I . 1 1 unt _ fiTTE t. \ Ttnc nt 'ntver 1ty 19 7 f\1 P RTIAL FC R TH THE T R F T R F F RT GE ;DER TUDIE © Helen Domshy, 2001 THE UNIVER ITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA March, 2001 All rights rc~e1 ved. This 'Nark may not be r.:'produced in whole or in part, by photocopy or oth.:;r ~ncans. without the pennission of the author. B TR hi brea t and th devel m nt ing hi t n al imag fth man whi h t u dep i t d in ar a are nt ha u e that \ m b en put, u uall r g1 t th pr nt, I e pl re he n t b men. n t rea ts a mm r 1al, a h1 nand Med1cme tt , P llt1 al, I pr e d thr ugh my rk. The images f men. Research d with emim t !Jterature and the v ice , and their e.· mal lf-imagmg fi r 111 den1 w men . hn ttan tin1 a r d, ar int ria parti i r n gatl\ e ttl\ nt d \\1 th m ' n natJYe lor d an and narrati f rea t 1111 gmg ha u h the 1 ti n hi b tw en hi t ri al 1m ge 11 nence and pin1 n are detailed. There ar two ith r a g neral female populati n, or to mamm graphic t chnologi t . Profi ional \ om n 111 the area f medical imaging often combine the information rec i don the job with th ir per onal iewpoint . These opinions are varied and pro ide an intere tinge amination of the ambiguity inherent in women's perception of their breasts and the breasts of oth r women. The ability to review our past, to recognize the appropriation of our body for political or erotic reasons helps us to discard what we have 'learned to perceive as 'normal' or 'beautiful' and to redefine our breast reality as we experience it. The words of John Berger are instrumental in helping us to recognize the act of 'seeing' from the act of 'being seen'. Upsetting the dichotomy of female as p assive object/male as aggressive owner or spectator, is the means for a new 'way of seeing.' M edical imaging is included in this work to demonstrate the fragmentation inherent in the medical process. T he emerging body of female generated work sp eaks to these concen1s . When women can recognize and refuse false images of their body, a (re) imaging of the breast w ill take place. .. II B b tr ct ...................................................................................................................... 11 abl f nt nt ....................................................................................................... 111 L i t f I II u tra t i n ............................................................................ . kn \VI g 111 n t . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 di ati n ............................................................ ............................................. ...... .. t I R hapt r J ..................................................................................................... l n .................................................................................... 2 ebt ........................................................... 5 en11111 111 ........................................................................ . th d l gy .................................................................. 1 I hapter T o .................................................................................... 1 Th acred rea ·t ......................................................... 16 r - hri tian ................................................................. 17 mazon ....................................................................... I ................................................................................ 20 Th irgm Mary ........................................................... 2 1 t. gatha ...................................................................... 24 Witchcraft ..................................................................... 24 hapter Three ............................................. . .... ............................... 2 5 Dome tic Brea t ............................................................ 25 Agatha ...... .... .......................... .............. .......... ............... 31 ationali tic Brea t ........................................................ 35 Brea t inFineArt ..... ... ............ ........... .. .. .......... ........... 37 The Erotic Brea t ........................................................... 38 Nudity ver u akedne .............................................. 40 Photography as Art And Resi tance ............................................................. 44 Sabrina Oveson ............. .... ..................... ................... .. ... 46 Chapter Four .................................................. . ... .............................. 49 The Commercial Breast ............................................. ... 49 Theretorical Di course ................................................. 5 1 The Con1mercial Gaze ................................................. 53 Marilyn Munroe ....... ... ............................. ................. ... 54 Madonna ...................................................................... 57 Com pari on .. ........................ .................. ..................... . 60 111 ut rndcr e1 ge .......................................... 70 ed1a Int rventt n ......... ...... .......... ............ .. .... 7 ra and rea. t n cr. ............................... ...... 7 1 1ppl Rtn g ................................................... 72 e1nctcr ............................ . ................ ........... 7 1 dt a! a7e ............................. .................... 7 amm graph] ................................................ 75 ltra und .................................................................... 76 T an ..................................................... ............ ...... 77 R lma g1n .....g ................................................................. 77 r m ta gn tt c t Treatment ............................. 78 met1 c urgery .......................................................... 79 ln1plant ................................................ ........................ 79 Redu tt n .. .. .................................................................. 8 1 '-' hapter ...... ... . .. .. .. . ........... .. . ..... . ... . .............. . .... ... . .. . .... . .... . .. ..... 85 i e . .. . .. .. . . .. ... . .... .. .......... .. ... . ........ . .......... .. 85 Zeu ............ ... ............. ... .... .. .... .. ...... .. ........... ... ..... .... .. .. . 91 Aphrodite ..... .. ... .. ... ....... .... .. ...... ..... ... ....... .. ...... .... ... ... ... . 91 Diana ... ... .. ......... ... ........... .. ......... ..... .... ....... .... .... ........... 92 Bodicea ....................... .................................... .... ... ..... .. 94 Gaea ............... .............. .......... ......... ...... ..... .... ...... ....... .. 94 H era ......... ............................................................. .... .. .. 94 A rtenz i ..... .. .......... .............. ................. .. ........................ 94 A th ena ........ ............... .. .......................................... ........ 95 Mammographi c Technologi t urvey .... ....................... 98 H estia ..... ..... ....... ........ ......... ......................... ... .... ...... ... 102 General Breast Survey ........................ .. ...................... .. 104 Personal Brea t Survey .............................. .. ................. 109 Chapter Six ... ....... ... ............ . ... ...... ........ .. .. .. ............ . ........... ... ......... II 0 Conclusions and Observation ................ .. .. ... .... ......... 11 0 Resi tance ....... .. .. ..... .. ....... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. ................ ........... I I 1 Recognise ......... ... ..... ...... .. .................. ................ ...... ... 11 2 Refuse .. ......... ... ... ..... ........ .... ..... ... .. ...... ........... ..... .. ..... 11 3 Reverse .... .. ... ... ........ ..... ... ........ .. ... .. ..... .............. .......... 114 Reclain1 ... .. ......................... ................... .. .. ... ............... 115 Role Model ....... .... ... ........ ........................... ............. .... I I The Internet .. ..... ..... ... ........ ... .. ... ............. ..................... 11 9 Conclusion .. .......... .. .. ..... ................... .. .......... .............. 120 el t d Bibli graph ................... .. .......................................................................... I 22 ppendi 1......... ........................................................................ In1ag pp ndi 11. ....................................................................... urvey ~ rm ppendi 111. ............................ amp le n nt fi rm and ett r f Intr du ti n v llld Trp 11 . r tl wn 2 urth ntur . nza::: 11 . 14 t L uk P a m11n th Hadonn a. . I 26 au au I 'flam m e d la ature. t Ro u lia rch 1 ~ JVz/11 ss luld h fo r Thr 1/o/r ~ rzr 111 1'fw1' 19 1 t nth 11 . Ag ath a. aguerre typ e. luld, or th trg tn of M lum . 15th ce ntury from tr ng \\ men and hea lth y chtldrcn" Fig. 17. Fift -angolar banknot from ngola, th n a P rtugese c 1 ny. 1c 7 Fig.1 . E ugene D elacroi . Llb rty Leading Th e P ople. 1 30 Fig. l 9. Bernard . H onor to the 7 rh. French poster 1 14 Fig 20 . H.R. Hopps . D estro Thi Mad Brute. En list. U. . Army American WW I poster. Fig.21 Reid S. Yalom. Gay and Lesbian Parade. an Francisco . 1994 Fig.22 Sandro Botticelli. Th e B irth of Venus . 14 5 Fig.23. Anonymous. L ook at my Face. 2000 Fig.24. School of Fontainebleau. Gabrielle d 'Estrees and On e of her 'isters. Lat sixteenth century. Fig.25 . Peter Paul Reubens . A lleg ory on the Blessings of P eace. 1629-30 Fig.26 . Paulo Picasso. R eclining Woman with Bird. 1968 Fig.27 . Edouard Monet. P icnic on th e Grass. 1863 Fig.28. Edouard Monet. Oly mpia. 1863 Fig.29. Cindy Sherman. Untitled # 223,1990 Fig.30. Cindy Sherman. Untitled #146. 1985 Fig.31. Sabrina Oveson Focus 1. 1999 Fig.32. Sabrina Oveson Torso . 1999 Fig.33 . Postcard. Ca. 'Will I M easure Up ?' 1950 Fig.34. Anonymous. 'Buy M e. " 2000 Fig.35. Marilyn Munro. The Marily n Pages. @ ellensplace. net/mlnbi o3 .htm l Fig.36. Jason D Engle. MadonnaLand.com 2000 Fig.37 . Ibid. Fig.38. Massive Mmnmaries.com 2000 Fig.39. Jenny Rains. Sweet Pain. 2000 VI .. II I uld lik pro f arr thank JoAnne Fi k t th nk th p pi \\ h gave me thetr unfailing upp rt dumg the ntire rking t ward th1 degr e: n. I w uld al em m h ', Karen ldridge, ml e ~ r her faith 1pcrt, r. lik t thank mm1tt c: Pr fe ~ r their untiring r e\· rly upp rt f m y \\ rk. e li e Marx and r. J. 1 m me. here a Healy and Iso, r k r qUire a 1 ec tal word f thank fi r h r calm b li fin m abil it and her frequent transmi sion f this c nfidence tom . V lll TI T m m ther, dna . Ru ht n- kerry lX I TR TI umb r en ra de > 7 imagine th femal t. 111 , pr m e th la ha e, all c ntributed t th me age rd , man m re ha b en used to ulpturc painting , r li g1 u the r and c nt t \\ m n in r gard t n nati nal ur br a t . Th intent f t e mme r a t image thr ugh ut the age and t e pl re the possibility that thi th i fragmented nd de tru tiv th tm g h a1m ill b ac mpli h d b d tennin an p m n 111m that ha \ ) p nn d th urv e. ammmg man r lati n hip et\v n nal been emplo ed b elf-imag up n modern w men . Thi diver e urce f breast representati ns to n th m and the br ast s lf-percepti n f c ntemporary i of hi t rica! images of the brea t reveals the creati vc action om n tor i t cultural ideal imposed n them. Women ha e oft n accepted the impo ed u age and t rminology related to their breast throu ghout tin1e· howe er e n ed to reclaim the pride of reality as well as to celebrate the differences of breasts. Appreciation of their bodily realities and differences in structure ts essential for women and will defuse the impossible standards as presently being defined by th e media. We need to recognize the construction of this false body image in order to identify the racist, elitist and sexist overtones inherent within them . The deconstruction of breast imagery will bring truth, reality and empowerment to the owners of breasts. Liberation will create "new ways of seeing." 2 My identification of the need for this type of research came from two sources. During my professional practice as a hospital-based diagnostic mammographer, I noticed quite a variety of reactions by women to this exan1ination. Their words and body language conveyed feelings 1 "Thou whose blessed breasts, filled with a gift from on hi gh, fed for all lands th uniqu glory of earth and heaven ... " Marina Wan1er Alone of all Her ex: Th e Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976). 