TRANSPORTATION SOLUTIONS FOR SMALL NORTHERN COMMUNITIES:
CYCLE COMMUTERS’ SATISFACTION WITH THE BUILT AND SOCIAL CYCLING
ENVIRONMENTS
by
Heather A. Mitchell
B.A., Emily Carr University of Art + Design, 2013

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
IN
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
July 2020
© Heather Mitchell, 2020

Supervisor:
Mark W. Groulx,
PH.D. Assistant Professor
School of Environmental Planning University of Northern British Columbia
Committee Members:
Taylor Bachrach,
Member of Parliament for Skeena—Bulkley Valley
Kyrke Gaudreau,
B.ENG, M.E.S., PH.D
Gary N. Wilson,
PH.D. Professor,
Department of Political Science
Coordinator, Northern Studies Program
University of Northern British Columbia
External Partners:
Richard Campbell,
Executive Director
British Columbia Cycling Coalition
Research Funding:
Pacific Institute for Climate Solutions Fellowship Award

iii

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... ix
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. x
Research Definitions & Terms .......................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Research Objectives ..................................................................................... 7
1.3 Research Questions ...................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Research Context & Literature Review ........................................................ 11
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Land Use, Urban Form & Mobility................................................................ 12
2.3 Cycling and Climate Emissions In Canada .................................................. 15
2.4 Cycling and Health in Canada ..................................................................... 20
2.5 Cycling Policy and Ridership in Canada ...................................................... 24
2.6 Cycling Satisfaction ..................................................................................... 28
Chapter 3: Methods .......................................................................................................... 38
3.1 Methodology: Case Study ........................................................................... 38
3.2 Case Study Selection Process .................................................................... 40
3.3 Survey Design ............................................................................................. 44
3.4 Participant Recruitment and Data Collection ............................................... 46
3.5 Participant Recruitment and Data Collection Limitations ............................. 50
3.6 Survey Data Analysis .................................................................................. 52
3.7 Map Digitization Process ............................................................................. 58
3.8 Policy Review Process ................................................................................ 59
Chapter 4: Results ............................................................................................................ 64
4.1 Characteristics of Survey Participants ......................................................... 64
4.2 Environmental Experiences of Survey Participants ..................................... 69
4.3 Cycling Maps: Prince George, Smithers, Whitehorse .................................. 71
4.4 Cyclists’ Interactions With the Natural Environment .................................. 107
4.5 Winter Season Cyclists (November to April) .............................................. 109
Chapter 5: Discussion .................................................................................................... 112
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 112
5.2 Cycling Satisfaction in Northern Communities ........................................... 114
5.3 Cycling Satisfaction in Prince George ....................................................... 124
5.4 Cycling Satisfaction in Smithers ................................................................ 130
5.5 Cycling Satisfaction in Whitehorse ............................................................ 135

iv

Chapter 6: Conclusions .................................................................................................. 142
6.1 Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Small and Large Northern
Communities..................................................................................................... 145
6.2 Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Prince George .................... 148
6.3 Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Smithers ............................. 150
6.4 Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Whitehorse ......................... 151
6.5 Parting Words ............................................................................................ 152
References ...................................................................................................................... 155
Appendix A ...................................................................................................................... 171
Appendix B ...................................................................................................................... 172
Appendix C ...................................................................................................................... 173
Appendix D ...................................................................................................................... 179
Appendix E ...................................................................................................................... 197
Appendix F ...................................................................................................................... 198
Appendix G ...................................................................................................................... 212

v

List of Figures
Figure 1. 800,000 Years of Carbon Dioxide. ............................................................... 8
Figure 2. Resource Review Hierarchy ...................................................................... 11
Figure 3. The Reverse Traffic Pyramid. .................................................................... 18
Figure 4. Winter Cycling in Prince George. ............................................................... 20
Figure 5. Winter Cycling in Smithers. ........................................................................ 21
Figure 6. Winter Cycling in Whitehorse. .................................................................... 21
Figure 7. Research Framework ................................................................................ 32
Figure 8. City Comparison and Profile, 2014. ........................................................... 34
Figure 9. Winter Cycling Survey Analysis Diagram demonstrates the statistical tests
performed in this case study. Concept and graphics developed by author. ....... 55
Figure 10. Case study Summer Comfort Descriptive Data ....................................... 58
Figure 11. Survey Participants Levels of Education .................................................. 67
Figure 12. Survey Participants Levels of Income ...................................................... 68
Figure 13. Prince George Summer & Winter Infrastructure Types ............................ 76
Figure 14. Prince George Cyclists’ Full Summer Routes .......................................... 80
Figure 15. Prince George Cyclists’ University Way Summer and Winter Routes ...... 81
Figure 16. Prince George Prince George Cyclists’ Downtown Winter Routes .......... 82
Figure 17. Smithers’ Summer & Winter Infrastructure Types .................................... 85
Figure 18. Smithers Cyclists’ Full Map Summer Routes ........................................... 89
Figure 19. Smithers Cyclists’ Yellowhead Highway Summer Winter Routes ............ 90
Figure 20. Smithers Cyclists’ Downtown Summer Routes ........................................ 91
Figure 21. Smithers Cyclists’ Downtown Winter Routes .......................................... 92
vi

Figure 22. Whitehorse Summer & Winter Infrastructure Types ................................. 95
Figure 23. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Full Summer Routes ............................................... 99
Figure 24. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Downtown Summer Routes .................................. 100
Figure 25. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Full Winter Routes ................................................. 101
Figure 26. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Winter MacIntyre Powerline Trail .......................... 102
Figure 27. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Downtown Winter Routes ...................................... 103
Figure 28. Whitehorse Intended Painted Buffers ..................................................... 107
Figure 29. Case Study Comparison of Winter Cyclists ............................................ 109
Figure 30. Case Study Cyclists Riding Per Month ................................................... 110
Figure 31. Prince George Fifth Avenue ................................................................... 125
Figure 32. Prince George Bicycle Storage Solutions ............................................... 126
Figure 33. Prince George Bike Lane Maintenance .................................................. 128
Figure 34. Prince George Bike Lane Obstacles ...................................................... 129
Figure 35. Smithers Bulkley River Bridge ................................................................ 133
Figure 36. Whitehorse Robert Campbell Bridge ...................................................... 137
Figure 37. City of Whitehorse Downtown Winter Cycling Route Map ...................... 138
Figure 38. Prince George Recommended Winter Route ......................................... 149
Figure 39. Smithers Recommended Winter Route .................................................. 151

vii

List of Tables
Table 1: Canadian Small and Large Cities that are Cycling

27

Table 2: Literature on Cycling Satisfaction

30

Table 3: Case Study Selection Context

40

Table 4. Canadian Small, Medium and Large City Populations

42

Table 5. Canada’s Highest Ranking Cycling Cities

42

Table 6. Case Study Winter Cycling Cities

43

Table 7. Literature Review of Cycling Policies and Policy Evaluation

62

Table 8. Case Study and Canadian Demographics

65

Table 9. Independent Variable ANOVA and ad hoc tests, Summer Comfort

71

Table 10. Case Study Descriptive Summer Cyclists

74

Table 11. Case Study Descriptive Winter Cyclists

75

Table 12. Prince George Frequently Cycled Summer & Winter Routes

78

Table 13. Prince George Survey Correlations Summer

83

Table 14. Prince George Survey Correlations Winter

84

Table 15: Smithers’ Frequently Cycled Summer & Winter Routes

87

Table 16. Smithers Survey Correlations Summer

93

Table 17. Smithers Survey Correlations Winter

94

Table 18. Whitehorse Frequently Cycled Summer & Winter Routes

98

Table 19. Whitehorse Survey Correlations Summer

104

Table 20. Whitehorse Survey Correlations Winter

104

Table 21. Case Study Cyclists’ Personal Attitudes

108

Table 22. Case Study Policy & Literature Review on Cycling Themes

113

Table 23. Case Study Findings Summary

145
viii

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest appreciation for my
thesis committee for their encouragement, enthusiasm and guidance throughout
this research process. Thank you to Dr. Groulx, who inspired a collegial
underpinning in this thesis development. Dr. Groulx has been instrumental in getting
me to where I am today. I would like to thank Dr. Kyrke Gaudreau for inspiring the
topic of winter cycling in smaller northern Canadian cities to research. I would also
like to credit Gaudreau for inspiring me to become a winter cyclist, and a passionate
cycling advocate. Dr. Gary Wilson showed me how vibrant northern living is a
celebrated natural wonder world-wide, and how winter culture is deeply intertwined
in the making of great places. Thank you Dr. Wilson for adding a human focus to
the topic of transportation in the north. Mayor Taylor Bachrach was incredibly
generous with his time and efforts to welcome my research into the community of. A
very special thank you goes out to Dr. Darwin Horning, who provided me with his
confidence to embark on unfamiliar research methods, trust my research instincts
and think in unfamiliar ways.
A great asset to this research was connection with the Prince George
Cycling Club, Smithers Mountain Biking Association, Cycle 16 Trail Society
Whitehorse Urban Cycling Coalition as well as the Whitehorse Contagious Mountain
Biking Club and their members, which provided a rich lens into life as a northern
bicycle commuter. Thank you Heather Sapergia for your sharing your urban cycling
knowledge, and fondness for this vibrant community. Richard Campbell, Director
the British Columbia Cycling Coalition was incredibly generous with knowledge
sharing and research support throughout this research. Of course, all of this could
not have been possible if it had not been for a gracious fellowship grant from the
Pacific Institute of Climate Solutions (PICS). Not only did PICS provide financial
support, but PICS additionally introduced me to a body of fellow climate researchers
throughout British Columbia that inspired a participatory way of thinking and
learning.
The past two and a half years devoted to the making of this thesis would not
have been the same if it were not for my incredibly talented, brilliant and supportive
network of friends both on campus and around the world, Bridget K, Rebecca D,
Danielle M, Jesi C, Mickey G, Paneena H, and Zoe M. My family members have
been instrumental in the journey of this thesis. My parent’s optimism and
appreciation for the outdoors has always been an inspiring force in my life, thank
you for sharing their passion. My brother David M has always been a firm believer in
me, and I am grateful for his guidance and support. This thesis could not have been
possible if it were not for my boyfriend Sam West. I would like to think that his drive
to learn endlessly. Scott Emmons, Sam West, James Goudreau and Megan Hickey
provided this study with a tremendous amount of labour in producing several
stunning maps for this thesis. Lastly, I dedicate this thesis to my dog Lucy, who sat
and bicycled beside me this entire journey. A second dedication goes out to all the
wonderful northern small city summer and winter cyclists and pedestrians who
demonstrate that actions speak louder than words.
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Abstract

Climate change is forcing northern cities to reconsider how people move
about in a manner that is safe, reliable, resilient, inclusive, and low-carbon. Despite
the growing knowledge of cycle planning and infrastructure for winter cities around
the world, there is little cycling studies for small rural winter cycling cities. How have
cyclists experienced northern cycling initiatives addressed to increase active travel in
their home communities? The literature available currently on both small and large
cycling cities studies overlooks the aspect of cyclist trip satisfaction and motivations
for cycling. This study aims to (1) determine the winter cycling policies for small rural
northern cycling communities in Canada, (2) determine the trip satisfaction and
motivation of cyclists in 3 case study communities in both summer and winter
months, and (3) better understand the cultural nuances and geographical
characteristics of theses communities that foster a positive cycling environment.

x

Research Definitions & Terms
Winter conditions: Temperatures of 0 degrees Celsius or colder with snow on the
ground (Pressman, 1989).
Winter season: Data from case study locations reflect winter conditions from
October to April (Environment, M, n.d.). All winter season statements in this thesis
refer to this definition.
Northern: The average winter temperature is below freezing (Pressman, 1989).
Small city: Population size 5,000 to 100,000 (Government of Canada, Population
Size Groups).
Cycle commute: Cycling for purposes other than recreational (to work, to school, to
grocery store, appointments, visit friends and family etc.) (Frank, 2003).
Summer cyclist: Referred to in this study as a cyclist that commutes in the months
of May, June, July, August, September and October. In many alpine as well interior
Canadian cities typically do not experience snow falls during these months.
Winter cyclist: Referred to in this study as a cyclist that commutes in the months of
November, December, January, February, March and April. In many alpine as well
interior Canadian cities still experience snow falls during these months.
Bicycle boulevard: Bicycle boulevards are streets with low motorized
traffic volumes and speeds designated and designed to give bicycle travel priority.
Bicycle boulevards use signs, pavement markings, and speed and volume
management measures to discourage through trips by motor vehicles and create
safe, convenient bicycle crossings of busy arterial streets (NACTO).
Conventional bicycle lane: A Bike Lane is defined as a portion of the that has been
designated by striping, signage, and pavement markings for the preferential or
exclusive use of bicyclists. Bike lanes enable bicyclists to ride at their preferred
speed without interference from prevailing traffic conditions and facilitate predictable
behavior and movements between bicyclists and motorists (NACTO).
xi

(Solid) painted bicycle lane: Similar design as the Conventional bicycle lane but
the entire path is painted with a high visibility colour, usually green or red. Coloured
pavement may be costly to maintain, especially in climates of snow and ice
(NACTO).
Painted bicycle intersections: A designated area at the head of a traffic lane at a
signalized intersection that provides bicyclists with a safe and visible way to get
ahead of queuing traffic during the red signal phase (NACTO).
Buffered bicycle lanes: Buffered bike lanes are conventional bicycle lanes
paired with a designated buffer space separating the bicycle lane from the adjacent
motor vehicle travel lane and/or parking lane. Provides greater distance between
motor vehicles and bicyclists (NACTO).
Protected bicycle lanes: A street level lane with physical protection from
passing traffic. May be combined with a parking lane or other barrier between the
cycle track and the motor vehicle travel lane. Prevents double-parking, unlike a bike
lane (NACTO).
Cycle tracks: Configured as a protected cycle track—at street level with a parking
lane or other barrier between the cycle track and the motor vehicle travel lane— and
provides separation from the adjacent motor vehicle lane (NACTO).
Raised cycle tracks: Raised cycle tracks are bicycle facilities that are
vertically separated from motor vehicle traffic. Many are paired with a furnishing zone
between the cycle track and motor vehicle travel lane and/or pedestrian area. A
raised cycle track may allow for one-way or two-way travel by bicyclists (NACTO).
Multi-use bike path: Multi-Use Paths provide recreational opportunities but may also
provide a direct commuter route in corridors not served by on-road bicycle facilities.
Designers should consider access and connectivity restrictions that may result if a
facility s only on one side of, and removed from, the roadway. Appropriate for both
experienced and inexperienced cyclists and, if permitted, other active transportation
users such as pedestrians, in-line skaters, skateboarders and wheelchair users
(Ontario Traffic Manual).
Bike & pedestrian overpass: (or foot bridge) A bridge. A bridge built where a
pedestrian route meets natural obstacles, such as rivers and gullies, or transportation
routes, such as city streets, railroads, or highways with heavy traffic. Footbridges
over railroad tracks are usually constructed at railroad stations. Access to footbridges
is usually provided by stairways with landings and, less often, by ramps (straight or
xii

curved) or escalator.
Bike & pedestrian underpass: A Pedestrian Underpass or Pedestrian Tunnel is a
specially constructed underpass for pedestrians and/or cyclists beneath a road or
railway, allowing them to reach the other side in safety.
Modal share: Modal share can be defined as the share of people using a particular
mode of transport (including cycling and walking) within the overall transport usage of
an urban area. Modal share can be calculated for passenger and freight (logistics)
transport based on different units, such as number of trips, volume, weight,
passenger-km or tonne-km. The modal share of different modes of transport is
typically displayed as a percentage value for each mode. Modal share can be
measured for specific trip types (e.g. journeys to work) or for the total of all journeys
taken in a city for a given period of time (PEP).
Low-density neighbourhoods: Contain single, semi-detached and mobile homes
and dwellings. Such dwellings are considered to be traditional suburban dwellings.
Specifically, low- density neighbourhoods are neighbourhoods in which at least
66.6% of the dwellings are traditional suburban dwellings (Government of Canada, S.
C. (2017d).
High-density neighbourhoods: Composed of apartment and condominium
buildings (whether high-rise or low-rise) and row houses. Such dwellings are
characteristic of traditional urban neighbourhoods. High-density neighbourhoods are
neighbourhoods in which less than 33.3% of the dwellings are traditional suburban
dwellings (Government of Canada, S. C. (2017d).

xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1

Overview
The purpose of this thesis is to provide knowledge regarding the

phenomenon of a growing winter cycling culture on many small Canadian cities. To
provide some context to how this thesis was formed, I will identify how cycle
commuting connects to climate change and the northern communities of British
Columbia. I will first describe the environmental and social affects vehicular
transportation has on individuals, communities and global society. I will then provide
a brief summary of some of the barriers facing clean transportation alternatives.
Lastly this chapter will state how this research may impact future policy decisions
provincially and federally.
Cycle commuting, a form of active transportation, has been recognized as
incredibly vital factor for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, local air pollution,
noise pollution and environmental disturbance (Lindsay et al., 2011). Many social
benefits have also been attributed to cycle commuting as an alternative to motorized
transportation, including increased mobility, increased sense of community,
increased physical health, increased mental health, and reduced personal financial
strain (Engwicht, 1993; Fuller & Winters, 2017). Bicycle transportation also has
additional benefits to local economies, contributing to roadway cost savings from
road repairs and construction, from reduced collisions, and improved efficiencies in
public transportation and parking allocation (Campbell & Wittgens, 2004).
Some of the main barriers that tend to discourage travellers from choosing
1

cycle commuting over motorized forms of transportation include perceived unsafe
conditions, unsafe bicycle infrastructure, long travel distances, physical health
limitations, a lack of knowledge and training about cycling operation, and lack of
supportive cycling culture (Harris, et at., 2013). The degree of influence these
barriers have on commuting choice may vary from person to person and place to
place. Developing policies and community infrastructure that reduce these barriers
may therefore have positive effects in increasing cycling ridership. Urban planning
efforts should recognize the variability of the knowledge cyclists’ and non-cyclists’
hold, and their existing comfort levels with different infrastructure types (Shirgaokar
& Gillespie, 2016).
National cycling studies have shown that many global cities that experience
winter conditions have demonstrated high percentages of cyclists year-round
(Pucher & Buehler, 2006; Bergström & Magnusson, 2003). These studies do not
include research on winter cycling in small northern Canadian cities. With limited
cycling studies addressing the small northern city context, it is a challenge for these
places to identify and implement the best suited cycling plans, infrastructure and
policy for a specific context. Large metropolitan cycling studies focus mainly on
cyclist counts before and after the construction of major infrastructure projects such
as cyclist bridges, protected bike lanes, cyclist-oriented intersections and snow
removal from cycle lanes (Harris et al., 2013; Ogilvie et al., 2011). Small northern
Canadian cities tend to display distinctive characteristics such as low traffic volumes,
larger road width allowances, and insufficient maintenance budgets (among other
factors), all of which combine to determine the effectiveness of cycling infrastructure
2

design (Litman, 2019; Noxon, 2009). However, the majority of current literature and
guides for designing active transportation focusses on medium to large cities rather
than small cities. Litman (2019) also stressed that rural communities are faced with
limited availability of alternative transportation funding and limited support for cycling
initiatives among local politicians. Innovation in cycling infrastructure advancements
such as heated bicycle paths in the Netherlands are reducing maintenance
requirements, are more environmentally friendly and more comfortable for cyclists
(Easypath, 2019). Yet, given the state of current research, it is uncertain what
personal, social and environmental factors motivate cyclists in small cities. The
results of this study help to inform more generalizable cyclist satisfaction findings
that could influence winter cycling decisions in medium to large cities as well as
small cities.
The three cities in this case study, Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse,
display many characteristics of a northern city. Prince George has been promoting
winter activities over the years, including Winterfest, hosting numerous BC Winter
Games, BC Special Olympics, hockey sports teams, as well as world class crosscountry ski and biathlon races. Annually, Prince George hosts a nationally
recognized “Cold Snap” outdoor musical festival during the coldest months of the
year, which draws a vibrant social scene. “Ranked one of Canada’s best winter
parties, Coldsnap is a volunteer-run, passion-driven winter music festival that
promises to pull you out of deep freeze.” (Take on PG, date unknown).
Prince George has successfully coined the slogan “Move Up PG” as a
marketing campaign targeted to promote the benefits of northern living in Prince
3

George. Many of the identified benefits include the enjoyment of beautiful winter
landscapes, numerous outdoor activities, as well as a social and warming culture.
Likewise, Smithers is well known as a winter tourism destination offering an intown
skiing destination, Hudson Bay Mountain Resort, with plenty of local snowshoeing
and dog sledding trails. Editor Matt J. Simmons explains this in a local Smithers
magazine, Northword, titled The Slow Season,
“But slowness isn’t easy... Thankfully, though, there
are things in life which are suited to slowing down…Winter
is one, for me anyway. Something about the hushed and
dark nature of northern winters speaks slowness to me. The
music I listen to changes with the seasons and winter is
deep, moody music, slow and measured, like the careful
steps of a climber on a mountain ridge. Long evenings lend
themselves to warm reading or a deck of cards. Short,
snowy days make for slow-paced excursions into the white
and shadowy environment… And all these slow moments—
whether a season’s worth or just this moment right now—
mean so much” (Simmons, 2018).
Whitehorse represents a Canadian city with some very extreme winter
climate conditions matched with some extreme winter enthusiasm, as phrased by L.
Lau, “Yukoners are very outdoorsy people. A city of 27,000 people has
approximately 300 members in their bike club. City of Whitehorse numbers show
that approximately [three quarters] of city residents use trails on a regular basis
whether for hiking, biking, snowshoeing, ski-joring or running” (2017, p. 2). A case
study from the Active transportation in Canada: a resource planning guide, highlights
the shift seen in travel behaviour from vehicle dependence to more sustainable
alternatives in the City of Whitehorse:
“Whitehorse’s car dependent mindset has been
changed. These actions have legitimized active
4

transportation travel choices that may not have seemed
popular before the campaigns. As a result, Whitehorse sees
itself as a city that values walking, cycling and public transit.
This has led to even more initiatives to increase active
transportation in Whitehorse because supporting active
transportation initiatives is now a politically smart move”
(Transport Canada, 2011, p. 19).
Whitehorse has cultivated a healthy outdoor summer and winter recreational
culture, including mountain biking, snow shoeing, hiking, walking, dog sledding, and
a general appreciation for the outdoors and winter culture. Their seasonal and yearround recreational trails have been shown to double well for cycle commuting for
those cyclists who are equipped with off-road and fat tire bicycles.
Compared to northern cities in Canada, winter cycling has been heavily
investigated in northern European cities of various sizes. Many early street and
highway concepts followed a “build wide” concept, which was believed to reduce
incidents, however opposite affects were recorded (Johansson, 2009). As
Johansson (Johansson, 2009, p. 828) has noted: “The result is an increase, by one
or two factors of 10, in the risks of severe personal injury or fatality, compared to the
Vision Zero design philosophy”.
Strøget St, Copenhagen, for instance, was once a street largely utilized by
vehicles and was converted into a car-free, pedestrian only street in the 1960s, in
large part due to the actions of cyclist unions (Goodyear, 2012). The removal of cars
has made Strøget and similar city streets safer for people, contributing to a new
cycling culture throughout Copenhagen. Indeed, street pedestrianization has
become popular throughout Europe, as seen in Arhus, Denmark in 1998 (Gehl,

5

2013) 1. Many European countries also implemented a Vision Zero strategy, which is
a national initiative to reduce pedestrian and cyclist deaths to zero, implemented
during the late 1990s. Such initiatives have spread, as Edmonton was the first city in
Canada to adopt and model a Vision Zero strategy in local government in 2015
(Government of Canada, 2018).
A Canadian Cycling Strategy would be beneficial to many provinces,
metropolitan centres, and rural communities as Canadian health care costs and
infrastructure costs are rising, as are Critical Air Contaminants (CAC) and
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and traffic congestion (Canada Bikes, 2016). To
this end, Canada Bikes has developed a National Cycling Strategy Overview (2016),
which outlines some of the necessary groundwork for developing a National Cycling
Strategy. To summarize, key efforts would include:
•

Benchmarking current usage of bicycles throughout Canadian cities in order
to set realistic growth targets and measure success.

•

Strategic policy development and planning, as well as a better understanding
of how federal government ministries and agencies, provinces, municipalities,
first nations will contribute knowledge and guidance to the strategy.

•

Capital cycling infrastructure investments and funding frameworks for urban
networks, regional networks, Trans Canadian trails, river and rail crossings,
end of trip facilities, and wayfinding.

•

Capacity research on knowledge mobilizers such as NGO’s, schools, industry

1 Other pedestrian only streets that can be experienced around the world include; Rue Mouffetard,
Paris, France; Carnaby Street, London, England; Qianmen Streer, Beijing, China; Flower Street,
Curitiba Brazil; Buchanan Street, Glasgow, Scotland; Cat Street, Tokyo, Japan; Lincoln Road, Miami,
Florida; Via Dante, Milan, Italy and Third Street, Los Angeles, California (CityLab, 2012).

6

associations, and community groups, which will help to deliver cycling
programs.
•

Infrastructure design knowledge that includes the Vision Zero objective and is
specific to a vast range of cities, geography and climate, as well as inclusive
to all-ages-and-abilities.

•

A better understanding of cycling in relation to the economy, its effects on
increased worker productivity, local economic benefits, and reduced financial
strain on families and individuals.

•

Research to determine how cycling will contribute to transit users first and last
mile.

1.2

Research Objectives
The main goal of this research is to better understand the factors that

influence cyclists who regularly commute by bike in small northern cities. Noncyclists (those who commute regularly by other active transportation forms, public
transportation or personal vehicle) were not considered in this research. Through a
series of case studies, this research attempts to reveal which factors small northern
cities may be able to leverage to support growing cycling ridership and which factors
may be less successful in growing cycle ridership. To support this objective, cyclist
data were collected using a survey to examine the desirable and undesirable
interactions cyclists in Prince George, Smithers, and Whitehorse have experienced
while commuting in their hometowns.
Increasing knowledge of reported cycling satisfaction within communities
7

can inform local government decisions in regard to cyclist infrastructure that
promotes year-round use. [An increase of year-round cycling in Canada will lessen
the impact of trips taken by automobile, and in turn reduce transportation
greenhouse gas emissions]. The outcomes of this research could possibly influence
winter cycling policy decisions in medium to large cities as well as small cities.

Figure 1. 800,000 Years of Carbon Dioxide.
Source: Luthi et al. (2008).
An indirect goal of this research is to contribute to efforts to further extend
cycling as an alternative mobility solution that reduces greenhouse gas emissions
and lessens the impact of the current climate crisis. Efforts targeted towards climate
mitigation include both carbon removal and carbon reduction and are key as in 2019
carbon dioxide concentrations in the earth’s atmosphere reached over 400 parts per
million, as shown in Figure 1. This is the highest recorded level of atmospheric CO2
in history (Luthi et al., 2008 & Climate Central n.d.).
8

1.3

Research Questions
In order to best address the objectives above, a case study was devised

with a specific research inquiry. This case study method gets to the root of why,
when, how, and what may have effect on summer and winter cycling in small
northern communities (Feagin, 1991). The three research questions guiding this
thesis are:
1. What are the policies and plans associated with summer and
winter cycling in small northern Canadian cities?
2. How do cyclists reflect on the interactions they have with the
built, social, and natural environments while cycle
commuting in their communities?
3. Are the cycle transportation policies, plans, programs and
infrastructure reflective of the users preferred experiences
(with these elements) (a.) during the summer months? And
(b.) during the winter months?

