
courage, faith, or confidence to, help or comfort” ( Neufledt, & Guralnik 1988, p. 1345).
Support is what clients look for in a counselling relationship and this is what the First
Nations clients experienced in the continuing relationships with counsellors of their own
community.
A Sense o f Safety and Encouragement to Move Forward
In a further analysis of the themes above, two summary themes emerged that
describe at a more abstract level the experiences o f the participants in dual relationships
and these two themes are “a sense o f safety” and “encouragement to move forward”.

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A sense o f safety.
The participants experienced “a sense of safety.” Initially the clients feared that
their confidences would not be kept but their counsellors were able to provide them with
the confidentiality they needed to move further into the therapeutic process. As well they
feared rejection and judgment but found that they were accepted. Their identification
with their counsellors allowed them to feel safe enough to disclose; they felt that the
counsellors understood their pain because their counsellors had experienced similar
trauma. The counsellors’ demonstration o f respect for them in the community furthered
their sense o f safety. Furthermore, the counsellors’ willingness to extend themselves
beyond office hours was another form of reassurance. They could rely on the counsellors
to be there for them. After the formal counselling sessions were over, each of the
participants expressed that they felt an enduring trust and an enduring bond with their
counsellor; both experiences indicate the sense of safety they felt. Finally, they were
willing to continue their relationships with their counsellors because they had
established a firm sense of safety.
Encouragement to move forward.
The second summary theme that emerged from the analysis o f the sub-themes
and that describes at a more abstract level what it is that the participants experienced is
“encouragement to move forward.” The counsellors’ initial extending o f themselves
enabled the participants to engage in the therapy process. The counselors’ lifestyles
encouraged the participants to take more and more risks and engage in things that were
meaningful for them. Then through the support o f their counselors, the participants
began to gain a sense of their own power. Even after the formal therapeutic relationships

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were over the participants were encouraged to move forward by affirmations and
support.
Movement from a Therapeutic Relationship to an Enduring Relationship
The final theme summarizes and unifies all o f the sub-themes described thus far
and is a description o f the experiences o f the participants in dual relationships at the
most abstract level. The participants’ experiences in dual relationship with counsellors
indigenous to their communities can best be summarized as a “movement from a
therapeutic relationship to an enduring relationship”.
The participants experienced therapeutic relationships that moved beyond to
become enduring relationships. The therapeutic relationships consisted of
encouragement that enabled engagement in the therapy process, confidentiality that
enabled trust, acceptance and respect rather than rejection or judgment, empathy that
enabled deep disclosures, availability o f counselors beyond the office hours that helped
deepen the therapy relationships, and role models that were inspiring. The above
elements in the therapeutic relationships enabled the relationships to move beyond to
become enduring relationships rather than to be terminated. Each o f the clients described
her experience in this latter phase as consisting o f an enduring trust, an enduring bond,
affirmations that reinforced growth, and continuing emotional support. In summary, it
was in client/counsellor relationships with their counsellors who are indigenous to their
communities that the participants experienced a “movement from a therapeutic
relationship to an enduring relationship” rather than termination.
The chapter has presented the results o f the phenomenological analyses of
interviews conducted with three First Nations women who experienced dual

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relationships with alcohol and drug counsellors indigenous to their communities. The
next chapter discusses key findings.

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Chapter Five
Conclusion
In this chapter I conclude the study by reflecting on the key findings of this
study. I also compare the findings with other relevant literature and studies.
Implications o f the findings follow and then recommendations for further research are
offered. Next, I discuss limitations of this research and I end with a summary of the
thesis.
Key findings
1 conducted this study in order to begin to provide a holistic picture (Oiler, 1986)
or an overview, o f the First Nations women clients’experiences in dual relationships
with alcohol and drug abuse counsellors who are indigenous to the clients’ communities.
This section provides a reflection on the key findings.
In their dual relationships, each o f the participants experienced a therapeutic
relationship that moved beyond to an enduring relationship. Layered in this experience
was a sense o f safety and encouragement to move forward.
While the clients did experience some apprehension, they primarily experienced
a sense of safety. The participants were initially afraid to engage in the counselling
process; however, they were encouraged by the willingness o f the counsellors to extend
their help. They were afraid o f going to counsellors with whom they were personally
familiar, but they took the challenge. They were also afraid that the counsellors would
not keep their confidences but ultimately they learned that their counsellors were
trustworthy. The clients also initially feared negative judgment and rejection but they
eventually realized that their counselors accepted them. The clients preferred and were