197 2 ranging fr m di lik and hatr d f th ir r a t t t tal de111 I f their 1 r en e an th ir Ii ham, in d ua 1 wer W m n al m d t , h m ph bta and if£1 r nt le\ I hi it rv ti n nd nJ ym nt ll h an Inti mate gc a qlllrcd vvhlle re c1 tng my l ter \\ htl t a hing tudent mamm graphcr m£1 rtable perfl nntng tht c aminat1 n and ch hn l gi t n v r e clf-pcrcct vc I ere f rea t mflrt \\ h n bemg h ndlcd tn nn cted '' tth the kn \\I mamm gr phi tr imng an t f rid Gr rtan c 111 an th r \\ man. h manner during m mm gr h r a tl n. f th ap I gtc 11111 p ializ d r a. It m t be dtffi ult [i r gain t han ling th rea t f me tcchn I gt t t ther w men. I \\ ndercd I learned that en tt \ n me ork in thi · ere me the s cia! tah hat cau ed these differences in p rc pti n, an d th e perc ptt n change ver a It fettmc? Hov.., d mamm graphcr ovcrc me the initial di ta t forth intim c of th1 \\Ork? What Influence doc the mcdtcal gaze c crt? What change in elf-perc ption have b n cau d by th incr ased mctdence f brea t cancer? The second impetu to amine thi topic aros from my study of feminist theory and the deconstructi e analysis of our image -laden culture. The body and bared breast of the human female have been used throughout history to represent fertility, domesticity and eroticism and to promote nationalistic fervor. During the 20th century, images of breasts were appropriated for commercial usage, which has contributed heavily to the fragmented and objectified self-image of modem women. Advertisements using appropriated images of breasts for products ranging from automobiles to toothpaste promise the purchaser the hope of becoming either the perfect mat1J\vOman or the possibility of possessing the perfect person depicted in the image. Media-generat d imag , with the assistance of the airbrush and computer, have fostered a false ideal of the human female. 2 John Berger, Ways of Seeing. (London: Penquin Books, 1976) 3 1e i d al 11 r 11 m 1e hildlike waif r the age ftw 1 e. a r ult f th ra 1mage a ult D1n l n v qu ntr 1 f their e mingl 111 em a li:D 1 ng truggle fi r b at hing ur l n ar a f fa hi n a n nal :D ur. mce mam n f ther ' r a t d n t re n I v ill al b intr u ing th r le culptur d b d in th om n du uffi ring fr m bulirnia to th t aer bi ame chapte . high c t die . quat r n re hi rrect1 e' ga e erct e an ur iet feel thi cffl ct truggle e tend mt ent v ill diet and refuse t h the m chapter be c ntr !led r f the la tic urge n in creating the m ldcd r I \\Ill argue, f pia tic ti n th ir natur 1 b d and en gag in urgery 111 e pla ti urgery i n t a ailable t all e mu t consider a class perspective on p r:D ction. Raci m and exi m combine in th enus'. he as hibit d as a ide ho tory of aartje Baartman, als known as the 'Hottentot freak in early nineteenth century urope . xcessi\ el y large nipples and protuberant buttocks demonstrated her 'otherness' and overt animalistic sexuality. 3 The dominant culture of Anglo- axon beauty recoils from bodily excess which racial and cultural ideals attribute to women of color. Full lips are now accepted as sexy, but assimilation dictates no large breasts thighs or legs no differences in noses or eyes and as white a skin as possible. This association with size and racism is seen clearly in this statement:''The distribution of weight in our bodies made us low, closer to earth; this baseness was akin to sexual excess (while not being sexy at all) and decidedly not feminine." 4 False in1ages not only promote the destruction of a female self-image, but also, sexism, racism and the stereotypical classification of women. 3 Ibid ., 135 Susan Bordo, Twilight Zones The Hidden Life of Cultural Images from Plato to O.J. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997) 135 4 4 1 ng n1ini t h ignificance. ent art t m n n ed a participat r , the hen " m n r 1 f ur n t m . th1 their m r ad pt d a ngui h in pri n initi t ften hate an inn and all a lth ugh th fi·agin nt ti n n br at ha b an 6 p liti al" gan "Th lar d that " anal 111 d fFrudv\h rd ried the mfi n11 all n. ur te r n ti n t fi r ' emir i t rre ti e' urge y h lar need t em1n1 l re ar h ha ial pe ifi di c ur b en identifi d n d h te a "" r he de lin I h n p ibl e beg in th1 di course the p lenttal l \\ n v Ice va lu a le mfi n11ati n 1 di eminated t be th e academ and the c mmunit . TH M plan i rea t imaging in hi torica l perspec ti ve, di scus the ways o f see in g and being een e amin th m dical gaze on surve s and intervie ith refi renee t an y positi e or negati ve effec ts rep lied conducted . M goal is to document the attitud es and perception s of real women analyze feminist lit rature then combine both to propose a new way of seeing that will truly liberate us in the area of the body. This in tum may liberate men from their fal se notions of the body and will allow for a more balanced perspective of the human bod y. To examine these issues requires definite tools . Feminist analysis and the postmod em tools of deconstruction have guided my research methods. I use th e word s of ath erin c Stimpson, Linda Alcoff, and Susan Bordo to support my position. In general, postmodemi sts situate themselves after the modem period (1840-1930) 7 and see a plurality and fluidit y o f knowledge as being preferable to Jean Francois Lyotard's "metanarra6ves." 8 (Metanarrati ves are sweeping statements about medicine, history or science that claim to be the final and total word on the subject.) This ability to see more than one meaning for existing images and literature an d 5 M acMillian. Dictionary of Quotations. (New York: Blomnsbury 1989). Rosalie M aggio . Beacon Book of Quotations by Women.(Boston: Beacon Press, 1992). 7 Charles Jencks. Wha t is Post-Modernism? (London: Academy Group , 1996) 8 8 Donna Landry, and Gerald MacLean. Materialist Feminisms. ( an1bridge; Blackwell Publishers. 1993) 7. 6 5 to criti 11 analyz th m fl r gend r rrida 9 ha ta b m a t l fl r G mini m call ed "d c n tru ti n" . Ja que ined de k d n tru ti n ha pr pp ry. n n han , n1e femini t ha e h \ n that c n tru t. h fragment ti n f the categ r 'w m n' reated ept bl e lll timp n upp rt thl p f g nd er m w mn r their e ath rin that fi mini m rna b l t a am vern nt fl r the qu al it t t relat1 1 m ." ppr u an B rd "the n oint t then imaginati n it and it f iti 11, 10 fluidit and r re pen t taJJnn g c laim ab ut bile inda men if the categ ry lc f fears f w m en 11 f an emb d1ment in th li ght f the p f di embodiment · a dream ith h r b li f that the bod th rder t reJ ct an be ritiqu a ad m1 c 111 m en 1 a ultural fi mini t th tmod m mg argum ent [ being e eryw here." 12 t-m dem claim f I am in agreement p n enc s e pec iall y th e visual, mu st be bui It into th e appreci ation of fi minine e perience and construction of id entity. M y argument depends on th e notion of woman a embodied and th e a sumption that the female bod y has been culturall y constructed in an ideal form . Ideal images, es ecial ly of breasts are not related to reality but rather to ideals generated by a patriarchal culture for particular objectives throu ghout tim e. Thi s review using historical images of breasts will compare patriarchal images to matri archi al VIS1ons Pam Carter addresses the reality of different and particular social and economic cu ltures specific to the life of an individual woman . Addressing these differen ces prohib its th e use of one single category ' woman ', and introduces notions of power, control , resistance and individuallty. Carter also quotes Michael Foucault as being the developer of the concept of power as being connected to discourse, and the possibility for resistance within that structure . 13 D iscourses can be located in specific bodies of knowledge, such as rnedicine or art, which are reflected in accompanying social practices ; discourses determine social and cu ltural responses. 9 pac Ibid ., 60. Virginia Held. Feminist Morality Transforming Culture, Society, and Politics. (Chicago : Th e University of Chicago Press, 1993). 13. I I Ibid., 13 12 Ibid., 14 13 Ibid., 28. 10 6 b tw en the multipli it f di c u e m for th r belli u pre re 1 tan e. 1 n ub er 1 and the D rmati 11 r i tan 14 ur e all -v fa heg m 11i Re i tan e tak r [I r all ba d n fl minine intr du ed, e aminali n f w men's 11e ur e perc pti n . ea h r i tan hi f the diffl r nt c 11 b id ntifie re i lane metim t u tle and h r d rti m nt are read b f brea t im gmg b c r ful readmg ntr I and the photograph , alth ugh th op n. r a quat tnar hal pO\\ er t d t nnm pre ur t v ight I f w n1en' lf-imagmg in art and literature. tn1cturc mherent In d m re i tance eerns m re nfl rm and 'beha e ur ocJetJ C5 IS ert, espec iall y m ur elves' ha never been more \\ ith contr I ne erthele make- up and plasti c surgery me fl mini t a ' t king contr I' of our li es and bodies. However, I co ntend that follo ing a fal e m dia-gen rated id al of normal 1 not bewg in c ntrol; it is pure trans fcrencc of pow r to an e temal ource. Women ha e internalized the e temal dictates, and subsequentl y polic them el e . Criticism and degradation of the principle of the Women 's movement are evident in th e dismissive statement 'feminism is dead' or the new distaste for any public association with th e term feminism' . The fear of feminism is seen in the media. sing feminist goals in advertising and programing sends the message that feminism has done it 's work, and can now be di scard ed. Feminist research and analysis must ask the questions: Who has the power? Whose reality is distorted or controlled by this power? Lastly, resistance must be identified shared and encouraged. Knowledge, when shared, empowers and supports us. It also inspires new creativity and the usage of formal methods of resistance such as political lobb ying and pres ure tactic We need to be involved in the definition of femininity and to consider the effect such definiti on have on our sexuality. The term 'culture' appears in my title and since it reflects the implications of gender in society, it cannot be separated from the term society. To quote cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz; "culture denotes an historically transmitted patten1 of meanings embodied in symbols; a 14 Ibid., 28. 7 m ym f i11h rited c 11 pti n n1muni ate 11fie. II I5 finiti 11 m ant im g and c nn ct th r fer f kn \\ing. fal ar hi t ti pr du t f hi h [human n1muni ati 11 \ hi h ha frequent! b d im ge t v n1e11' f th 'perfe t br a t' . ulture 1n lude the pr duct1on of hang1ng ul ture b hallengmg the e 1 tmg be gem mc pi t m I g i e enti l fi r the h pe f p t p tn r hal Imag mean \\ledge ab ut and atti tude t " ard meth d nt f hi t ric 11 and in m d rn image imag , art and w fi rm tuate, and d v 1 p th ing ] ° li f ultur and a 1et . u h a1 e defined b J hn erger a bemg ' man made. An imag i a ight \ hich ha been recre ted r reproduced. It is an appearance, or s t f app aranc \ hi h ha b en deta hed fr m the place and tlme 1n which it first mad it app aranc and re rved-fi r a fev m ment r a fe centuries. very 1mag m di a of mg. ven a ph tograph ... .Images ere first made t onjur up th a p aran e f meth1n g that \\a ab ent. raduall y It became e\ I dent that an image could outla t \ hat 1t repre ented: it th n sho ed how something or om bod had once looked - and thu b implication how the subject had once been seen by oth r people. . . . o other kind of r lie or text from the past can offer such a dir ct testimony about the orld hich surrounded other people at other tim es. In this respect images are more precise and richer than literature. 16 Berger explains that the image represented is dependent on the gaze of the creator. The gaze of the viewer shares this interpretation. I will argue that the images presented since the early Christian era have been (and still are) constructed by a patriarchal society. Women need to challenge this male/female dichotomy as well as the surveyedJsurveyor accepted notion of image production and viewing. A feminist perspective of deconstruction encourages such new understandings, which transforms existing social arrangements and promotes resistance. Deconstruction will call for the reconstruction of accurate replacements for our ociety. Reimaging the breast should be a goal for feminists. 15 16 Ibid., 10. Berger, Ways of Seeing, 9-10 8 F lth ugh there are man~ oppre s1 n of efinitr n f [! mmi m, all are dedicated t omen, a v. . e\1 c s rt causes and contmuatwn m defimtions emerge that u ur e amination ciety f the everal u eful ort m re earch m th dol gy. Ludic feminism 1 "a femimsm that i found d u on po tstructuralist as um ti n ahout linguistic play, difference, and the pnonty of di cours and thus su stnu e a p li tic of repre entation for radical social trans fon11ation ." he central is ue in feminist d1scourse and it becomes the Thi femini m ee the od deconstruction omt viewing \Ves em binary opp sitions such as male/ female and culture nature. ccording to [! r a 17 Iizabeth ro z these "corporeal femm1sts" are concerned \Vith "the li\'ed bod~, th hody ms far as It 1 represented and used m specific ways i11 1)21-i.;cuLII culture . . . body a ocial and d1scurs1ve object, a body bound up m the order of desire, significatiOn, and power." 1 The feminist project IS to v1sualize the body as specific, particular md the opposite of abstraction. bstraction here is seen as masculine and phallogocentnc. 