Determining winter cycling satisfaction in a small northern Canadian case
study in this thesis will take form through the following five chapters of this thesis.
Chapter two explores existing literature in the field of winter cycling satisfaction in
Canada and globally and establishes the kinds of literature reviewed for the purpose
of data analysis and the cross sectional comparisons made in this thesis. Chapter
two also highlights the growing phenomenon of winter cycling taking place in British
9

Columbia and across Canada. [Chapter two provides the theory behind this study
and reviews studies with a focus on policy review and/or cyclist happiness. Chapter
three further explains the intention behind a three city comparative case study and
how the cities were chosen for this thesis]. Chapter three discusses the steps in
which information (survey design, policy analysis, data analysis) was synthesized for
the purposes of this thesis. Chapter four will present key results from the survey
determining comfort levels across communities and ultimately satisfaction, including;
survey participant descriptive, cyclists’ comfort ratings, cycling policies, cyclists’
route maps, the correlations of cycling barriers as well as cyclists’ experiences with
the natural environment. Chapter four also covers descriptive, qualitative data
collected from the surveys to better explain how cyclist participants feel about the
built, social and natural environments. Chapter five of this thesis further describes
the implications of correlative data outcomes as well as key findings from the survey.
Lastly, Chapter six will provide some concluding thoughts from the author and
summarize the key lessons attained from this study, key northern small city cycling
planning recommendations as well as future research possibilities to expand the
outcomes of this thesis.

10

Chapter 2: Research Context & Literature Review
2.1

Introduction
This chapter begins with an overview of literature covering topics of cycling

policies, cyclist satisfaction and reports on cycling environments. The focus then
narrows further to studies on specific municipal policy analysis to reveal existing
policies, strategic plans and bylaws, or the absence of stated documents created for
bicycle transportation in each case study. The focus of the literature review was
defined in part to guide the collection and interpretation of data from the research
survey. The literature review process for this thesis can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Resource Review Hierarchy
Created by Author.

11

2.2

Land Use, Urban Form & Mobility
To better understand mobility choices among British Columbians and

Canadians, we need to become familiar with the physical environments that both
support and discourage the various models of transportation. Today new models of
urban planning support walkable neighbourhoods with short distances to homes,
services and jobs that do not require a vehicle for every trip (Alexander & Tomalty,
2002). Many Canadians are recognizing the impacts of personal mobility, such as
the production of GHG emissions, and are requesting that local governments
provide more sustainable transportation alternatives (Forman, 2019). The BC
Recreation and Parks Association and the Union of BC Municipalities have codelivered a Community Planning Grant program that has provided funding to
numerous active transportation projects.
The bigger the community, the more transportation choices are available to
residents. Medium sized BC cities (such as Kamloops) offer more sophisticated
transportation networks and typically have more funding allocated for transportation
improvements compared to smaller sized BC communities. Smaller communities
tend to be more self reliant in terms of mobility. Bus services in small cities are also
less efficient due to low ridership and greater distances to cover. In such situations,
bus and train services and cycle commuting can complement one another as bikes
bring more passengers to bus stops from areas outside of a walkable distance to
bus stop locations (Transport Canada, 2011). Buses also provide cyclists with an
alternative transportation method on occasions when a bicycle needs maintenance,
or weather is unfavorable (Sadeghpour, et al., 2015). The bicycle in this sense can
12

bring residents out of isolation. In the case of northern BC, for instance, many
residents in Telkwa are attracted to the lower house prices or larger land parcels
(compared to the nearby community of Smithers), and opt to live in a more rural
setting and commute to Smithers for work or amenities. Insufficient local and
regional transportation services in rural and small towns like Telkwa can contribute to
isolation as residents have to rely on themselves for all transportation (Davis, 2003;
Dodson & Sipe, 2007; Ryser & Halseth, 2010). As one researcher has observed:
“the remoteness and distance between rural and small town places may mean that
commuting is not a realistic option (as weather conditions in the north are
unpredictable, or un-expected vehicle break-downs)” (Lindsay et al., 2003, as cited
in Ryser & Halseth, 2010, p. 12). The provincial government has recognized these
barriers by providing more public transportation opportunities such as BC Bus North
and the Hwy 16 BC Transit service, both of which are equipped with bicycle carriers.
Despite these efforts, these services still do not meet the daily requirements of many
northern residents traveling along highway corridors (Hainsworth, 2018).
Canada’s history of dependence on private vehicle transportation has
supported a culture of high emission mobility by developing car-dependent
neighbourhoods that, among other things, accommodate vehicle mobility by
ensuring parking for multiple vehicles (Gordon, 2018). Indeed, more than two thirds
of Canada’s total population lives in suburbs, while only 15% of Canada’s population
growth between 2006-2016 occurred in more sustainable active cores or transit
suburbs (Gordon, 2018). Despite this, many Canadians are in support of active
transportation infrastructure, and are calling for municipalities to invest in new,
13

healthier transportation networks. The Federal Active Transportation Coalition, for
instance, recommends that the federal government invest $270 million per year over
three years to support active transportation infrastructure (Federal Active
Transportation Coalition, 2016). The city designed for a car restricts natural human
movement and spontaneous social interactions. These environments are designed
with great distances between destinations so that no trip can be made by foot or
bicycle. In 2016, Canadian workers commuted a median distance of 7.7 km oneway (Government of Canada, 2017). This distance is significantly above the average
pedestrian’s range of desirable walking distance of a quarter mile (0.4 km) (Yang &
Diez-Roux, 2012). Traffic flow is designed to move quickly and accommodate large
numbers of vehicles, taking up more space for asphalt and parking spaces.
Beyond the barriers of the man-made environment exists further challenges
are presented by mountainous landscapes, a common characteristic of communities
in the British Columbia and Alberta Rocky Mountain Range. Geography was a
significant factor in deciding the case study locations included in this research. Large
land formations such as rivers and mountains can have a substantial impact on
shaping urban development. City growth influenced by the local geography is
typically classified as dynamic growth which is characterized with outward expansion
in the directions of most favourable conditions (Batty, 1994). The foothills of
mountain slopes create a framing effect which defines a city’s boundary, influencing
densification and infill of the population center (Batty, 1994).
Other geographical obstacles for active transportation users include rivers
and large bodies of water which may create barriers between community
14

neighbourhoods. Smithers BC, for example, was introduced along the Canadian
Pacific Railway in a valley sheltered by the Hudson Bay Mountain and confined by
the Bulkley River. These landforms create a confining boundary around the
community and resulted in a dense downtown core (Town of Smithers, 2018).
Development policies referred to collectively as Smart Growth attempt to replicate
the dense urban environment by encouraging infill development, promoting mixed
land uses, taking advantage of compact building designs, supporting a range of
transportation options and preserving open space (Roseland, 2012). The application
of these development strategies is increasingly common within more sustainable
communities and seeks to foster a human scale environment that is welcoming to
pedestrians and cyclists (Condon et al., 2011).

2.3

Cycling and Climate Emissions in Canada
Efforts to transition from fossil fuel dependent transportation to more

sustainable energy sources have become a growing trend globally and in British
Columbia. Much of British Columbia’s current efforts to reduce fossil fuel
dependency have targeted the promotion and growth of electric vehicle use
(Government of British Columbia, 2016). Electric vehicles have the potential to
provide new means for transportation that rely on a cleaner energy source, reduce
vehicle pollution, and provide a greater range of fuel options to the traveling public. A
brief Toyota Canada Ipsos poll conducted from May 3 to 6, 2019 illustrates this
potential, with over half (52%) of the survey sample (n = 2005) stating that they are
likely (17% very likely / 35% somewhat likely) to buy a more fuel-efficient vehicle in
15

the next five years (Simpson, 2019). The requirement for establishing an electric
vehicle system in BC requires hydro-energy development, electric vehicle
manufacturing, hydro-fuel cell development, and vehicle imports. These processes
may have additional environmental and cultural impacts for consideration in
determining the overall sustainability of electric vehicles.
While the Canadian vehicle market improves the affordability and variety of
options, many travelers may be looking for a more immediate solution. Cycling is a
simple alternative for reducing automobile emissions and incorporating physical
activity within utilitarian purposes. It is estimated, for instance, that shifting 5% of
vehicle kilometres to cycling would reduce vehicle travel by approximately 223
million kilometres each year, saving about 22 million litres of fuel and reducing
transport-related greenhouse emissions by 0.4% (Lindsay, et al. 2011). Similarly, a
study by Bergström (2003) found that improving winter maintenance service on
cyclist routes could increase winter bicycle use by as much as 18%, while
decreasing the number of car trips by 6%. The potential to generate mode shift
toward sustainable transport illustrates why the planning for cycling should begin to
include winter usage as a strategy to reduce private vehicle transportation
dependency within Canada. In recognition, the BC Government stated:
“[i]n future community plans it is important to recognize that
the transportation sector must focus on supporting
interconnected communities and the efficient movement of
goods and people… that improve our air quality… and
working to guide the development of safe and reliable
transportation infrastructure that is built to withstand extreme
weather” (Government of British Columbia, 2016, p.18).
16

Within the literature on climate mitigation, studies look at how we can create
cleaner fuels to burn in transportation vehicles, thus reducing emissions, as well as
methods to remove carbon dioxide from our atmosphere (Levin et al., 2012). While
climate mitigation helps limit the effects CO2 is having on the climate and planet,
there are numerous other chemicals such as methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated
gases that are also released as a result of motor vehicle transportation and that are
equally harmful (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2017). Actions that
employ reactional problem solving to remove carbon from the atmosphere use a
backward approach that does not promote pollution mitigation by controlling
demand. Arguably, a simpler and forward thinking approach is to stop producing
carbon emissions in the first place, which relies on behavioural changes, and a
systematic change to thinking about mobility (Thunberg, 2019). Sixteen year-old
Swedish environmentalist, Greta Thunberg, sparked a world-wide school climate
strike illustrating this imperative. Thunberg shared her perspective with the audience
members from the TED stage in Stockholm Sweden, stating that:
“Some people say that I should study to become a
climate scientist so that I can "solve the climate
crisis." But the climate crisis has already been solved.
We already have all the facts and solutions [solar
panels, wind power, circular economy]. All we have to
do is to wake up and change… We've had 30 years
of pep-talking and selling positive ideas. And I'm
sorry, but it doesn't work. Because if it would have,
the emissions would have gone down by now. They
haven't.” (Thunberg, 2019).

17

Figure 3. The Reverse Traffic Pyramid.
Source: Bicycle Innovation Lab. 2017.
The choice to adopt cycling as a main means of transportation can have a
direct correlation with GHG reduction, particularly if a bicycle is replacing a single
occupant personal vehicle; although positive impacts are also realized when
replacing trips by multi passenger motorized vehicles (Lindsay, 2011). As mode
switches from walking or any other mode of active transportation to cycling will not
reduce GHGs (these modes are already zero emissions) cycling policy can have its
largest impact on GHG reduction when single occupancy vehicle users, car sharing
users, taxis and transport vehicles, and public transit users are targeted for changing
commuting behaviour, as illustrated in Figure 3. Although recreational forms of
cycling such as mountain biking and road cycling have been shown to increase the
uptake of utilitarian uses of bicycles, the act of recreation cycling does not have any
18

impact on the reduction of GHGs produced by transportation because it does not
replace carbon producing commuter trips (Gardner, 1998). Importantly, Gardner
(1998) shows that many people who currently cycle for commuting purposes claim
that recreational cycling encouraged them to try cycling to work, and that cycling for
fun fosters or preserves a cycling habit (Gardner, 1998). At the same time,
recreational cycling in many instances requires vehicle transportation of a rider and
bike to trail heads and race starts, while resort mountain biking has further
environmental impacts associated with fuel or electric powered chair lifts, all
resulting in additional GHG emissions (Lumsdon, 2000).
Promoting cycling satisfaction and uptake as an alternative mode of
transportation is important as private transportation accounts for 38% of British
Columbia’s total greenhouse gas emissions (British Columbia Ministry of
Environment, 2012). On a per-capita basis, Victoria (1.8 tonnes of carbon emissions)
and Metro Vancouver (2.0 tCO2e) have the lowest private vehicle emissions or
vehicle kilometers travelled (Government of British Columbia, 2007), while the top
emitting regions include the Peace River (4.4 tCO2e), Stikine (4.2 tCO2e), Cariboo,
Bulkley-Nechako (4.0 tCO2e), East Kootenay (3.9 tCO2e) and Fraser-Fort George
(3.8 tCO2e)” (Herbert, 2011, p. 16). Rates of vehicle emissions are tied to consumer
preferences, and “[b]etween 1981 and 2003, Canadian sales of sport utility vehicles
grew from 13,000 to 331,634 units, making up 18% of the market sales of all lightduty vehicle manufacturing” (Potoglou, 2008). A vehicle-type choice and
neighbourhood characteristics study conducted in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada further
found that car ownership was the highest in the city centre, whereas purchases of
19

light-duty trucks were more intense in suburban/rural areas (Potoglou, 2008).
Reduced vehicle emissions will have subsequent health benefits for local residents
and a large portion of Canadians.
2.4

Cycling and Health in Canada
Key literature in this section identifies how cycling tendencies are affected by

the built environment, natural environment, as well as personal and social
influences. Two parts to this section break down themes of influences more broadly,
and then identify where further research and data collection are needed. A full list of
the literature reviewed can be seen in Appendix A. As noted above, it was evident
that few studies were available with regard to small city winter cycling. The majority
of Canadian winter cycling research has reflected studies within medium to large
sized urban centers. The intended applications of small and large winter city cycling
studies caters to city planning decisions, transportation engineering, as well as
health research. Winter cycling conditions and environments in Prince George,
Smithers and Whitehorse can be seen in Figures 4, 5 and 6.

Figure 4. Winter Cycling in Prince George.
Photo credit: Evelyn, 2011.
20

Figure 5. Winter Cycling in Smithers.
Photo credit: Cooper, 2018.

Figure 6. Winter Cycling in Whitehorse.
Photo credit: City of Whitehorse, n.d.
Cycle commuting has contributed to positive health outcomes according to
many studies (Fuller & Winters, 2017; Frank et al., 2003; Garrard & Hakman, 2006;
Hillman, 1993; Lindsay et al., 2011; and Ogilvie et al., 2011). The physical health
benefits of cycling are important, as physical inactivity is a growing global concern,
and is often associated with longer hours spent indoors at work and at schools
(Federal Active Transportation Coalition, 2016). While there are many options to
address inactivity, cycling can optimize physical fitness by eliminating the need for
21

organized sports in leisure time. It also builds health into one’s daily routine while
also reducing physical, economic, and cultural barriers to a healthy lifestyle
(Laeremans et al., 2017). Moreover, cycling is a suitable form of exercise that fits
many skill levels and types of cyclists. As Frank et al (2003, p. 65) have noted: “For
those who are elderly, infirm, overweight or obese, or sedentary, walking and
bicycling are appealing because the exertion threshold to participate is much lower
than vigorous activities”. The BC Alliance for Healthy Living published a northern
transportation case study “Communities on the Move” which argues the importance
of the need to “develop and support the implementation of Winter City Guidelines
that give residents the opportunity to be active all year long (n.d.). This should
include operational measures such as snow-clearing for active transportation
networks and improved winter road maintenance” (Alliance, 2007).
In addition to the direct physical health benefits of cycling, reducing the
number of cars on the road by enabling cycling can contribute to improved local air
quality by reducing the effects of vehicular emissions that are linked to the cause of
several health issues (Lindsay & Woodward, 2011). Exposure to poor air quality has
been linked to increased rates of allergies and asthma, low birth weight,
atherosclerosis, poor lung development in children, lung cancer, and ear infections
(BC Lung Association, 2008). Moreover, the Canadian Medical Association (2008)
estimates that 17,500 deaths annually result from long-term exposure to pollution.
Vehicle off-gasses become even more harmful to personal health in the winter, when
colder ambient temperatures increase the emission rates for some pollutants and
concentrate emissions near the ground when temperature inversions occur (British
22

Columbia Ministry of Environment, 2018). A Health Canada study conducted from
2014 to 2015 in Prince George assessed whether the Air Quality Health Index
(AQHI) accurately predicted health risks by monitoring respiratory indicators during
indoor and outdoor exercise. The study findings suggested that “older adults living in
smaller cities like Prince George benefited from daily light outdoor physical activity,
but may also benefit from reducing outdoor activity when the AQHI is particularly
high, in order to reduce short term adverse effects on the heart and lungs” (BC Lung
Association, 2018).
In addition to the individual health co-benefits, cycling could reduce the costs
to the Canadian health system, as “the associated healthcare costs [of inactive
lifestyles] exceed $2 billion [annually] in Canada” (Katzmarzyk, 2000, p.40). A similar
cost benefit study from the New Zealand Ministry of Transport using the Value of a
Statistical Life tool determined that fatalities and the health effects of a 5% increase
in cyclist commuters would allot to savings of about $200 million per year (Lindsay et
al., 2011). Likewise, a cost analysis study from Sustrans (a leading UK
transportation charity) showed that every euro spent on creating pedestrian and
cyclist environments generated benefits of up to thirty-two euros through reduced
travel times, reduced accidents, improved ambiance, and physical fitness (Cope et
al., 2010).
In 2018, eight cyclists died as a result of motor vehicle incidents in British
Columbia (British Columbia Coroners Service, 2018), while there were 36 cyclist
fatalities nationally in 2017 (Government of Canada, 2017). The Government of
Canada (2017) reported that “the year 2017 saw a decrease in the number of
23

fatalities, serious injuries, and total injuries in cyclists and pedestrians, [since] the
early 1970's”. Although cyclists risk vehicle collision injuries and exposure to vehicle
emissions, the benefits of cycling have been shown to outweigh the risks, especially
when such risks are mitigated through environmental design (Hillman, 1993). A
study from Harris et al. (2013) found that environmental features such as cycle
tracks, local streets, and traffic diverters that separated cyclists from other modes of
traffic, in combination with enforcing lower travel speeds, were associated with
significantly lower injury risk to cyclists. Accommodating cyclists is also a far more
cost effective strategy to reduce traffic congestion than approaches that increase
road access for vehicles. According to Transport Canada’s Guide to Active
Transportation in Canada, “widening a road to accommodate a new bike lane costs
$20,000-$150,000 per km compared to an average $1.3 million per km to widen a
two lane urban arterial road to four lanes” (Federal Active Transportation Coalition,
2016).
2.5

Cycling Policy and Ridership in Canada
Very few Canadian cities with populations between 5,000 to 100,000 people

have existing bicycle and pedestrian networks due to the lack of resources and
funding available to small northern communities (Litman, 2019). Although Canada
does not yet have a national cycling strategy, many Canadian provinces have
developed provincial cycling strategies, including CycleON in Ontario, as well as
various municipal active transportation plans, and design guidelines. Pucher and
Buehler (2012) also state that if a city wishes to increase its cycling presence, the
24

best strategy is to apply a multi-tactic approach of infrastructure provisions,
promotional programs, and land use policies. Many European countries have
implemented national cycling strategies and created significant budgets to support
bicycling infrastructure and programs.
Reflective of the need for a multi-tactic approach, there are many studies
linked to the success of winter cycling as a result of built infrastructure, snow
removal programs, and education with respect to cyclists’ decision to cycle commute
in the winter months (Babin, 2014; Bergstrom & Magnusson, 2003; Fisher, 2014;
Sirgaokar & Gillespie, 2016; Pratte, 2011; Pressman,1989; Willis, et al., 2013).
Masoud (2015) performed a Canada-wide study that identified civic practises and
infrastructure as well as snow removal policies. Among the case studies, Whitehorse
was identified as a community dedicated to accommodating cyclists year round by
providing a downtown winter maintained cyclist route. Likewise, Edmonton, Calgary,
Kelowna, Ottawa, Toronto and Whistler all stated that cycling paths had equal
priority for snow removal as the adjacent vehicle lanes. The full details of snow
removal policies performed in Masoud’s study can be found in Appendix B.
However, due to the lack of winter cycling studies in Canada, there are few reported
precedents that reveal the effectiveness of winter cycling policies in Canadian
literature.
Although a multi-tactic approach is arguably the best method to enable
increases in cycle commuting, many of the metropolitan centres in Canada shown in
Table 1 demonstrate a growth in cycling percentages (Government of Canada, S.
C., 2017). This may be due to the creation of cycling plans. However, this is not
25

always the case, as many of the small Canadian cities in Table 1, such as
Revelstoke, BC, Stewart, BC, Golden, BC, Revelstoke, BC, or Banff, AB, have high
numbers of cyclists despite having few cycling policies. High growth cycling cities
with a journey to work by bike mode greater than 1% can be seen in Table 1.

26

Table 1: Canadian Small and Large Cities that are Cycling
Large Canadian Cities

Cycling as main mode of
transportation to work

Cyclist growth from
2006 to 2016

6%
4%
3%
4%

65%
63%
59%
23%

11%
2%
3%
2%
1%
1%
2%
2%
1%

16%
14%
13%
0%
0%
0%
-19%
-20%
-23%

1%

-41%

Cycling as main mode of
transportation to work

Cyclist growth from
2006 to 2016

Vancouver
Montreal
Toronto
Kelowna
Victoria
Calgary
Ottawa
Winnipeg
Halifax
Hamilton
Saskatoon
Kingston
Kitchener
Thunder Bay
Small Canadian
Cities
Revelstoke, BC
Golden, BC
Squamish, BC
Pemberton, BC
Stewart, BC
Whistler, BC
Terrace, BC
Nelson, BC
Fernie, BC
Jasper, AB
Banff, AB
Smithers, BC
Whitehorse, BC
Prince George, BC

15%
10%
4%
4%
11%
10%
3%
5%
9%
23%
10%
5%
3%
1%

174%
137%
128%
95%
88%
65%
63%
50%
29%
28%
22%
10%
7%
-17%

Note: From “Commuting Destination (5)” by Government of Canada, S. C. (2017d).

The high number of cyclists per capita in these small Canadian cities may
have ties to aging populations, lower income, and high-density housing, as all are
27

factors that tend to be linked to higher cycling rates (Pucher, 2012). Likewise, these
communities are seeing an economic decline due to reduced number of resource
dependant industries, which has resulted in fewer jobs, lower incomes, aging
populations, and a requirement for more accessible and affordable transit options
(Condon, 2011). Rural areas and First Nations reserve lands within British Columbia
also have a higher proportion of low-income households and are thus seeking more
economic transportation alternatives (Condon, 2011). Importantly, while many of the
small cities listed in Table 1 have not implemented policies specific to cycling, some
have developed active transportation plans supported by recent funding from the
Built Environment and Active Transportation Community Grant Program that was in
effect between 2008 and 2010 (Fisher, 2014). From a winter cycling perspective, it
should be noted that the cities listed in Table 1 display a range of climate severities,
demonstrating that low temperature records do not directly translate to low ridership
in these cities. However, the findings of Winters et al. (2007), contradict this
conclusion. In their research, a comparison of cycling rates in medium to large winter
cities around the world determined that cities with higher numbers of days with
freezing temperatures and precipitation generally reported lower cycling rates.

2.6

Cycling Satisfaction
Cycling policy, programs and infrastructure shape conditions that cyclists

experience in their community, and it is important to understand how such factors
influence cycling satisfaction. The remainder of the literature review provides general
insights into what makes cyclists happy in urban metropolitan centers. Willis et al’s
28

(2013) research further extends the work of Alfozo (2005), which examined the
hierarchical needs for a well-suited walking environment. The combination of these
studies forms a great basis with which to examine personal values, behaviors, and
interests (Willis et al., 2013). Only a few Canadian studies have collected data on
cyclists’ perceptions of infrastructure, programs, and policies in a winter context
(Bergström & Magnusson, 2003; Shirgaokar & Gillespie, 2016; St-Louis et al., 2014;
Willis et al., 2013. Table 2 provides a summary of this literature, and themes
explored in each paper.

29

Table 2: Literature on Cycling Satisfaction
Title

Planning

Policy

Health

Infrastructure

Attitudes

X

-

-

X

X

-

-

X

X

X

X

-

X

X

-

X

X

X

X

X

-

X

-

-

-

X

X

X

X

-

X

X

-

-

X

Canadian

X

Winter

Small City

Themes

Cycling

Author

Cyclists’ Satisfaction
Bergström, &
Magnusson,
2003
Shirgaokar, &
Gillespie,
2016

St-Louis, et
al., 2014
Willis, et al.,
2013

Potential of
transferring car trips
to bicycle during
winter.
Exploring user
perspectives to
increase winter
bicycling mode share
in Edmonton,
Canada.
The happy commuter.
A comparison of
commuter satisfaction
across modes.
Uniquely satisfied.

Environments
Fisher, 2014
Fisher, 2015

Pratte, 2011
Shirgaokar, &
Gillespie,
2016.

Cebe, 2014
Pucher, &
Buehler, 2007

Cycling in winter.
Local government
success stories,
active transportation
planning in BC.
Mainstreaming
bicycling in winter
cities. 2011.
Exploring user
perspectives to
increase winter
bicycling mode share
in Edmonton,
Canada.
Winter bike lane
maintenance.
At the frontiers of
cycling.
30

X

X

X

-

X

X

-

X

-

X

X

X

X

-

-

X

X

-

X

X

X

-

X

X

-

X

-

X

-

-

-

-

-

-

X

X

X

X

X

-

X

X

-

X

-

X

X

-

-

X

X

X

X

-

An extensive literature review, summarized in Table 2, was unable to identify
any studies that have examined why cyclists commute by bike in small northern
communities and what makes them satisfied with their commutes. Collecting small
northern city cyclists’ satisfaction data through surveys provided insight into whether
winter cycling satisfaction differs from small to large Canadian cities. Willis et al.
(2013) created a research framework to summarize overall cyclists’ levels of
satisfaction based on the following external factors: built environment; natural
environment; and trip characteristics. Internal factors considered by the authors
included the following: socio-economical; demographics; values; perspectives; and
attitudes (see Figure 7).

2.6.1 Built & Natural Environmental Factors that Influence Satisfaction
Previous studies have shown that high density mixed-use developments
support significantly higher rates of active transportation, while low density
neighbourhood design encourages car use (Sallis et al., 2013; Cerevo, 1996; Ewing
& Cerero, 2010; Cao, Mokhtarian, & Handy, 2009). Based on research conducted by
Turcotte using the 2005 Canadian General Social Survey, it was noted that over 80%
of residents of neighbourhoods in suburban-type housing drove their car at least
once a day, compared to 50% of the residents living in very high-density
neighbourhoods (2008). By contrast, other studies have shown that high density
does not necessarily correlate with high cycling percentages, as “city-level population
variables (population, percentage of students, and population density) were not
significant determinants of utilitarian cycling in hierarchical models” (Winters et al.,
31

2007, p. 56). Urban on-road and off- road winter cycling infrastructure has also been
shown to improve cyclists’ satisfaction. As Yang and Diez-Roux (2012, p. 9) have
observed: “the lack of supportive infrastructure might limit the willingness of people to
take up cycling, particularly in areas without established cycling culture”. This is
especially true for winter cycling, as the perceived hazards of cycle commuting in
snow and on ice is much higher.