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able to disclose their deepest issues to First Nations counsellors. The clients believed
that First Nations counsellors were best qualified to fully understand their experiences
because they would share similar frames o f reference and would have experienced
similar past trauma in their lives. That the clients felt safe in their therapy relationships
is evident by their ability to disclose their deepest issues.
In meetings with their counselors outside the office, contrary to their
expectations, the counsellors acknowledged them; moreover, the counsellors
respectfully kept prior counselling session topics out of their conversations with them.
Because o f this respectful acknowledgement in the community, the clients felt accepted
and respected as equal fellow community members. This deepened the therapeutic
process and trust.
One o f the clients was afraid that her files were not secure. This was a source of
anxiety for her. The other concern this same client had was that she would be forced to
be a witness in court proceedings. The counsellor had advocated for sexual abuse
charges against several community members; one of which happened to be June’s
offender. She was much relieved when she was not asked to serve as a witness. It
appears evident, by their continual engagement in the therapeutic process, that each of
the clients felt safety and their fears and anxieties allayed.
The clients were encouraged to move forward when the counsellors remained
available to work with them outside regular office hours, set examples of how to live,
and even after the formal therapeutic relationship ended, continued to affirm the clients
and provide emotional support. According to the clients, the availability of their
counsellors after regular office hours provided reassurance and security. They knew

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their counsellors would be there when they needed them. As their trust developed, it
deepened their connection with their counselors.
The visibility o f the counsellors in the community also provided a source of
encouragement to move forward; the awareness of how the counselors lived their lives
provided a means for the clients to find alternative lifestyles. For instance, through their
counsellors’ real life examples of how to live a healthy life, two of the clients adopted
their counsellors’ style o f living. One of the clients learned to volunteer and to
meaningfully contribute to community life and she then went on to get a college
education just like her counsellor. Another client created a healthy family and
professional life mirroring her counsellor. The other client set some goals for herself so
that she could be just like her counsellor.
When one of the clients learned that her counsellor had not only experienced
trauma similar to her own but was also working on it, she could feel hopeful for her own
healing process. This can also be considered a form o f encouragement.
Based on trust and the bond developed in these therapeutic relationships, the
client-counsellor relationship moved beyond to become an enduring relationship. In this
phase o f the relationship, the counsellors continued to affirm their clients’ progress and
continued to provide emotional support. In summary, the clients were encouraged to
move forward because the counsellors willingly extended themselves, provided
examples o f how to live, and then even after the formal therapeutic relationship ended,
continually affirmed and supported the clients.
In their dual relationships with counsellors indigenous to their communities, this
inquiry reveals that the three First Nations female participants experienced “a sense of

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safety” and “encouragement to move forward” as they moved from a therapeutic
relationship to an enduring relationship.
Significance o f the Findings
The literature reviewed for this study indicated that the issue o f counsellors
engaging in dual relationships with clients is a serious issue; the literature revealed a
foreboding of dual relationships. The primary concern of professionals is the power
imbalance in the counselling relationship and the potential harm that can result when
entering dual relationships with clients. In this section, I draw conclusions from the
findings.
This study, where the clients experienced a “movement from a therapeutic
relationship to an enduring relationship,” shows that the issue of power and power
imbalance is still very important to the three First Nations women who participated in
this study; this is reflected in their capacity to trust their counsellors and to be sure that
their counsellors were not going to engage in community discussions that would violate
their sense o f trust. That power and power imbalance was an issue for the clients is also
evident in their fears that their counsellors would judge them after they shared their
stories. Clearly these women saw their counsellors as having power and influence and
this confirms what people like Marilyn Peterson (1992) have to say about ethics and
power.
Nevertheless, this study suggests that when counsellors live in the same small
communities as the clients, the counselors’ power and influence can be positive. This
was indeed the case for these three First Nations clients. What was positive was that the
clients were able to adopt their counsellors’ lifestyles and to consequently be