1'J This theory will reclaim the female body and thus relocate the grounds from wh1ch we speak Our authority to speak on women resides in our O\ nership of the real body as opposed to a transcended embodiment of self. This argument seems to place me well into the essentialist/anti-essentialist debate. To categorize women simply by their anatomy (functional/biological qualities) is opposed by anti· essentalist groups who stress difference as being the determining factor to defi rJe · v. omen· Social constructionists state that woman as a category has been subject to, and formed by, false social constructions. ( ee Appendix 1. Fig. 1 which illustrates this anti-essentalist posiuon.) ln this image, Cindy Shem1an deconstructs the 'natural' woman by wearing a breast protheseis 17 Theresa L.Ebert. Ludic Feminism and rlfter: Post modernism, Desire, and Labor in late Capitalism. (Ann Arbor: Uni vers1 ty of Michigan Press. 1996) 3. 18 Ibid.,235 19 Ibid., 236 9 which em to b 1 ak1ng ( stream maternal milk .. 1. de ire 1 n t t prom te the tmmutable e ence th ory n r to com ut firm\ on the c n tru t10mst rather to promot and eel brate dtfference ba ed on the body. body that is ubJ ct t ocwl con tntctt n. tana Fu f femimmty, but rcepti n argument requtres a real claims that even though esst:ntialtsm 1s defined in direct oppos1t1 n to dtff~ renee, "c nstruct1 msm ... really operates as a more ophisticated form of essentialism. The bar between essentialism and constructiomsm is by no . • "~0 m ans as sohd and as unassada lc as ad\ ocates oi both s1d · assume tt to be."~ The cat gory being use ts that of ex rather than gender. since my thesis concerns the br a ts of the human [! male. Our culture imposes a unifom11ty of breast images upon women, and it is her that I\ 1 h to ngage in dtscourse . Femimsm is often seen as a rcclaimmg of our pa t v ith a vie\ to impro mg our future, therefore the study of histoncal images will illustrate our past and may help us to define our future. Some see the feminist project a correctmg the past by including the history of women. Women's history is told and passed down generationally by stories and other forms of material work (e.g., quilting needlework, and recipes) . Donna Haraway, even though her critique is on the philosophy of science provides this useful definition: Feminism is, in part, a project for the reconstruction of public life and public meanings: feminism is therefore a search for new stories, and so for a language which names a new vision of possibilities and limits ... a contest for public knowledge. 21 Feminist ethics clearly dictate an ethic of care. Women who participate m any femmist research project must not be exploited, judged, or subjected to any form of disrespect. Their lives and experiences must be documented from their lived experience and different way·s of seeing. Wmnen have the chance to tell their breast stories in my research, their voic s. which 20 Diana Fuss. Essentially Speaking: Feminzsrn, Nature and Difference. ( ew York : Routl euge, 1989) xii 10 have the p t ntial to creat a ne\ canon, \ Ill be h ard. Recording the storie femini t ethnograph e pres ion of and a such ha the pO\\ er t f \ omen is concc tuallze omen's behavwr as an fr m hi ton ally divergent parJdtgm (sctence and femtntst ctal conte. t. mce I come to th1s thes1 th ory), a unique meth dolo~y needed \f · w rldvicw is both scientific and femmist; ub quentl m, re earch require components f both q uall tatJ\ e and quantitative analysts. The quantitative reqUirement creat d t\\ suf\ cy fon11 . economic or racial tdenttty and another nc for any woman regardless of age. pcc ifically for mammographic technologi st . The quantitative analy is ba d on the volume of un ey respondents allo\ ed me an extens1ve view of the attitude of participants and produced empincal data. The demographic data identi fieu on the form are age, the province of residence and an optional category of ethnic1ty or race. (Sec Appendix 2. These fom1s al!O\\ women's voices to be heard and illuminate some of the differences contained within the category '\voman' Professwnal colleagues contributed as \\'elL by using the form designed for mammographers to reflect their particular concerns and abilities. (See Appendix 2.) The qualitative component consists of taped interviews With women of different age groups and different breast stories. I interviewed a plastic surgeon, a lactation specialist, and women with a history of breast reduction, augmentation, amputation and reconstruction due to breast cancer. This produced five taped interviews. Six other women participated in various ways. When I went looking for other women to share their lives and experiences with me, two young sisters volunteered to be interviewed " ith their parents' consent. I felt it would be inte1esting to determine how their present bodily self-image have been influenced by either positive or negative factors. Their mother also volunteered to be interviewed. The mother signed the consent form for all three women, and the two girls were interviewed together. 21 Donna J. Haraway. Simians, Cyborgs, and Wornen. The Reinvention of ature. ( ew York : Routledge, 1991) 82 11 Two oung v om n in the1r t\-¥entl s, on of\¥ h n1 IS le bian, also olunteered t contnbutc t my bod of kno ledge. piercing on her brea t. .. oung friend has had reduct! n mammoplast , a tattoo and n1pple man1m graphic mstructor pro 1ded a mammographic technologists and her con nl ha been woman artist ntten op1mon ab ul btamed f r qu tat10n purposes. as also mtervie\\ed and her \\Ork \\Ill be presented m the art 1magmg section m chapter 3. 11 ele en partiCipants \¥ere given infom1ation enablm~ their informed consent. They were g1 en an introductor letter appro\ ed b; the university ethics committee. ( ee ppendix 3.) The ethical con tderat10ns of confidentiaht). ecurity. the storage time frame and ethical disposal of tapes and transcnpt are covered in their letter. The interviews took place at J time anJ place comfortable for the participants. The; ha\ e all been assigned a pseudonym, and all Images used in the re earch bear no identlf)'lng marks, and my attitude wi 11 not be condescendmg or mat mally beneficent. My attitude vvas caring, supportive, and non-judgmental. The mterviews took place in an environment comfortable for both of us . mce I have had reductiOn n1ammoplexi 2 and participate regularly in the British Columbia Breast ancer Screenmg Project, my words and experiences are also reflected. I have correlated the experience of my participants with feminist and cultural literature for comparison and conclusions. The survey forms provide numbers and a bigger population base to obtain data regarding women's current attitudes about their breasts across different ages, ethnic backgrounds and geographical locations. The thesis will be organized in the following manner. The headings under which breast imaging are examined are· the sacred, domestic or functional, the erotic , as represented in Fine Art, the political, commercial and medical gaze. Within each division, the history of this representation of women's breasts is offered, with images and narrative to support my thesis . Any resistance is sought out and included. 22 Augmentation translates as implants to enlarge breast tissue; reduction refers to the surgical removal ofbreast tissue to make the breasts smaller. Mamn1oplexy is a 'lift' to relocate the breasts in a more 'desirable' location. 12 hapter ne provides an IntroductLOn, fintti n , and meth d 1 g . ha ter ~ ffers a sh rt hi tory of sacr d breasts. Images of the acred rea t bemg ndtculed and reduced t m rtal levels can be en here, as well a Image pro\ 1dmg re 1 tance t the cultural nonn Chapter \ Ill xplore the d mest1c imagmg of the breast a an art [! nn w 1th breastfecd1ng xamm d from the ie\vpomt of moden1 culture. The value of brea t mdk 1 mhe1 ent 111 these studies and r eals poht1cal and sacred references Image of the breast-feeding mother are influ need b the economic and political tunes a \\ell as by pre ailing phiiosoph1cal theones . The intervie\ \ tth the lactation consultant will be includeJ here. Femmtst perspectives anJ the in estigation f the notion of ch01ce \\Ill illuminate area f rebellion and resistance. se of the breast as a p litical tool r, as I label this type of Imaging, "the political breast" is illustrated in this hapte and g1ven a femim t analysis. ext the imaging of\ omen in art will be explored using historical and modem images of the female brea t. Especiall intere ting are the images being generated today by female artists, and theoretical re iew of the subject viewer dichotomy illuminates resistance. Chapter 4 will be a continuation of the investigation of historical breast images m the areas of fashion and commercial appropriations of our breasts. The commercial representation of the breast will introduce the modem cultural icon, Madonna 'The Material Girl' . Fashion as a determinant of the acceptability of the size, shape and degree of breast visibility wi II be examined as well as tattoos, body piercing and other forms of breast adornment. A comparison of Marilyn Munroe and Madonna serve to illustrate the concept of women selling sex, in contrast to the commercial use of women's breasts to sell commodities. Chapter 4 will also review the medical gaze, or medical imaging. The sculpted or molded body will be examined by introducing the words of a plastic surgeon, and the experiences of women who have undergone surgical intervention in the creation of personal body image, integrated with existing medical literature. Mammography, Computed Tomography and Ultra Sound will provide images of women's breasts. Discussion foe use on the need for this tedmology fueled by the increased incidence of breast cancer. Throughout the specifl.c area of breast imaging, the words of the participants will be heard in appropnate context. 13 eak, hapter 5 \ ill pro ide a space for \ omen t intertwined nd m inten1ews Vvith them \ill be 1th ex1 ting fem1mst and cultural literature. Here, detailing our live are recorded. ur "01ces a real women ur tones and feelmgs about the hved e. periences of our breasts are the ba 1 of the cha ter's cont nt. The suf\ e. re ults are pres nted and analy?ed for content and meaning. hapt r 6 resents tlte recomm ndat1 n deri\ed fr m m research, and e-xpands on conclusions made from m obsen·at10n . I als expand on a p ss1ble path of actron for future [! minist me to continue to \vork u on and tudy. I am a partJctpant in m_ O\\'n research. and do not mtend to define my re earch participants a 'the oth r', m writmg will reflect use of the feminist first pers n. Patncia Maguire has provided m inspirat10n for femimst participatory research. ccordll1g to McGuire, participator research has the agenda of promoting social change by invcstigatmg reality. 21 1 he lived experience of women often drffers from the ideology and constn1ct10ns of their soc1ety, and this has initiated my thests. Hennetta 1 loore argues that "the power to define reality IS an economic and political power. " 24 This power of defining reality should belong to women, as owners of breasts. The economic and political power will follow as we define our positions as being participatory and relevant to our society. The creation of an alternative paradigm concerned with what could or should be works to replace the existing structure of the present. Maguire also states that a more just society will benefit men and women, and that true feminist research should have this effect. 25 If women are living under a false reality, then men are also trapped into believing that the false representations are normal. One of the problems associated with participatory research is the over involvement of the researcher in the lives of her participants and them in hers. This will be difficult for me, as I am very passionate about the topic and the lived reality of women. However, ethnograph;r 1s a 23 Patricia Macguire. Doing Participatory Research: a Feminist Approach. (Amherst: Um\·ersit; of Massachusetts, 1987) 3. 24 Henrietta L. Moore. A Passion for Difference. Essa_vs 111 Anthropology and Gender. (Bloomington Indiana University Press, 1994) 5. 25 Maguire, Doing Participatory Research, 79 . 14 mulittn thod of re earch. I interview d, urve., ed ob erved, did archt al anal s1 and participated in m o n re earch. In d mg o, I [I 11 \\ed three maJ r gUidelmes as offered by hulami t R inharz. First to document the lives and e penences f \ men; ec nd, to analyze e peri nces ofwomen from our wn oint fviC\ ; and la tly, t see our beha 1 rasa reOection of social context .26 mce m research mten'Je\\S \\Omen 111 the c nte t f ur shared reality, then rel les and anal e our e'{p riences 1n reference to a particular breast obsessing culture, my research meets the requirenments for femmi t ethnography and par1ic1pat ry research . 