Figure 7. Research Framework
“Determining Cyclist Satisfaction in Small Canadian
Cities”. Concept by Willis et al. Concept and graphic developed
by the author.

32

In addition to the presence of cycling infrastructure, Willis et al. (2013)
identify distance, slope, land use, density, and connectivity as important factors to
consider in terms of external barriers. Cyclists also have a greater exposure to the
elements compared to other road users, which is why weather is often a
consideration when determining cyclist satisfaction (Babin, 2014). Brandenburg et al.
(2007) concluded that cyclists’ perceptions of weather are different among riders and
will be interpreted differently for various personal reasons, with certain groups such
as students being less deterred by bad weather. Thomas et al. (2009) also noted that
different types of cyclists have varying sensitivities to weather conditions. For
instance, utilitarian cyclists are less affected by bad weather in comparison to
recreational cyclists. Brandenburg et al. (2007) state that a cyclist will consider
weather conditions as far back as 6 days when making transportation mode choices,
while Miranda-Moreno & Nosal (2011) note that variability in weather throughout the
course of a day can influence satisfaction or the decision to commute by bicycle.
Importantly, year-round cycling is becoming a more globally accepted form of
winter transportation (see Figure 8). The profile shown in Figure 8 was constructed
by Fisher (2014) as a method to compare varying scales of winter weather and
corresponding city cycling rates. Each of these winter cities have developed
extensive cycling transportation networks that are maintained for cycling year-round.
Oulu, Finland, in particular, is world renowned for winter cycling due to its network of
cyclist friendly infrastructure, bike lane snow removal policies, and normalized
attitude towards this form of transportation. Oulu is frequently referenced when
discussing winter cycling because of its high peak season and low season cyclist
mode share percentages.
33

Figure 8. City Comparison and Profile, 2014.
Image Source: Fisher, 2014, p. 3.

2.6.2

Social Environmental Factors that Influence Satisfaction

As noted above, the social environment is considered a key factor in cycling
satisfaction according to several authors (St-Louise, 2014; Bergström & Magnusson,
2003; Shirgaokar & Gillespie, 2016; Willis et al., 2013). Indeed, research suggests
that travel behaviour is influenced by both the external and internal environment (StLouise, 2014; Bergström & Magnusson, 2003; Shirgaokar & Gillespie, 2016; Willis et
al., 2013). Van Acker (2016), for instance, studied several factors including: socio
demographics, personality, attitudes, preferences, family upbringing, and habits, and
found that all were determinants of cycling decisions and behavior. Stradling et al.
(2007) have further demonstrated that factors like perceived environmental
34

cleanliness, privacy, safety, convenience, stress, social interaction and scenery
contribute to satisfaction with one’s cycle commute. Other broader factors associated
with cycling satisfaction include walking and good neighbourhood design, the
opportunities for spontaneous interactions, absence of concerns for theft, cultural
acceptance, and opportunities to have a fun experience (Aker et al., 2010). Likewise,
Mao et al. (2016) found that positive attitudes towards traveling, travel well-being,
personal well-being (a general sense of feeling happy or satisfied with life), as well as
attitudes toward different modes of transportation have all been linked to cycling
satisfaction. Stradling et al., 2007 (as cited in Mao, 2016, p. 594) label social factors
that influence cycling satisfaction as “soft” factors.
Understanding soft factors that positively influence cycling satisfaction is
important because such factors, like bicycle culture, can produce benefits to social
inclusivity and equity (Pucher, 2007). Studies have found that communities are
economically resilient and more dignified when mobility is accessible to all citizens
(Winters et al., 2007). Social factors are also critical in understanding cyclist
behaviours and predicting mode choice. As social factors can alter instinctual
sustainable behaviour, cycling research requires a holistic socio- ecological approach
(Glanz et al., 2008). In many small northern communities, for instance, it is not
uncommon to witness a strong enjoyment of winter based outdoor activities. In a
study by Matz et al. (2015), results showed that rural children, adults and seniors
spent on average 0.7 (p < 0.05), 1.2 (p < 0.001), and 0.9 (p < 0.001) more hours
outdoors per day compared to their urban counterparts. Pressman’s (1988)
discussion of cultural interpretations of winter similarly highlights how Inuit people of
the Canadian Arctic have evolved a winter outdoor culture out of harsh conditions.
35

The Inuktitut language has over 25 words for various states and qualities of snow.
Pressman, (1988, p. 18) notes that “[t]hese circumpolar peoples have adjusted and
adapted well to the cold. It has been so much a part and parcel of their normal
existence that there was never a need to explicitly address its problems”.
An adapted winter culture is reflected in recreational ctivities, like dog sled
races such as the Yukon Quest (extending 1,000 miles from Fairbanks, Alaska to
Whitehorse, Yukon) having grown in popularity to a point where they now draw huge
crowds of spectators. In many northern communities, ice fishing on a pristine snowblanketed sheet of ice is also a common weekend past-time. Even lake swimming on
the first day of January (commonly referred to as a polar bear swim, followed by a hot
sauna) has been practiced as a celebration of the New Year (The Canadian Press,
2016). These outdoor recreational activities reflect a culture in many small northern
communities that may influence cyclists’ love for winter cycle commuting.
In addition to broader cultural influences, authors De Vos & Witlox, (2013)
found that travel satisfaction, and thus downstream benefits, are mainly affected by
personality traits related to personal affinity for or dislike of travel. They observed that
“[p]eople who do not like to travel, will probably prefer to live in urban
neighbourhoods making it possible to minimise travel, while people with a less
negative stance towards travelling might not mind living in a more suburban-type
neighbourhood where trips are, on average, longer in time and distance” (De Vos &
Witlox, 2016, p. 3). Importantly, commuters who enjoy the act of travel may be more
willing to travel further or through less pleasant environments (via all modes of
transit) if they do indeed receive joy from the act of traveling. Witlox (2016) goes on
to explain that the act of traveling may provide meditation benefits or the opportunity
36

to connect with others. Depending on a cyclists’ perspectives, values and motivations
for cycling, the ability to utilize cycling for environmental and health reasons has been
shown to increase commute satisfaction (St. Louis et al., 2014).
This literature review revealed that Canada has a complex challenge in
addressing climate change as well as advancing community health across in northern
communities. The following chapter identifies how this challenge has been
addressed in this thesis using a case study method. The case study of Prince
George, Smithers and Whitehorse represents three distinct northern communities
which have encouraged cycling culture with strategies tailored for each community.

37

Chapter 3: Methods
3.1

Methodology: Case Study
The decision to employ a case study methodology as opposed to other

methodologies stems from the case study’s investigative qualities. The essence of a
case study is to contribute to the existing literature on a subject as well as confirm or
challenge prior findings or theories. Babbie (2015) states that the challenge with a
case study approach can at times be the limited generalizability of what may be
observed. This limitation can be handled through repetitive sampling over a longer
period in various locations and population groups. Thus, the case study approach
looks at the entirety of the phenomenon at hand and investigates the full context of
the case being reviewed (Yin, 2009). In order to learn more about winter cycling in
small cities, this case study looked at the influential factors that impact cycling
satisfaction. Factors that encourage satisfaction, and thus cycle commuting, can
include cycling policies, programs, infrastructure, educational and celebrative events,
workplace incentives, purchasing and repair incentives, supportive urban fabric,
youthful demographics, low to medium income levels, gentle land formations, high
gas prices, limited parking or traffic congestion (Pucher et al., 2010).
According to Yin (2009), a case study is recommended when the research
does not require control over behaviour and current events. In essence the case
study will examine subjects in their day-to-day existence. Importantly, several other
cycling studies have been performed using a case study methodology, including
works by Fisher (2010, 2014), Cebe (2014), and Pucher & Buehler (2007). Fisher’s
38

(2012) case study, Cycling in Winter: Exploring innovative design principles and
practices to support all season bicycle commuting for Winnipeg and Winter Cities
worldwide (2012) illustrates the effectiveness of the case study methodology and was
one of Canada’s first small Canadian city winter studies on cycling policy and
practices. Fisher’s work compares Canadian cities policies and plans with that of
many international winter cities that have successfully attracted cyclists throughout
the year.
The research requested participants to share their everyday experiences and
interactions through recollection. Case study research supports this design, as case
studies tend to be selective towards key issues that are relevant to explaining the
system or behavior being examined (Tellis, 1997). The case study approach is also
known for its use of a triangulated research strategy. Snow and Anderson (cited in
Feagin et al., 1991) found that triangulation can take the form of comparisons
between data, investigators, theories, and methodologies.
The case study for this thesis involved triangulation through a comparison of
three sites and the use of two methods. A deconstructive policy review of local
government documents examined what efforts small cities have made to increase
cycle commutes and supported a survey of cyclists from the same communities. Yin
(1989) stresses that the strength of the case study is its “unique ability to deal with a
full variety of evidence” (p. 23).
Policies were reviewed to assess the various structures in which cycling
plans and policies have been developed and implemented, and the survey informed
the result of these efforts, in terms of cyclist attitudes and experiences in their
community. The mixed method case study approach for this thesis thus uses a
39

triangulation of quantitative and qualitative data, including survey data, visualizations
of participants’ cycling routes, Statistics Canada data, and information obtained from
local policies. Qualitative responses from the survey also included an “other”
response field. The intent of providing this field in the survey was to catch
unpredicted response options. Beyond this purpose, the “other” fields proved to be a
major asset that enriched the quantitative findings through supporting evidence and
reasoning.
3.2

Case Study Selection Process
The case study communities chosen for this study were Prince George BC,

Smithers BC, and Whitehorse, YT. The case study selection process for these three
cities sought to capture representative characteristics and demographics of a larger
pool of small Canadian cities (Appendix C). Thus, the case study sampling used here
seeks to provide a spectrum of relatable findings suitable to small cities across
Canada, particularly those with a winter climate (Table 3).
Table 3: Case Study Selection Context
Population

Prince George
Census
Subdivision
Population Centre
Smithers
Census
Subdivision
Population Centre
Whitehorse
Census
Subdivision
Population Centre
UCB*

Land Area
km2

Urban
density

Days of
snowfall

January
average
low temp

Cycle modal Cycle modal
split 2016
split increase
2006 - 2016

74,003 318.26
65,510 70.18

232.5
933.5

63

-14 C

1%

-17%

5,401
5,351

15.27
10.39

353.6
514.9

65

-13 C

5%

10%

25,085 416.54
21,732 621.8
21,732 80.83

60.2
35.0
268.9

67

-23 C

3%

7%

Source: Stats Canada, 2016, Census Profiles, Prince George, Smithers, Whitehorse. UCB* Urban Containment
Boundary, estimated at 13% of total land area (2010, City of Whitehorse).

40

The case study site selection process was informed by an extensive number
of contextual determinants that, according to the literature, have often been linked to
high rates of cycling. The final case studies were determined using the following
criteria: (A) population between 5,000 and 100,000; (B) Commute percentage via
bicycle greater than 1%; and lastly, (C) an average January temperature below
freezing. Criteria A, B and C were thus applied to a pool of possible sites to aid in the
selection of the three site locations. This process was undertaken using spread
sheets and a ranking system to choose communities of various cycling strengths.
Accessibility to case study communities was another contributing factor. While
several BC and Canadian cities met the criteria to take part in this case study, Prince
George, Smithers and Whitehorse had unique benefits, such as connections to
cycling advocates (Smithers; Prince George), extensive winter focused cycling plans
(Whitehorse), and direct accessibility for the researcher (Prince George).
The city size constraint was an important early factor in site selection, as thi
thesis is focused on finding solutions viable for small cities. In this research, a small
city was defined as one having less than 100,000 people, but more than 5,000
people (Statistics Canada, 2017). This focus on a “Small City” (Statistics Canada,
2016) resulted in a total count of 290 towns, villages, municipalities and cities across
Canada to evaluate (see Table 4). The majority of small cities are located in British
Columbia, Ontario, Alberta, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia.

41

Table 4. Canadian Small, Medium and Large City Populations

Large City
Mid-sized
Small City

Rural

Population size
groups

% of total Canadian
population

Count of urban areas

1,000,000 and over
500,000 to 999,999
100,000 to 499,999
50,000 to 99,999
10,000 to 49,999
5,000 to 9,999
2,500 to 4,999
1,000 to 2,499

31.7
14.7
12.6
5.2
8.7
3.1
2.2
2.0

3
6
20
23
131
136
198
378

Source: Government of Canada, S. C., 2016.

Table 5. Canada’s Highest Ranking Cycling Cities
Census Subdivision
2016 Cycle %
Jasper
23%
Revelstoke
15%
Whistler
10%
Banff
10%
Golden
10%
Fernie
9%
Canmore
7%
Smithers
5%
Nelson
5%
Pemberton
4%
Ignace
4%
Sicamous
4%
Squamish
4%
Invermere
4%
Valmont
4%
Terrace
3%
Whitehorse
3%
Yellowknife
2%
Waterloo
2%
Chetwynd
2%
Prince Rupert
1%
Prince George
1%
Charlottetown
1%
Source: Government of Canada, S. C., 2017
42

2010 – 2016 Cycle Growth %
28%
174%
65%
22%
137%
29%
40%
10%
50%
95%
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
63%
7%
-33%
-33%
No data
No data
-17%
No data

The second step in narrowing down the early case study pool was to identify
which cities had bicycle ridership above 1% of total commuter population in 2016.
Commuter population was sourced from the 2016 Statistics Canada Household
survey. This criterion identified 23 possible cities (Table 5), which ranged in cycle
commute rates from 1% to 23%. Statistics Canada cycle commutes to work below
1% of total commuting population were not considered for case study selection due
to the vast number of cities which have achieved this rate.
Table 6. Case Study Winter Cycling Cities
Census Subdivision
Days of snowfall

January Daily Average Temp

Revelstoke
112
-8°C
Whitehorse
67
-23°C
Banff
67
-12°C
Smithers
65
-13°C
Whistler
64
-2°C
Prince George
63
-14°C
Grand Prairie
55
-21°C
Fernie
51
-5°C
Canmore
51
-10°C
Golden
50
-8°C
Nelson
37
-6°C
Jasper
33
-7°C
Whitehorse
67
-23°C
Source: Canada, E. and C. C. (2013). Canadian Climate Normals 1981-2010.

The third step of case study site identification was to define a temperature
variable provided by Statistics Canada’s climate normal and averages from 1981 to
2010. Using a Canadian extreme minimum temperature zones natural resources map
(Government of Canada, N. R. C. n.d.), communities were eliminated if they had
extreme temperatures warmer than negative 20°C. To be considered a winter city,
43

locations had to have a January daily average of 0°C or colder. Annual days of
snowfall were also considered and cities were included if snowfalls occured 30 days
per year or more. These standards for winter conditions provided 23 cities to include
in the early-stage case study selection; a partial list is found in Table 6. These final
23 cities are further organized by the cities that saw the greatest increase of cycling
during the ten-year period from 2006 to 2016.

3.3

Survey Design
The survey was designed in three sections. Section A was intended for all

cyclists. Participants were asked to provide information about the reasons why they
cycle, their skill level as a cyclist, and the amount of time they spend on a bicycle.
Section B was intended for summer cyclists (riding from May to September).
Participants were asked about summertime commuting challenges, route
characteristics, and the time spent commuting. Section C was intended for winter
cyclists (riding from October to April). Participants were asked what days they spent
cycle commuting and what specific challenges related to season and climate they
experienced.
The final survey was made up of multiple-choice questions as well as an
“other” option which provided further data explanation. Preference questions
provided a Likert-type scale response varying from 5 to 7 available choice options. A
Likert scale providing descriptive imagery also included for cyclists who may have
been unfamiliar with infrastructure terms and variations of protected and nonprotected bike lanes (see Question 21 in Sample Survey found in Appendix D). There
44

were also two questions that required participants to trace a map to indicate their
typical summer and winter cycle commutes (if applicable). A final socio-demographic
portion of the survey was included to capture information about survey respondents.
Socio-demographic questions included age, gender, level of education, individual
income, home postal code, work postal code, and parental status. Sociodemographic data provides richer information for comparing cycle commuters and
behavioural choices. Other cycling studies, for instance, have compared male cyclists
with female cyclists (Garrard, 2006); generational differences in cyclists; income
splits, educational splits and even hardiness or comfort levels of cyclists (Heesch et
al., 2012). The socio-demographic data collected from this portion of the survey was
thus included to provide a tool to compare results with various other studies. A full
sample survey can be found in Appendix D.
Finally, survey design and content were developed to meet requirements of
the Canadian Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving
Humans as well as the UNBC Research Ethics Board. The physical risks of this data
collection method were assumed to be none to minimal during survey interaction and
completion. Social risks were mitigated through confidentiality of survey submission,
which required no identity to be revealed.
Participants had the option of completing the survey online or on a paper
take-home copy if they wished to complete the survey in a private setting. Risks
associated with this research were limited and possible harm from survey
participation was deemed equivalent to what a participant might experience on a
daily basis (e.g., an emotional but temporary reaction to survey questions).
Participants were informed that they may opt out of the study at any time, before,
45

during or after the survey with no repercussions or reason required.

3.4

Participant Recruitment and Data Collection
Surveying involved the collection of information about summer and winter

commuting experiences (as described above) from cycle commuters in three small
northern communities. Data collection in Prince George and Smithers consisted of
intercept survey distribution and supporting online surveys. Choosing intercept (faceto-face) surveying as opposed to alternative methods, may have resulted in less data
collection overall, but intercept surveys have been shown to collect better detail
regarding demographics and specific locations where cyclists commute (Flint et al.,
2016). Specifically, the intercept survey method used here was designed to capture
cyclists’ input ‘in the moment’ as they were experiencing certain locations in the
community.
Deutsch & Goulias (2009) captured sense in place attitudes in connection
with traveler’s behavior studies, and their approach influenced the data collection
method used here. Flint et al. (2012) also support place-based or natural resource
focused research that is conducted in certain public places to provide salient and
convenient opportunities for data gathering. They also demonstrated how public
intercept interviews and surveys opened up their study to locally salient topics.
Another benefit of intercept surveys is their simplicity of dissemination, low
cost, and effectiveness in reaching low-literacy and hard-to-reach individuals (e.g.,
non-email users) (Flint et al., 2016). Doing surveys on site also allows the surveyor to
target specific areas or destinations of high commute volume better than other survey
46

types like online or telephone surveying. This is a benefit as the current fast-paced
society deters potential participants from partaking in lengthy, time-consuming
surveys, creating a need to streamline procedures to reduce time and effort from
participants (Dillman et al., 2014). Survey collection engaged participants during Go
By Bike Week during or after their commute to work, or between their commute and
other social obligations. A challenge with choosing an intercept survey method was
calculating the non-response rates, as there were no controlled entry points or
monitors in place to count non-interested individuals.
In the third case study city, Whitehorse; online/email surveys were sent by
request to the members of the Whitehorse Contagious Mountain Bike Club and the
Whitehorse Urban Cyclist Organization. Intercept surveying in Whitehorse was not
feasible due to travel distance. Mail back surveys as well as telephone surveys may
have assisted in reaching cyclists in Whitehorse, unfortunately there were not the
funds to do so in this study. Mail out surveys are typically more expensive and time
intensive. Two other online/email based Canadian cycling studies (St-Louis, 2014 &
Willis et al., 2013) illustrate the potential for high recruitment rates in online/email
surveys, with over (31.7%) survey responses from a 20,851 student/staff email list.
In Prince George and Smithers, participant recruitment took place at Go By
Bike Week events from a table supported by the British Columbia Cycling Coalition
(BCCC), University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC), and the Pacific Institute for
Climate Change (PICS). The partnership with the BCCC was formed naturally as a
co- beneficial platform to both advocate for better cycling services in BC and enhance
existing efforts to collect cycling data across BC communities. Paper and online
surveys were accompanied with a research summary letter and details about results
47

dissemination, the purpose of the study, the benefits of the study, and details on how
to contact the researcher for further questions. The following bike clubs and
organizations in case study cities also provided consent to access their club
membership mailing lists for distribution of surveys and information letters: the Prince
George Cycling Club; Smithers Mountain Biking Society; Smithers Cycle 16;
Whitehorse Contagious Mountain Bike Club; and the Whitehorse Urban Cyclist
Organization.
Digital surveys were collected using the Survey Monkey platform and data
were stored on a research designated hard drive. While data were being analyzed,
responses were collated in an anonymous spreadsheet and stored in a password
protected folder on the primary applicant’s password protected computer.
Participation in the digital survey did not require any personal information to be
revealed and was completely anonymous. All online survey participants were offered
the choice to opt out of providing an Internet Protocol address (the physical location
of your Internet host box) prior to commencing the survey and were given a contact
number to call if they required assistance.
Intercept surveys collected at the 2018 Go By Bike Week were conducted
between May 28 to June 3 2018, providing an opportunity for cyclists to recall winter
cycling experiences while still fresh in their memories. If cyclists were not year-round
riders, the survey revealed what time of the year they typically used their bikes for
summer commutes. The opportunity to survey during Go By Bike Week (GBBW)
allowed for greater recruitment as there were high cyclist numbers provoked by
coinciding events. Surveying in Prince George, Smithers, and Whitehorse was time
intensive and required a minimum of 80-100 surveys to ensure validity of survey
48

analysis (NATCO, print, n.d.). Participation across these communities totalled 161
surveys: 69 surveys collected in Prince George, 64 in Smithers, and 28 in
Whitehorse. Five electronically submitted surveys were discarded due to the
considerable amount of skipped responses. As noted above, response rates were
not measured due to the complexity of multiple occurring interactions, large sample
area, and non-comital nature of unsure possible participants.
Several measures were taken to maximize the effectiveness of data
collection, including survey trials, trial revisions based on survey feedback, the use of
two trained survey administrators to conduct survey collection, the use of strategic
collection points, and the use of paper, digital and mail survey formats. Paper
surveys were available in a pre-addressed envelope with postage for those who were
not available to answer the survey on site in Prince George and Smithers. This takehome survey proved to be very useful, as it reached 15 participants who would
otherwise have been unable to partake in the study. In a study by Greer et al. (2000),
the most important factor in stimulating response rates was postage paid reply
envelopes. Participants who were short on time were also able to request a digital
email survey. Several participants who submitted email surveys provided very
detailed maps and written responses.
The most successful intercept station was the first day of GBBW in Smithers
on May 28, when, where 35 surveys were collected. The subsequent two days in
Smithers resulted in fewer intercept surveys (an additional 17 surveys), mostly due to
repeating occurrences of participants. Recruitment on June 2 at the Prince George
Farmers’ Market was also successful and yielded a total of 18 surveys. Intercept
surveys provided the most complete survey sets, the lowest null-responses or
49

skipped questions, as well as the most detailed hand-drawn maps. All survey days
were sunny and had ideal weather for cycling and surveying. Paper surveys filled out
on site were put into sealed paper envelopes and stored in a locked container until
transported to secure long-term storage (secure supervisory office at UNBC in a
locked filing cabinet in a locked office.) Surveys returned to the researcher in a preaddressed, stamped envelope were stored in the same manner. The survey stations
were manned by the primary researcher and a research assistant (both representing
UNBC and BCCC) and included the following locations:

Prince George survey stations:
• May 26, 2018 at the Prince George Farmers Market & Crossroads
Brewing Street Fest (morning – afternoon)
• May 31, 2018 at the College of New Caledonia (morning)
• June 1, at Northern Lights Winery (afternoon)
• June 1, at Two-Rivers Gallery (morning)
• June 2, 2018 at Farmers Market (morning - afternoon)

Smithers survey stations:
•
•
•
•
•

3.5

May 29, 2018 at Nature’s Pantry (afternoon)
May 29, 2018 at Two Sisters Café (morning)
May 29, 2018 at Work BC (morning)
May 30, 2018 at Bugwood Bean (afternoon)
May 30, 2018 at McBike and Sports (afternoon)

Participant Recruitment and Data Collection Limitations
The focus of this research was on cycle commuters, as opposed to purely

recreational cyclists who may be interested in, but not engage in cycle commuting.
Data collected from such group may have revealed valuable insights regarding why
they are not currently willing to, are not interested in, or not able to use a bicycle for
50

the purpose of commuting. Future research could broaden the sample to include
these populations. That said, the advantage of a surveying an expert group of
cyclists already engaged with the practice of cycle commuting within their
communities is an opportunity to show areas of concern and opportunities for
improvement by engaging those who are most familiar with the cycling network.
This study could have been strengthened by extending the survey collection
period to take place during the mid to later winter season, thus offering a comparison
to the spring survey. Performing data collection during the winter as opposed to the
late spring, may have helped cyclists to better recollect where they were riding during
these months, and what limitations they placed upon themselves when deciding to
cycle commute. As such, collecting samples throughout the year from participants
could capture a more accurate reading of multi-season biking behaviors. Another
method for achieving this could be the use of traffic sensors and pedestrian counters
at intersections as well as trail heads. Winters et al. (2007) also points out the flaw of
using Statistics Canada National Household Survey data regarding commutes by
bike to work due to the complexities and which bicycles service transportation needs
are not accounted for, including multimodal trips, seasonal variation, and modes used
for trips other than to work purposes and numbers. In-place automatic pedestrian and
cyclist counters are much more effective than survey statistics as they capture longterm counts as well as provide a visual indication of place based counts in hourly,
daily, monthly, or annual frequencies (National Bicycle and Pedestrian
Documentation Project, 2009).
Improved on-line and paper survey sophistication, as well as perfecting the
uniformity of response inputs, would have enhanced the reliability of data. There is a
51

possibility in this study that participants over assume the number of days per week in
which they cycle commute in the winter. This could only be rectified with digital traffic
counters or daily cyclist journals, which was not a possibility in the scope of this
research.
Finally, unlike the communities of Prince George and Smithers, the
researcher could not physically get to Whitehorse during GBBW to distribute paper
surveys. This was due to the overlap of dates for GBBW, and the conflict of travel
time. Baruch & Holtom (2008) have witnessed that participants who voluntarily fill out
an online survey typically have a very invested interest in the subject matter, and a
willingness to contribute personal knowledge of experiences. Recognizing that
Whitehorse is a small northern city with many outdoor enthusiasts and adventure
seekers, this may have contributed to the high number of winter cyclists in the
Whitehorse sample (see Results).