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empowered. Being able to see the counsellor in the community was positive in a more
specific way; the example of a “normal” life set by the counsellor was therapeutic at
least for one of the clients. For June, seeing the counsellor living a “normal” life was
important, as June stated, “just seeing that she’s a family, she has a family o f her own,
and the things that she goes through, that she has a busy life like the rest of us.... she
takes her kids to hockey, figure skating, ...baseball, she does the same things as we do
and that’s good.” I would think that seeing a counsellor out in the community
demystifies a counselor’s life and this would be helpful in a particular way to a client,
that is, if the counsellor’s life is healthy. One of the symptoms o f living in an
environment influenced by alcoholism is wondering what normal is (Friel & Friel,
1990). The counsellor can provide one example of a healthy normal lifestyle that clients
can draw on as they move beyond lifestyles influenced by alcoholism. Visibility in a
rural environment thus allows role modeling by the counsellors that instills inspiration
and shows an alternative lifestyle. This same method o f help is not available when a
client is unable to see how other anonymous counsellors live their lives.
Another interesting finding in this study refers to the clients’ identification with
their counsellors. O f importance in identification was that like the clients, the
counsellors were native, and would have had many similar historical and socio-political
experiences as the clients. This identification with the counsellors was positive for four
reasons, first; there was the dynamic of universality, then there was the instillation of
hope, third, there was the therapeutic alliance and finally, the equalization o f the power
imbalance.
Having counsellors who had experienced trauma similar to their own worked

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positively for the clients. It allowed them to learn that they were not alone in their
painful situation. Feeling alone in what are thought to be unacceptable problems is one
aspect o f the client’s experience when they enter counselling. These top secrets usually
contain two major predominating themes. The most common is a “deep conviction of
inadequacy,” next, is a “deep sense of interpersonal alienation”, the third may be a
“category o f some variety o f sexual secret” (Yalom 1970, p. 9). Yalom (1970) has
defined this experience o f learning that one is not alone with a type of problem as
universality (Yalom 1970, p.76). Universality is a therapeutic effect that can be derived
from other clients in group therapy (cited in Parker, 1999). According to Yalom, the
“disconfirmation o f this uniqueness in therapy is a powerful source o f relief’ (Yalom
1970, p. 10). In this study, the counsellors served the same purpose as fellow clients in
group therapy; the clients knew that their counsellors had similar painful experiences
and this universality deepened the therapeutic process. As Kayla stated, “Its easier to
bring it all up, it’s just easier because she’s been there, she knows where I am coming
from and it was just easier to, because saying all the things I said to her, I just couldn’t
say it to anybody...because it’s embarrassing ... yeah it’s shame.” The clients were able
to disclose experiences in their lives that had inflicted shame: a feat that requires great
courage and is a necessity for achieving positive results in counselling.
Another positive aspect o f the experience o f having a native counsellor who has
had similar past experiences, was that hope was instilled; this is another o f Yalom’s
concepts. Instillation o f hope occurs when one realizes “that others had solved problems
similar to mine” (Yalom 1970, p.80). The instillation of hope is yet another experience
that has been found to have a therapeutic effect in group therapy (Yalom 1970, cited in

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Parker, 1999). June reported experiencing a sense of hope when she realized that her
counsellor, who had gone through similar victimization as she had, was dealing with her
issues. This awareness instilled in June a sense o f hope for herself.
Identification with the counsellors because of shared ethnicity and shared painful
experiences was positive in still another way. The clients felt that their counsellors could
empathize with them and this resulted in the clients being able to form therapeutic
alliances in which the clients could disclose their deepest issues. The identification with
the counsellors may have also had the effect o f equalizing the power imbalance between
the clients and their counselors. The primary sources of a client’s vulnerability seem to
be the level o f shame and the fear that a client has about certain past experiences; but, if
a client knows that her counsellor has had experiences similar to her own, this may have
the effect of not only enabling a positive working alliance, but it may also have the
effect o f equalizing the power asymmetry in the relationship. As Kayla stated, “she
opened up to me too, so she didn’t judge” and all the clients were adamant that their
counsellors’ shared ethnicity and shared history was important in their decision to
disclose. I am confident that these similarities between counselors and clients would
equalize the power imbalance. This view is supported by Cossom’s (1998) findings. She
conducted a study of female client’s experiences with boundaries in therapy and she
states her findings in the following way:
Participants reported feeling particularly anxious in the early stages o f therapy
and held themselves back from completely engaging in the work until they felt
comfortable with it. The women indicated that their fears were heightened if
there were differences between themselves and the therapist in terms o f class,
gender, age and race. These differences tended to amplify the power imbalance
in the relationship and raise participant’s doubts about whether the counselor
could understand and empathize with their experiences and perspective. For
example, one participant indicated that it had been easier to open up to her