26 Shula1nit Reinharz, Feminist !Yfethods in Social Research. (New York: Oxford Umver 1ty Press, 1992) 51 15 H PT R Tv TH T R In thi chapter, breast 1mages gen rated from .... ,0 presented. The hi toncal re resentat10n uch, \ t the onset of hri liantty are f the pre- hnst1an breast are asso iated \ tth natural c cles of life and death. v men were cen a p a ears B s mg acred functiOn m their societies, and red and res ected. This history of the breast deriv~s from the\ ork re re Yalom. 27 Un til th rManlyn end of the nineteenth century, the maternal breast meant II fe or death to childr n. Pr -agranan oc1et1es ha\ e lelt figurines made of stone, bone and clay not,lble for large prominent brea t , and godd s es, lum abdomens and buttocks. These figures are thought to be fert1!J ty ble to sustain life and to \\ Ithstand t1mes of famme uch women could not only nurs their own children, but al o could probably adopt the child of a mother less able to do so due to illness or deprivation. The enus figures r co 0 izable to modem \vomen are the Venus of Villendorf and of Grimaldi both of\ hich date to 23 000 to 25 000 B ee Appendix 1 fig.2 J. Worship of these breast goddesses is thou ght to ha e continued in Eastern Europe until the advent of Islam in the seventh century. Modem women wear the figurine as jewelry. The rounded ample shape of this goddess defies current norms of the perfect female form but is worn with pride. Affirmation of our special function of fertility and the consequent respect by community members is seen as being missing in our modem time. In our society, respect is not given to middle aged 'slightly obese' women. By wearing the Venus above our breasts we seem to be reclaiming our past. ln pre-Israelite Canaan, the goddess Astarte represented a "tangible prayer for fertility and nourishment." 28 Secret worship of fertility goddesses may have taken a long time to be repressed by the priests and prophets of J ahweh, since male gods were oriented more to war than the rebirth and nourishment cycle of the mother. Egypt honored Isi s. who was associated wtth the tree of life and was also responsible for the validation of the new pharaoh. Her images shows her nursing the new pharaoh, her acceptance in this manner confirms his right to be the new ruler. 27 ~Jg Marilyn Yalom. A History of th e Breast . (New York: Ballentine Books, 1997) Ib'd 1 ., 11. 16 evet1heless am le god f the. 1 de, called Hap1, \\a d pte ted a ha\ mg breasts bee au e he \\a r spon ible for the annu 1 fl dmg of the . Tile, \\ hich ren \\ ed life and liTigated crops. Thts ap ropriation of female brea t \va unu ual and c nfi1T11 g dde their 11np01 ance. 0.-Imoan ( 'rete) figure from 1500-l 00 B , tlltLtrate the p \\er and pre tige commanded b \\Omen 111 that civilizati n. nake ....godde e \\or bell-like kirts, with tightlv laced b dice . This fashi n .... " forced the breasts fof\\ard and up\\ ard t around th ir arm di pen ed a milk. eem to adYt 29 Ia an almo t aggre ive stance while nakes \vinding the vie\v er to understand that poi n may Just as easily be a larger rok in this history and are seen agam m hnstian origin myth . Greek cults that \vorship hristianity. d th mother or nurstng pnnctple contmued until the dawn of ne of the mo t d tonishmg archaeological finds in Turkey, was the discovery of two life- ized figures of the polyma t1c 1 godd s • rtemis Debate rages as to whether her many brea ts \ ere fruit bull' testicles or brea ts Thts goddess, \vith her polymastic breasts promises unending suppl_ fruitfulness. !so, the many t dts of mammals link women to the realm of the natural world. Hov ever when we see an e tra mpple on women today, we know that the mammary line runs down the chest and abdomen of all women and as such are not constdered suspect or abnormal. 31 This many-breasted figure of Artemis pitomizes the timeless human fantasy of an endless and miraculous milk supply. This offering of the breast was later seen as the ability to grant favors and also emerges in the Christian representations of Mary the mother of Jesus. (See Appendix 1 fig.3) During the fourth century BC, Aphrodite the goddess of love was presented m a state of partial undress, with her breasts becoming more erot1c in their depiction. She also exhibited the earliest images of self-conscious gestures of privacy for her body. (See Appendix 1 fig.4) Helen of Troy, of Greek mythology, is said to have returned to her husband, Menelaus, and bared "the apples of her bosom" to secure his forgiveness. 32 19 - Th"d 1 ., 1)- . 30 Many breasted Shirley Long. Mammography 1 CAlv!RT Correspondence Course. Ottawa, 1991 30 32 Yalom, The History of the Breast, 18 31 17 Th myth of the nazon \ omen appear 111 H menc ltterature 111 the e1ghth century, 8 Women are tlll r ferred to a amazons t da~ if their str ngth i v er reput d t b a tri e of\ arllke \vomen. g een a mac:;culine mazons e111ed b) a queen. I'he1r children v ere products of a short bre ding time w1th m n from an th r c1ety. . Iale while female children v ere tramed a These \\ arrior \vomen had a formtdable warri rs . ff: pnng \ ere killed at btrth, reputation as fi rce fighters. and a1e t:ven aid to have cut off their nght breast to facilitate greater speed and strength w1th thetr bO\\ s. The remaining breast v.as left bared and became th e preferred locatiOn for bl \\S b~ their antagoni t . Is thi the early source for the 'battle f the s'? Yalom of[! r her the IS that "the . mazons represented the destn1ctive forces unleashed hen v omen abandon d th tr role as the nurturers f men and appropnated vtnle attributes instead." 33 Do the over e1ght hundred portrayals of mazons in Greek art portray the origins of gynophobia ancLor misog;n1J ?' ( t:e ~ppendix 1 fig.-) The breast cane r urvi ors of modem time reflect this heritage as they battle for life and a cure. In ancouver British Columbia there is a boat race held by breast cancer survivors, in conjunction 1th the Dragon Boat Festival. These women call their race the 'Abreas t in a Boat Race'. One of the teams is called 'Amazons Abreast' and this team has written a poem that reflects their feelings. The title is Ama:ons and is signed simply: A Tribe of \Varrior Women. Taken from the Greek word a-mazos (breastless) A tribe of warrior women who destroyed one of their breasts to increase their accuracy with the javelin and the bow. Women who know that to survive the aim of the arrow must be precise. thousands of women are members of a fierce tribe of survivors. These warriors, these breast cancer SUfVlVOfS, have found weapons to fight and SUfVlVe this dreaded disease. Faith, courage, community, science, 33 Ibid., 24 18 rag <4 ducatwn and p wer. - This fi rc te tament ha h lped many ''omen to un 1\ e, and t ee them selve a act1ve participants m therr care rather than bern 0 pas I\ e victrm . Brea t cancer patients u e \Varltkc word such as 'fight', attl ·, \anqui h' and ' onqu r' . \ e see here an ld legend being re ived and u ed wtth succes . vrnb licall\ b: them: h fR mulu and Remu . The twin s on ~ or Rome rs till re re ente th g d 1ar and the m rtal Rh a were re cued from the Tibet and nursed by a mother \\ olL Th infant bo: ab or ed the fierce qualities of their foster m ther from her milk and became . '" great k mgs. ·Roman legend mvol\ mg human articipant , with a strong moral of filial piety and charity is repeated b Plin th Elder (2 -79). but attnbuted to the first century hrstonan Valerius faximu s is a follows. Of filial affection there hav , it is true, being unllmrted instances all over the world but on at R om \ rth which the\ hole of the rest could not compare. A plebeian wornan of low position who had just gi en birth to a child, had permisswn to visit her mother\ ho had been shut up in prison as a punishment, and was always searched in ad ance by the doorkeeper to prevent her carrying in any food. he was detected giving her mother sustenance from her own brea~ts. In consequence of thrs marvel the daughter's pious affection was rewarded by the mother's rel ease and both were awarded maintenance for life; and the place where it occurred was consecrated to the Goddess concerned, a temple dedicated to Filial Affection .... 36 Works of art from the Renaissance Period have changed the recipient of this devotion from the female parent to the father. This introduces an incestuous theme to the story, as well as an element of cross-gendering. 37 These misinterpretations establish a tension between th e nurturing female and the dangerous female body. The shift from reverence of the nurturing mother, the goddess of fertility and bearer of life, to fear of the person responsible for the evil 34 ABREAST in the West. Newsletter of the Alliance for Breas t Cancer lnfom,_atton and BC and Yukon. Spring 2000 Vol.l /no .3 p.6 35 Yalom, History of the Breast, 25. 36Ib"d l ., 25. 37Ib"d l ., 25. 19 upport. suffi red y man, ha begun perfe t op site. B th impo si le role in th hn t1am t mtrodu e e. a trgm 1 ther e and . 1ar ~ . th m. f [ary as her hnst, play tmportant and isual reaht) f hn ttan 11 fe fi r \\ men. Gene IS chapter three, d tail the t m tati n f from grace. 3 first \v man. then he gi\ es the fi r 1dden fntit to ··od bani he them from the Garden ve b _ the serpent and her subsequent fall dam. her hus and, \ h then participates in her f Eden. cursing them b th in perpetlllty condemned to ear her children in pam and .\dam to toil G r his li\elihood . . \!though E e had \ n fig lea\·es t g ther. thu creating loincloths. into garments forth m. dam and od fashioned the skins of ammals lth ugh no pecific mention is made regarding the covcnng ofF\ c's breast arti ts throughout ttme ha\ e depleted n the c ilmg of th Eve is ve as having a protective am1 across them. hapel of t Peter's church in Rome, Leonardo Da Vinci shows not onl Eve being bam hed. but al o her nemesis the serpent. offering the forb1ddcn fruit. The serpent has acquired femimne charact ristics by this time. specifically breasts This creation myth was able to ubstantiate and perpetuate many anti-female positiOns. Smce Eve led man from the Divine gaze her inferior status is absolute, and blame falls to all her descendants. Women today are being withheld from ministering by these implications of irredeemable guilt. Feminists question the allocation of total blame to Eve. Where was Adam's free will? Why is his culpability and subsequent whining to The Creator not regarded as significant? Eve reached for the tree of knowledge and was deprived of access to learning for centuries afterward. 39 Reasons to despise Eve, as taught to women by patriarchal religions, inform us that through her sin of disobedience, death replaced immortality and sexuality replaced virginity. In the fourth century Saint John Chrysostom said: "Do you see where marriage took its origin? ... For where there is death, there too is sexual coupling; and where there is no death, there IS no se-xual coupling either." 40 38 39 The New American Standard Bihle. Rosalind Miles. The Women's History of the JVorld.(London, Harper Collins, 1993) 239 40 David Kinsley. The Goddesses' Mirror. Visions of the Divine from East and \Vest.( e\\ York.: State University Press, 1989) 225. 20 lizab th tanton challeng d the ant1-femmi t ad r ligion . he fi lt that the i le r and published h r ers10n. called Th \ n quintess nee of evil, not an in quite the p re ent d the 1gge t tan e perpetuated by patnarchal stacle t the prop r equality f \ men H'oman 's Btl le in l 9 Iring 1mage fi r \'r men. 4 -l l ve sto d as the far}. the 1 ther of ite id al. The Image of \\omen as either \ h re d. rep esented r m ther still provides a damaging ichotom fi r m n t day. II antra t \ as drav,;n bet\\ een \.fary and Eve. !1 fe and death. as m t Jeromels T'rventy- econd L tt r: I eath came rom · ve, but II fe ha c me through !aryl; and 4 Irenaeus wrot that through, fary the gull of the serpent wa o ercome by the I simp licit of the d ve and we are et free from those chams by\ h1ch we had been bound b ~ death'."'L l\1ar not on!~ re eemed th \\ orld by bearing hrist. but offers redemption to women as 'Nell. Million of Catholic \Vomen pra to • 1ary to help th m with femmine (family) problem s and for intercession \ ith God the Father. J s th mother of Jesus hnst, mortal \\omen feel an affmi ty with hef' she is a source of comfort and helps lead the way to eternal salvation. he followed the Word of God by concei ing and b anng His son, thereby demonstratmg obedience and p1et y. She maintains her virginal status through her lifetime thus negating the stain of sexuality inherent in female flesh . Since she must not have the stain of original sin (the mark of the human condition) placed upon her at the time of her own conception, the Church fathers exempted her as part of their official church doctrine in the 1950's along with the Assumption into Heaven. The curse of Eve was avoided, in order that her body might bear a God. Mary was also declared a virgin throughout her lifetime, even after delivering the Christ child. In further contrast to other mortal women, Mary did not suffer death. Although she was not resurrected like Christ, she ascended bodily into heaven a process called dormition.