3.6

Survey Data Analysis
The survey analysis was designed around the themes of the survey to

ultimately answer the stated research questions: 1) do small northern case study
cities have year-round cycling commuters and 2) what are the cyclist’s behaviors and
experiences while commuting. Information on year-round cycle commuters will
indicate what strategies contribute to a year-round cycle commuting culture. In
addition, data inform which attributes of the physical and social environments support
year-round bicycle satisfaction and transportation. Lastly, data provided insight into
what small northern city cyclists want to see more of in terms of urban bicycling
52

infrastructure and programs. Priorities for survey analysis were examined in the
following order:
1. Cycle commuter numbers in each case-study site.
2. Cyclist commuter types in each case-study site.
3. Cycle commuting attitudes in each case-study site.
4. Cycle commuting seasons in each case-study site.
5. Cycle commuting barriers during summer in each of the case-study
sites.
6. Cycle commuting barriers during winter in each of the case-study
sites.
7. Cycle commuting opportunities during summer in each of the casestudy sites.
8. Cycle commuting opportunities during winter in each of the casestudy site.
Descriptive statistics (e.g., cyclist’s age, income, education, and sex) were
calculated and compared to each city’s Statistics Canada profile, testing whether
participant sampling was representative of communities as a whole and determining
if groups had been overlooked in data collection. Survey data regarding commuter
and commuting characteristics were also summarized using descriptive statistics by
converting responses into a numeric score stored in an analysis spreadsheet. Data
from qualitative responses from the “other” response fields in the survey were coded
to fit within key cycling themes and were frequently referenced to aid in further
investigation of data findings. Responses from these “other” fields also allowed for
the analysis of un-mentioned themes that were originally not considered. These
responses played a critical role in understanding the social environments of each
community, as show later in Chapter Four.
Survey participants were asked to indicate their level of comfort for various,
53

built, social and natural environmental factors. Stated comfort in these circumstances
was later analysed to determine overall satisfaction in each environment as well as
across case study communities. In Prince George, Smithers, and Whitehorse, a
cross-case analysis was used to assess how small northern cycle commuting varies
between these three cities (See Figure 9). The evidence from these case studies
may be compared to the larger Canadian and international winter city cycling
literature. For instance, evidence of the commute satisfaction of cyclists in Prince
George, Smithers, and Whitehorse expands upon existing cycling satisfaction studies
performed in large Canadian cities. This comparison may suggest that if cycle
commuters in both summer and winter environments have similar or different levels
of comfort and satisfaction while cycling. Prior to a cross-case analysis, a descriptive
analysis using SPSS IBM 2015 software was conducted on the dependant variable
“summer comfort”. These data inputs have been mapped into a histogram (see
Figure 10), which revealed a non-normality in distribution. This key finding identified
that parametric tests were not appropriate for this data set. The variance in summer
comfort data guided the statistical analysis, suggesting the need to use a nonparametric approach to tests.
As shown in Figure 9, the cross-case analysis began with a simple analysis
of variance. This test was chosen based on the fact that the analysis included more
than two groups of participants, and therefore needed to examine the difference
between multiple groups on one or more variable(s) (Field, 2013). The participants
were only tested once, thus the analysis included a non-repeated measure of
variance performed using a Kruskill Wallis Test (Field, 2013). This method orders the
data from lowest to highest and then ranks data by using an analysis of variance test.
54

This data analysis methodology was chosen due to the non-parametric nature of the
data, and measure of several different groups with the same set of conditions. A
Bonferroni-Holm post hoc correction was applied to account for the sample
population differences. This adjustment standardizes the effect across the varying
sample sizes. To apply this correction, the alpha level is divided by the number of
tests ran (three community groups) and then applied to each individual test. The
overall alpha level is .05 divided by the 3 tests, which resulted in an alpha level of
.05/3 = .016.

Figure 9. Winter Cycling Survey Analysis Diagram demonstrates the statistical
tests performed in this case study. Concept and graphics developed by author.
55

Mann-Whitney U tests were also applied across case cities to compare levels
of comfort of the built environment and social environment. As noted above, the
social environment was studied along with the built environment to describe whether
cycling satisfaction could occur without the presence of cycling infrastructure, and the
other benefits social motivators have in relation to cycling. A similar strategy was
applied by Winters (2007), who “investigated the impact of individual and city-level
characteristics on bicycling in Canadian cities to inform transportation and health
policies” (p. 1). The Mann-U test compares conditions across various samples (Field,
2013). Its use was determined based on the Salkind flow chart (2000, p. 242). This
analysis was followed by correlation tests on each community, which tested the
strengths of the relationship between the following variable groupings: summer
comfort (SC); winter comfort (WC); summer built environment impacts (SB); winter
built environment impacts (WB); summer social impacts (SS); winter social impacts
(WS); non-protected infrastructure desirability (NP); and protected Infrastructure
desirability (P).

Built Overall
Summer

• Conventional bike lanes infrastructure desirability
• Painted intersections infrastructure desirability
• Solid painted bike lanes infrastructure desirability
• cyclist-overpasses infrastructure desirability
• cyclist-underpasses infrastructure desirability
• Protected bike lanes infrastructure desirability
• Buffered bike lanes infrastructure desirability
• Cycling tracks infrastructure desirability
• debris removal

56

Winter

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Conventional bike lanes infrastructure desirability
Painted intersections infrastructure desirability
Solid painted bike lanes infrastructure desirability
cyclist-overpasses infrastructure desirability
cyclist-underpasses infrastructure desirability
Protected bike lanes infrastructure desirability
Buffered bike lanes infrastructure desirability
Cycling tracks infrastructure desirability
debris removal

Social Overall
Summer

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Support for summer ride groups
Support for cyclist and driver education
Support for bicycle repair education
Attitudes towards aggressive driving
Arriving in unpleasant conditions
Unwanted attention
Lack of time

Winter

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

City supports a positive attitude towards outdoor winter recreation
Too cold to commute in winter
Too much snow to commute in winter
Support for winter ride groups
Support for cyclist and driver education
Support for bicycle repair education
Attitudes towards aggressive driving
Arriving in unpleasant conditions
Unwanted attention
Lack of time

Environmental Overall
Summer
Winter

• debris removal
• debris removal

57

Figure 10. Case study Summer Comfort Descriptive Data

3.7 Map Digitization Process
Mapping enables the indirect measuring of infrastructure use without
expensive counting devices, though this technique is not a suitable replacement of
pedestrian and cyclist counters as it does not account for every cyclist. This form of
data collection enhances the understanding of city areas accessible by bicycle.
Amalgamated digital routes also show where opportunistic points of future
data collection occur, as well as where cycling occurs within a large boundary area,
which is not possible with single origin data counters. Other researchers such as
58

Winters (2017) have found this technique advantageous as well, noting that “[e]arly
discussion with partners indicated that it was critical to identify route use” (p. 4). The
decision to request cyclists’ routes in the summer and winter season informed the
seasonal research questions as it showed changes in cyclists’ behaviours between
seasons. Specifically, the winter routes revealed which streets and types of
infrastructure were more suited to winter conditions in the three case study
communities.
In the work conducted here, the map analysis process started off by scanning
the hand drawn participant bicycle route maps into digital files. Participants routes
were then digitized and categorized first by community, and then as summer trips,
winter trips, or combined summer and winter trips. Once routes had been digitized
and categorized, they were segmented into points using the “Lines to Points” tool.
Using the available road data, the road lines were buffered, clipped, and dissolved, to
create the cleanest possible segments.

3.8 Policy Review Process
The policy review, combined with survey collection, conducted for this study
was important in that it built a better understanding of the favourability of certain
projects and infrastructures in relation to overall cyclist satisfaction. The same
strategy was applied by Mao (2016), who noted that “policies aiming at a shift
towards sustainable transportation modes will be more effective when travelers are
more satisfied with their new travel mode” (p. 1). A policy analysis was completed
through an examination of the coverage of summer and winter cycling policies in a
59

range of municipal plans, policies, and bylaws, including where available:
•

Active Transit Plans

•

Age Friendly Action Plans

•

Bicycle Bylaws or Subdivision and Development Policies

•

Community Economic Development Plans

•

Community Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Plans

•

Cycle Network Maps

•

Cycle Network Plans

•

Downtown Parking Plans

•

Official Community Plans

•

Park Strategies

•

Smart Growth or Downtown Concept Plans

•

Snow & Ice Control Policies

•

Sustainable Resiliency Plans

•

Trails Plans

•

Transit Future Plans

Policy coverage was used as a key indicator in this study and is a relevant
measure as various policy effectiveness researchers have alluded to the importance
of the reappearance of themes across policy documents and strategic plans for
building cohesion and understanding the applicability of desired implications (Connell
& Daoust-Filiatrault, 2018; Alexander, 1985; Hatzopoulou, 2009; Hjern, 1982;
Maddox, 2001; Matwie, 2001; Næss, 2011; Ogilvie, 2011; Pratte, 2011; Pucher,
2007; Ryley, 2001; Seasons, 2003; Talen, 1996; Winters, 2007). As Hatzopoulou and
Miller (2009) note, “[t]he credibility of the short-term or long-term plan is tied to the
way the plan is crafted, presented, and implemented” (p. 330). The policy scan within
case study communities in this study investigated the occurrence of cycling related
policies, bylaws, plans, and goals across the document types shown above. A cross
60

sectional community document comparison illustrates the strength of the community
documents in considering many themes of cycling beyond the built environment.
The Prince George, Smithers, and Whitehorse community document and
policy scans overviewed nine general cycling themes discussed within urban cycling
literature that appear to be fundamental elements for a successful cycling
environment. These include general maintenance and road conditions, bicycle
infrastructure and facility design, bicycle parking, education and awareness, data
collection and success reporting, cyclists’ safety, cycling in winter, and cycling for all
ages and abilities (AAA) (see Table 7). Relevant themes drawn from this analysis are
presented in Chapter Four.
The methods discussed in this chapter described the construction of a survey
to gain better understanding of cyclists’ satisfaction with commuting in summer and
winter seasons, and support of these findings through a policy analysis. The survey
was tailored to users who identify as cycle commuters who residing in Prince George,
Smithers and Whitehorse. The next chapter will explore the outcomes of the survey
by initially examining the characteristics of the participants as well as the preferences
cyclists expressed, and the barriers they have identified within their communities.
Participating cyclists’ route maps as outlined in this chapter were also synthesized
into compiled community route maps for Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse
based on varying seasons.

61

Title

Policy
Evaluation

Alexander
Babin
Brody & Highfield
Fisher

From Idea to Action
Frostbike
Does planning work
Cycling through winter

1985
2014
2005
2012

X X
X
X
X X
X
X

Giles-Corti et al.

Evaluation of the implementation of a state
government community design policy aimed at
increasing local walking
Transport policy evaluation in metropolitan
areas
Implementation research
Implementation structures: a new unit of
administrative analysis. Organization studies
Evaluation for participation and sustainability in
planning
Another look at Germany’s bicycle boom:
implications for local transportation policy &
planning strategy in the USA
Guidelines for a safety audit of bikeway
systems
Commuting trip satisfaction in Beijing:
Exploring the influence of multimodal
behavior and modal flexibility

2008

X X X

2009

X X X

1982
1981

X X
X X

2012

X X X

2001

X X X

2001

X X X

2016

X X

Manaugh, ElGeneidy

Does distance matter? Exploring the links
among values, motivations, home location,
and satisfaction in walking trips

2013

X

Næss, et al.

On their road to sustainability? The challenge
of sustainable mobility in urban planning and
development in two Scandinavian capital
regions.
Ana applies ecological framework to evaluate
infrastructure to promote cycling and walking
Mainstreaming bicycling in winter cities

2011

X X X

2011

X X X

2011

X

Hatzopoulou &
Miller
Hjern
Hjern & Porter
Hull, et al.
Maddox

Matwie
Mao, et al.

Ogilvie et al.
Pratte

62

Cycling

Author

Year

Table 7. Literature Review of Cycling Policies and Policy Evaluation

X

Pucher, et al.

Infrastructure, programs, and policies to
increase bicycling
Pucher, & Buehler At the frontiers of cycling: policy innovations in
the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany.
Ryley
Translating cycling policy into cycling practice
Seasons
Monitoring and evaluating municipal planning
Shirgaokar
Exploring User Perspectives to Increase
Winter Bicycling Mode Share in Edmonton,
Canada
St-Louis, et al.
The happy commuter: A comparison of
commuter satisfaction across modes
Talen
Do plans get implemented
Tang
Modeling Commuting Behaviour in Canadian
Metropolitan Areas

2010

X

X

2017

X

X

2001
2003
2016

X X X
X X
X X

2013

X

1996
2011

X X
X
X

Van Miltenburg

Bicycling in Hamilton: challenges associated
with bicycling and cyclists’ subjective
identities

2016

X X

Winters, et al.

Utilitarian bicycling: a multilevel analysis of
climate and personal influences

2007

X X X

Yawar

An analysis of factors affecting commuting
distance

2016

X X

63

Chapter 4: Results

4.1

Characteristics of Survey Participants
This chapter examines the unique qualities of the winter cycling communities,

as well as the demographics of the cycle commuters who participated in the survey.
Sample demographics are important to examine within survey studies to determine if
the survey sample represents the community accurately and for helping to determine
how to measure specific parameters within a population (Kelley et al., 2003). A
comparison of sample demographics to community populations can also illustrate
whether data is skewed more favorably to a particular gender, age group, income
bracket etc. which would result in a biased perspective. The characteristics of the
sample groups used in this study, and the overall population of the study, are
provided in Table 8.
In this study, Smithers had 14% higher percentage of women sampled than
Prince George and Whitehorse. This may be an indication of network safety. Out of
the Prince George cyclists sampled, where n=73, 31 participants or 46% were
female. In Smithers, n=69 cyclists were sampled and 36 participants or 59%
identified as female. In Whitehorse, n=28 cyclists were sampled, and 13 participants
or 46% identified as female.
Reviewing age demographics from survey collection enabled a comparison
between community cyclist population data with that of various other communities
and data collected by Statistics Canada (2017). Out of the Prince George cyclists
64

sampled (where n=73), the largest age bracket was 30-39 years of age. Out of the
Smithers cyclists sampled (where n=69), the largest age bracket was 40-49 years of
age. Out of the Whitehorse cyclists sampled (where n=28), the largest age bracket
was 40-49 years of age.
Table 8. Case Study and Canadian Demographics
Prince
George

Stats
Canada
Population
centre

Smithers

Stats
Canada
Population
centre

Whitehorse Stats
Canada
Population
centre

Female (%)

46%

50.3%

59%

51.3%

46%

50.8%

Age
18–24 (20-24*)

n = 73
6.7%

n = 65510 n = 69
7.7%*
5.5%

n = 5351
6.5%*

n = 28
0.0%

n = 21732
5.9%*

25–29

18.3%

7.8%

5.5%

6.4%

14.3%

8.1%

30–39

33.3%

13.4%

21.8%

13.1%

25.0%

16.4%

40–49
50–59

16.7%
16.7%

13%
14.2%

32.7%
16.4%

13.3%
14.1%

42.9%
14.3%

14.1%
14.4%

60–69

8.3%

11.2%

16.4%

4.9%

3.6%

10.3%

70 & older

0.0%

9.3%

1.8%

4.8%

0.0%

5.7%

Education

n = 73

n = 52920 n = 69

n = 4320

n = 28

n = 17,375

No educational certificate
Secondary (high) school
diploma or certificate

1.5%
8.8%

19.5%
32.7%

1.5%
7.7%

18.9%
28.6%

0.0%
0.0%

14.6%
25.0%

Registered apprenticeship
or trades certificate or diploma

14.7%

11.2%

3.1%

12.2%

0.0%

9.0%

College, CEGEP or other nonuniversity certificate or diploma

11.8%

18.5%

15.4%

19.7%

3.6%

20.5%

University certificate or diploma 19.1%
below bachelor level
University certificate or diploma 29.4%
or degree at bachelor’s level

2.3%

13.9%

3.2%

3.6%

2.7%

11.1%

38.5%

17.4%

60.7%

18.6%

University certificate or diploma 14.7%
or degree above bachelor’s level
(e.g. Master’s or PhD)

4.8%

16.9%

5.2%

32.1%

4.2%

Household Income

n = 73

n = 52830 n = 69

n = 4160

n = 28

n = 17305

< 10,000

7.4%

11.9%

1.7%

11.5%

0.0%

8.8%

10 - 29,999

11.8%

28.4%

18.6%

29.0%

8.0%

22.0%

30 - 59,999

25.0%

29.2%

30.5%

22.8%

8.0%

27.2%

65

60 - 79,999

34.2%

11.9%

20.3%

13.9%

24.0%

16.6%

80 - 99,999

7.4%

7.5%

15.3%

7.1%

32.0%

11.4%

> 100,000

11.8%

7.5%

13.6%

7.0%

28.0%

11.0%

Parents with children under 16

71.0%

-

80.6%

-

32.0%

-

Winter cyclists

46.3%

-

71.0%

-

88.9%

-

Data source: Statistics Canada, 2016 Census of Population.

A comparison of education brackets was conducted for this study. Results
show that, out of the Prince George cyclists sampled, the largest education bracket
was University certificate, diploma or degree at bachelor’s level (29%), followed by
University certificate or diploma below bachelor level (19%). In Smithers, of the
cyclists sampled, the largest education bracket was University certificate or diploma
or degree at bachelor’s level (38%), followed by University certificate or diploma or
degree above bachelor’s level (e.g., Master’s or PhD) (17%). In Whitehorse, of the
cyclists sampled, the largest education bracket was University certificate or diploma
or degree at bachelor’s level (61%), followed by University certificate or diploma or
degree above bachelor’s level (e.g., Master’s or PhD) (32%).

66

Figure 11. Survey Participants Levels of Education

Participant household incomes were compared across the three communities
surveyed for this study. Results showed that in the Whitehorse participant sample the
largest income bracket was $80,000 to $99,999 (32%), followed by $100,000 and up
(28%). Prince George has the lowest percentage of participants in the above $80,000
category. Prince George was also the largest category of less than $10,000 income
bracket earners (7%). The most common income bracket of Smithers participants
was the $30,000 to $59,999 category (31%), followed by $60,000 to $69,999 (20%).
When compared with the Prince George and Whitehorse surveys, Smithers survey
participants had the highest percentage of earners in the $10,000 to $29,000 income
bracket (19%). In the Whitehorse survey, 32% of participants were in the highest
67

income bracket of $80,000 to $99,999, while 28% of participants were in the
$100,000 and up category. In this study, 71% of the Prince George cyclists sampled
were parents of children under the age of 16, compared to 81% of cyclists in the
Smithers sample and 32% from the Whitehorse sample.

Figure 12. Survey Participants Levels of Income

Each survey was analyzed with respect to the type of cyclist. In the Prince
George survey, 83.6% cyclists identified themselves as utilitarian (as a means of
transportation), while 79.5% identified as recreational, 5.5% cycled for the purpose of
work, and 0% cycled for “other” reasons. Analysis of the Smithers survey sample
showed 89.9% of survey participants cycling for utilitarian purposes, 85.5% for
recreational purposes, 2.9% cycling for the purpose of work, and 4.4% cycling for
“other” purposes. In Whitehorse, 100% of survey respondents claimed to cycle for
utilitarian purposes (the highest split of utilitarian cyclists of the three cases) and
68

89.3% for recreational purposes. Additionally, 89% of the cyclists surveyed in
Whitehorse cycle commuted in the winter season.
In each case study community, it was found that approximately 80% of
participants cycle for recreational means. High percentages of recreational cyclists
were present when there was a positive attitude towards northern outdoor sports and
culture such as mountain biking, polar swims, winter festivals, skiing and other
related activities. This association may link high percentages of winter cycling with
positive attitudes for outdoor winter recreation. Participants from each community
spent 11 to 15 minutes per trip on average cycling in both summer and winter
seasons. The winter cyclists in each surveyed community reported, on average, a
slightly longer trip duration in the winter season than that experienced in the summer
season.
4.2 Environmental Experiences of Survey Participants
The following sections consider results of the surveys and route maps,
which were designed to explore external and internal factors relating the following
issues: How do cyclists reflect on the interactions had with the built, social, and
natural environments of their communities? Are the cycle transportation policies,
plans, programs and infrastructure reflective of the users preferred experiences with
these elements (a.) during the summer months? And (b.) during the winter months?
The analysis diagram provided above (see Figure 9), describes the statistical
analysis process used to analyze the data relating to the external and internal factors
(e.g., built, social, and natural environments, policies and programs) on cyclists
preferred experience. The analysis began with an ANOVA (analysis of variance test)
69

and Post hoc tests to compare the grouped means across the dependant variable
“summer comfort”. This test determined if comfort was rated significantly higher in
any of the case communities.

Using a Kruskal Wallis ANOVA two-tailed test, the survey dependant variable
Summer Comfort (SC) was compared across the cyclist samples in Prince George,
Smithers, and Whitehorse. The results indicated that comfort ratings in the three
communities were statistically different (P = 0.000). Therefore, the null hypothesis
that winter cyclists surveyed in Prince George, Smithers, and Whitehorse reported
the same levels of summer comfort was rejected (see Table 9). Post hoc tests were
used to confirm where the difference in comfort occurred between all three case
study groups. To apply the non-parametric Mann Whitney post-hoc test, the
dependant variable ‘summer comfort’, was compared across two independent
samples three times (i.e., Prince George and Smithers; Prince George and
Whitehorse; Smithers and Whitehorse). When comparing summer comfort in Prince
George and Smithers, there was not a significant difference. However, Whitehorse
participants reported significantly higher summer comfort levels than Prince George
participants (P = 0.000) and Smithers participants (P = 0.001).

70

Table 9. Independent Variable ANOVA and ad hoc tests, Summer Comfort
ANOVA
F-value
Scale
ChiN
df
compariso
squar
n
e
Group
P&S&W
156 2
17.862
Group P&S
Group P&W
Group S&W
** 2-tailed
Prince George = P
Smithers = S
Whitehorse = W

Post-hoc tests / Mann Whitney U

Sig.

t-value

Sig.

Z

0.000

0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03

**0.264 -1.116
**0.000 -4.269
**0.001 -3.432

MU

1862.500
446.500
526.500

4.3 Cycling Maps: Prince George, Smithers, Whitehorse
This section uses the survey participants’ route maps to make associations
between summer and winter cyclists’ commuting experiences. Individuals’ routes
were amalgamated and provided data to perform a spatial pattern analysis within
communities. Key findings included the following:
•
•

Where cyclists ride in the summer.
If their routes changed in the winter, and if these
routes have specific maintenance policies to
accommodate cyclists.

•

What kind of vehicle separation/lane priority are these routes,
and if certain types of infrastructure (levels of separation)
attract cyclists to use them? And if cyclists are using recently
implemented cyclist infrastructure.
71

•

Where new cycling infrastructure might be best utilized,
shown by high traffic counts of cyclists.

The maps provided a second form of validation concerning how survey
participants rated their actual riding comfort. Participant comfort levels in the summer
and winter may be reflective of the bike lane types being utilized by the cyclists. The
analysis included a cross-comparison of the results from the comfort level question
with the routes indicated as most popular (see Tables 11, 14 & 17).
The case study survey results are shown in tables 10 and 11 for both
summer cyclists as well as winter cyclists. The tables describe the survey items
regarding cyclists’ preference for their built cycling environment, social cycling
environment, as well as the natural environment. The items were measured using a
Likert scale with scores of one representing the least desirable options and scores of
five representing the most desirable option. The survey descriptive results of
preferred cycling environments in Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse primarily
reflected similar desires.
Table 10 shows that summer cyclists in the three communities identified
protected bicycle lanes as the most positive impact in Prince George (4.4), Smithers
(4.5) and Whitehorse (5.0). Within the summer social-environmental category, cyclist
and driver education was identified as having the highest potential to have a positive
impact on Prince George (6.0) and Smithers (5.4). Whitehorse cyclists agreed that
support for cyclist and driver education (4.5) was relatively important in terms of
creating a positive impact on the cyclists’ social environment, although support for
bicycle repair and education (5.0) was ranked as a more positive impact. The
summer natural environment category identified that debris free surfaces would result
72

in a positive impact in Prince George (5.5), Smithers (5.8) and Whitehorse (4.6).
Table 11 shows that winter cyclists in the three communities identified that
lighting on routes had the most positive impact in Prince George (5.7), Smithers (5.8)
and Whitehorse (5.0). Within the winter social-environmental category, cyclist and
driver education was identified for the highest potential to have a positive impact on
Prince George (5.5) and Smithers (5.5). Whitehorse cyclists agreed that support for
cyclist and driver education (4.5) was relatively important in terms of creating a
positive impact on the cyclists’ social environment, although support for bicycle repair
and education (4.7) was ranked as a more positive impact. The winter natural
environment category identified that debris free surfaces would result in a positive
impact in Prince George (5.5), Smithers (5.9) and Whitehorse (5.0).
The case study Tables 12, 15 and 18, showing frequently cycled streets, is
provided, in addition to the combined cyclists’ route maps to provide further indication
of infrastructure types. Table 12 sorts the streets usage by frequency from low to high
use, as indicated by participants for both summer, winter, and combined seasons.
The lightest green colours represent low street or path use and the darkest green
colour shows highest street or path use. The values of green do not indicate a true
count of cyclists, but rather a bracket count. The green spectrum is represents the
division of total counts into five equal pools within each sample. This means that a
dark green street in the winter cycling map will not be an equivalent count to dark
green in the summer cycling map. Rather, both dark green streets represent the
highest proportion of cyclists in the sample overall. This is true for across case study
communities as well.
73

Table 10. Case Study Descriptive Summer Cyclists
Item

Prince George

Smithers

Whitehorse

n = 73
SD

n = 69
SD

n = 28
SD

M
M
M
Built Environment (1= very negatively or small impact, 6= very positive or large impact)
Conventional bike lanes
4.3
1.0
4.1
0.9
4.0
Bicycle boulevards
3.9
1.3
3.8
1.1
4.1
Painted intersections
4.0
1.1
4.0
1.2
4.0
Solid painted bike lanes
3.9
1.1
4.0
1.2
4.0
Cyclist-overpasses
4.1
1.1
4.0
1.0
3.0
Cyclist-underpasses
3.7
1.2
4.0
0.8
3.0
Protected bike lanes
4.4
1.0
4.5
1.0
5.0
Buffered bike lanes
4.3
0.9
4.0
1.1
5.0
Raised cycle tracks
3.6
1.1
3.2
1.2
4.1
Cycle tracks
4.3
0.9
4.1
1.0
4.4
Multi-use paths
4.0
1.0
4.2
1.0
3.8
Social Environment (1= very negatively or small impact, 6= very positive or large impact)
Support for summer ride
4.0
1.7
4.6
1.0
4.3
groups
Support for cyclist and driver 6.0
2.1
5.4
1.3
4.5
education
Support for bicycle repair
5.0
1.8
5.1
1.2
5.0
education
Attitudes towards aggressive 1.0
1.5
2.3
1.5
1.6
driving
Arriving in unpleasant
3.0
1.4
3.5
0.8
3.5
conditions
Unwanted attention
4.0
1.3
3.7
0.8
3.5
Bike Theft
2.0
1.8
3.3
1.2
3.1
Lack of time
4.0
1.1
3.2
1.4
1.6
Natural Environment (1= very negatively or small impact, 6= very positive or large impact)
Debris removal
5.5
2.0
5.8
1.6
4.6

74

1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.6
1.6
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.8
1.0
0.8
2.0

Table 11. Case Study Descriptive Winter Cyclists
Item

M

Prince George

Smithers

Whitehorse

n = 31

n = 41

n = 24

SD

M

SD

M

Built Environment (1= very negatively or small impact, 6= very positive or large impact)
Painted intersections
5.3
1.4
5.3
1.5
3.8
Cyclist-overpasses
5.0
1.4
5.1
1.4
4.1
Cyclist-underpasses
5.0
1.4
5.2
1.1
4.4
Bike Carriers on Transit
5.0
1.2
4.7
1.3
4.4
Year round bike racks
5.3
1.2
5.0
1.5
4.2
Lighting on routes
5.7
1.2
5.8
1.1
5.0
Visibility of lane markings
5.3
1.6
5.5
1.5
4.0

SD
1.5
0.2
0.9
1.5
0.8
1.6
1.4

Social Environment (1= very negatively or small impact, 6= very positive or large impact)
Support for summer ride
groups
Support for cyclist and driver
education
Support for bicycle repair
education
Attitudes towards aggressive
driving
Arriving in unpleasant
conditions
Unwanted attention
Bike Theft

4.6

0.9

4.3

0.9

4.2

0.5

5.5

1.5

5.5

1.4

4.5

1.6

5.1

1.2

4.9

1.1

4.7

0.8

2.8

1.6

3.4

2.0

1.7

0.9

3.5

1.4

3.3

1.2

2.9

0.9

3.8
3.0

0.5
1.5

3.8
3.4

0.8
1.1

3.5
3.4

0.8
0.7

Natural Environment (1= very negatively or small impact, 6= very positive or large impact)
Debris Removal

5.5

2.0

5.9

1.7

5.0

2.4

4.3.2 Cyclists’ Maps: Prince George
Prince George Cyclists’ maps provided an additional measure of survey
participants’ riding experiences in terms of comfort level. Prince George cyclists’
comfort levels in the summer were rated as comfortable (m = 4.17) on a scale from
Very Uncomfortable to Very Comfortable, while winter while cycle comfort levels were
uncomfortable (m = 2.29). This may be reflective of the bike lane types available to
75

the cyclists for their typical utilitarian trips. The distribution of various cycling
infrastructure types used by Prince George cyclists is shown in the chart below
(Figure 13). Cyclists in this sample spent 31% of their trips on conventional bike
lanes, 31% on mixed traffic streets, 23% on roads with bicycle boulevards, 10% on
multi-use paths, and 5.1% on bicyclists prohibited streets.
Additionally, when Prince George survey participants were asked about the
desirability of various cycling infrastructure types (e.g., bicycle boulevard, buffered
bicycle lanes, protected bike lanes, cycle tracks, raised cycle tracks, multi-use bike
lanes, conventional bicycle lanes, fully painted bicycle lanes, and painted
intersections), they preferred protected bicycle lanes (4.4) (Table 10). The second
highest ranked desirable bicycle infrastructure was conventional bicycle lanes (4.3) &
buffered bike lanes (4.3) (Table 12).