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counselor at the women’s health center who was the same gender and shared
similar social experiences than to a male doctor from a more privileged socio­
economic class, (p.33)
The effect o f identification with the counsellor could also be likened to the effect of
self-disclosure as discussed by feminist therapists (Ganon, 1982). Feminist therapists see
self-disclosures as equalizing, to a certain extent, the power imbalance between client
and therapist (Brown, 1991 Greenspan, 1986).
This study reveals a client boundary in the second relationship outside the
normal therapy process. Their boundary is this: I am your client, but when I see you out
in the community, do not bring up the issues 1 discussed with you in counseling
sessions.
Professionals have discussed concerns about difficulties around private and
public lives (Whittington 1985), about role and boundary difficulties and so on in rural
communities (Peterson, 1996). It is important to state that in my study clients found
comfort when their counsellors treated them as normal and regular community members
rather than as clients out in the community. This brought a feeling o f acceptance and
respect. The acceptance and respect promoted work in the therapeutic relationship. This
shows that with visibility as a factor in rural communities, friendliness and
approachability is the manner with which these clients liked to be treated. Dorothy
Peterson’s (1996) findings support my study. She found that in the rural north, emphasis
is given to ‘who’ the worker is, rather than their position. Being authentic and
personable earned, for the social workers, integrity (p. 92).
This study indicates that the counsellor’s character is most important in the
context where high visibility is a factor. For these First Nation participants the

85

counselors had to be confidential, non-judgmental, empathie, and congruent. “The
nonjudgmental expression o f a fundamental respect for the person as a human being” is
defined as unconditional positive regard in person centered therapy (Corey 1986, p, 57);
While congruence is defined as, “a matching o f one’s inner experiencing vwth external
expressions.” Another term for congruence is genuineness (Compton & Galaway 1989,
p.296). According to the findings in this study, if counsellors want to be effective in
small rural First Nations communities, they must be congruent or consistent in all
aspects of their lives. They must live a life o f dignified integrity, because they are seen
as role models, they set examples of how to live a life, they instill hope, they respect the
boundaries o f clients, they affirm the value o f the clients as people and equal community
members, and they are approachable. This study indicates that these qualities o f the
counsellor deepen the counseling relationship and make the dual relationship an
essential part o f the counsellor’s therapeutic impact. Ponterotto & Benesh (1988) believe
that Rogers’ 1961 (cited in Ponterotto & Benesh, 1988) concept o f the core relationship
conditions o f genuineness, empathy, and positive regard are crucial to the successful
outcome of a therapeutic encounter. This study supports this view.
One final theme is o f significance in this study. This is the idea of accessibility.
This aspect o f the clients’ experiences is closely connected to dual relationships and
boundaries: the counsellors are always accessible and are part o f the membership of the
clients’ communities. Accessibility o f the counsellors was most important. The
counsellors were approachable and accessible. The counsellors’ availability and
flexibility was seen as beneficial. For instance, each o f the clients talked about her
counsellor providing counselling sessions outside the regular sessions. In traditional

86

counselling this might be seen as a boundary violation, but within this context it is seen
as a strength and as a way to promote the therapeutic relationship. Lafromboise,
Dauphinais, and Rowe (cited in Trimble, Fleming, Beauvaus, & Jumper-Thurman,
1996) conducted a study with American Indian students and found that along with trust,
flexibility was of importance to the students (p. 186). This study is similar to their
findings.
Implications fo r Practice
Firstly, when one hears a story from somebody in a subjective way, it provides
insight, in a deeper way, which leads to empathy. We are able to see the world through
the client’s eyes, van Manen (1990) states that this is the time that we respond tactfully,
with empathy, we become aware and we act sensitively. In fact this is the purpose o f a
phenomenological study, to gain insight so we can respond responsibly.
This study implies that it is the character o f the counselor that is most important.
As the clients have told their stories, they have said how they like to be treated and that
is with confidentiality, acceptance, respect, affirmation, inspiration, congruence, and
equitability. These qualities bring a sense of safety and encouragement to move forward
which in turn help the clients’ working alliance with their counsellors. Further,
counselors must be congruent, which is defined as being genuine and consistent in
character; clients see counsellors as role models and as people who instill hope. All of
the above provide an interpersonal therapy context that allows the clients to work on
their healing. This information will be helpful for the counsellors that work with First
Nation women and men in rural native communities and it will also be helpful to
employers as they choose appropriate people to hire as counsellors in their communities.