-+ 3 M work a scarcely resolved struggle between love and hate. 100 I cam1ot see myself m his avage distortions and deformations ofwomen 's bodies, nor am I able to appreciate his works. I notice that Picasso uses the breast as a signifier for the feminine, even where the breasts are misplaced, misshapen or singular. (See Appendix 1, fi g. 26) 96 Ibid., 8 Ibid ., 361 ,251 ,338 98 Ibid., 342 99 Ibid. , 343 97 43 d uard Manet 1 painting in 1 er/ int r/ with full e tat r . en 1 fig.27 and 2 ugg t1 e and i [i r tart f th t th t ne r that h a mal ov r 1 PH T RAPH The photographic Pt nt ht mallt ntemp r nc . "'" 1th t\\ o \ h r tum d th ga7e f th e h \ a [! male nud eated r [! r th er t1c p n d the d ut at the \ Ie\\ er, h llenging n t nl hi ga1e, but he eeJn t b latantl ntr em th n g twtt n f [! mal re i tan m n tra ti n paint d f t [! r the nud genre. al . H r d fiant gaze in:D rming the th and Zrmpw tar r. hall nging th pret b dy i !)·mJ w im g d nud ra 1 th d m 1 nan rld nd ht . Pi ni on th timul ti n f the i thi ) t rtl d th art 2-1 , an rem111d the ie er that and d minate the image \ hi le ran u e f her b dy. Th1s is lam ttl! in awe that th1s image wa ar ag R RT ork of ind herman and abrina esen illu trate modem resistance to male dominated art cultur . Photograph y is a new way of seeing. Ph tographic image~) surround us so completely that e almost don 't ee th m anymore. r that's what we \\Ould like to think. The shift from the artist as the creator of unique images, to producin g images of existing forms that reflect and reinforce the production of cultural ideology is perhaps the most dramatic and clearly defined aspect of post-modernism. 101 The work of Cindy Shem1an sharply illuminates the false sense of reality and truth normall y associated with photography. Her work shows the construction of female stereotyp s. 8 y photographing herself, complete with props, makeup, and by becoming both photo graphic subj ect and photographer, she deconstructs images from the past and present. he forces us to see more than one m eaning in her work by making the stereotype obvious, and that helps u to 100 Ibid., 361 101 Refer to p.4 for definition of post-modernisn1. The artist no longer has sole po ssession or ability to reflect the world, but now produces images that either reflect or support e isti ng cultural ideologies, for b etter or worse. 44 the r al m id ntify and efu truth urrounding m 1 mtrr r f p rp tuating fal ntr I. f g n rat d n m 1 g n rat dim g fth f mihar ~ th h nnan pre nt 1mag fal g , i ting r pre nt t1 n \\ t nal z th f\ m n. nventt n [ thtng, ettm g , and g lure that mtmJ th e f ph t gral h 111 men h n1p II 1t i mh rent In her\\ rk 1mag H r m n are alwa , li ght! tragi . m tJ nail ' dt traught. bJ CC tJ fi cd. confu d, fl li h. au e i t al ne m th 1111 ge , the w men app ear trapp ed 1tmg t r l a ed. In highh ghtin g th ubj e lt\'e fi u f th e amJIJar-1 ktn g characte1izati n and imag h m1an 1 abl e t re' ca l th e h rt mm gs th at such 1 02 1e\ f rpetu t Th 1mag f gn rr I m ppendtx 1, fi g. l5 ha unag a d p .1 t d b 141h en t ur p mt r . a lre ad ~ h n th e fal c matemal indy herman tn her UntLtled 2 16. 19R9 repeats th fa! br a t and di tantl held child to furth er di play m1 s gyn1st notion of moth rhood . 103 ( ppendi. 1. fi g. 9) noth er popular nur ing Madonn a style thi image but allo tereotype i undermined in ntlll d 17 . 1990. ee pp ndi 1 fi g. 29 .) In this image, the ob iousl fal e breast being pre ented to ad II , alon g with th e carin g ga; c of the mother, illustrate the objectification of both child and breast. ngc la m1th qu ote ~ Judith Butler from her text Gender Trouble as remarking: "There is a sub ers1ve laughter in th e pastiche-effect of parodic practices in which the original, the authentic, and the real are themselves constituted as effects". 104 Sherman has her critics, most notable being the American Art critic James Gardn er, \\ ho reviews much of Sherman's work, praising only her early black and white images. Thi s excludes Untitled#l46, 1985. He describes her breast prosthesis as being typical post-modern fakery. Her ridicule of the stereotypical feminine genie is called a ' doctored image' as 102 Ibid., 15 103 Angela Smith. Kristeva, Sherman, and the Maternal Body. Accessed eptemb er th 2000. Available at: http://english.cla.umn.edu/Visi ting/MJ anette/Installations/ Angel h rm5 .htm 104 Ibid. , 1 45 1npared t th truth f m d n1 1111 gmg. b c n1 pr bl mati fi r him nd h pp nd1 in[! r th t he em rd mg fi r t 11 um up h r w rk a b mg lf-gr t1 nt int 1. Jg._ O . H rd t "b underg mg am ra e I1 tage [ I1 r p 11 I " I () ~ ng nd e hr 1t1 ni t. H r c r t gcnJa 1 to ha\ c m n a m i r h r b d , th u l a mg h r elf e re h r udten ap re iat th femi m t n tn1 ti n r el - tat d tnt 106 retatt n th r h t gra hi arti t.wh u e h r \\nb d a the u Je t,1 rdner d e n t eem t tnd hem1an' bnna rk . e en. tke hen11 an he u es her wn b J y a ph t graph r m d 1, ut with ut pr p . Herb d and fold d blemi h d and \ luptu u . film mpha i th r alit 1 ffcr ed t the te er, naked, e'\cu e are mad e and th e usc f fern 1 fl h. Man rinkl ed f black and whtt c \\ om n find tht s e pos urc to be pai n lu i, embarra ing and p rhap e en difficult to i \ . A requ st to becom a model fi r veson mtght meet a erage body wei ght. This perpetuat ith fear, as our culture negate age and m dia representations of unnatural and unrcalt stt c expectations of body images for millions of women . 107 A naked female body on display can be viewed as a pass ive object and to contradict this perspective, I have intentionally chosen a vertical format and created attention to the touch. Also by actively participating in the image-making by using my own body, I cannot help but challenge the history, codes and tradition of female images. The emphasized skin surface displays scars blemishes and wrinkles ; this is not an innocent body without hi story, but a person who has experienced life . .. .The aging, imperfect bod y can be associated with corruption, loss of sex uality and decay. Through this exhibition of photographic self-portraits I want to encourage pleasure in viewing a woman's body that is not a limited icon of masculine heterosexual desire . 108 105 James Gardner. Culture or Trash ? A Provocative View of Co ntemporary Pw ntuzg, Sculpture and Other Costly Commodities. (New York: oral Publi shing Group , 199_,) I 0 106 Ibid., 179, 181 107 Almette Schroeter, Foreword to Exhibition Catalogue Sabrin a Ove on elf-Portraits (Prin George: Art Gallery, 1999) 46 nt d h r nam u d in h r qu t ti n . h Wh n I int rviewed a nn nd imag 1 ng d t h r nd lth ugh he v a m r th n \villmg t 1gur 1 h th gaz am tum f n nti n nd both e uall charg d rea obj f th i '' er b mg tmaged b th [! mini f her t tatem nt ubJ rating, t 2 m 1lh me, he ppendL I . f the ph t gra1 h Th1 1 re i tance There i a camera I ated at d that make d finite her omt. The area f ub ·eel a t i b ing n atl illun1mat d and defu d. igure 2 h \ [! r cake d c h re th e 1 nd did not w nt an nymit . rd [! It her the pia t1 female t r used ing h ld t h r brea t . Th1 chall nge the 1de I gy of perfect breasts b placi ng th pla tic/p r~ ct d 11 t r n t t abrina' real but culturally imperfect breasts. When a k d ab ut h r moti ati n for roducing th e images abrina said: I wa at a particul ar age. I a quite a bit older than mo t of the other students into m thirti , had gained ight and it wa almost like I as being written off uall . Ho dar you. It wa sort of a defiance thing, how dare you write n1e off e ual ly and say that my body isn't beautiful or perfect. ... it was defiance becau e a lot of the photographs that were being made were in the art school tradition of nude photography. It is a certain type of bod y and that was O.K., but you didn't get to see 109 photographs of other typ es of bodies. Perhaps it was her age or inherent feminism that gave her the courage to give her anger a voice, but Sabrina says that she was inspired to do self- portrai ts by seeing the work of John Coplan. He was in his 60 ' s with an aging body and she saw him as being brave and hone t. Her work does not have a hi gh commercial value yet, and Sabrina says " no-one is going to want to hang it over the top of their sofa". 110 I disagree; one day Sabrina may be hai led as an important artist who challenged the status quo . However, many women fee l uncom fmiab le 108 Sabrina Oveson, Artist's Statement Exhibition Catalogue abrina Oveson: Self Portraits (Prince George: Art Gallery, 1999) 24 109 Sabrina Oveson, personal interview, taped by the author, July 151 2000 11 0 Ibid. 47 ntati n with u h h "th r are a nna m f dt , and fl mtm t ma ur h b h \ [! mini t d fin rk . ial c n tru ti ni t ci l c n tru ti n th n b categor and om n ' ehmmatmg pr blem at of fl mal This ch pt r ha u h uldn ' t even be how1ng , JJl ntwlt t th r th at '" man a a catcg r] 1s n dt f r n nd \ uld appr e abnn a' uld have diffi ultl e h re be au e, 1r the ateg r '\ man' 1 a 11 . n tru tJ 11 cwl y u c u ld elunmatc b th th e abn na 1 engaged 111 teanng d wn f men, but 1 re of oman a an r ti p repre entati fi ght th nti-e entali t fl cu b h r anatom th e c n fu s1on. ua I] game b dep1 tmg t11e b d . th flmal b d atall.Iti jutpla 'ng int th Th e fl mini t ar al o tr ing t th t add t eta! co nslntct n tructmg the image t b real and more p n nc fl u ed n repr entati n of \VO men breasts a th e fun ct iona l or breastfeeding brea t· th breast b ing us d for political purpos · and the im age generated by the world of art. These images ha e d monstrated th appropriation of the breast by oth ers. Modem resistanc hich ex mplifies the acquisition of a new awareness of th e con trol contained within many images is seen in the works of women especiall y within th e medium of photography. Images generated by more modem methods such as the media and medi cin e continue my exploration. To examine these images of women I move on to chapter four. Ill Ibid. 48 H THE The purp 1MER RF R IZ L, e of chapter four is to examm 1m age. BRE. T f \\ omc 1' breasts a portrayed by the popular medta, advert1 mg firm , fa h10n leader and the '' rid of medicme ot only docs a mod m medium generate these Images but al the\ lead mt each other. The commercial breast i used e1ther to sell products, or omet1me t sell their \vner. Th1s leads mt de ign d to rna 1miz or creat a specific 1mage, leadmg direct! garments int health problems. orsets and the modem quivalent of bmdmg bras are till su pectcd of ha mg an adverse effect on women br a t h alth. \\'hen media or mcdtcme [! cuse 1ts gaze on a particular area of the female anatom \\Om n re pond b; '1 '' ing their O\ n bod] as being compnscd as pans Parts which must be made to conforn1, be proper!" dressed or adorned, and be subjected to the parti ular and int nse gaz of the med1 a! fraternity. Th ongo1ng question of cause and effect reveals the subtle pre ure ' omen confront e ery day. Images, narrative and the words of John Berger will continue to be used to illustrate my position. Women s bodies especially breasts, are us d to sell commodities by accessing the blatant appeal of sex. Seemingly unrelated objects, from automobiles to zebras are linked with the female body, offering pleasure and promise to the purchaser. The beauty of the idealized female form, coupled with the item for sale promises the purchaser prestige, status, and the envy of friends and associates, irresistibly combined with the promise of sexual success. Women, it is implied, especially this type of desirable, high stc.tus female, ill rush to be with the viewer. Her high profile sexuality hints of power, yours to possess and flaunt. I en are measured by their possessions; the same way women are measured by their bust size. (See Appendix 1, fig.33 for a literal view of measuring up, demonstrated on a 1950 U. S. postcard.) It is my aim to explore the relationship of women as both buyers and sellers in the breast market. To do that l will use images of breasts in th " world of commerce, fashion and medicine. 49 p rvas1ve and c mmon that we take them for Imag s that we s e' w1 thou t ' eeing'. Image granted and a irnilate them mto our unc n 1 u . \Ve then create false dcfiniti ns of ' normal ' and beaut consequenc that create negati\·e elf- erccpllon The~~· In tun1, create far-reachmg that e t nd mto our adult li\ e Th se area of brea t Image reduction Intersect and O\ erlap each other, and mce the modem re roducti e t chniques available create a new and e\ ten ive audtence, I decided to create a nc\ chapter s parat from those 1m ages generated b.. h1stoncal paintings, literature or art forms Areas such a pomograph and erotica, mcludmg lesbian definitions of the latter; the inDuence of th Internet· the r lat1 n h1p bet\ve n breast cancer, the bra and the definition of nom1al : is ues in mamrnograph ; bod adornment, and brea t d1splays in pro t1tut10n are explored. John Berger offers a d con truct1 e analysis of the relationship between images generated by fine art and th media, and the hidden issues of pleasure, envy, glamour, and happiness bemg successfully accessed b the retail market. 