Figure 13. Prince George Summer & Winter Infrastructure Types

76

The only high frequency route indication for summer and winter combined
routes was Carney Street, between 5th and 8th Ave (Figure 15). Carney Street has
conventional bicycle lanes. River Road (conventional bike lanes) and University Way
(conventional bike lanes) were both found to be high frequency routes in the summer
season. The University of Northern British Columbia also demonstrates the highest
proportion of summer trips, despite the long inclining road. The majority of mediumhigh frequency summer cycling trips among the participants took place on multi-use
paved paths and conventional bike lanes, with the exception of Queensway. These
routes included Carney Street (conventional bike lanes), Cottonwood Trail (multi-use
paved path), Cowart Road (conventional bike lane), Heritage Trail (multi-use paved
path), Massey Drive (conventional bike lane and bicycle boulevard), Queensway
(mixed traffic), and Taylor Drive. (multi-use paved path) (see Figure 15).
The only high frequency winter cycling route among the Prince George winter
cyclist sample was University Way (conventional bike lane) (Figure 16). Among the
Prince George Winter Cyclists group, a medium-high frequency of cycle streets
included 15th Avenue (conventional bike lane), Ahbau Street (bicycle boulevard),
Foothills Boulevard (conventional bike lane), Harry Lodger Trail (multi-use gravel
trail), North Nechako Road (conventional bike lane), Prince George Pulpmill Road
(conventional bike lane). As shown in Table 12, cyclists accessed most of the city
year-round using multiple streets. In total, cyclists in Prince George commonly
engaged with seven different types of cycling street infrastructure levels of modal
separation, including multi-use path (paved), bicycle boulevard & multi-use path
(paved), conventional bike lane, conventional bike lane & bicycle boulevard, bicycle
boulevard, mixed traffic and bicyclists prohibited.
77

Table 12. Prince George Frequently Cycled Summer & Winter Routes
Streets Frequently Used

Type of Cyclist Summer and
Infrastructure
Winter Use

Carney St

CBL

University Way, Rainbow Rd

CBL

River Rd

CBL

Taylor Dr

MU-P

Queensway

MU

15th Ave

CBL

5th Ave

P

9th Ave

MT

Victoria St

BLVD

3rd Ave

MT

Carney St

BLVD

Ospika Blvd S

CBL

7th Ave

BLVD

17th Ave

CBL

5th Ave

P

Gillett St

MT

Cottonwood Trail

MU-G

Cowart Rd

CBL

Heritage Trail

MU-P

Massey Dr

CBL

Foothill Blvd

CBL

North Nechako Rd

CBL

Ahbau St

BLVD

Harry Lodger Trail

T

PG Pulpmill Rd

MU

10th Ave

CBL

18th Ave

BLVD

Johnson St

MT

Laurier Cres

BLVD

Ospika Blvd North

CBL

Patricia Blvd

CBL

Queensway

MU

Tabour Blvd

CBL

UNBC Campus Ring Road

MT

Irwin St

MT

Ferry Ave

CBL

78

Summer Use
Only

Winter Use Only

Memorial Cemetery Trail

MU-P

Tyner Blvd

BLVD

Westwood Rd

BLVD

8th Ave

CBL

Douglas St

MT

Quebec St

MU

Ewert St

MT

Freeman St

MT

George St

MT

Ash St

MT

Central St E

MT

Edmonton St

MT

Kerry St.

BLVD

Oak St

MT

Quin St S

MT

Note: This Table corresponds with the Prince George frequent route maps. The Table refers to only the
medium (lightest value green), medium-high (medium value green) and high frequency routes (darkest
value green).
Types of cycling infrastructure has been abbreviated.
CBL
Conventional bike lane
MT
Mixed traffic streets
MU
Multi-use path
MU-P
Multi-use paved path
MU-G
Multi-use gravel path
P
Prohibited
BLVD
Bicycle boulevard
T
Trail

79

Foothills Blvd

N
Nor th
o
echak
10th Ave

Irwin St

o

5th Ave

Ra inbow Rd

5th Ave

3rd

River Rd

Ave

9th

a Bl v d

PG Pulpmill Rd

t r ic i

ail

Co
t

Pa

3rd
Ave
5th
Ave

Blvd

Ave

ricia
Pat

e

oo
tonw d Tr

15th Ave

g
Herita

r
rD
Ta
ylo

Ospi
ka B
lvd
N

18th Ave

Win
nip
eg
Ferry Ave

rt R
d

Tra
il

Johnson St

r th

Rd

Figure 14. Prince George Cyclists’ Full Summer Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

M

Carney St
Cow
a

Quensway

St
r ia
Vic
to

Higher Frequency Use

Victoria

Blvd
Ospik
a

Lower Frequency Use

s y Dr
as

rier Cres
Lau

M
C em
Ru em ori
str ete al
ic ry Pa
rk
Tra
il

d
R
od
wo
t
s
We

Tabor Blvd
d
r Blv
Tyne

Way
y
ersit
Univ

Foothills Blvd

Ra inbow Rd

Tabor Blvd

Ospik
a

Blvd

5th Ave

10th Ave

15th Ave

Blvd
r
e
Tyn

y
ersit
v
i
n
U

Way

18th Ave

Lower Frequency Use

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 15. Prince George Cyclists’ University Way Summer and Winter Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

Foothills Blvd

Un

ity
ivers

Way

Tabor Blvd

5th Ave

Quin St S

Ra inbow Rd
er
dg
Lo
rry
Ha rail
T

18th Ave

Lower Frequency Use

15th Ave

Kerry St

Ospika Blvd

Nor
t
h
N
e
c
h
ako Rd

10th Ave

Johnson St

Higher Frequency Use

Carney St

Edm
o

rier Cres
nto Lau
nS
t

Win
nip
eg

Blvd

17th

7
t
h
Ave
9t
h
A
ve

ricia
Pat

Victoria St

St

Vic
to

Oak St

ria
S

t

Figure 16. Prince George Prince George Cyclists’ Downtown Winter Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

PG Pulpmill Rd

Quensway

4.3.3 Correlations: Prince George
In Prince George, summer medium strength of correlations (r = .3 to .49 or r
= -.3 to -.49) were shown between non-protected infrastructure with protected
infrastructure (r = .472), significant at a .01 level on a two tailed test. Aside from
protected and non-protected infrastructure, there were no other strong correlations
revealed in Prince George (Tables 13 and 14). The correlation tests performed on
Prince George’s cyclists did not illuminate any major contributing factors to
environmental conditions and comfort. This test did indicate that protected
infrastructure versus non protected infrastructure may have notable importance in
terms of increasing cyclists comfort levels. Comfort was further attributed to be
significant between Prince George and Whitehorse; however comfort was not
significantly different across the communities of Prince George and Smithers.

Table 13. Prince George Survey Correlations Summer
SC

SB

SS

SB

CC

0.024

SS

CC

-0.147

0.183

NP

CC

0.241

0.042

-0.107

P

CC

0.093

-0.045

-0.023

NP

P

.472**

The variables compared in the correlation tables were Summer Comfort (Sc); Winter Comfort (WC);
Summer Built Environment (SB); Winter Built Environment (WB); Summer Social (SS); Winter Social (WS);
Non-Protected (NP) And Protected (P).
Notes: Pearsons correlation product moment coefficient used to calculate linear correlation. Correlation
strength interpreted using Cohen’s (1988) guidelines: r = .10 to .29 or r = -.10 to -.29 is small; r = .3 to .49
or r = -.3 to -.49 is medium; r = .5 to 1.0 or r = -.5 to -1.0 is large.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

83

Table 14. Prince George Survey Correlations Winter
WC

WB

WS

WC CC
WB CC

0.208

WS CC

0.233

0.09
1

The variables compared in the correlation tables were Summer Comfort (Sc); Winter Comfort (WC);
Summer Built Environment (SB); Winter Built Environment (WB); Summer Social (SS); Winter Social
(WS); Non-Protected (NP) And Protected (P).
Notes: Pearsons correlation product moment coefficient used to calculate linear correlation.
Correlation strength interpreted using Cohen’s (1988) guidelines: r = .10 to .29 or r = -.10 to -.29 is
small; r = .3 to .49 or r = -.3 to -.49 is medium; r = .5 to 1.0 or r = -.5 to -1.0 is large.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Bicycle lane maintenance issues were indicated by Prince George survey
participants for both summer and winter seasons, which raised safety concerns and
prevented some cyclists from trying winter cycling. For example:
“I typically don't commute [in the winter season] because of the lack
of designated areas and winter drivers making conditions very
questionable for safety.” (Prince George Participant #11).
“[Would try it out] if paths are clear and sidewalks”.
(Prince George Participant #34)
Certain participants in this study revealed that their main motivation to cycle
was to instil the benefits of cycling to others, either by introducing it to their children
or by demonstrating their mode preference to other road users. For example:
“[I choose to cycle commute] [t]o increase the visible and real wave
of cyclists in [Prince George]. The more cyclists seen on the streets
cycling in a safe and considerate manner the greater and quicker
will be the attitudinal shift in in [Prince George] drivers towards
cyclists and the more drivers will consider taking a bike once in a
while themselves. There is a tipping point to attitudinal and
behavioral changes and when the number and commitment reach a
certain number then the change in the rest of society changes very
quick and maybe not a conversation [about] biking but at least a
conversion to a more positive, accepting behavior from car drivers.”
(Prince George Participant #73)
84

4.3.4 Cyclists’ Maps: Smithers
Smithers Cyclists’ maps provided an accurate reflection of survey
participants riding experiences in terms of comfort level. Smithers cyclists’ comfort
levels in the summer were rated as comfortable (m = 4.18) and winter cycle
commuting was rated uncomfortable (m = 2.29). This may be reflective of the bike
lane types available to the cyclists for their typical utilitarian trips. The percentage of
distributed types of cycling infrastructure used by Smithers cyclists surveyed is
shown in the chart below (Figure 17). Cyclists in this sample spent 94% of their trips
on mixed traffic streets, 3% on streets with bicycle boulevards, and 3% on multi-use
paths (Figure 17).

Figure 17. Smithers’ Summer & Winter Infrastructure Types

85

The highest frequency routes in Smithers in the summer season included the
Yellowhead Hwy (mixed traffic) and Old Babine Road (mixed traffic) (Table 15). The
two main sections along the Yellowhead Highway (the deepest green shade) and
highest frequency scale include Dominion Street to Tatlow Road and Old Babine
Road to Viewmount Road (Table 15). The Yellowhead Highway was the only route
that presented the highest frequency use in summer, winter, and combined season
map outputs. Old Babine Road (mixed traffic) between the Yellowhead Highway and
Viewmount Road also revealed highest frequency use. The next highest frequency
Smithers summer routes used were (in alphabetical order): Dahlie Rd. (mixed traffic),
Frontage Rd. (mixed traffic), Hudson Bay Mtn Rd. (mixed traffic), Pacific St. (mixed
traffic and recommended cycle route), Railway Ave. (mixed traffic and recommended
cycle route), Smithers Perimeter Trail (multi-use gravel path), and Victoria Dr (mixed
traffic) (Figure 19).
Smithers’ winter medium and high use streets dropped from a total of nine
routes in the summer season to four in the winter season. The highest frequency
route identified was the Yellowhead Hwy, which was seen earlier in the summer
season. The two main sections along the Yellowhead Hwy (mixed traffic)
representing the highest winter use include Alberta St to Tatlow Rd and Old Babine
Rd to Viewmount Rd. In the winter season, Smithers’ medium-high use streets
included; King St (mixed traffic recommended), Old Babine Rd (mixed traffic),
Smithers Perimeter Trail (multi-use gravel path) (Figure 21).

86

Table 15: Smithers’ Frequently Cycled Summer & Winter Routes
Streets Frequently Used

Cyclist
Infrastructure

Yellowhead Hwy
King St
Main St
Old Babine Rd
Smithers Perimeter Trail
Pacific St
Railway Ave
Victoria Dr
Frontage Rd
Hudson Bay Mtn Rd
Dahlie Rd
4th Ave
Queen St
16th Ave
2nd Ave
10th Ave
15th Ave
Bulkley Dr
Fulton Rd
Tatlow Rd
Elm Dr
Toronto St
7th Ave
11th Ave
12th Ave
3rd Ave
1st Ave
13th Ave
14th Ave
19th Ave
8th Ave
9th Ave
Carnaby St
Alberta St
Broadway Ave
Columbia St
Dominion St
Rosenthal Rd

MT
MT -R
MT
MT
MU-G
MT -R
MT -R
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT -R
MT -R
BLVD
MT
MT
MT -R
MU-P
MT
MT
MT -R
MT
MT
MT
BLVD
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT -R
MT
MT
MT -R
MT
MT
MT
MT
87

Summer and
Winter Use

Summer
Use Only

Winter Use
Only

Note: Types of cycling infrastructure has been abbreviated. This Table corresponds with
the Prince George frequent route maps. The Table refers to only the medium (lightest
value green), medium-high (medium value green) and high frequency routes (darkest
value green).
MT Mixed traffic streets
MT-R Mixed traffic streets, recommended route
MU Multi-use path
MU-G Multi-use gravel path BLVD Bicycle boulevard

88

Lower Frequency Use

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 18. Smithers Cyclists’ Full Map Summer Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

Lower Frequency Use

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 19. Smithers Cyclists’ Yellowhead Highway Summer Winter Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

Lower Frequency Use

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 20. Smithers Cyclists’ Downtown Summer Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

Sm
i

the
rs

Pe
ri

me
ter

h
4t

in
Ma
K

St

m
Do

St
g
n
i

on
ini

St
A

r ta
e
b
l

St

ith
s
er
er
et
rim
Pe
il
Tra

it
Sm

r
he

erimeter
sP

19th Ave

Sm
3rd Ave

Dr
oria
Vict

14th Ave
13th Ave

e
Av

St

e
Av
th
19

ve
tA
1s

n
ee
u
Q

Tra
il

Yell
owh
ead

Hwy

Old Babine Rd
Pacific St

Hudson Bay Mountain Rd

Da

e
h li

Rd

Monkton Rd

Lower Frequency Use

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 21. Smithers Cyclists’ Downtown Winter Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

4.3.5 Cyclists’ Maps: Smithers
The largest linearity of correlation in the Smithers’ sample was summer non- protected
infrastructure with protected infrastructure (.455**), demonstrating a two tailed test, similar to the
Prince George sample (Table 13). Other correlations were less than small relations. Correlations
between summer and winter comfort were even less apparent (Tables 16 & 17). The correlation
tests performed on Smither’s cyclists preferred infrastructure types as well as comfort levels across
seasons did not illuminate any new understandings or avenue for further investigation. Performing
the correlation study did provide value in identifying that the cyclists in this community did not
attribute comfort to be a direct link to protected infrastructure or warmer climate. Comfort was
further attributed to be significant between Smithers and Whitehorse, however comfort was not
significantly different across the communities of Prince George and Smithers.
Table 16. Smithers Survey Correlations Summer
SB
SS
NP
P

CC
CC
CC
CC

SC
-0.140
0.055
-0.050
-.276*

SB

SS

NP

0.146
0.108
0.141

-0.281
-0.236

.455**

P

The variables compared in the correlation tables were Summer Comfort (Sc); Winter Comfort (WC);
Summer Built Environment (SB); Winter Built Environment (WB); Summer Social (SS); Winter Social (WS);
Non- Protected (NP) And Protected (P).
Notes: Pearsons correlation product moment coefficient used to calculate linear correlation. Correlation
strength interpreted using Cohen’s (1988) guidelines: r = .10 to .29 or r = -.10 to -.29 is small; r = .3 to .49
or r
= -.3 to -.49 is medium; r = .5 to 1.0 or r = -.5 to -1.0 is large.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

93

Table 17. Smithers Survey Correlations Winter
WC
WB
WS

CC
CC
CC

WC

WB

-0.053
-0.018

-0.008

WS

The variables compared in the correlation tables were Summer Comfort (Sc); Winter Comfort (WC); Summer
Built Environment (SB); Winter Built Environment (WB); Summer Social (SS); Winter Social (WS); NonProtected (NP) And Protected (P).
Notes: Pearsons correlation product moment coefficient used to calculate linear correlation. Correlation
strength interpreted using Cohen’s (1988) guidelines: r = .10 to .29 or r = -.10 to -.29 is small; r = .3 to .49 or r
= -.3 to -.49 is medium; r = .5 to 1.0 or r = -.5 to -1.0 is large.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Bicycle lane maintenance issues in Smithers in both summer and winter seasons were
similar to those raised by Prince George participants, creating concerns for safety and preventing
some cyclists from trying winter cycling.
For example:
“Road must be relatively clear of snow and ice or else no biking! Too
dangerous!” (Smithers Participant #57).
“I'm often biking with my two young children, so conditions need to be safe...”
(Smithers Participant #18).
“Prefer not to cycle once the sand/salt is on the roads. Salt rusts the chain
and other components.” (Smithers Participant #9).
Public transit or personal vehicle ownership in northern BC is not always available to all residents,
as indicated by some survey participants:
My motivation to cycle commute is “To get where I need to go. No car or bus.” (Smithers
Participant #57).
“[To] accommodate walking disability”. (Smithers Participant #28).
Similar to Prince George participants, some Smithers participants stated that cycle
commuting was recognized as an important experience to pass on to future generations:
94

“Be a positive role model for my children to reduce carbon emissions and
incorporate physical fitness into daily living”. (Smithers Participant #01).
“To teach my child to bike & leisure.” (Smithers Participant #54).
4.3.6 Cyclists’ Maps: Whitehorse
Whitehorse cyclists’ maps provided an accurate reflection of survey participants’ riding
experiences in terms of comfort level. Whitehorse cyclists’ comfort levels in the summer were rated
as Comfortable (m = 4.9) and winter cycle commutes were rated Uncomfortable (m = 3.42). A
higher comfort level in both summer and winter existed in Whitehorse in comparison to Prince
George and Smithers. This is likely due to the presence of protected multi-use path infrastructure,
as well as a winter bike lane route and bike lane clearance priorities. The percentage of distributed
types of cycling infrastructure used by Whitehorse cyclists is shown in the chart below (Figure 22).
The mapping study showed that the city’s paved multi-use paths (69% total) provide great yearround access to the entire city. Conventional bike lanes were used for the remaining 31% of routes
used (Figure 23).

Figure 22. Whitehorse Summer & Winter Infrastructure Types

95

Table 18 shows a breakdown of the Whitehorse participant’s cycling routes. The Trans
Canada Hwy Trail Connector (multi-use path), Millennium Trail (multi-use path), and Robert
Service Way (conventional bike lane) were the highest frequency routes during the summer
months (Figure 24). Among the many mixed-use paved paths, one of Whitehorse cyclists’ favorites
was Trans Canada Trail Connector Trail (multi-use path), which connects Whitehorse North with
Whitehorse South, while seamlessly transitioning into the Millennium Trail, Robert Campbell
Bridge, and Robert Service Way (Figure 28). Non-paved, gravel paths including the Lower
Riverdale Trail (multi-use path) and the Riverdale Powerline (multi-use path gravel) were also
popular routes in the summer season. Close to half (46%) of cyclists’ routes occurred on some
form of multi-use paved pathways (Figure 22), regardless of the fact that the survey revealed that
Whitehorse cyclists ranked multi- use paths #7 in the infrastructure desirability. The second largest
majority of cycling infrastructure used included conventional cycling lanes at 30%. The survey
showed that conventional cycling lanes were ranked #10 among cycling participants’ desirability
infrastructure list. In the summer season, Whitehorse’s conventional bike lanes; Range Road.,
Robert Service Way, Lewes Boulevard, Klondike Highway, College Drive, and Alaska Highway
received moderate to high frequency of cycling usage.
Conventional bike lanes were less popular in the winter months. Range Road. and the
Alaska Highway were the only exception, as they continued to have moderate cycling frequency
through the winter months (Figure 26). The less popular Whitehorse summer routes include the
Middle MacIntyre Brown Powerline Trail as well as the Alaska Highway, which both appear to be
more popular in the winter months (Figure 27).
There are many other separated multi-use pathways that are well utilized throughout the
winter, such as the Baxter Trail, Millennium Trail, Robert Service Way, Lewis Boulevard, and the
96

Rotary Centennial Bridge (Figure 26 and 28). Some of the more moderately used conventional bike
lanes include: Range Road, College Drive, Lewes Boulevard, and the Alaska Highway. Less
popular winter cycling routes include the Lower Riverdale Trail and the Riverdale Power line (both
gravel paths and non-maintained in terms of snow removal or grooming throughout the winter
months).

97

Table 18. Whitehorse Frequently Cycled Summer & Winter Routes
Summer and
Streets Frequently Used
Cyclist
Infrastructure Winter Use

Trans Canada Hwy

MU-P

Millennium Trail

MU-P

Robert Service Way

CBL

Middle MacIntyre
Powerline Trail

MU-P

Range Rd

CBL

Lower Riverdale Trail

MU-G

Riverdale Powerline

MU-G

Lewes Blvd

CBL

Baxter Trail

MU-P

College Dr

CBL

Rotary Centennial Bridge

MU-P

Klondike Hwy

CBL

Alaska Hwy

CBL

Summer Use
Only

Winter Use Only

Note: Types of cycling infrastructure has been abbreviated. This Table corresponds with the
Prince George frequent route maps. The Table refers to only the medium (lightest value
green), medium-high (medium value green) and high frequency routes (darkest value green).
MT Mixed traffic streets
MT-R Mixed traffic streets, recommended route
MU Multi-use path
MU-G Multi-use gravel path BLVD Bicycle boulevard

98

Ra

nge

Rd

acIntyre
e
Middle M
Powerlin

V
ain
unt

Dr
iew

il

t
et S
S tr e

airs

a
nad
s Ca ctor
Tranil Conne
Tra

k
Blac

ra
ter T
Bax

er
Lowrdale
RiveTrail

ay
ce W
ervi

wy

ine
erl
w
Po

H
ke
ndi

Figure 24. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Full Summer Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

lvd
es B
Lew
m
nniu
MileTrail

ert S
Rob

Klo

Higher Frequency Use

Lower Frequency Use

Mo

College Dr

Brown

Takhini

Two Mile
Hill Rd

Two Mile Hill Rd

o
ilko
h
C

ay
W
t

3r d
Ave
Ave
6th

t

a
nad
s Ca ctor
Tranil Conne
Tra

s
tair
et S

Ave

Stre

4th

l
Trai

k
Blac

ter
Bax

kS
c
a
l
B

rE
we
Lo
rpm
sca
en
l

es
Lew

rai
tT

nium
l
Trai

r
Se
e
vic
ay
W

y
Hw

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 25. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Downtown Summer Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

d
Blv

n
Mile

rt
be
Ro

e
dik
on
Kl
Lower Frequency Use

College Dr

Brown
acIntyre
e
Middle M
Powerlin

Range Rd

Takhini

Qua
rt

Two Mile
Hill Rd

z Rd

oot
k
l
i
Ch Way

a
nad
s Ca ctor
Tranil Conne
Tra

i rs
Sta
reet
k St
Blac
rail
ter T
Bax
Alaska Hwy
c
ervi
rt S

lvd
es B
Lew
m
nniu
MileTrail

e
Rob
ay
eW

Lower Frequency Use

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 26. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Full Winter
Routes. Map by Sam West. Enhancements by
Author.

ai
unt
Mo
nV
r

Range

D
iew

Rd

Pine
St

acIntyre
Middle M
e
Powerlin
Brown

Yukon Arts
Centre

Ala

Lower Frequency Use

sk
aH
wy

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 27. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Winter MacIntyre Powerline Trail.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

Two Mile Hill Rd

ilko
h
C

o

ay
W
t

3rd
Ave
Ave
6th

t

a
nad
s Ca ctor
Tranil Conne
Tra

4th
Ave

St
reet

H
Alaska

k St

il

B la c

ra
ter T
Bax

kS
c
a
l
B

airs

wy

r
we
Lo
Es
rpm
ca
t
en
es
Lew

il
Tra

Se
lk
irk

rail
mT

St

d
Blv

nniu
Mile

r
be
Ro
tS
er
e
vi c

y
Hw

ay
W

e
dik
on
Kl
Lower Frequency Use

Higher Frequency Use

Figure 28. Whitehorse Cyclists’ Downtown Winter Routes.
Map by Sam West. Enhancements by Author.