87

The need for ethical decision making models in First Nations communities is
exemplified by how all of the clients wondered how they would be treated, reacted to or
looked at when they saw their counsellors out in the community. In this study it was the
interactions outside counselling that made the clients confident that they could disclose
to the counsellor without betrayal. Perhaps in the early phases o f counselling,
confidentiality and judgment could be discussed with the client. This study suggests that
there is indeed a need, in First Nations communities, in fact everywhere, for ethical
decision-making models. These would guide work with boundary issues and dual
relationship dynamics that may be present in small or rural communities. Trust can
therefore be established on a solid base.
Policies and procedures in relation to client files should be clarified and
discussed with clients. One o f the clients experienced a lot of anxiety because she was
uncertain about the status of her files.
In rural First Nations communities where people and families are
interconnected, sexual abuse issues can be very contentious. Perhaps alternative justice
programs could be developed in First Nations communities to support individuals and to
resolve conflicts resulting from legal proceedings. For instance, one o f the clients, June,
experienced a lot o f anxiety due to her fear that she could be called to witness against a
fellow community member although she did not disclose her concerns to her counsellor.
June needed to know that her counsellor didn’t expect her to participate in the court
processes. She needed the counselling relationship to be insulated from the legal conflict
but it is also clear that she did not know her rights regarding the legal system.

88

Implications fo r Further Study
Another study could be conducted with clients’ experiences in dual relationships
but with more participants. As well, a longitudinal study on clients’ dual relationships
with counsellors might be beneficial.
A study could also be conducted on the First Nations counsellors’ experiences of
dual-relationships in rural First Nations communities. A question that may be asked in
this study is, “Is it cultural for a counsellor to be accessible to the client outside the
regular sessions?”
Research on traditional native ethics and the means by which they were and are
conveyed may be advantageous. Such a study may inform ethical behavior in First
Nations therapy relationships or relationships in general in some way.
Limitations to the Study
This description cannot claim to represent all First Nations clients in all First
Nations communities, experience is complex and diverse, but it does provide insight on
and understanding of the nature of this experience for three First Nations women, van
Manen (1990) stated that, “[a] phenomenological description is always one
interpretation and no single interpretation will ever exhaust the possibility of yet another
complementary, or even potentially richer or deeper description” (p. 31). I concur with
van Manen’s statement. Accordingly, this study’s findings are tentative; it is not the
final commentary on the experience o f First Nations clients in dual relationships but an
important first step.
This study was exploratory therefore it does not delve too deeply into the areas
covered. I went only with what the First Nations women mentioned, so this thesis is

89

limited in that the issue of the power o f the counsellors and the issue o f how the clients
have reconciled this power-differential, was not researched in an in-depth manner.
Nonetheless, the three clients told their stories in their way and they showed that they
were empowering themselves in a way that was similar to their counsellors. The clients
were taking charge o f their lives, drawing on their knowledge that this was possible
from the examples set by their counselors.
Summary
Three First Nations women offered plenty of insights into what it is like to be a
client in a dual relationship with a counsellor who is indigenous to one’s own
community. The essence o f their experiences was described through the use of
phenomenological research.
In their dual relationships each participant experienced a movement beyond the
therapeutic relationship to an enduring relationship. Crucial to this positive experience
was to trust that their counsellors would be confidential, non-judgmental, empathie,
congruent and equitable. Identification with their counsellors because of shared ethnicity
and shared experiences of trauma helped the therapeutic alliance. Other factors that
contributed to the clients’ positive experiences in their dual relationships were their
counsellors’ positive role-modeling, positive affirmations, and ongoing support.
This study contrasts with the literature, cited in Chapter 2, on client-counsellor
dual relationships. It is important to understand why the problematic nature o f dual
relationships in non-native contexts is reversed in native communities; there dual
relationships are inevitable. This is an asset, as the accessibility o f the counsellors
outside of the regular appointments was important to the clients. Instead of the dual

90

relationships being o f abuse of power and sexual in nature, the dual relationships
fostered demonstrations o f the confidence and trust the clients could have in their
counsellors. This was based on the non-judgmental and equitable qualities of the
counsellors, which is part of First Nations ethics.