112 Berger's words are used to illustrate my thesis that the images of breasts being produced today are as powerful and pervasive as the h1stoncal images already considered in previous chapters. The effects on modem women through advertising, the dictates of fashion and the intervention of medicine are obj ect1fyi ng and destructive to women of all ages. Seeing ourselves begins in the cradle and continues throughout our life. Our self-esteem predicts our behavior, with positive commercial results and occasionally negative personal outcomes. Medicine has capitalized in this era of media-influenced body image by providing the tools to re-make or sculpt the perfect body. Tills creates the 'Official breast', which conforms to a culturally generated standard of normalcy and beauty. Plastic surgery, as vvell as the medicalization of notmal breast growth and size, provides fertile areas for analysis Images, interviews and the correlation of feminist literature with medical definitions of 'need' are 50 pr sented in this chapter. Breast tmag s as produced b Dwgno t1c Iedtcal Imagmg Departn1ents are ofD red, long\ ith a com pans n of different available imagmg modalit1es. THE RETI L DI UR arolyn Latkier compare ur ultural ob esswn \\ tth the breast to a fom1 of fettshtsm he defines fetishism as a se ual fixat1on: the tran ference of exual po'' er fr m a person to an object or a per on \ hos s xual practices place them outside of 'normal' and into the category of 'de iant' .113 Taking these definition a tep further creates political fetishism. Karl Mnrx wrote about "commodity fetishtsm in ca italt t societies" 114 suggesting that the replacement of va lue from the worker to th product '"'as creatmg a power displacement rather than th bjccts now held the power people who labored m the creat1on of that object. "Thts object obscures amJ replaces social r lations '. 115 Th reality of long shifts in factories, with the attendant physical and mental cost to the \ orkers, is not reflected in the sleek packaging of a new car. Freedom. prestige, sexuality and an improved sense of self, are the messages sent to the consumer. Beautiful bodies, especially beautiful body parts become so entwmed w1 th the product that 1 t becomes difficult to separate them. Advertising has put sex and sales together so completely that women have been forced to relinquish ownership of their own body. However, as Berger points out to us, the poses of women used in commerce are stereotypes: the good mother, housewife, mistress, secretary, perfect hostess (spectator-owner's wife/woman?), or sex object. 116 But what about the 'new liberated woman'? Increased visibility of women is used to proclaim the era of post-feminism. But visibility is not reflected by statistics of women having equal representation in the real world of business and commerce. Even ""here 112 John Berger, Ways of Seeing, 129-154 Carolyn Latteier, Breasts The Women's Perspective on an Arn erzca n Obsession (~C\\ York Haworth Press, 1998) 114 113 114 115 116 Ibid. , 120 Ibid., 120 Jolm Berger, Ways of Seeing 138 51 the majority of workers are female e.g. health are, the management t am are predominately male. Berger sums up the issue of vi tbil!t in advert I mg contra tmg 1th the real ord: Pub licit [ad erti ing] tum con umption mto a sub titute [! r dem cracy. The choice of\ hat ne eat or wears or dnves) takes the place f 1gndicant olit1cal choice. Publi it hel to rna k and c mpen ate [! r all that IS undemocratic ithin o iety. d 1t als mask \\hat ts happemng m the rest f the w rld. Publicity adds up to a kind of htlosophtcal sy tern. It e plaws e\ erythmg m Its 110v n tenns. It mterprets the \\ orld . To extrapolate th oppress d words int a femmist perspectl e Is n t too It f[;cult: we are sti II en if\ e look great 111 the ad\ertts ment . I rememb r my famil hos buYing a new car m the late 1950's. What I cannot remember is at request I pos d \Vtth the car for a photograph. Dtd I enhance the car, like the advertisement or did the car enhance my Image? When men pose wtth their vehicles, it seems to reflect their pow r. Ownership, mobility and the ability to attract women for sexual purposes are the messages b ing sent. The message sent by the female body, or even a part of her body is 'buy me . Buy this product car, aftershave credit card, etc.) and get a free girl. (See Appendix 1. Fig. 34) John Berger offers a thorough discussion of the nature of advertising combined with the appropriation of the female body. Berger explains that reproduced paintings, when used in advertising, often change meaning to the viewer when either situated out of context, or when narrative is added to the image thus changing the original meaning. In other words, what 1s seen either before or after the image may influence or redistribute its authority 11 . The claims of feminists that existing philosophy, history and other representations of culture are exclusionary towards women are supported by this same problem of context. The experience and knowledge of women as developed by our unique life situation, or simply put our life context, has not been acknowledged or considered important. To realize that the meaning of a picture may be distorted 117 Ibid., 149 52 r l st wh n pr the nt d in dif:fi r nt e1ningl 1nn u u ar image of w m n in bra . ur p Jtl n learl . nte t i llu tr t atal gue. Wh n I a a hild I pent m n h ur p nng er th e h re I wa pt king ut a b d ( hape) ~ r ut id m r e ample c n rder v\ere b th ~ m1ing the cultural dcflnrtron my lf h wa picking ut hi dream g1rl b d of n rmal and d ir bl that haped ur elf-1mage and ur relall n h1p wtth thcr for the re t of ur li e . Th re:fi re it an be t k n further, that a gr up r fle ted in r c rded h1 t r , d n t devel on of the pres ing pr bl m Ia a f per n , wh do n t ee n e f identity and purp se. This is f [! mini t ch lar and arti t , and lend credence to my thesis that the obj ctification of an part of a whole. Being r oman' ana tom wtll lead to a ense f invis1bi lr ty for the parated from ur br a t for commercial reasons raises issues of ownership and control. THE COMMER IAL GAZE To explore my thesis in the area of commerce, I ill compare two h1ghly commodr fled vvomcn . both in the 20th century, who became sexual icons. Marilyn Munroe and Madonna both women became sex symbols· both used their anatomy as an instrument to obtain their goals, but they are judged by our culture to be different. To find and define this difference will invo lve images, both photographic and literary. The common bond between these women is that of women selling sex, in opposition to the previous discussion of women's sex being used to sell retail. However, Marilyn is seen as a victim, while Madonna is seen as a very enterprising young woman. In the following unit, sources such as a biography of Marilyn Munroe, the Inten1et and fem i nr t examinations of Madonna as a cultural phenomenon are explored and analyzed. MARILYN MUNROE 11 8 Ibid., 29 53 rigin 11 Maril n Munr wa ingle at th tim f th rma Jean irth an li t d th fath r unkn n. nl 1 va h r pat mit and due t finan i 1 and m nt 1 h lth r bl m in 1 r m ther ' life h r childh d in a erie hildh f D t r h me . ril 1 w n r urc f arilyn p nl qu ted in h r lat r lifi a de cribing her d thi rld ar und m then\ a kind f gnm. I had t lean1 t pretend 111 rdcr t ... I d n t kn ... bl k th grimne . he \\ h l \v rd emed rt f lo d t m ... I D lt n the ut id f v rythmg and all I uld d v a t . f preten d gam ." 119 d ream up an k 111 "Th Marilyn marri d arl fi r financial u p rt, but ea n learned that p ing for ph t graphers vv as and fun. Thr ughout h r marriage , h complained that the r le of dutiful hou sew i fc was boring and did n t me h with h r p r nal d ir to have fun and t fulfill her fantasy of becoming a tar. 120 Marilyn tart d off being photographed by the Army as part of the war effort. Women ere ho n to the troop to remind them that their women were working in factories and farms to support them in their fight for freedom . For Marilyn , thi s was her stepp in g stone into fame. In 1949 she posed nude for a calendar for $50.00 reputedly to get her car out of th e garage. 121 Later, when Marilyn was a big star, a reporter in reference to the nude photos asked her; did she have anything on? Her reply was 'Oh yes, a radio. Norman Mailer interprets this comment as not being a deliberate attempt at humor. He says that " to lie nude before a photographer in a state of silence was a different condition, and much more naked, than to be nud 119 w1th th e The Marilyn Pages. [cited 4 November 2000] Avail able from World Wide Web (http :// ellensplace.nethnmbio3.html) 120 Nonnan Mailer. Marilyn. New York: Groset and Dunlap Inc. , 1972 12 1 The Marilyn Pages, ' Quotes' 2 54 pr te ti n f nudity i e na ail r al und. h did n t h ru ial an r th addr nat a kin lik th r .' 122 The d1ffer n with th rg r bj e t m del a n at1i t a pe tat r di h t my: '' ph t graph r i u uall e n a the artt t, and h1 m d I a a p 1e pi tur int th cam ra he be the amera and D ill f il t a her h m ge." det nninati n . f tlll l1[i , he 1 amt th e 121 arilyn l u re luck ai ler r duce di empow ring language, and never r. ugar. ' an lyn ' 124 hum am t em t r altze that ok at b k int th e net' 0/nnpia, seem t cam ra engaging the gaze f the arti t vi \\ er, and h r gaze, like thi r if th e me th a1i1 t \\hen h ta e a p e: he pa111t the p1cture tnto ph t graph r ay: "Y u an fu k 1n if b tv\ cen naked and ppendi 1 fi g. hi f dem eanin g and u e 5 t supp rt aril g1 e her power away wtth her petmis ion to be obj ctified and u d. Mailer s biography offers us fact opmwns, tmages and a rather love-struck narrati ve. · However along with the effu i e description of her physical beauty, he slips in a few insightful cmnments about Marilyn and her probl ems. He clearly details her effect on others, sayi ng she was a cornucopia of delight a promise of sexual fulfillment as never before experi enced, a real woman; the living embodiment of feminine pulchritude. He describes her smile promi sing to fulfill the need of every human. 125 The lure for every man was to possess her, and for every female to be like her. Something for everyone, sex became ice cream and Marilyn was the treat of the week. "Yet she was more. She was a presence. She was ambiguous. She was the angel of sex, and the angle was in her detachment. For she was separated from what 126 Diana Trilling wrote: None but Marilyn Munroe could suggest she offered. such purity of sexual delight. The boldness with which she could parade herself 122 Norman Mailer, Marilyn , 4 7 Ibid. , 50 124 Ibid., 91 125 Ibid., 15 126 Italics by the author 123 55 and bra hi h t breathe hi h n-i u h npe fa Inall hildd ribe ung \ n1an her Mail r tudi ar h r d p ndenc n I e ing ill , her fa i 1 fault h r hair o l r hange, h r running and u iz (1 ) her a rti n that \ r c n-ec ted b the f bar ell t keep her Ii gur , h r ampl e b dy 12 and ub equ ent failure t bear children, but manage t rc\ ca l as well her humanit and 1 k f ' th m H qu t Marilyn lizab th Ta l r a re m a gi e co erag t 1ng, et that d ke a\ a fr m me." 12 R f cour e, Liz and mp titi n [! r ubli c1t , but it tdl eem an odd remark . He co ntinu e to her failing b telling u th at he had tw ecmin gly oppos ite parts f her personalit . He compar h r to a calculating computer and a dumb , an1m al like ange l at the same time. "An one el ho ontained uch oppo ite personalities within his body would be ferociously mad . It is h r tran cendance of these opposites into a mo vie star that is her triumph. ' 129 Not only do I see her transcendence of her dichotomous personality, but hi s a we ll. arilyn can do nothing to effectively tarnish her image with Mailer. I also like the change m personal pronouns in the quotation. Why the need to introduce a male term of reference whil e describing a female? Is it an attempt to define her as 'not other' or to include her in the nature and rationality of men? An example of her awareness of her commercial value can be seen in th story told dunn g the filming of The Misfits in 1960. Marilyn had to compete with Clark Gable, Eli Wallach Montgomery Clift, and the larger than life director, Jolm Houston. During a ' mon1ing after' scene with Clark Gable Marilyn lets the sheet slip, exposing her breast to one of the cameras . 