4.3.7 Correlations: Whitehorse
There were no strong relationships of correlation in this sample in either the
summer or winter season (Table 19 and 20). Though both Prince George and
Smithers had a small relationship between summer protected and non-protected
infrastructure, this was not evident in Whitehorse. Correlation tests show that
Whitehorse has been able to establish an unprecedented level of comfort in
comparison to Prince George and Smithers perhaps due to the higher amount of mixuse paths in Whitehorse.
Table 19. Whitehorse Survey Correlations Summer
SB
SS
NP
P

CC
CC
CC
CC

SC
0.255
-0.283
0.257
0.228

SB

SS

NP

0.112
0.229
0.124

-0.133
-0.249

.231

P

The variables compared in the correlation tables were Summer Comfort (Sc); Winter Comfort (WC); Summer
Built Environment (SB); Winter Built Environment (WB); Summer Social (SS); Winter Social (WS); NonProtected (NP) And Protected (P).
Notes: Pearsons correlation product moment coefficient used to calculate linear correlation. Correlation
strength interpreted using Cohen’s (1988) guidelines: r = .10 to .29 or r = -.10 to -.29 is small; r = .3 to .49 or r
= -.3 to -.49 is medium; r = .5 to 1.0 or r = -.5 to -1.0 is large.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 20. Whitehorse Survey Correlations Winter
WC
WB
WS

CC
CC
CC

WC

WB

-0.035
0.113

0.192

The variables compared in the correlation tables were Summer Comfort (Sc); Winter Comfort (WC); Summer Built
Environment (SB); Winter Built Environment (WB); Summer Social (SS); Winter Social (WS); Non- Protected (NP)
And Protected (P).
Notes: Pearsons correlation product moment coefficient used to calculate linear correlation. Correlation strength
interpreted using Cohen’s (1988) guidelines: r = .10 to .29 or r = -.10 to -.29 is small; r = .3 to .49 or r
= -.3 to -.49 is medium; r = .5 to 1.0 or r = -.5 to -1.0 is large.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

104

One survey participant indicated that complete cycling networks that span
through the entire city boundary are critical to make non-motorized access available
to all:
“[T]here is no public transportation available.”
(Whitehorse Participant #23).
A Whitehorse survey participant provided the following response in support of this
trail plan initiative:
“The biggest negative impact is a lack of bike trails in Whitehorse.
Highway biking sucks. Unfortunately, 21km of my 24km commute
is highway.” (Whitehorse participant #23).
Several survey participants indicated that winter weather created greater concern
than aggressive driving in poor street surface conditions. For example:
“Weather conditions are to harsh in the Yukon for a 24km bike
commute. snow is not cleared anyways and because of the traffic
it's just too dangerous”.… “Since my commute is 24km these
factors [cold temperatures, hot temperatures, wind, rain, snow, ice,
lack of daylight, wildlife encounters] are much more important as
they would be on a shorter ride.” (Whitehorse Participant #23).
“I typically don't commute because of the lack of designated areas
and winter drivers making conditions very questionable for safety.”
(Whitehorse Participant #11).
“Whitehorse cycling infrastructure is not set up for winter, in my
opinion. Snow & ice make the bike lanes unusable & even with
lights I feel that it's hard for drivers to see bikes.” (Whitehorse
Participant #27).
For some cyclists surveyed, winter cycling presented a financial barrier, as
many cyclists feel they need a second bike and gear for different road conditions
105

(e.g., rider wear, high visibility lights, more frequent bike servicing, and additional tire
costs). Many winter cyclists often choose to use a larger tire with greater traction or
studs. The City of Banff, BC, has provided winter cyclists with tire rebates of fifty
dollars to help with the added costs of winter cycling. Winter bicycle tire rebates have
not been implemented in Whitehorse.
For example:
“I need very expensive gear if I want to bike in… winter. I would
like to. But I have to save first. I would also likely need a different
bike... one I'm less worried about crashing & one with killer
breaks!” (Whitehorse Participant #9).
Whitehorse continually educates the community about the existing cycling
infrastructure by providing signage along all bicycle lanes, as well as by painting
larger barriers between cyclists and vehicles, which have a higher visual indication
during the summer months opposed to single line painted lane dividers (an example
of a painted buffer can be seen in Figure 29). When asked,
“What impact would/do the following personal/social factors
(ride groups, lack of time, unwanted attention, bicycle repair
education, arriving sweaty, aggressive driving, cyclist and driver
education, bike theft) have on your satisfaction with summer
cycle commuting?”,
many cyclists in the case study communities ranked aggressive driving as the most
negative impact on summer cycling satisfaction. For example:
“A creepy dude yelled at me while I was riding home tonight. It
doesn't happen too often- but it REALLY sucks when it does.”
(Whitehorse Participant #9).
“Drivers not yielding to cyclists is a negative experience”.
(Whitehorse Participant #24).
106

The median (2.0) (n=150, SD=1.47) of cyclists in all communities ranked
aggressive driving as “negative” on a 1 to 7 likert scale.

Figure 28. Whitehorse Intended Painted Buffers
Photo credit: Moving ahead.

4.4

Cyclists’ Interactions with the Natural Environment

Winter attitudes among the cyclists in the survey sample showed that they
were not deterred from cycle commuting unless the weather dropped below negative
fifteen Degrees Celsius (Table 21). Freshly fallen snow of three inches or more was
also a noted barrier to prevent cyclists from commuting (Table 21). Whitehorse
107

participants were slightly more resilient to the harsh conditions, perhaps as they have
adapted to living in a colder environment with a more severe winter to that of Prince
George and Smithers. October presented the most difficulty for cyclists as the
temperature and climate changes resulted in a reduction of cyclists by 53% (Prince
George), 30% (Smithers) and 11% (Whitehorse) compared to peak cycling in June
(100%). November bared even further decline of cyclists by 83% (Prince George),
68% (Smithers) and 30% (Whitehorse). January Cycling numbers were the lowest
across all three communities 9% (Prince George), 22% (Smithers) and 56%
(Whitehorse).
Table 21. Case Study Cyclists’ Personal Attitudes
Questions

Prince
George
n = 73

Smithers
n = 69

Whitehorse
n = 28

Combined
n= 170

How cold is too cold to cycle
commute?

-15°C
1.7 SD

-15°C
1.8 SD

-20°C
1.3 SD

-15 °C
1.7 SD

How much snow is too much
snow?

3-5”
1.6 SD

3-5”
1.1 SD

6-8”
1.6 SD

3.5” depth
1.4 SD

% of recreational cyclist among
cycle commuters

47%

47%

47%

47%

Physical Health

19.20%

18.30%

16.30%

17.91%

Mental Health

14.80%

13.60%

13.80%

14.05%

Reduce emissions

11.90%

13.30%

15.60%

13.61%

Reduce air pollution

13.10%

13.00%

11.90%

12.66%

To save costs

12.80%

13.00%

11.30%

12.35%

Preferred over driving

9.30%

12.50%

14.40%

12.05%

Convenience

9.00%

10.50%

10%

9.85%

Preferred over transit

9.90%

5.80%

6.90%

7.53%

What is your main motivation to
cycle commute?

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4.5

Winter Season Cyclists (November to April)

Of the Prince George cyclists sampled, 31 participants (46%) identified as
winter season cyclists. In Smithers, 49 participants (71%) identified as winter season
cyclists. In Whitehorse, 24 participants (89%) identified as winter season cyclists.
These percentage breakdowns are shown in Figure 30.

Figure 29. Case Study Comparison of Winter Cyclists

The cyclist counts were the highest in June (Figure 31). This might be due to
several factors, including the fact that the temperature is mild and comfortable. High
count estimates in June may have also been related to the 2018 Go By Bike week
events (May 27 to June 3). Nearly all of the cyclists surveyed commuted from May to
September, with a slight variance. Numbers significantly dropped in October to 64%
(average across communities), and November to 32% (average across
109

communities), and January had the lowest percentile of cyclists at just 23% (average
across communities).

Figure 30. Case Study Cyclists Riding Per Month

The cyclists who found challenges with cycling in the winter identified
negative experiences with snow removal practices, as well as sharing roads with
motor vehicles, as significant deterrents. Responses to the survey provide context to
these issues on an individual level. For example, negative relationships with snow
removal procedures are indicated in the following survey responses:
“Snow in itself is not a deterrent, but the bike lanes get plowed in
when the roads are cleared or busy. Riding during a snowfall or on
the snow is fine, but it can be a temporary delay or deterrent.”
(Whitehorse Participant #18).
“Gravel road conditions [make my commute not possible] to ride
for 1-2 weeks after grader work.” (Smithers Participant #22).
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The case study cyclists’ data in combination with local policies presented
in the next chapter provide under explored insights into what cyclists’
experience in northern communities. As the following chapter shows, the policy
scan across case studies is one of the few of its kind to compare policies
related to cycling in both summer and winter months. Few studies in this area
of research have had the ability to connect policy, survey responses with route
mapping. Cyclist’ route maps provided a critical piece to this research which
will be further explored in the discussions chapter. The discussions chapter will
step back to provide an over arching response to what the data collected from
each community reveals in terms of more broadly applied lessons for cycling
planning in northern Canadian communities.

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Chapter 5: Discussion

5.1 Introduction
This research aimed to reveal what factors contribute to cycling satisfaction
in small, northern Canadian cycling communities. Through a process of case studies,
literature review, policy scans, and surveying, this thesis assembled some ideas
around how both the external environment (e.g., built infrastructure, geography,
weather) and internal environments (e.g., social factors, personal attitudes) impact
the satisfaction of cyclists’ commute. This Discussion Chapter will review key
components and findings of Chapter Four (Results) while comparing case study
cities. This reflection should provide the reader with a more detailed perspective as to
how the policies reviewed in triangulation with survey and mapping results have
allowed the cities to test out various forms of cycling infrastructure as well as
provides a broader focus on how this study compares to other related studies,
including larger centres and global winter cities.
Several different approaches were used to consider the results of the data
gathered from each case study, including policy discourse, survey participants
cycling route maps, correlations of various factors on cyclists’ summer comfort, and
finally descriptive and qualitative statistics regarding personal attitudes towards
cycling in summer and winter seasons. The cycling policy review examined case
study policies relevant to commonly referenced themes of cyclists’ environments,
Table 22.
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Community Plans,
Policies and Bylaws

Maintenance

Infrastructure

Parking

Education &
Awareness

Data Collection

Safety

Winter

All Ages & Abilities

Coverage count

Table 22. Case Study Policy & Literature Review on Cycling Themes

Age Friendly Plan

-

PS

-

-

P

PS

-

PS

7

Active Transit Plan2
P
PW P
PW
Trails Plan
P
PW
Park Strategy
Subdivision and
S
P
Development Bylaws
Transit Master Plan
PW W
PW W
Community Economic
W
Development Plan
Community Energy and
S
S
PS
GHG Emissions Plan
Cycle Map
PSW W
PSW
Winter Cycle Map
W
W
Cycle Network Plan
PW P
P
Downtown Parking Plan
W
Official Community Plan
PSW PW W
Snow & Ice Control Policy
W
W
Sustainable Resiliency Plan W
PSW PS
Smart Growth Plan
PW PSW Urban Transit Report
W
W
W
W
Coverage count
8
24
14
15
*Note: This table uses the following abbreviations,
Prince George (P)
Smithers (S)
Whitehorse (W)

P
-

PW
PW
-

P
W
-

PW
PW
-

-

-

-

-

12
8
0
2

PW

PW

W

PW

-

-

-

-

-

S

-

SP

-

PW
PW
S
PW
W
17

W
W

W
W
PSW
W
14

W
W
6

W
P
W
8

2 Smithers published a Draft Active Transportation Plan in November 5, 2019 at a community open
house event.

113

13
1
7
8
3
7
2
7
4
9
8
8

5.2

Cycling Satisfaction in Northern Communities
An overall summary of the resulting key findings below will be discussed in

greater detail and context throughout this chapter. Three unique findings to each
case study city have arisen from this analysis in areas of cyclists’ comfort levels,
preferred infrastructure and the ability to retain winter cyclists.

•

A significant difference in cyclists’ comfort was evident between
Whitehorse and Prince George as well as Whitehorse and Smithers.
Smithers and Prince George displayed similar comfort levels. This may
be because both Smithers and Prince George are experiencing a
higher level of challenge with highway riding, crossing mixed traffic
bridges, and limited winter cycling routes.

•

Participant comfort levels in the summer and winter while cycle
commuting is reflective of the degree of vehicle separation provided to
cyclists.

•

Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse cyclists identified Protected
bike lanes as the most desirable form of cycling (Table 10).

•

Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse cyclists felt strongly that
support for cyclist and driver education as well as support for bicycle
repair and education have a significant benefit to cyclists’ social
environment.

•

Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse winter cyclists identified
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lighting as the most important factor (Table 11).
Along with various unique findings that this case study observed, it should
also be noted that three repeating findings were witnessed across all three cities
such as cycling motivations, road conditions and route characteristics.
•

The number one motivation for cycling in all three cities was physical
health.

•

Snow and debris removal from street edge to street edge is critical to
improving year-round cycling satisfaction.

•

Cyclists tended to commute on quieter, residential, and scenic routes
(where possible) with low traffic speeds.

From the identified unique qualities revealed from the case study analysis,
cyclists’ comfort was the most apparent factor of variance. This study revealed that
there was significance in cycle commuting comfort across the three small northern
case study communities. Analysis of built, social, and environmental factors revealed
that varying conditions in these dimensions influenced cyclist comfort across
communities. In the Built environment, comfort has been attributed to satisfaction,
assuming that cyclists will commute more when cleanliness, privacy, safety,
convenience, stress, social interaction, and scenery factors are present (Willis et al.,
2013). Comfort was further attributed to be significant between Prince George and
Whitehorse, as well as Smithers and Whitehorse. However, comfort was not
significantly different across the communities of Prince George and Smithers.
Therefore, Whitehorse has been able to establish an unprecedented level of comfort
in the built environment.
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In addition to identifying significantly higher ratings of comfort in Whitehorse,
this study provided insight into why a large portion of small northern city cyclists are
indeed choosing the bicycle as their preferred choice when it comes to transportation
options. Participating cycle commuters also identified themselves as recreational
cyclists that use their bikes for both leisure activities and utilitarian purposes. The
high presence of recreational cycling identification corresponds with adverse cycling
experience among participants. In all three case study samples, participants stated
their primary motivation for cycle commuting related to their improved physical and
mental health and well-being, followed by their interests in reducing their
environmental impact. In similar studies, exercise was also identified as the first or
second reason for cycle commuting (Willis et al., 2013).
Cyclists also noted the specific conditions that would reduce the likelihood of
their choice to cycle in the winter. Specifically, the winter cyclist sample affirmed that
the willingness and/or ability to cycle diminishes in weather colder than minus fifteen
degrees and is reduced when snowfall reaches three and a half inches of new snow.
Importantly, nearly three-quarters of the participants reported to cycle in the winter
months. Nevertheless, ridership in all three communities had the most significant
decline in October through November. The sampled participants for this study could
be assumed to display higher comfort levels than your average cyclist, demonstrating
46% (Prince George), 71% (Smithers) and 89%(Whitehorse) winter ridership
retention. Comparative studies by Fisher (2015) recorded winter cycling retention
records in the following global cities: Oulou, Finland (27%); Copenhagen, Denmark
(25%), Boulder Colorado (25%), and Winnipeg, Manitoba (24%). Studies on
Calgary’s Cycle Track Pilot Project similarly observed 30% of summer cyclists riding
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into the winter months (City of Calgary, 2016). All communities identified snow and
debris removal from street edge to street edge as being critical to improving yearround cycling satisfaction. Many cyclists from small northern cities are riding yearround, and summer cyclists are back on their bikes as early as March.
Cyclists sampled had a varying level of education, ranging from secondary
Diplomas or certificates to higher than bachelor’s degrees, with the majority of
participants identifying as holders of post-secondary education. Of the Prince George
cyclists sampled, the largest education bracket was university certificate, diploma or
degree at bachelor’s level (29%). In Smithers, of the cyclists sampled the largest
education bracket was university certificate or diploma or degree at bachelor’s level
(38%). In Whitehorse, of the cyclists sampled the largest education bracket was
University certificate or diploma or degree at bachelor’s level (61%). Incomes were
equally as broad; from earning $10,000 to over $100,000. The largest portion of
participants earned $80,000 to $99,999 in Prince George (32%), $30,000 to $59,999
in Smithers (31%), and $80,000 to $99,999 in Whitehorse (32%). A study by Fuller &
Winters (2017), revealed high income neighbourhoods directly related to the
presence of cycling infrastructure, “consistent income gradients were observed for
Bike Score and Bike Lane Score, with lower income neighbourhoods having less” (p.
266).
In Winters et al. (2017; 2018) work in Vancouver, a spatial pattern analysis
was used to examine connectivity issues and highlight the presence of areas with
high cost cycling infrastructure adjacent to areas with no cycling infrastructure. This
finding addressed the issue of non-equitable access to affordable means of
transportation for certain marginalized neighbourhoods. If equity is a goal in planning
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bicycle infrastructure investments, these areas may be targets for investment to
increase special access for disadvantaged populations. The survey sample
demographics discussed in Table 8 revealed that all classes of people cycle in the
small northern case study communities.
Female perspectives in cycling studies are often indicative of higher
discomfort and vulnerability in comparison to male cyclist samples. As Emond et al.
(2009) note, “a number of studies, mainly aimed at increasing women’s participation
in bicycling, indicate that female cyclists have different perceptions of safety and
different trip needs than male cyclists, regardless of whether they are advanced or
basic cyclists” (p. 4). Out of the Prince George cyclists sampled, where n=72, 31
participants or 46% were female. In Smithers, n=69 cyclists were sampled and 36
participants or 59% identified as female. In Whitehorse, n=28 cyclists were sampled,
and 13 participants or 46% identified as female. These case studies demonstrate an
interest in cycling among women in small northern communities.
The high percentage of female ridership in the case studies was in important
finding as it may explain why high percentages of survey sample identified as
parents, 71% (Prince George), 81% (Smithers), and 32% (Whitehorse). The high
percentage of parent cyclists in Prince George and Smithers could explain why
cyclists’ comfort levels were lower than cyclists’ in Whitehorse which displayed a
considerably lower percentage of parent cyclists. Parent cycle commuters have a
more logistical challenge to coordinate when choosing to commute by bike, and
“these barriers are centred on confidence in cycling, both in terms of safety (road and
personal) and knowledge of the norms and structures associated with cycling and its
immediate environment” (Clayton & Musselwhite, 2013, p. 8). The first consideration
118

is the added passengers to carry or pull. The second consideration is an increased
number of destinations (e.g., various school drop offs, workplace, extra curricular
activities, errands etc.). Third, parents require larger grocery shops then non-parents
and thus have a greater need for cargo capacity. Lastly, there tends to be a social
pressure upon parents regarding family transportation choices (Clayton &
Musselwhite, 2013). Most of these challenges can be overcome, as seen in cycling
cities such as Amsterdam and Copenhagen, with the introduction of cargo bikes and
biking school buses.
Highways were identified as the most used routes in all three case study
communities: Prince George (Table 12. Streets Frequently Used: Carney St and
University Hill), Smithers (Table 15. Streets Frequently Used: Yellowhead Highway),
and Whitehorse (Table 18. Streets Frequently Used: Trans-Canada Highway).
Reliance on these high-speed corridors during the summer and winter may be why
cyclists collectively agree that buffered bike lanes and multi-use paths, followed by
cyclist-friendly intersections, were a preferred form of cycling infrastructure.
Shirgaokar and Gillespie (2016) notes that types of cyclist infrastructure designed for
summer use, such as painted bike lanes and bicycle boulevards, are not effectively
operational during the winter months. It is also important to note that cyclist
participants from this study are choosing (where possible) to commute on quieter,
residential, and scenic routes with low traffic speeds, as seen in cyclist maps. In
Prince George, commuters travelled along River Road. In Smithers, cyclists made
use of Old Babine Road. In Whitehorse, the Millennium Trail was a popular choice.
On quieter routes such as these, Bicycle boulevards were preferred. Importantly,
these findings are not contradictory, as it was noted that that heavy traffic routes
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(University Way in Prince George, Yellowhead Highway and Trans-Canada Highway)
in all cases provided a commonly used route for cyclists only when there were no
alternative scenic routes available.
This study revealed that the cyclists’ satisfaction and comfort levels were the
highest when the stated infrastructure desirability closely reflected the available
cycling infrastructure within their community. The top three ranking forms of cyclist
infrastructure in Prince George were protected bike lanes (4.4), followed by buffered
bike lanes (4.3) and conventional bike lanes (4.3) and cycle tracks (4.3). The most
commonly cycled routes took place on conventional bike lanes (31%), mixed traffic
streets (31%), Bicycle boulevards (23%), mixed-use paths (10%) and bicycle
prohibited streets (5%). Therefore the average Prince George cyclists prefer to ride
on Protected bike lanes, and only 10% of the riding actually takes place on protected
cyclist infrastructure (multi-use paths). In Smithers, the top three ranking forms of
cyclist infrastructure were protected bike lanes (4.5), multi-use paths (4.0),
conventional bike lanes (4.3) and cycle tracks (4.3). Smithers’ cyclists most
frequently used cycling infrastructure were mixed traffic streets (94%), multi-use
paths (3%), and bicycle boulevards (3%). This comparison reveals that Smithers’
cyclists are only using their preferred infrastructure (multi-use paths) on 3% of their
trips. Lastly, in Whitehorse, the most frequently used cycling infrastructure included
multi-use paths (46%), conventional bike lanes (31%), multi-use gravel paths (15%)
and multi-use paved paths (8%). Cycling tracks were identified as the most desirable,
followed by buffered bike lanes, then cyclist friendly Intersections.
Similarly stated preferred cycling infrastructure across all case study
communities identifies the need for increased cyclist and vehicle separation in
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northern communities. The re-occurrence of preference for protected bicycle lanes in
Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse may be a result of frequently used
highways in these communities s seen in Table 10. Prince George survey cyclists
identified about one third (31%) of their routes on conventional bike lanes.
Conventional bike lanes had slightly lower desirability of cycling infrastructure (μ=
4.3) and buffered bike lanes (μ = 4.3) compared to protected cycling lanes (μ = 4.4).
Smithers relies on mixed traffic streets (95%), which may explain why protected
bicycle lanes (μ = 4.5) were the most desirable infrastructure, followed closely by
conventional bike lanes (μ = 4.1, painted intersections μ = 4.0, solid painted bike
lanes μ = 4.0, cyclist-overpasses μ = 4.0, cyclist underpasses μ = 4.0, buffered bike
lanes μ = 4.0). In Whitehorse, cyclists mainly commuted on Multi-use Paths (69%)
and stated that their most desired cycling infrastructure were protected bike lanes
and buffered bike lanes (μ = 5.0), followed closely by bicycle boulevards (μ = 4.1)
and cycle tracks (μ = 4.1). Perhaps protected cycling infrastructure is something that
needs to evolve in complexity over various upgrades, which would explain why the
community of Smithers, with the lowest level of traffic separation, puts protected bike
lanes at a much higher priority than conventional bike lanes. Even the Whitehorse,
resenting the highest traffic separation of all case study cities, buffered bike lanes
and protected bike lanes, which offer great level of vehicle separation, but are often a
more direct route (compared to multi-use paths). Participant’s preferred infrastructure
may be attributed to previous experiences and familiarity with various forms of
cycling.
Downtown housing projects also help to increase cyclist comfort by reducing
the need to travel along highways or use multi-lane intersections. Downtown
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development has been a goal in all three case study communities, with aims to
encourage in-fill development, rather than develop in forested areas. Urban residents
living in high-density areas tend to choose more sustainable transportation choices,
based on having access to public transit bus loops as well as short walking or cycling
distances from amenities (Saelens et al., 2003). Pedestrians and cyclists in the
downtown are a direct result of downtown development projects, which bring more
visitors to shops and more people to public spaces. Increased levels of cycling in the
downtown are good for the local economy and the social health of communities.
People on streets create a more inviting space, with the added comforts of
socialization, familiarity and spontaneity.
The Whitehorse survey participants from this study seem to be equally
interested in protected AAA cycling infrastructure, indicating “Buffered Bicycle Lanes”
as the highest desirable of infrastructure type. This sample population represents
some extremely hardy and experienced cyclists with high confidence and comfort
levels. It has been recommended that AAA infrastructure serves the largest
employment centre of Whitehorse, with efficient downtown infrastructure and multiuse paths from every neighbourhood within a 3.5km radius from the downtown (City
of Whitehorse, 2018). A well-received project for improving cyclist access to the
downtown has been the Robert Campbell Bridge with two-directional bollard
protection cyclist and pedestrian lanes.
There are several explanations suggested by the data in this for Whitehorse
participants’ high summer and winter cycling comfort and overall cycling satisfaction.
Further evidence of comfort in Whitehorse’s urban environment includes numerous
multi-use paths and cyclist friendly bridges, as well as winter cyclist designated
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routes. An explanation why Prince George and Smithers both report lower cyclist
comfort in in the built environment may be due to the lack of multi-use paths or other
forms of protected bicycle infrastructure as well as the absence of a winter cycling
route. Varying comfort may be further attributed by challenges with highway riding,
crossing mixed traffic bridges, and limited winter cycling routes. Prince George and
Smithers have excelled in communicating of the benefits of urban cycling to their
residents. Prince George has done this by focussing heavily on social media
campaigns and public engagement. Additionally, Prince George has been painting
bike lanes and creating educational signage, throughout the city. Along with these
routes, a cycling network pocket map has been provided to help cyclists determine
safe routes. Smithers has been promoting cycling through a more “hands-onhandlebar” approach by demonstrating cycling. Smithers has built a strong network
of grassroots organizations using a “bottom-up” approach, rather than a “top-down”
political approach. The previous Mayor of Smithers and now NDP MP for Skeena –
Bulkley Valley, Taylor Bachrach, has been supporting cycling awareness by cycling
to work, year-round (Bachrach, 2019). Bachrach explains that the bicycle is more of a
tool to connect with people, as supported by Smith (2012) who states that, “When
you ride your bike around, you can interact with people,…It’s a social form of
transport” (p. 3).
A group by the name of Cycle 16, formed by cyclists in the community of
Telkwa (located fifteen kilometres east of Smithers), have been advocating for a
separated cyclist path along highway 16 using the “bottom-up” approach which has
been initiated by many local citizens rather than local government. Many of the
residents of Telkwa commute into Smithers daily for work and services along a
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narrow shoulder of a very busy highway. The Cycle 16 group has raised their
concerns about cyclists’ safety while using the Bulkley River Bridge due to the lack of
vehicle separation from cyclists. This bridge services all incoming traffic from the east
highway corridor, including larger transportation vehicles and logging trucks. The club
has since gained support of 764 members (Cycle 16 Trail Society, 2019) and
developed the “Proposed Telkwa-Smithers Multi Use Pathway Concept Design
Report” (McElhanney, 2017).