91

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Appendix A
Research Ethics Board Approval
Letter of Introduction
Letter to Potential Interviewees
Consent to Participate Form

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA

3333 U niversity W ay, P rince G eorge, BC, C an ad a V2N 4Z9
Dr. Alex M ichalos
Chair, UNBC E thics R eview C om m ittee
Tel: (250) 960-6697 o r 960-5820
Fax: (250) 960-5746
E-mail: m ichaios@ unbc.ca
UNBC E th /cs C om m /ftee

March 28, 2000
Terry Badine
Box 156
Moberley Lake, BC

P ro p o sal: EP20000308.27
Dear Terry:
Thank you for submitting your proposal entitled, “The Experiences of Professional
Boundaries for First Nations clients in Rural Communities.”
Your Proposal has been approved and you may proceed with your research.
If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me.

Sincerely,
------------

Alex Michalos
Chair, UNBC Ethics Review Committee

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Letter o f Introduction
My name is Terry Badine. I am of Cree/Saulteaux descent. I am a Master’s of Social
Work student at the University of Northern British Columbia. 1 am interested in
working in the area of counselling and/or therapy in Native communities. Part of my
interest is in the experience o f First Nation’s clients who participate in a
client/counsellor relationship with a member o f their own community.
Therefore, I have decided to research client’s experiences in this type of
client/counsellor relationship. I want to explore clients’ experiences, that is 1 want to
know what their thoughts and feelings are relating to boundary issues such as what they
think o f confidentiality issues, overlapping relationships and their experiences o f these
types of issues. Another phrase for this is professional boundaries.
In order to learn about this experience, I have chosen to talk to native clients who were
in a client/counsellor relationship with a counselor from their home community, this
relationship could have taken place on reserve or in a small town, (rural community)in
either British Columbia or Alberta. I will be talking to three (previous or present clients)
who have had this type of relationship within the last five years to explore this
experience.
During this study, I will have one conversation with each previous/ present client. The
conversations may last for two hours each. One further conversation may take place,
with each of the clients, so that I will be sure that I have understood what they meant in
our conversations (to clarify).
There is no judging about wrong of right in this study, learning about this experience
from the client’s perspective, is o f prime importance. I have attached a conversation
guide that I will be using during our conversations, this will give you an idea of what the
conversations will be about. This study may help native clients and native counsellors
in their counselling relationships in the future.
This study is completely voluntary. If you agree to participate in the study, I will ask
that you fill out the attached “Agreement to Particpation” form and return it to me in the
enclosed self-addressed envelope.
Once I hear from you, I will contact you to set up an interview and we shall choose a
time and place that is convenient for you. If you would like a copy o f the full thesis
proposal, or if you have any questions, please contact either myself, at 1-250-788-3952
or my advisor Glen Schmidt at UNBC 250-960-6519.
I look forward to your support in this research study and I thank you in advance.
Yours truly.

103

Terry Badine, B.S.W.
Enc.: Conversation Guide
Agreement to Participate
Self-addressed Envelope

104

Letter to Potential interviewees:
My name is Terry Badine and I am a Saulteaux/Cree Canadian Indian. I am researching,
from the native client's perspective, the experiences of participating in a
client/counsellor relationship with counsellor who is a member o f the client's home
community.
This purpose of this study will be to explore and to seek to understand client
experience (feelings and thoughts) o f Professional boundaries (see attached conversation
guide) when the client is in a simultaneous client and fellow community member
relationship with a counsellor who is a member o f their home community. The objective
is to provide a description and insight of the client’s experience. I am hoping this study
will benefit future counselling services for native clients. I am also conducting this
research in order to fulfill requirements to acquire my Master's Degree.
If you participate in my study, as a client interviewee, I will assure you that your name,
and the name of your community will not be revealed, anonymity will be adhered to. I
will be the only person who will know the specifics o f our conversations, all
conversations will he kept strictly confidential. I will be the only one who will see the
interviews in written form and I will also be the only one who will hear the tapes. Your
name will not be used in any publications that result from the research. Finally, I will
ensure that you will see the final report prior to submission to ensure that my description
is tme to your experience. Your participation will be strictly voluntary and you may
withdraw from the study at any time, however, I hope that as a result of your voluntary
participation, services to native clients may be enhanced. As part o f ensuring the
success o f the study, I will be tape-recording the interviews, however, I will ensure that