127 128 Norman Mailer, Marilyn, 16 Ibid., 218 56 Th dil mma f u ing th ''I e alwa nudg d h t r n t e ntuall ame d n t th d1r t r, kn wn that girl ha e rea t ' did n t v nt the ' a th tic l nt h r omp titi tit. ' 130 f hi film t be mpettti e ltt' . ta eh ld r: 'th h hlle tating : h hat was th c n1p titi n, r what mal ar a b ing threat ned? M Madonna out e third cane r er mea f eight ibling wh n 111 a ad nna tee n \Va b n1 t t\ tr ng ath li Italian famll . result d in a ch lar hip t th till h v. In cho 1 Madonna \ a a traight- ltv d n mver It f ichigan. \V ugu t 1 111 1 5 . he was th e lth ugh her m ther died of breast \ tth tudent, and cheerleader. to h r personal ag nd , o Madonna 1 fi for recordings 4 tour par nt her family li1 Michigan. ance clas e and hard w rk ft r ne year, the atm phere was not York Her success is measured by 14 16 film and t\ o tage performance . heal o produced her own graph1call y illustrated ex book in 1992. he wa married briefly (four years) to ean Penn in 1985 and since then has produced two children and an additional marriage . he i not beautiful but profess ional make-up and professional hair care combined with a slim, culturally acceptable body, creates the illusion of beauty. Her sharp nose and chin have not been altered, nor have the spaces between her teeth been corrected. She ranks third behind Bill and Melinda Gates and Prince William of Britain as a coveted party guest. 131 Those are the facts, but her reputation as a 'bad girl' or as a producer of sometime-offensive lyrics and costumes, needs to be examined more closely. Madonna generates either love or hate, exposes deep-seated racial and religious conflicts in our society, and has been accused of banality and self-conscious constructionism. he seems to be all of these things, but most interestingly, she has generated academic discourse. 129 Ibid., 97 Ibid., 201 13 1 Jim Jerome, 'Lady Madonna." People Magazine,l3 March 2000, 106 130 57 athy a f hi ht nb rg has dit d k ritical light f id rhap t an th t tr t d fin n un r tand ad nna in the un1ent r initiate ultur 1 truggle. fi rg d in truggl r and again t th d minant. alv ' ub ultural i entiti are. ndi ti n ~ r th er \\ ll r nt the ati te ·t m Mad nna ubculturall f late t t b pa di d \ 1thm th larger pu ie c al n and m ilizati n f identiti . 11" m .... ,132 ap1ta hi hten rg c 11 ~ ur ar a ti n id ntifi M d nna' rk. h ar a ar (gender repr ntati n e e i 11 ra ~ r \\ that highlight different ultural repre entatl ns m and rehg1 n, ga p litl , 1dentll m n and fin 11 c n umen m as pra ticed by u ing Madonna' inauthenticit and reinv nt1 n a m rketmg trategi th work f ph t gra hie arti t ind a il id ntifi d r redictable 111 th ir One uch a b Ronald B. c tt r and rcpre entali n; . Her w rk, when c mpared t h nnan, reveals imi laritie in their refusal t become mm rc1al repre entat1 n . i w the ide Like A Pra_ver, discussing the images of a bla k male statue brought to life b Madonna, a bite girl inappropriately dressed for church . ·This ideos exposes the myth of the o erl erotic black man preying on innocent white females . Madonna presents the moral of th story as 'making the right choice', her probl em is resolved properly, the black statue returns to its proper place, and the sub-plot of the misapprehension of an innocent black man is resolved . The challenge here is not to interpret the video as condoning or encouraging interracial relationships, but to acknowledge the historically grounded prejudices in the North American culture. 133 The religious overtones in her work have been severely condemned by fundamentalist religions; however, the moral, social and political overtone pea~ more to the more grounded black religious experience. So, we can see here the public love-hate relationship developing. 132 Cathy Schwichtenb erg, Th e Madonna Connection Representational Politic , Subcultural Identities and Cultural Th eory. (Bould er:Westview press, 1993) 3 133 Ibid., 67 58 Mad nna al qu ti n rm an th r w m n and en r un urag n all w h r differ nt repre ntati n t di gui e i the flip 1 an ther n ga urag Mad nna qu ti n dr e f di a har h tereotypi al par d t nd free h r fr 111 th t uit nl t d1 f [! mm init a 111 een "" ith utne ' tl e ' b d girl , and cict II e fr 111 ne e ual p e t 4 and rna ulini ty, a bas d n a harp! p inted bra, r she may wear f ~ 111imnit and receive har h criti cal judgm ents as a res ult. Her uld be vie' p sing the que ti n of hat it w uld be lik to l1 e in a on the ba i he f a h m ph bi c b nd defiant g nd r bending the e delineation tab [! r ' ee l brat the1r 1dent1 ty ~ ntit , r perhap n ti n he wear a man' om tim u lit . h ure, th n h r abilit t fluid! and 1 bian 1 ual and h m ph bi d n t JU t a an a ault n our patriar hal sy te111, but as ciety that did not in ist n making f g nd r. 13 'i "The image ry in oked by Mad nn a d e not .... . re erse power relatwn . ... rath r it attempt to ub ert ub" JUgatron ., J\6 One of the most fascinating a pects of Madonnas career is its longevity. Her ability to repackage, and re-image herself seems to say that power success, manipulation and celebrit y are interchangeable terms in her world. 137 David Tetzlaff explains that Madonna has demonstrated two major themes throughout her career. They are "the appropriation and decontextualization of discourses of sexuality and morality and the commodification and exploitation of the realm of the personal in exchange for public power." 138 Madonna would probably agree, and her blatant self-promotion is seen both as an extension of her power, including her clever marketing practices and as an ability to stay afloat in a late capitali st marketplace. 139 Our culture seems to appreciate a successful commodity over human valu es. 134 Ibid., 121-122 Ibid., 199 136 Ibid.,233 137 Ibid., 243 138 Ibid., 243 139 Ibid., 257 135 59 P wer and ught b th with ut p " r, th Perhap thi i h r app al. arilyn a al h r con ent whil Ma nna re re ent a that ar a r career w re both pu li portra ed the pr mi e b com in ol embl n 111 the p nt 1f[i r ntl : at home th ir hildhood d in hibiti n f e th ocial i ue . possible to tran mit her me age, e imagine Marilyn Munro n u u 1nn mm r ial kn wl dg and al \\ h ar the e tw lth ugh th 1r nan1 f marg1n liz d f the [!mal mg ld ith ut m n hip . , I ing at w men per ei\ cd a bemg different \ hen ary the r lat1 n hip t ther f hri t, ad nna \ cr u in a home (M ari 1yn ). Thc1 r b d , but 1th tere typ1 al dumb bl nd next d adonna ent nd d1 ad antaged. trident! ital differences. Marilyn r, whde Mad nna has grabs your attention, uses any means n to the point of being considered a slut. It is difficult to grabbing at her crotch, with a grimace of raw power daring you to enjoy sex with her. ( ee Appendi 1 fig.36 for an image of Madonna doing just that.) Marilyn has been portrayed as being ictimized by the male studio system as being manipulated to create a sensuous persona. However Madonna is unabashedly in control of the product: herself. ( ee Appendix 1. Fig.37 to look at an image Madonna created for her Sex Book.) Racial and heterosexual conventions are challenged and overthrown. This image can also be interpreted as pornography by some people and is easily accessible on the Internet. The complicity of both women in the creation of their image can be seen in my re earch . The question of their difference is this: it exists only in the eyes and hearts of their fans. Both women used sex to sell themselves, and both were successful. The above-board presentation of the Madonna package speaks to changes in society due to feminism, in comparison to conventions created by the restrictive definitions of femininity present in th 1950's. The relationship of the e women and their particular situations to my original thesis shows us how the enviable or 'official 60 bre t ha hi t ri all influ n d th f m d n1 111 11. h an be u cd t attra t r dd\ crt1 c the O\\ nc1 ::., lf-imag mm rcwl u age Barbi d 11. I a ail a ilit he ar d br t, v h n h wn in da , ugg t a aila ilit an the \ ner fian e willmgn during th Italian Renai ance in the 1 th centur , pr with th ir ta ' ice' f d aming . Pr dom am ng h m m n to a h tero tituti n \ a] the t c n er e ual fa titute f the , ual and cultural n r . r c urte an le tell u that upp rted the state encouraged 111 rder to 'c unter the widespread e ual men." 1.w he a adabllity of pr titutes as seen to lead all ual ori ntati n, thu eliminating the po ibility of a homose ual sexuality. Th se worn n were p rmitt d to tand bare brea ted to ad erti e their wares, and their location in the neighborhood of a telleto \Vas called the Ponte delle Tett e (Bridge of Breasts). 141 Th ese women used make-up on their breast , were obliged to wear yellow vei Is over them when not working and were also not permitted to wear pearls. umptuary laws define what colors, fabric and ornamentation persons of different classes may wear, also futher restrict clothing choices worn while in the presence of their sovereign. Pearls are a symbol of purity and according to an Bernardino da Siena in 1417, and also indicate the morality of the wearer. He did not propose that those persons of debatable moral and commercial intent should reform their lifestyle, but rather that their exterior be altered and proscribed. 142 No surprise is the fact that these women 140 Yalom, The History of the Breast, 56 Ibid., 56 142 Adrian W.B.Randolf. "Performing the Bridal Body in FifteenthHistory, Jun98, Vol.21 Issue2, 182 141 61 ntury Fl ren e ." In .- /rr flaunt d all mann r their cl a ag . 143 ner 1 n t u ing her breast en if the interprete m ralit and a ailabilit ( uch an The anal ample an i of ther . t nt in ari ing from th effect on fi r mark ting ur graph r ducti n pp ndi in thi f controls such as en or hip ha ar ften t c n ey an ea Int m t mtr ducmg tncrea ed acce v" rldv\.tdc . 1 fig. paper 1 r tricted t e image are painful! ar co metic urg r brea t are feti bi z d and c mm dified in m graph , and the image m n r ulting fr m th bulimia and unn c arge brea t ulture, \\ 1th th [! und 111 n1 144 , larg arge bre el nging t a willing parti ipant m e ·ual g m a p rnograph tl J f ther p ible definition , arguments generated by the industry. felt in our he ulturc, v.tth an rexm, bemg id ntifi d a direct negattve results . Laws and entered the debate with women taking many different positions. David Frantz quotes Rodger Thompson's definitions of pornography as being : Pornographic, writing or representation intended to arouse lust, create sexual (i) Fantasies, or feed auto-erotic desires. The pornographer aims for erection (at least) 145 of the in the pomophile. (ii) Obscene, intended to shock or disgust, or to render the subject writing shocking or disgusting. This seems to be the purpose in our period of the use of taboo words or casual descriptions of sexual perversions, and is often a companion of satire . (iii) Bawdy, intended to provoke amusement about sex· most dirty jokes, for example belong to this category. (iv) Erotic, intended to place sex within the context of love, mutuality and affection; . th e en d b ut t h e b eg1nrung. . . " 146 orgasm 1s Pornography (from the Greek: writing the body) has its beginnings in art and lit erature, and was usually available only to wealthy men. 147 143 Post WW2 , mass production coupled with Yalom, History of the Breast. 58 My experience at puberty and throughout life. 145 Italics by author 146 David 0. Frantz, Festum Voluptatis . A Study of Rennaissance Erotica. (Columbus Ohio : Ohio State Press, 1989) 4 147 Alison Assiter, and Carol Avedon. Bad Girls and Dirty Pictures, The Challenge to Reclaim Feminism. (London: Pluto Press, 1993) 25 144 62 ad an e m t 1 c mmum prn graph a xu all e le dt pp th iter qu te r a r ti a i r " 14 1 nate 1 again t v m n. If ou d pi t e degraded in ord r t ar u women a mindle 111 p m , I 9 obj ct r tufr graph th , [i r m , the 1 111 a lllg: i ti e h i e, fr e dL ubje t 1 n t I \edt all, hut ue 1 n ther hand, nth gazme a b gmnmg t lanfy u are made fearful m graphtc. r thr aten db them t rial i Porno graph in m fr m M, n fmat rial, it i er tiC. If thi t ant t u h ap blatant, , and thu in th id a fp arning for a parti ul r er n, wh re don1inati n and r garded rti ti pr th ' high la licit er tica. g n rall a g nr ti n licit e \ ith m n. It al men being \ upp rt bjecti tied, abused, 1sm raci m and elitism by portraying om n f color a animal and lower cla . Femini t contenti n are that th i li tied and men m general as being of lence i real the rap and torture 1s real and that the miling female i not reall happ to be o u eel. ]so by e tensi n, they argue that such images promote and maintain an atmosphere for violence against women in our soc1cty This brings pornography into being an act or practice, which is abuse. " It tums vio lence 1nto an erotic spectacle [which] depicts women as dispensable objects, as things, less than human." 150 Susan Cole lists scenarios that would be included in a through exploration of porn one of which states clearly' women's body parts- including but not limited to vagina, breasts or buttocks- are exhibited such that women are reduced to these parts." 