5.3

Cycling Satisfaction in Prince George
To bring more sustainable and inclusive transportation options to the entire

city, Prince George is currently improving cycling facilities, where road width
allowances accommodate cycling lanes. In recent years, Prince George has
converted over 70 km of street shoulders into painted bicycle lanes. Future painted
bicycle lanes and multi-use paths will be considered with new infrastructure upgrades
and neighbourhood development.
A few cycling network opportunities for improvements were revealed through
the thesis survey. Many cyclists noted that they make use of 5th Avenue, although
cycling along 5th Avenue has been prohibited from Hwy 97 to 3rd Avenue (Figure
32). The Prince George Downtown Transportation and Parking Study in 2007
revealed that cyclists were similarly interested in using 5th Avenue (Opus, 2007).
The University of Northern British Columbia has been steadily improving
bicycle facilities over the years to encourage more trips by cyclists. The cyclist and
pedestrian access to University Heights saw major improvements with the addition of
Tyner Trail alongside Tyner Boulevard. The city plans to “support walking, cycling,
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and transit trips, all of which generate less Greenhouse Gas Emissions and dust than
commuting by automobile” (City of Prince George, 2011c). Additionally, the
University has installed various types of bicycle parking infrastructure, including short
term bike racks, contained bike lockers, and sheltered bicycle racks at various entry
points (Figure 33). There are currently no guiding documents from the City of Prince
George that state how many bike racks it aims to reach or the recommended
placement of such racks. Bike rack placement is currently provided by businesses
and institutions with support of local funders. Bicycle storage was the second
recommendation of the Opus Downtown Transportation and Parking Study,

Figure 31. Prince George Fifth Avenue
Cycling designated route on Third Avenue. Photo by Author.

The parking study suggests that the City of Prince George “[r]evisit the end125

of- trip facilities by-law that requires bicycle parking to be included as part of
development permits to also include a requirement for office buildings to install
shower and change facilities for employees” (Opus, 2007, p. 166).

Figure 32. Prince George Bicycle Storage Solutions
Photo by Author.
The current city population subdivision density (933.5 people / km2) of Prince
George does not promote a fully car-free lifestyle, as many neighbourhoods are long
walking or cycling distances from public services and amenities (Prince George
Active Transit Plan, 2010). For comparison the city of Copenhagen has an urban
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density of 7,200 people / km2 (Urbistat, 2020) and Vancouver, BC has 5,500 people /
km2 (Stats Canada, 2016). To reduce the GHG emissions expended by personal
vehicle dependence, Prince George has begun to focus on downtown development.
The Prince George Official Community Plan supports a variety of housing options in
the downtown core. A particular objective aimed at infill development and
densification in the downtown as includes objective 8.1.14, “[t]o adapt to climate
change, support rural uses of rural areas and encourage infill and compact
development whenever possible to minimize new infrastructure construction” (2011,
p. 92). Population forecasts indicate a future demand for an additional 1,800
residential units in the City by 2035. Locating these units in the downtown will be
critical to revitalizing this neighbourhood (Smart Growth BC, 2009, p. 2).
Debris buildup (deposited during the winter for ice control) removal is
performed during spring sand and rock sweeps prior to Go by Bike Week (Figure 34).
Evidence from this study recognized that cyclists would benefit from debris removal
as early as March 1, with 41% of Prince George survey participants commuting by
bike at this time. City street cleaning operations should prioritize cleaning the streets
of winter sand as early as March if they wish to improve cycling satisfaction in the
winter shoulder season. Fisher (2014) recommends in her study that municipalities
should engage and involve maintenance workers and operation departments in the
planning and implementation of the winter cycling network as well as devote a city
web page to winter cycling. Further public communication regarding cycling route
clearing priority sequences or response times have also been common practices in
other Canadian winter cities, such as Calgary, Edmonton, Montreal, Revelstoke,
Whitehorse and Winnipeg. Cyclists in Whitehorse were very receptive to the winter
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bike routes into and through the downtown, as shown by the map collection. This is
likely a result of proper snow removal practices and effective snow removal policy
and communication with cyclists of designated winter cycling routes.
Sweeping the 700 plus kilometres of roadway in Prince George can take as
long as 10 weeks, at which point bike lane markings can begin application (City of
Prince George, n.d.). The city does intend to revisit the cycling sweep strategy, which
may be more focussed towards prioritizing cyclists’ routes over non- cyclist routes.

Figure 33. Prince George Bike Lane Maintenance
Photo by Author.
The Prince George snow clearance schedule states that Priority 1 & 2 roads
will be cleared within 48 hrs. The City of Prince George conducted a community
active transportation survey in 2009, which revealed that the number one concern of
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local residents was the “lack of maintenance of active transportation facilities (e.g.,
sidewalks, trails, pedestrian passages on bridges and cross walk medians),
particularly around snow clearance” (City of Prince George, 2010, p. 57).
The same survey also revealed that 73% of respondents use active
transportation in both summer and winter.

Figure 34. Prince George Bike Lane Obstacles
Photo credit: Rebecca DeLorey, n.d.
Prince George cycling education has been directed towards improving road
sharing knowledge. “No parking in bike lanes” signs have been installed alongside all
bicycling lanes to inform drivers not to obstruct cyclists’ lanes. The year 2016 brought
significant improvements in cycling infrastructure to Prince George with the removal
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of parking in bike lanes on main arterials (Town of Smithers, 2016). Since 2016, the
city has established an annual budget to repaint bicycle lanes and to ensure that
bicycle markings within the lanes are well maintained to remind drivers that the roads
are shared with bicycle traffic. Unfortunately, many bicycle lanes also serve as
garbage pickup routes and bus routes, which can create general confusion or
challenges for cyclists (see Figure 35). To bring attention to cyclists’ safety, a
significant focus has been allocated towards educating drivers, pedestrians’ and
cyclists’ on safe street uses, including hosting skills training events by the Prince
George Brain Injury Group as well as city led promotion of active transit services and
benefits at schools and civic celebration events (City of Prince George, 2010). The
City of Prince George is investing in community engagement by bringing a variety of
future city projects to the attention of the public, collecting community input on priority
areas, and communicating public concerns and input. Cyclist data counts in Prince
George have improved since 2011 with the implementation of pedestrian and cyclist
counts using existing traffic camera technologies, installed at updated intersections
throughout the city. Much of Prince George’s cycling education has been led by
cycling “champions”, or those who ride with the intention to demonstrate to others the
viability and benefits of bicycle transportation.
5.4

Cycling Satisfaction in Smithers
The community of Smithers has demonstrated great interest in promoting

active transportation within the community. A recent effort to advance the cycling
network includes a 2.5 km designated bike route along the entire length of 3rd
Avenue in the downtown. The route has bicycle signage and painted bicycle
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boulevard symbols to increase driver awareness, as well as a reduced 30 km speed
limit. The survey maps distributed for this thesis revealed that 3rd Avenue saw
moderate use in the summer, combined season, and winter season (Figure 19).
Bicycle boulevards were ranked third to protected bike lanes and conventional bike
lanes in terms of highest desirability infrastructure types (Table 10).
The Community Energy and Emissions Plan states that “actively continuing
to invest in cycling infrastructure is important as substantial emissions reductions can
be achieved if people who previously used auto-modes of transportation walk or
cycle for some or all of their trips” (Town of Smithers, 2012, p. 40). The Smithers
Official Community Plan (section 10.2.3. Transportation Options, Policy 2) states the
following goal: to “[s]upport and encourage the use of bicycles as a form of
transportation in Smithers and integrate the design of bikeways and related safety
measures in its road, sidewalk and trail reconstruction projects, where feasible”
(Town of Smithers, 2018, p. 43). The Town of Smithers Draft Sustainable Resilience
Plan (2012) also recognizes that building bicycle and walking trails as an alternative
to automobiles reduces infrastructure costs and personal vehicle costs. Active travel
can also “improve resident physical and mental health, may increase longevity and
reduce public health care costs" (p. 20).
The Town of Smithers Community Energy & Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Plan aims to support school programs that encourage children to walk or bike to
school (Town of Smithers, 2012a). The plan also provides direction to support Car
Free Days, stating that “Car Free Days will result in the reduction of approximately
600 tonnes of CO2e in GHG emissions, if implemented” (2012a, p. 38). The
Community Energy & GHG Emissions Plan has developed a map using 2006 Stats
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Canada census data, Percentage of People Who Cycle or Walk to Work (Appendix
E), which indicates the percentage of people in each population census
dissemination area who use a bicycle as their primary mode of transportation. In
other socio economic circumstances, the bicycle might be an individual’s only
feasible form of transportation and means to access basic amenities.
The Bulkley River Bridge is currently limited to a single non-barricaded
pedestrian walkway on the north lane only. The survey results (i.e., survey mapping
activity) identified the Bulkley Bridge (Figure 36) as the route with the highest cyclist
use (as seen in Smithers Most Frequent Summer and Winter Cycling Routes Map).
The highway that passes through Smithers poses additional challenges for cyclists
(e.g., safe crossings). The Smithers Age Friendly Assessment and Action Plan
(2016) recognized the highway as a safety concern for many elderly and younger
residents and made a case for increased time allowance for cyclists and pedestrians
to cross the highway safely. Cyclist crossing buttons were also installed at these
points (Town of Smithers, 2016, p. 33).

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Figure 35. Smithers Bulkley River Bridge
Photo Credit: Cycle 16 Association. N.d
Smithers has developed a compact downtown housing strategy with a
density ratio of 515 people per square kilometre (Government of Canada, 2017b).
Additionally, Smithers has blended much of its residential neighbourhoods with
commercial neighbourhoods, which makes commute distances much shorter. This
planned density makes active forms of transportation quite feasible and attractive.
The Community Energy and Emergency Plan (2012a) states that it will be working
towards identifying possible non-auto transportation corridors and ensuring that new
development and infrastructure projects complement these goals. Under the Town of
Smithers Sustainable Resilience Plan (2012b), the town may enact land use
legislation that encourages high density housing (e.g., townhouses and apartments)
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to reduce the demand on fossil fuels, while also building sidewalks and bicycle trails
to serve these developments. The plan also encourages neighbourhood
development and street design that provides direct and practical routes which do not
discourage sustainable travel choices.
Neighbourhood house and street layout can also influence active transit
decisions as, “[r]oad networks with many cul-de-sacs, and winding “no-through”
roads that lack pathways for pedestrians and cyclists almost always result in
dramatically higher personal vehicle use relative to areas with interconnected street
networks” (Town of Smithers, 2012b, p. 41). The Community Energy and Emission
Plan states that it will “continue to work with neighbouring municipalities to ensure it
is possible to cycle or walk between destinations in Smithers and neighbouring
municipalities easily and safely” (The Town of Smithers, 2012a, p. 41). The Smithers
Sustainable Resilience Plan also recognizes that enhanced integration of pedestrian
and cyclist infrastructure with public transit will strengthen the existing transit services
by extending the range of the bus routes and reducing dependency on a single mode
of travel (p. 40).
The Town of Smithers’ street maintenance policy review did not reveal any
notable bicycle lane maintenance policies beyond general upkeep and improvement
measures to existing cycling infrastructure. The Smithers Snow & Ice Control Policy
#OPS-006 (2002), does not indicate any snow removal priorities for cyclists. Cycle
lanes in the winter currently service sidewalk and street snow, as indicated in the
following clearance procedures:
Snow Plowing may result in windrows on both sides of the road.
The clearing of windrows in front of private driveways or sidewalk
access left by Snow Plowing equipment shall be the responsibility
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of the property owner or affected individual, company or
corporation (p. 4). Snow Plowing of sidewalks will result in
windrows on either side of the sidewalk (p. 5).
5.5

Cycling Satisfaction in Whitehorse
The 2014 Whitehorse Transportation Demand Management Plan

summarizes the overall bicycle transportation goal of developing a “complete and
interconnected network of safe bicycle routes throughout the community as a
necessary means to encouraging more cycling” (2014, p. 2). The City of Whitehorse
feels that its cycling network is only as good as its weakest point. The intersections in
Whitehorse have been prioritized as in need of immediate upgrade requirement. The
City has developed a Proposed Short Term Infrastructure Improvements Intersections Improvement Map (City of Whitehorse, 2014). The City of Whitehorse
administered a city-wide survey in 2017 to gather data from volunteer participants
with recruitment through the local Urban Cycling Coalition Facebook Page (the same
recruitment method as applied to this thesis). The study provided the city with a
better understanding of cyclists’ experiences, including information regarding where
cyclists are traveling from and what they would like in terms of future cycling
infrastructure within the community.
A recent testament to the Intersections Improvement Map was the Alaska
Hwy crossing, which provided a safer crossing using Transportation Association of
Canada Standards. The projects listed within the Intersections Improvement
Document (City of Whitehorse, 2018) and Detailed List of Proposed Projects and
Cost Estimates (City of Whitehorse, 2018) were prioritized with the collaboration and
input from stakeholders and various residents who attended city workshops,
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interactive displays stations, and a city-wide on-line survey (City of Whitehorse, 2018).
The Detailed List of Proposed Projects and Cost Estimate (City of Whitehorse, 2018),
identified $50 million (+/- 25%) of investment costs. This identifies 82 road or path
segments and around 100 kilometres of cyclist infrastructure.
Sabine Schweiger, Whitehorse Environmental Coordinator, while discussing
the bike plan vision the Yukon News, stated that improvements include “concrete
barriers and bollards, locating cycling lanes up on a curb to create a height
difference, or arranging parking spaces so there’s a row of parked cars between bikes
and cars that are moving” (Kenny, 2018, p 8) (Figure 37). All of these, she said, are
measures that will hopefully make people feel safer cycling in the city, which should,
in turn, get more people on bicycles (Kenny, 2018). A full summary of long-term future
projects schemed has been provided in a detailed list of Proposed Projects and Cost
Estimates for the Bicycle Network Improvements, which establishes the budget and
timeline for future improvements (Appendix F). “The economic benefits of this
trajectory are associated with the lower cost of constructing and maintaining bicycle
infrastructure as opposed to vehicle infrastructure (City of Whitehorse, 2018, p. 3).
The Whitehorse Official Community Plan includes policies to improve infrastructure
that will provide universal accessibility and has proposed an All Ages and Abilities
(AAA) network (City of Whitehorse, 2018), while also stating an intention to
“maximize functionality of the existing road infrastructure for all users” (City of
Whitehorse, 2015, p. 18).

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Figure 36. Whitehorse Robert Campbell Bridge
Photo credit: Kenny, 2018.
Cyclists have been given a recent alternative to riding on the Alaska Highway
with a separated path on Two Mile Hill (City of Whitehorse, 2012, p. 5). The maps
provided by Whitehorse survey participants showed that Two Mile Hill had a medium
to high frequency of use in both the summer and winter seasons. This may be
reflective of the implemented Downtown Winter Cycling Routes Map (Figure 38)
Snow and Ice Removal Priority Bylaw (City of Whitehorse, 2017a). Additional multiuse pathways have been implemented to bring cyclists into the downtown safely,
including the Airport Perimeter Trail and the Trans Canada Trail. Puckett’s Gulch
Trail, which connects the downtown with the local airport, has been complemented
by a pedestrian and cyclist stairway, retrofitted with a bicycle wheel running board to
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assist getting bikes up and down the steep embankment (City of Whitehorse, 2018).
Aside from on-street and along-street cycling infrastructure, the Whitehorse Trail Plan
also has a mandate “to ensure access to trail systems for users of all abilities” (City
of Whitehorse, 2012, p. 9). Challenging topography and water crossings have been
addressed in multiple cases, including two additional stairways or switchback-trails
proposed on the escarpment (City of Whitehorse, 2018). At the southern end of the
escarpment, the city aims to provide a second route to Downtown, between Marwell
and Takhini streets (City of Whitehorse, 2018). A switchback trail has also been
suggested in the Black Street ravine (Puckett’s Gulch Trail) “as a more accessible
option to the existing stairs” (City of Whitehorse, 2018, p. 35).

Figure 37. City of Whitehorse Downtown Winter Cycling Route Map
Map credit: City of Whitehorse, 2017. Map enhancements by author.

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The City of Whitehorse has linked the health and environmental benefits of
cycling within its Sustainability Plan (City of Whitehorse, 2015) under the Efficient,
Low-impact Transportation Goal stating, “shifting to… active transportation improves
physical health and community connectivity, reduces greenhouse gas emissions,
infrastructure costs, and household transportation costs” (City of Whitehorse, 2015,
p. 17). To reduce further residential sprawl, the City has enforced an Urban
Containment Boundary (UCB) (City of Whitehorse, 2017b) to numerous Official
Community Plan Policies 5.1.3 and 10.7.1 which will help to develop a more transit
oriented downtown (City of Whitehorse, 2010). The UCB accounts for 13% of
Whitehorse’s total land area and “reduces the consumption and fragmentation of
rural areas, while better supporting cycling (City of Whitehorse, 2010, p. 19).
The Whitehorse Bicycle Network Plan (2018) provides a comprehensive
Winter Maintenance Document. A few of the key points within this Winter
Maintenance Document include (Appendix G):
•

Design bicycle routes to facilitate snow removal,
snow storage and drainage.

•

Consider wind breaks through strategic planting of
shrubs and trees or use berms and other topography to
provide some shelter and relief from the wind.

•

Lighting should be adequate on routes, particularly at
intersections and steep grades or corners. All lighting
should be night-sky friendly.

•

Review and update the current snow removal requirements.

•

Designate and prioritize a winter bicycle network for snow removal.

•

Review and update current operating procedures for
snow removal on bicycle facilities, including current
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departmental responsibilities, employed contractors
and existing machinery and procedures.

Other notable Whitehorse winter maintenance documents are the City of
Whitehorse Downtown Winter Cycling Map (Figure 28) and Whitehorse Snow
Removal Bylaw (City of Whitehorse, 2017a). These documents demonstrate that the
recommendations of the Whitehorse Bicycle Network Plan are being implemented
and acted upon. Whitehorse has encouraged longer-term bicycle storage with bicycle
boxes, which protect bikes from year-round elements while keeping personal
belongings safe (City of Whitehorse, 2019).
MacIntyre powerline trail is a high use Yukon University winter cycling trail
which runs along McIntyre Creek. The nearest established trail is the “Great
Canadian Trail”. The City has recognized this trail connector as a vital link between
the downtown and Whistle Bend neighbourhood. The Whitehorse Trail Network Plan
(2012), proposes an AAA pathway with a gravel extension off of the Pine Street
Multi-Use Trail to Takhini sub-division. How this trail manages to invite more cyclists
in the winter in contrast to summer use is not clear, as there are no records of trail
grooming or snow removal. The high usage of this cycling route may be due to the
efforts of an individual citizen or group taking responsibility for making this trail
accessible throughout the winter. Examples of this can be seen in many other rural
communities, where personal snowmobiles are rigged with grooming equipment to
provide community wide access (Babin, 2014).
In summary, key actions within each case study were identified to increase
cyclists’ satisfaction. Across all cities it was evident that protected infrastructure and
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year round access by bicycle was a key interest. In Prince George cyclists
experienced challenges with bicycle route placement, poor road surfaces, and a
limited number of bike racks throughout the city. Smithers’ cyclists overall were not
entirely pleased with the level of comfort provided by the Third Avenue Bike
Boulevard. Secondly, the Smithers Bulkley River Bridge was identified as high-use
and could benefit from further vehicle separation. Lastly, Smithers’ cyclists also
desire improved year round bike lane conditions. The results of the Whitehorse case
study identified a great deal of satisfaction of cyclists infrastructure improvements on
multi-use paths, bridges and winter cycling routes. However, the need for the
expansion of winter routes was identified.

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Chapter 6: Conclusions

The purpose of this thesis was to provide further knowledge regarding the
phenomenon of a growing winter cycling culture in many small Canadian cities and
how this trend could provide climate change solutions. This was accomplished
through the case studies of three winter cycling cities; Prince George, BC; Smithers,
BC; and Whitehorse, YT. These case studies provided further insight into how these
communities are encouraging cyclists to cycle commute year-round using supportive
cyclist infrastructure, education, and programs targeting new and existing cyclists.
Input from Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse commuter cyclists added an
element of qualitative and quantitative experiential data to this study. The participants
disclosed how their experiences with the built, social, and natural environments in
their home community impacted their commute satisfaction.
Before this study, it was not evident if cyclists were commuting year-round in
small northern Canadian small cities and, if so, why due to limited prior national
transportation surveys. Beyond economic health benefits, cyclist-friendly community
design has a real advantage in improving community design for all users. Complete
street movements (streets designed for all users), road diets (reduced road widths
and traffic speeds),and smart city design concepts (increased densification of
downtown cores) encourage of cycling policy and infrastructure, as well as support
safe cycling and vision zero priorities, which will protect the most vulnerable road
users while reducing carbon emissions. By rethinking the city form for long-term well142

being, there is a real opportunity to introduce a new way of dynamic thinking that
improves eco-systems and furthers the well-being of all inhabitants. Denser, more
walkable northern city centres scaled to people rather than automobiles may also
provide increased access to public transit, services, and jobs.
This study provided strong evidence that participants’ cycling motivation was
attributed to physical and mental health (32%); interest of local air quality and GHG
emission reduction (26%); and because it was fun or preferred to other modes of
transportation (19.6%). This study also considered a wide array of policies, plans,
programs, and infrastructure aimed at summer cyclists. The cyclists’ route maps
indicated whether or not maintenance procedures and cyclist infrastructure were
well-received by cyclists. The summer cycling policies, plans, programs and
infrastructure in Prince George and Smithers did not successfully translate to winter
applicability. However, the City of Whitehorse did provide a thorough translation of
winter suited cycling policies, plans, programs and infrastructure
Each case study community had a similar ranking of infrastructure
desirability, indicating protected bike lanes had the highest preference. The highest
impact of personal/social factors that influenced satisfaction included better cyclist
and driver education as well as bicycle repair and maintenance education. This study
revealed that cities of all densities, sizes, and geographical characteristics could
become a cyclist-friendly communities by recognizing cyclists’ satisfaction with the
built and social environments. This study revealed that a strong presence of outdoor
winter recreation and recreational cycling sport, guided by a supportive network of
cycling champions, could also build cycling culture. This was shown to be true in all
case study communities. The data collected from the survey revealed high
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percentages of cyclists in all three cities partaking in recreational cycling sports, such
as mountain biking or road biking (Prince George, 79%; Smithers 86%; Whitehorse
89%).
The outcome of this thesis was not without imperfections or limitations. From
case study design to data collection to data analysis, there were multiple touchpoints
that could have been further developed or expanded. The survey itself could have
been made more robust by including experiential responses and real-time GPS route
tracking. An opportunity for cyclists to actually experience infrastructure types, which
may not be present in their hometown (e.g., cycle tracks, buffered bicycle lanes,
cyclist-friendly intersections), could have had a stronger impact than showing them
descriptive colour photographs. GPS trackers as an alternative to hand-drawn maps
would have captured more accurate route details (e.g., elevation, distance, road
hazards, or obstacles). The data collected from this research was not inclusive to all
abilities of riders; participants in this study commute frequently and felt compelled to
share their commuting experiences with the researcher. The comfort levels and
desirability of infrastructure may have varied if the study had included children, teens,
and seniors. This data does reflect broadly on all income levels, education, and
gender of riders, as well as riders commuting from various starting points to various
destination points for all purposed of utilitarian cycling. However, identifying scope in
research is important to provide thoughtful information that can be beneficial to endusers. The scope in this thesis should provide valuable information to other northern
communities who wish to undertake local winter cycling studies. Further analysis on
social and natural environments could have made an excellent addition to this study
had the survey allowed for comparative values on these variables. A summary table
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of case study findings can be seen below.
Table 23. Case Study Findings Summary

Cycling
infrastructure
preferences

Prince George

Smithers

Whitehorse

Participants stated that
buffered bike lanes and
cycle tracks would
provide the highest
level of satisfaction as
opposed to mixed
traffic streets.

Participants stated that
multi-use paths and
cycle tracks would
provide the highest
level of satisfaction as
opposed to bicycle
boulevards and mixed
traffic streets.
Policy analysis
identified a need for a
winter bike route.

Participants stated that
buffered bike lanes and
cycle tracks would
provide increase
satisfaction of existing
multi-use paths.

Streets most frequently
used combined
summer and winter
routes included
Yellowhead Highway,
King St, Main St,
Queen Street and
Railway Ave.
Smithers and Prince George cyclists identified
similar discomfort in the built environment

Streets most frequently
used combined summer
and winter routes
included Trans-Canada
Highway, Robert
Service way, and
millennium trail.

Policy analysis
identified a need for a
winter bike route.
Cycling yearround

Cycle commuting
routes of highest
use

Cyclists’ comfort
in the built
environment
Cyclists’ comfort
in the social
environment
Cyclists’ main
motivation for
commuting

Streets most frequently
used combined
summer and winter
routes included Carney
St, 8th Ave, Rainbow
Rd and University Hill.

Policy analysis and
survey showed winter
bike route to be highly
effective. Should include
the addition of MacIntyre
powerline trail to existing
winter cycling route.

Whitehorse cyclists
identified the highest
comfort level of the three
communities.
Participants in all communities stated that support for driver and cyclist
education as well as bicycle repair training had the most positive social
impact.
Participants in all communities stated that physical and mental health were
their number one motivation for cycle commuting. The vast majority of
participants in all communities partake in recreational cycling.

6.1 Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Small and Large
Northern Communities
This comparative cycling case study of Prince George, Smithers, and
Whitehorse brought attention to things that were similar in all communities and
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original solutions that each community had executed to promote local bicycle
transportation. Whitehorse demonstrated the effectiveness of a dedicated winter
cycling route, as all Whitehorse winter cyclist survey participants indicated that they
made use of this route. A winter cycling route establishes a priority snow removal
clearing schedule for streets that are best suited to winter riding. Many cyclists
showed us that they preferred to ride on slow traffic streets or paths without vehicle
access. Survey participants in Prince George, Smithers, and Whitehorse also stated
the need for clearing of cycle routes from winter sand debris as early as March.
Winter cycling route maps have been used in the cities of Calgary and Oulu. Not only
do winter route maps ensure there are safe streets for cyclists, but they also
communicate to drivers where to expect to encounter cyclists. Additionally, the City of
Whitehorse has created a city webpage dedicated to winter cycling. This webpage
offers educational material for current winter cyclists, those who are considering
winter cycling, and tips for those who share the roads with cyclists.
All three case study communities exemplified how the encouragement of
outdoor summer and winter recreational cycling as well as other positive winter
attitudes builds cyclist satisfaction. This study highlighted that cyclists face financial
barriers in all communities and that cycling in the winter months adds extra “wear and
tear” on equipment. Additionally, many of the winter cyclists have had to invest in
winter-specific bike tires equipped with studs, handlebar sleeves, bright lights, and
high visibility clothing. Lastly, these three case study communities told us that their
cyclists preferred riding on multi-use paths and on scenic routes whenever possible,
this may be due to lower traffic volumes as indicated earlier. It is recommended that
active transportation plans in these case study communities and other small northern
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communities consider future bicycle routes along with green belts and parks.
Larger northern communities aiming to increase cyclist numbers may also
benefit from the strategies that Prince George, Smithers and Whitehorse have
applied to grow their local bicycle commuter culture. All three communities applied a
bottom-up governance approach when advocating for urban bicycle improvements.
In the communities, citizens meet regularly with local government officials to bring
forward local safety concerns for pedestrians and cyclists alike. In each community
there is also a strong presence of local businesses at cycling events like the stations
hosted at annual Go By Bike Week celebrations. This presence helps to show
community support for active transportation. Lastly, evidence collected in this study
illustrates a shared belief that an outdoor recreation culture is beneficial to fostering
bicycling culture. In all three case study communities, for instance, most urban
cyclists bicycled for recreation and utilitarian purposes, motivated primarily by
personal health and wellbeing.
As climate change continues to threaten community wellbeing, urban
transportation designers and city engineers need to consider sustainable, resilient
transportation alternatives (i.e., non-dependant on finite resources), as well as those
that encourage a wide range of transportation options that enable drivers to adapt to
future challenges and encourages community resiliency (Lerch, 2017). In many
cases, it will take time to implement extensive city transformations such as smart
cities and cycle networks, which is why it is crucial to carry out minor projects quickly
and cheaply to encourage lower emission living standards as well as supportive
policies and governance for reduced energy dependency. Not only is cycling
healthier, safer, more sustainable, and more affordable, but it is also quieter, more
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fun, and more human than automobiles.
As Pressman (1989, p. 26) has noted “What is essential, therefore, is that
each country develop its own solutions in accordance with its own unique conditions
and accept rather than ignore the natural setting. Providing meaningful developments
which are not only functional but also emotionally satisfying is the task which
confronts designers, administrators and planners working under conditions where
"cold" is a prevailing force for a substantial part of the year”.