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the tapes will be locked in a safe place and will be destroyed when the study is
completed.
If you agree to participate in this study, you may withdraw at any time. If you have
any questions at any time during the study, please contact me at 1-250-788-3952.
For your safety, any complaints may be directed to the Office o f Research and Graduate
Studies, UNBC 1250-960-5820.
Thank you, in advance, for your participation. Terry Badine, B.S.W

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Consent to Participate Form:

Your signature below indicates that you understand and agree to the terms of
participation and agree to participate in the study. Please sign two copies and keep
one for your records. Thank you for your assistance in this study.

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE:
I _______________ agree to participate in the above research project. I understand
that my name, my counsellor’s name and the name of my community will not be
revealed in the final thesis report. I also understand that Terry will not allow
anyone else to see the interview information nor will she allow anyone else to listen
to the tapes. Although this interview will be tape-recorded, I am assured that the
tapes will be destroyed upon completion of the thesis. I understand that the
purpose of this study is to provide an account of my experience. I may also choose
to withdraw from the study at any point during the study. I am also assured that I
will not lose any services of any kind if I choose not to participate.
Signed b y __________________________ (interviewee).
Phone number_____________________________
Mailing address:____________________________

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Appendix B

Conversation Guide

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Conversation Guide
I am interested to learn about your experience of having a counsellor who is a member
of your community, please tell me about your experience, like telling a story, from the
time you began to think about attending counselling until the last time you saw your
counsellor to the present. Please tell me what happened. Include all the thoughts and
feelings you had, in relation to being a client to your counsellor, until you have no more
to say about your experience. The main question is what was this experience like?
Prompts:
Was there a particular about this counsellor that you saw this counsellor? Or did you
have a choice o f counsellors?
Pre-counselling phase- what were your thoughts, feelings and perceptions as you began
to think about going to this person for counseling.
(confidentiality, vulnerability, trust, distrust, deciding factors)
What was your experience and how did you resolve these issues for yourself?
Dual relationship questions.
What were your thoughts and feelings, regarding being counselled by a fellow native at
a personal level? At a community level: What was it like for you when you would see
your counsellor out in the community? What did you think, feel and do (high visibility)?
What were your thoughts feeling, perception about trust/distrust.
What was your experience regarding being a fellow native person and at times being a
client?
What were your thoughts, actions, feeling (experiences) because you had two different
roles with this person? (Tell me about your actions, thought and feelings in role of

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client). (Tell me about your actions, thoughts and feelings in your role o f fellow
community member).
What was difficult?
What was and is your experience as to confidentiality?
What was comfortable about the experience?
Do you have any regrets about seeing this particular counselor?
What is your experience about?
Are you glad you saw this counselor? What is this about?
Would you see this or another counselor from home again why or why not?
What is it like for you now that you have shared personal information and this
counsellor has this information and will be in your community possibly forever? Do you
have any thoughts or feelings on this (power question)?
How was your experience different or unique because your counsellor was from your
community and not a stranger? Can you give me some examples?
Did you and your counsellor talk about what it is like to be fellow community member.
Did you and your counsellor talk about how you would approach you relationships
outside the counselling session?
How did you know the counsellor? Are you related?
What impact does it have on you that you know the counsellor and his or her family.?
What impact does it have on you that she or she knows not only you but your family and
family history?
How did it impact you that you knew that the counsellor would be seeing you and your
activities outside o f the counselling setting?
If you had a choice, would you prefer to have a First Nations counsellor who does not
know you and your family? ( why or why not)

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Would you prefer a counsellor that is not First Nations and who does not know your
family or would you prefer a first Nations counsellor who knows your family? (why or
why not.)
Or would you prefer a white person who does not know your family or a white person
who knows your family? (Why or why not).
What would the ideal counselor be like, for you in your community, could you tell me
your thoughts on this?
What was it about this person that you liked or did not like, when you saw them as a
counsellor.
What would have made this type of client/counsellor relationship better.
What would have made this client/counsellor relationships worse.
Are there other things that could have improved the situation for you as a client in this
situation and what are these?
What do you experience now in relation to this counsellor?
what do you wish would happen now in your relationship with this counsellor?