6.2 Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Prince George
Based on popular route mapping data from Prince George participants, future
cycling infrastructure would be best allocated to Carny St, University Way, and River
Road, as these streets showed to be the highest use infrastructure in the city among
the sample population. Participants of the Prince George survey sample showed
heavy cycling use along 5th Avenue, regardless of its current street use prohibiting
bicycles. This street offers efficient East-West connectivity between Heritage
neighbourhood and the downtown and needs further safe bicycle and pedestrian
infrastructure investment. The survey also showed that cyclists found protected bike
lanes, buffered bike lanes and cycle tracks to be the most desirable forms of cycling
infrastructure (Table 10). Lastly, it is recommended that the City of Prince George
work to keep bicycle lanes free of obstructions, including parked cars, garbage and
recycling bins, and street closure signage. Alternatively, it is advised that future
cycling routes take precedence on streets that do not already serve as a public
transit route or provide temporary snow, garbage and recycling storage. Lastly, a
148

winter cycling route for Prince George has been recommended, taking a course
along University Way, Fifteenth Avenue and Fifteenth Avenue Frontage Road, Tabor
Boulevard, First Avenue, Quin Street, Fifth Avenue, Stuart Drive, Rainbow Drive,
Tenth Avenue, Johnson Street to Eight Avenue, Laurier Crescent, Melville Avenue,
Ross Crescent, Fifth Avenue. Fifth Avenue would also require a cyclist-friendly
crossing of the Yellowhead Highway for this route is the safest winter cyclist
downtown connection (Figure 39). Future winter cycling routes could become more
direct with the introduction of protected bicycle lanes, as well as intersection over or
underpasses on higher traffic streets, including Fifteenth Avenue and Fifth Avenue.

Figure 38. Prince George Recommended Winter Route
149

6.3 Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Smithers
Based on popular route mapping data from Smithers participants, future
cycling infrastructure would be best allocated to Yellowhead Highway, Bulkley River
Bridge, King Street, Main Street, Old Babine Road and Smithers Perimeter Trail
since they were the highest used infrastructure in the city among the sample
population. The Smithers sample mean suggested that their preferred types of
cycling infrastructure included protected bike lanes and multi-use Paths followed
closely by cycle tracks and conventional bike lanes (Table 10). It is thus
recommended that the city continues to implement these forms of cycling
infrastructure along with other separated forms of bicycle infrastructure. It is also
recommended that the Town of Smithers considers a separated cycling lane on the
Bulkley River Bridge as it is used by numerous cyclists. A cyclist river crossing will
support the many cyclists travelling from Telkwa to Smithers by bicycle. Preferred
infrastructure types among Smithers cyclists may change in future surveys due to
new experiences on varying protected cycling infrastructure projects proposed for the
area. Smithers has supplied the town with numerous bicycle racks for summer
cyclists; it is recommended that the town continue to service the U-racks throughout
the winter3 as listed a high desirability among winter cyclists (Table 10). The
recommended winter cycling route for Smithers would make use of Toronto Street,
Bulkley Drive, Seventh Avenue, Columbia Drive, Tenth Avenue, Futon Pathway,

3 U racks are more easily maintained in the winter months as they have a smaller sidewalk footprint
with only a single arch in comparison to backs designed.

150

Yellow Head Highway Service Road, Tatlow Road, Pacific Street, Smithers Perimeter
Trail and King Street (Figure 39).

Figure 39. Smithers Recommended Winter Route

6.4

Recommendations for Supporting Cyclists in Whitehorse
Based on popular route mapping data from Whitehorse participants, future

cycling infrastructure would be best allocated to the Middle MacIntyre Powerline in
the form of a summer and winter season multi-use path. This path has seen the
151

highest frequency of winter cyclists (from this survey sample), yet very few summer
cyclists. Opposing seasonality of cycling was seen on the Lower Riverdale Trail, with
high volumes in the summer and low volumes in the winter months. It is
recommended that Lower Riverdale Trail be added to the City of Whitehorse Winter
Cycling route. It is also recommended that Baxter Trail, Black Street, and Alaska
Highway are included in the future City of Whitehorse Winter Cycling Route, as they
too, receive a steady flow of year-round cyclists. Participants from the Whitehorse
survey collection identified that preferred future cycling infrastructure would include
more protected bike lanes, buffered bike lanes, and cycle tracks (Table 10).

6.5

Parting Words
The main conclusions from this thesis in which the observed case studies

could take into immediate consideration include catering to cyclists’ motivations,
critical tolerances for willingness to cycle and prioritizing effort to key streets. The
basis for this take-away has been synthesised based on the following evidence:
•

According to the number one motivation for cycle commuting evident
across all three case studies, cyclists are motivated for personal health
benefits. These health benefits are best experienced when commuters can
cycle along separated or slower streets that offer scenic qualities.

•

It was also evident that cyclists in winter cities will, for the most part,
continue to cycle until temperatures drop below negative fifteen degrees
Celsius. Road surface conditions were much more integral to commuting
mode choice. Snow build up beyond three inches causes a considerable
152

drop in cycle commuters. A large wave of summer cyclists starts appearing
in March, meaning debris removal in many northern cities could be
adjusted to accommodate this interest.
•

Lastly, as seen in Whitehorse, recommending a few priority streets for
winter cycling proves to be highly effective for ensuring safe routes for
cyclists as well as high winter cycling uptake.
By no means did this case study solve all the challenges small northern

communities are faced with when planning sustainable transportation alternatives.
Small northern communities have unique challenges when presented with
transportation requirements and individually require innovative solutions to these
issues. The three case studies explored in this research are just a small sampling of
the many cycling communities throughout Canada’s and global winter cities. This
area of research could benefit from further data collection in cyclist counts across
cities, which could be conducted through phone surveys or city-wide mail-out surveys
throughout the year. Based on the data collected and the design of this study, these
ideas and experiences are best suited for the avid commuter. This reflection does not
consider all ages and abilities of riders. The comfort levels and desirability of
infrastructure results may have varied if the study had included children, teens, and
seniors. This data collected did not reflect broadly on all income levels, education,
and gender of riders, as well as riders are commuting from various starting points to
various destination points for all purposed of utilitarian cycling. Increased
understanding of personal motivations and attitudes around summer and winter
cycling from northern residents who currently do not cycle could also be highly
beneficial for converting more car trips into bicycle trips. This and many other cycling
153

studies tend to focus on population samples, demonstrating cycle commuting
tendencies.
A more in-depth understanding might also come from on-the-ground cyclist
counting technologies, which are incredibly valuable for infrastructure planning.
These could take place at strategic points (e.g., trailheads, multi-use paths, or key
intersections) since it is difficult to rely on government data to accurately reflect how
communities are doing in terms of cycling growth (i.e. it is an unrealistic tool to
validate cycling activity). The Canadian National Household Survey may be missing
critical data regarding those who use a bicycle as their second main mode of
transportation or use the bicycle as a vehicle to reach non-work destinations.
Additionally, Government data may not reach those who are not homeowners, as
well as younger populations. Regardless of the shortcomings and limitations of this
thesis, copious valuable suggestions were identified from this body of work.
Numerous participants in this study found enjoyment in cycle commuting and
expressed their desire to extend this practice to other road-users by sharing their
voluntary contributions to this thesis and demonstrating actions in their communities.
Profound changes are needed if we are to radically lessen the impacts of climate
change. Cycling and zero-emission forms of transportation must be given highest
priority in transportation planning. Lastly, it is my most considerable interest that the
premise of this work will continue to inspire further research in bicycle transportation
as a possible solution to climate change impacts and society as a whole.

154

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170

Appendix A
Comprehensive Literature Review

171

Appendix B
Comprehensive Review Snow Removal Policies.
Source: Masoud, 2015.

172

Appendix C
Comprehensive Case Study Search

Canadian Small to Medium Sized Cities for Case Study Consideration, Statistics
Canada, CANSIM, 2017.
Province
Geographic Name
Population, 2016
ALB
MAN
ONT
BC
ALB
NB
NFL
BC
NS
NFL
ONT
PEI
BC
ALB
ONT
ONT
NS
MAN
NFL
MAN
NB
BC
NS
NWT
NU
NFL
MAN
ONT
NS
NWT
ONT
ALB
QUE
QUE
ALB

Kneehill County
Ste. Anne
Hearst
Cariboo G
Willow Creek No. 26
Woodstock
Deer Lake
Bulkley-Nechako A
Cumberland, Subd. C
Marystown
Cochrane
Cornwall
Smithers
Redcliff
South Bruce
Algoma, Unorganized, North Part
Annapolis, Subd. A
Rhineland
Bay Roberts
La Broquerie
Beresford
Cariboo A
Antigonish, Subd. B
Region 1
Kitikmeot
Stephenville
Ritchot
Arran-Elderslie
Cumberland, Subd. B
Region 5
Huron-Kinloss
Taber
Brownsburg-Chatham
La Sarre
Newell County
173

5001
5003
5070
5156
5179
5228
5249
5256
5268
5316
5321
5348
5401
5600
5639
5739
5866
5945
6012
6076
6248
6265
6306
6372
6543
6623
6679
6803
6859
6980
7069
7098
7122
7282
7524

QUE
ALB
NU

Acton Vale
Cypress County
Iqaluit

7656
7662
7740

174

NFL
ALB
NFL
ALB
NS
ONT
ONT
ALB
MAN
ALB
MAN
NS
ONT
ALB
PEI
BC
MAN
ALB
BC
NU
BC
BC
ONT
BC
SASK
SASK
BC
ONT
SASK
MAN
BC
NB
NS
MAN
SASK
QUE
QUE
BC
NS
MAN
ONT
ALB
QUE
ALB
PEI

Torbay
Drumheller
Portugal Cove-St. Philip's
Coaldale
Antigonish, Subd. A
Kapuskasing
South Bruce Peninsula
Taber
Morden
Wheatland County
Stanley
Amherst
Brockton
Division No. 4
Stratford
Quesnel
Division No. 4
Lethbridge County
View Royal
Keewatin
Saltspring Island
Saltspring Island Trust Area
Elliot Lake
Williams Lake
Division No. 4
Weyburn
North Saanich
Kincardine
Estevan
Taché
Sidney
Bathurst
Truro
Winkler
Division No. 3
Amos
Lachute
Sooke
Colchester, Subd. C
Division No. 5
Saugeen Shores
Strathmore
Mont-Laurier
Brooks
Summerside

7899
7982
8147
8215
8278
8292
8416
8428
8668
8788
9038
9413
9461
9573
9706
9879
9986
10353
10408
10413
10557
10557
10741
10753
10854
10870
11249
11389
11483
11568
11672
11897
12261
12591
12610
12823
12862
13001
13098
13176
13715
13756
14116
14451
14829
175

NFL
QUE
MAN
MAN
NB
BC
BC
PEI
BC
BC
BC
MAN
NU
NS
NS
NB
NFL
NFL
NFL
QUE
NS
NFL
SASK
NFL
QUE
YUK
NB
NFL
NB
NB
NS
NB
BC
SASK
SASK
QUE
QUE
BC
PEI
ONT
BC
ALB
ONT
NFL
PEI

Division No. 3
Acton
Hanover
Steinbach
Tracadie
Central Saanich
Colwood
Kings
Esquimalt
Port Alberni
Oak Bay
Division No. 1
Baffin
Antigonish
Colchester, Subd. B
Riverview
Corner Brook
Division No. 2
Division No. 4
Abitibi-Ouest
Annapolis
Paradise
Division No. 2
Mount Pearl
Abitibi
Whitehorse
Charlotte
Conception Bay South
Carleton
Albert
Cumberland
Kent
Alberni-Clayoquot
Division No. 5
Division No. 1
Argenteuil
Antoine-Labelle
Langford
Charlottetown
Brant
Bulkley-Nechako
Division No. 3
Timmins
Division No. 5
Prince

15560
15594
15733
15829
16114
16814
16859
17160
17655
17678
18094
18534
18988
19301
19534
19667
19806
20372
20387
20538
20591
21389
22825
22957
24639
25085
25428
26199
26220
29158
30005
30475
30981
31750
31766
32389
35243
35342
36094
36707
37896
38956
41788
42014
43730
176

NS
MAN
ALB
BC
ALB
ONT
ONT
MAN
NB
ONT
PEI
ALB
BC
ALB
NS
ONT
NS

Colchester
Division No. 3
Division No. 5
Cariboo
Medicine Hat
Bruce
Sault Ste. Marie
Division No. 2
Gloucester
Cochrane
Queens
Division No. 1
Victoria
Lethbridge
Cape Breton
Brantford
Cape Breton

50585
54796
55708
61988
63260
68147
73368
75571
78444
79682
82017
82627
85792
92729
94285
97496
98722

177

Case Study Framing Based on Cycling Characteristics

178

Appendix D
Information Letter and Sample Survey for this Thesis

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

Appendix E
Smithers Percentage of People Who Cycle or Walk to Work by Neighbourhood
Source: Town of Smithers, 2012a.

197

Appendix F
Whitehorse Proposed Projects and Cost Estimates for the Bicycle Network
Improvements. Source: City of Whitehorse, 2018.

198

BICYCLE NETWORK PLAN B- 3

Street

From

To

Infr astructure Type

Length
(km)

Cost

Ogilv ie Street

4th Avenue

2nd Avenue

Separated Bike Path 0.28

2nd Avenue

Ogilvie Street

Ogilvie Street

Multi - Use Pathway 0.1

$400,000
$60,000

Ogilvie Street

2nd Avenue

Riverfront MultiUsePathway

Separated Bike Path 0.21

$300,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Ogilvie Street

Black Street

Multi - Use Pathway 0.18

$200,000

Ogilvie Street

30 m Eof
8th Avenue

4th Avenue

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.42

$30,000

(escarpment Trail)
Alignment
Unknown•

Two Mile Hill (2nd
and 4th)

Ogilvie
Street (along
escarpment)

Multi - Use Pathway 0.52

$400,000

1 Block E of 8t h
Avenue (end of
existing MUP at
Black Street)

Ogi lvie Street

Black Street

Multi-Use Pathway

0.33

$200,000

Black Street

1 Block E of 8th
Avenue

4th Aven ue

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.52

$30,000

Black Street

4th Avenue

Front Street

Separated Bike Path

0.39

$500,000

199

3rd Avenue

130m N of Black
Street

Hoge Street

Neighbourhood
Greenway

1.31

$70,000

Wood Street

8th Avenue

4th Avenue

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.45

$30,000

Wood Street

4th Avenue

Front Street

Separated Bike Path 0.35

$500,000

6th Avenue

Ogilvie Street

Hanson Street

Bicycle Lane

1.11

$300,000

Hanson Street

6th Avenue

Yukon River

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.57

$30,000

Hoge Street

1 Block E of 5th
Avenue

3rd Aven ue

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.34

$20,000

Lowe Street

3rd Avenue

2nd Avenue

Neighbourhood

0.12

$10,000
$1,700,000

Greenway
4th Avenue

Black Street

Robert Service Way Separated Bike Path 1.34

1 Block E of 5t h
Avenue

Hanson Street

Jeckell Street

6th Avenue

Jeckell Street

Drury Street

Multi - Use Pathway 0.48
Neighbourhood
Greenway

200

0.18

$300,000
$10,000

B- 4 CITY OF WHITEHORSE

Street

From

To

Infr astructure Type

Length
(km)

Cost

Connection to 6th
Avenue

Drury Street

Robert Service
Way

Multi-Use Pathway

0.08

$50,000

Alignment
Unknown•

3rd Avenue

Robert Service

Multi - Use Pathway

0.05

$30,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Front Street

Riverfront MultiUsePathway

Multi-Use Pathway

0.06

$40,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Front Street

Riverfront Multi -

Multi-Use Pathway

0.14

$90,000

Upper Escarpm ent

Alaska Highway

Airport Trail

Gravel Bicycle
Route

3.94

$1,200,000

Two Mile Hill

Multi- UsePathway

1.56

$1,000,000

Hamilton Boulevard Alaska Highway at
Two Mile Hill

Alaska Highway
at Robert Service
Way

Separated Bike Path 7.64

$9,200,000

Alignment

Hamilton

Airport Trail at

Multi - Use Pathway

Unknown•

Boulevard

AlaskaHighway

Way

UsePathway

HAMILTON BOULEVARD
Alignment
Unknown•

Hamilton
Boulevard

HILLCREST

201

0.9

$600,000

Sunset Drive/ Park
Lane/ Hillcrest
Drive

Dalton Trail

Kluane Crescent

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.55

$30,000

Multi-Use Pathway
W of Gillis Place

Thompson Road

Park Lane

Multi-Use Pathway

0.39

$300,000

Hillcrest Drive

Kluane Crescent

Alaska Highway

Multi - Use Pathway 0.49

$300,000

Falcon Drive

Hamilton
Boulevard

Separated Bike Path 2.5

$3,000,000

Two Mile Hill (near
Canadian Tire)

Quartz Road

Multi-Use Pathway

INGRAM/ COPPERRIDGE
Heron Drive/
Thompson Road/
Lazulite Drive
MARWELL
Alignment
Unknown•

202

0.4

$300,000

BICYCLE NETWORK PLAN B- 5

Street
Quartz Road

From

To

Infr astructure Type

Length
(km)

Cost

Pedestrian

Chil koot Way

Multi-Use Pathway

0.32

$200,000

Titanium Way

Separated Bike Path 0.96

$1,200,000

Proposed Multi-

Multi-Use Pathway

0.73

$500,000

Crossing on Quartz
Tlingit Street/
Tungsten Road

Copper Road

Alignment

Tungsten Road

Unknown•

UsePathway.
Heading N from
Quartz Road

Adjace nt to the
Yukon River

Quartz Road

Propsed MultiUse Pathway

Multi-UsePathway

0.41

$300,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Inte rsection of
Tlingit Street &

Yukon River

Multi-Use Pathway

1.02

$700,000

Copper Road

Separated Bike Path

0.13

$200,000

Copper Road
Quartz Road

Alignment
Unknown•

ChilkootWay

Two Mile Hill

Quartz Road

Separated Bike Path 0.38

$500,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Gold Road/
Industrial Road

Yukon River

Multi-Use Pathway

$200,000

Pathway

203

0.18

MCINTYRE
McInt yre Drive

Hamilton

Hamilton

Boulevard

Boulevard

Whistle Bend Way

Centennial Street

Bicycle Lane

1.27

$300,000

90m N of Crow
Street

Multi - Use Pathway 2.38

$1,500,000

Hickory Street/

Multi-Use Pathway

1.26

$800,000

NORTHLANDS
Range Road
PORTER CREEK
12th Avenue East

Mountain View
Drive
Sycamore Street

100m NofBeech
Street

Wann Road

Bicycle Lane

0.66

$200,000

Wann Road/
Whistle Bend Way

Sycamore Street

Mountain View
Drive

Multi-Use Pathway

2.94

$1,800,000

204

B- 6 CITY OF WHITEHORSE

Street

From

To

Infr astructure Type

Centenn ial Street

Wann Road

Alaska Highway

Multi-Use Pathway

1.65

$1,000,000

Hickory Street

Whistle Bend Way/
Wann Rd

12th Avenue East

Multi - Use Pathway

1.16

$700,000

Alignment
Unknown•

135m Nof 14th
Avenue

Intersection of
Pine Street and
13th Avenue

Multi-Use Pathway

0.47

$300,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Connects with
Alignment
Unknown Segment
(Intersection of
Pine Street and
13th Avenue)

Porter Creek
School

Multi-Use Pathway

0.28

$200,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Porter Creek
School

13th Avenue
Street

Multi - Use Pathway

0.24

$200,000

Pine Street

13th Avenue

160m S of Grove
Street

Separated Bike Path 1.35

$1,700,000

Mountain View
Drive/ CopperRoad
/ Quart z Road

12th Avenue East

Crosswalk on
Quartz Road

Separated Bike Path 4.7

$5,700,000

205

Length
(km)

Cost

RIVERDALE
Lewes Boulevard

100m Nof Hospital

Teslin Road

Separated Bike Path 1.05

$1,300,000

Road
Connection
between Lewes
Blvd/Wikstrom Rd

Wickstrom Rd

Lewes Boulevard

Multi-Use Pathway

0.57

$400,000

Hospital Road

Wickstrom Road

Lewes Boulevard

Separated Bike Path 0.71

$900,000

Alsek Road

Lewes Boulevard

Nisutlin Drive

Separated Bike Path 3.06

$3,700,000

Lewes Boulevard

Teslin Road

Alsek Road

Separated Bike Path 0.78

$1,000,000

Nisutlin Drive

Alsek Road

Lewes Boulevard

Separated Bike Path 0.74

$900,000

Tesiln Road

Lewes Boulevard

Alsek Road

Neighbourhoo d
Greenway

0.93

$50,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Robert Service Way Millennium Trail

Multi-Use Pathway

0.16

$100,000

Separated Bike Path 4.24

$5,100,000

RSW
Robert Service Way Alaska Highway

2nd Avenue

206

BICYCLE NETWORK PLAN 8- 7

Street

From

To

In frastructure Type

Length
(km)

Cost

Range Road

Mounta in View
Drive

350m Nof where
Sumanik Dr.
meet s AH

Separated Bike Path 2.5

Alaska Highway
(per side)

350m Nof where
Sumanik Dr. meets
AH

Airport Trail

Multi-Use Pathway

College Drive

Yukon College

Range Road

Separated Bike Path 0.94

$1,200,000

Alignment
Unknown•

Range Road

Quartz Road

Multi-Use Pathway

0.57

$400,000

Normandy Road
North

Multi - Use Pathway
220m E of Range
Road

Dieppe Drive

Neighbourhoo d
Greenway

0.29

$20,000

Falaise Road

Falaise Place

Range Road

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.19

$10,000

Falaise Place

Range Road

Neighbourhood
Greenway

0.19

$10,000

TAKHINI

1.1

$3,000,000

$700,000

WHISTLEBEND

Falaise Road

207

Area N of Wann
Road

E of Larch Street

Adjacent to Whistle 400m Nof Casca
Bend Way
Boulevard

Wot Casca

Multi - Use Pathway 7.07

$4,300,000

Multi-Use Pathway

$300,000

Boulevard
Casca Boulevard

0.38

Notes:

• For planning purposes, multi-use pathway cost estimate has been used for all proposed
sections where the alignment is unknown
For faci lit ies identified as a Separated Bicycle Path an average cost of $1,200,000 per km has
been used based on the three possible scenarios proposed (Table 1).

MUP = Multi-Use Pathway

208

B-8 CITY OF WHITEHORSE

Proposed Int ersection Improvements

Street Name

Cross Street Name

Alaska Highway

Wann Road

Alaska Highway

17th Avenue

Alaska Highway

15th Avenue

Alaska Highway

Centennial Street

Alaska Highway

Hamilton Boulevard

209

Alaska Highway

Hillcrest Drive

Alaska Highway

Robert Serv ice Way

Range Road

Two Mile Hill

Industrial Road

Quartz/Copper Road

Two Mile Hill

Industr ial Road

Two Mi le Hill

Exit from Canadian Tire onto 2 Mile Hill

Two Mile Hill

Chil koot Way

Two Mile Hill

Entrance/Exit Honda dealership

Two Mile Hill

Entrance/ExitJacobs

Chilkoot Way

Quartz Road

lndrustries

4th Avenue

2nd Avenue

OgiIvie Street

2nd Avenue

Black Street

2nd Avenue

Wood Street

2nd Avenue

Hanson Street

2nd Avenue

Lambert Lowe ?Street

2nd Avenue

Sumanik Drive

Hamilton Boulevard Multi- UsePath

McIntyre Drive

Hamilton Boulevard Multi - Use Path

McIntyre Drive roundabout

Hamilton Boulevard Multi-Use Path

Mallard Way

Hami lton Boulevard Multi - Use Path

Heron Drive

Hamilton Boulevard Multi - Use Path

Falcon Drive

Hamilton Boulevard Multi - Use Path

Thompson Drive

Hamilton Boulevard Multi - Use Path

Hospital Road

Lewes Boulevard

Nisutlin roundabout

Lewes Boulevard

210

211

Appendix G
Whitehorse Winter Maintenance Document
Source: City of Whitehorse, 2018.

212

» Consider wind breaks through strategic planting of shrubs and trees, or use

berms and other topography to provide some shelter and relief from the wind.

» Lighting should be adequate on routes, particularly at intersections and steep

grades or corners. All lighting should be night-sky friendly.

» Review and update the current snow removal requirements. The City currently

prioritizes snow removal on selected multi-use pathway, while other trails
are packed and groomed by snow machine. No on-street facilities are
currently maintained. With the development of new cycling infrastructure, the
City should determine which facilities will be maintained in the winter, the
maintenance practices (packed or plowed), and the priorities for maintenance.
Snow fencing or other wind breaks strategically placed can reduce snow
drifting.
» Designate and prioritize a winter bicycle network for snow removal. The bicycle

network should be treated like the rest of the roadway network- with the highest
demand bicycle routes receiving the first and most thorough snow treatment and
other bicycle routes being treated in subsequent order, depending on their
network importance. The City has some routes identified in the Snow and Ice
Control Policy
- these should be updated as new facilities are added to the network.

» Review and update current operating procedures for snow removal on bicycle

facilities, including current departmental responsibilities, employed contracto
rs and existing machinery and procedures. As the climate changes, the
challenges to provide safe cycling infrastructure may shift: more freeze-thaw
cycles may increase the risk of black ice; changes in snow fall frequency and
volume may require different snow clearing equipment and practices; and
best practices for winter maintenance are evolving in Canada. With warmer
temperatures, winter cycling is predicted to become more popular r.

213

214