151 However, women who are pro-porn are not all necessarily just standing as anti-censorship. Wendy McElroy argues that the charges made by anti-porn feminists are false. Her argument is based on her own research within the business which denies that abuse is con tant, that 148 Ibid. , 25 Ibid. , 28 150 Susan G. Cole Pornography and the Sex Crisis. (Toronto: econd tor Pre , 199_) I , 19 151 Ibid., 98 149 63 indu tr D l th t th mg ar r earch indicat d that it i n t w m n ar c mplicit in nd pr min nt pr du r an mg f mild all n zone.' 1 2 What i er ti r grad and In rginall d b imple p re i n that th ar u j ct t the lapp1ng r plea ur pr du mg be nti-p 111 rhet ri . Her atriar h and that th ir em yn1ent . he intervie cen la r a t f [! 1111111 t men b th f erci ing th ir right t ch find of a brea t b ing lapp d i a I remember a hang d, and that th v rk r in th i r 1 nd th n n u am ng th r hi nd face hi h alth ugh \\as in a lega l gra me tndl\ 1dual her . I cann t a the imag itive ne [! r\ m n. oung w man, w n ing ab ut my ni ple because they were not the e perience v ith sexua ll y e pli cit material i color or hap of the c nter[i ld in Playbor. guided b m 'gu t r action. If I am horr1fi d or d1 gu ted then I kn w that matenal 1 not I r me ho e er porn (erotica?) i n t out for me just electi e. Perhaps the problem of not seeing yourself in erotic material produce in curitie ith body image, but these images could also initiate fear and dismay in the very young. This type of accidental or unsupervised viewing serves as an in troduction to the Internet, hich has created the problem of non- parental approved access. Many tastes and needs are reflected by this industry, and the Internet make such material too easi ly obtainable. I wou ld recommend the reader to both Wendy McElroy and Susan Cole and to the video by Andrea Dworkin. 153 Also recommended is Adrienne Rich and her essay Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence. 154 These readings give an excellent and through overview of both sides of the pornograph y debate, while Rich 's essay offers a new perspective on the effects of our heterosexual society. 152 Wendy McElroy, XXX" A Wom an 's Right to Pornography . (New York: StMartin's Press 1995) 6 153 Andrea Dworkin, Pornography. (Princton ,N.J .: Films for the Humanities, Amaya Distribution, 1991 ), video 154 Try: Henry Abelove, et al. Th e Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader. (New York : Routledge 1993) 666 64 p I RAPHY Le mat rial. The ITI th mal g n r ted 1mag ual m n. ter typi al im ge nl a ant fi r het r b m d m the rie h m 11 di n t ee th m 1 e in het r ian w m n hi t n fin rea d awarene e ual m n tart d t ab ut the r £1 eti r due unag n upport netv ork, n man hich were man t Ian and ga \i e were being halleng d . ual dtver 1t , and 111 tht cltmatc, lc h1an and fth tr r alit and live . The e hibit " keptici m g in the i ue Am rican l bian femini t wr te in 1 no f1 r er lt f h t graph , and dt pla a tr ng int re t 111 ub erstve trategtes natur . ,1 55 f repr entat1 n. r f \ u 1 p rn graphi m em nt. . a c ntmual proc f vi ibllit i br ught up . J an Biren, an "With uta VI ible identity, we have no c mmunity, akmg ur el e i 1ble is a political act. Making 6 . ." I ·~ R c Iatmmg o ners htp f b dy Image IS . my matn our 1. argum nt. All m n benefit from the instigation of e posure/ownership by lesbians, and the works of female arti ts uch as on the edge of change. indy herman and the collections of lesbian photography are 157 Lesbians and gay men see the issue of censorship in the pornographic industry as a serious problem. They have been the first casualties of this war, and thus lose any affirmative tmages of themselves in the public arena. As discussed earlier while examining the different positions of Wendy McElroy and Susan Cole, ideolo gical feminist conflict became overt over the censorship of pornography. Canadian Customs officials repeatedly targeted a gay and lesbian bookstore in Vancouver British Colmnbia for trying to import material designated as pornographic. Confusing this issue was the fact that this 1naterial was allowed to pass unchallenged to other bookstores, such as Duthies Books . This fact was researched as part of 155 Tessa Boffin, and Jean Fraser. Stolen Glances: Lesbians take Photographs. (London: Pandora press, 1991) 14 156 Ibid., 15 65 d fence. H m ph ia and Book and Art Emporium t k th ir a the ar and 1 t if n rg p m gr ph . he 1 w and n1 ne mbtned t t the u reme full t fan ti-p m graph1 fi mmi t MacKinn n fi m1 d the a i [! r the d fined het r e ·ual p m graph anadi n and pr reat m1 th1 f n da, pendtng 16 d £1 nd their right t u ha ndr a utler R p rt in tded the mean ttuall n. Lutl a e s le bian v rkin nd anada in 1 2. ~ r cen athcrine hi rep rt nng lc hian and ~av . . 15 pu 11cat10n. Te a Boffin qu te ar le anc a a mg: Peopl depri d of image bee m dem r lized and i lated, and the be orne in rea ingl ulnera le t ttack on their pri ate pr ion of n n- nD rmit , which re in vi table nee s urces of publi olidarit and re i tance hm e hecn cltml!latecl "' The e word ar true for all women. ther ha e generated our images, for their own uses. All women suffer from los of public olidarity and our re istance must now become overt. ( ee Appendi 1 fig. 39 and 40 for female gen rated erotic image . Jenny Rains has produced these images on a pornographic Internet site, and are her photographic expressions of lust and female desire. BARBIE-THE REAL DOLL No examination of the commercial use of the breast would be complete without Barbie, the doll who sells at the rate of 2 dolls per second throughout the world. 160 Barbie ™ is the creation of Ruth Handler. She and her husband Elliot were the co-founders of Matte!, and her original inspiration was for a doll who was not a baby doll or companion doll , but would represent every girl's dream of her future. Ruth had bought three Gen11an dolls that had breasts, wore 157 See: Suzy Bright. Nothing but the Girl. The Blatent Lesbian Image. New York: L.P. CinBook, 1996 158 Ian Stewart. "BAD Attitude(s) on Trial" in Canadian Dimension, Sept/Oct97 ,Vol. 31 Issue 5,45 159 Boffin, Stolen Glances, 20 66 tight kirt and t p an w r r [! rr nca, e n th ugh h r m the inn cence human 1z ar ut m i1nag . If li ttle girl lo arbi d e 161 9- 1 - fri nd il · d 11 . t a me \ 1th arbi h r, parent u her, f: n llect and d1 he never ha lZ d te her, \\hat 1 the problem ') r nurture . I I cr hap c mbtned ith l ng am1s cause ur pube cent hape, and use fl r nur ing, and in the giving and rec i mg omen com in differ nt 1ze and hape · weal frican u h me , ar ie falling d wn and v alking n all [! ur . Real arbi · \ e ag , r . I economic background . Th a 1 n t d m n tr te her up children, nev r chang h r l ng leg and t r d t repre nl trap lated up int utfit [! r ll n attttud a di pr p rtion that w uld r ult in th real hat rate are r , nd mea ur m nt ar n t nl unreali ti matter ur m nt , \ hen fri nd a b n t ag , won1 n ar n t lik upp ut f pleasur . ur brea l (no t only d real c me in different colors, and fr m different m rican d ll ha e the same body and ha1r as arbte, onl y in a different color. Life for wom n of color is not that simplistic, and children are being presented with a racist and elitist view of the world. Once again images generated by our culture are unrealistic, being used for profit and continue to fuel feelings of inadequac y. In trying to connect with my inner child to gauge possible reactions from my ov. n Barbtc-lcss childhood, I feel that I would have liked the pretty clothes. I co llected pictures of women in full evening dress, and probably would have loved Barbie too. However, some girls mutilated their Barbies or put them in sexually charged situati ons. There is a lesbi an Barbie site on the Internet. Resistance can be overt, but still command attentio n. Barbie doesn ' t need a bra, thanks to her hard high breasts, even if they are large. However, real girls and women have this garment presented to them as ' natural and necessary' from 160 WTN Herstory. "Barbie Nation- The Untold Story of the Barbie doll" March 23 2000 Michael J. Weiss, Toys Were Us. 'Life in Plastic, it 's Fa ntastic ... ' Discovery Online anada, 2000 Available from World Wide Web (http ://www.discovery.com/stories/history/toys/BARBIE/shoulda. htrn l) 16 1 67 infanc . (To pp ndi e th 1 fi g. 41. r pre ent th r alit di ffi r n la ical hi h reek er band reek time i e ultur , hum r u n rm manner, ec hum r it d a pr mi ed by lh bra m fr m nd ' h d \ e n ed it? men '' r up rtmg undergann nt called ap dem f linen r kid . h e and did n t d1 a a hilt n. 1(1J h rt 1 e dre Ia the brea t , and that draped vcr the b d uring the fi urteenth century, clothing became tight r and n cklin till important a th h v n in nfi r e n ti n nd th f di feren flatten d th m und r th chilt n. 162 111 r at lth ugh thi illu trati n ' a d ign d t b a bit f id thi d In m n lll plunged . r th , metimes e n a referred to Renats ance, w men 's ec lletage had arri ed. The rounded belly was t l of br a t e p ur call d decolletage rose and fell m p pulant y. How ver these enteenth c ntur brought a change in w men's p ture due to the corset. The corset in many form and degree of physical restriction defined the female bosom for over two hundred years. 164 During post-revolution years in France, (late 18th century) the new sense of freedom and liberty allowed women's breasts to be very lightly covered and with transparent draperies. Sometimes, the scanty tops were moistened with water to resemb le the clinging drapery on a Greek statue. 165 This was a definite health hazard for worn n, but th e returning corset gave no respite in the nineteenth century. The twenti eth century saw reforms in clothing for both men and women, but came too late for many women who bore the ph ysical deformities and scars from the corset for their entire li ves. Paul Schultze-Naumberg wrote a comprehensive report on the ph ys ical dangers of the corset in 1901, which also addressed the cultural pressures on wmnen to use these devices to attain the 162 Carolyn Lattier, Breasts Th e Wom en 's Perspective on an American Obsession, (New York : Haworth Press, Inc., 1998) 29 163 Ibid. , 29 164 Ibid., 31 68 c 11 d th d t iled d ~ rm decad nt . H ervalu ti n mn r tern ; r in diffi ult and dang r u child irth; rman nt po ture. B ' artifi ial and 111 apa it rgan ; redu ed bre thing in th di ge ti e ' ap r ) · di turban f l rg (r ultin g in th e tric t d mu le t ne 111 th abd men re ult ing ar km and p n11ancntl n th dc fon11eJ 166 th d m the 1 2 ' tim th fla per ' am andyrogenou d hap r qui red th bre bound their br a t . 167 In 191 ary ith a bon d b di ce. In 1 1 bra ier . 16 But th nam e m t undershirt and the garm nt in qu the ne\\ I t t be b und . " Ir m eal! , v m en ' nev freed m h lp J ac b, in en ted the fi rs t brass iere, in o rd e r t ranc , au! P Jvet, c laimed t ha e invented the fi rs t be a bit f tion i ca ll ed a m ean s "a garment to hold up the throat. " k la ughed at c r et , but th e 169 ung led rench . rass iere mean s an infant 's ou!L n-gorg . ite rall y tra ns lated, thi s Loo king at th e brass ie res (bras) of tod ay, and still questioning their purpose I think th e name suits perfectl y. During th e 1950 s women wore bras shaped like torpedoes . Breasts were encased in whirlpoo l-stitched cones, which gave the bust a sharp pointed shap e. Fig.42 for m y favori te advertisement from that era.) 170 ( ee Appendi x 1 ote the gloved hand on th e bull ' hom; no subtle phallic im age here. (Cindy Sherman parodies this image of the Maidenform bra in her self photograph in App endix 1 fig.43) This bra created those types of problem s for m e as a young woman, and I resorted to fi lling the pointed tip s w ith cotton baton . (See A ppendix 1 fi g. 165 Ibid., 35 Stephen K ern, Anatomy and Destiny. A Cultural History of the Human Boczr. (Indi anapo li Bobbs-Merrill Co.,Inc. , 1975) 14- 15 167 Carolyn Lattier, Breasts , 37 168 Maggie Pexton Murray, Changing Styles in Fashion. Who, What, Why. (New Yo rk : Fairchild Publications, 1990) 125 169 Carilyn Lattier, Breasts , 37 170 Ibid. , 38 166 69 44 fi r n fh r n arti t ung hi l tr ng t pr du lf th ptable, full l ra l R B Th br ught 19 lib ration m ement r di al n w h nge t rld ultur . an t bathing uit and th 'n -bra' bra 111 ran be ut pageant f 1 Atlantic bile Rud1 , \\ m n 111 lth ugh a tra h an \\ 1mage f femininit , n fire a men' cl thing, p liti rnr 1 h a de igning the ' t ple men a\\ re pr te tmg th e Mi menca filled With item that fueled th e 1 atriarchal ver ltt. Th pr te ter c uld n t hta111 a fire permit from the it fir d partm nt. It m mak -up a uch thrown int the fre d m tra he an'. Th bra-burner hata/wn magazine and bras v ere \ ere a fa ricati n. Ho e er g od co py ~, o errode accura fl r the According to andace H York Po t. a age, brea t f pageant inners were u ed to sell bras and th ese perfect women in their p rfect bras were u ed to support the national war effort by visiting wounded soldiers in 1944 . he connects the 196 misappropriation of our bodies by stating: F minist Manifesto with identifying this The living bra and the dead oldier: We refuse to be used as mascots for murder. " In However, the assistance of the bra to help us measure up is not always enough. Sometimes specific bras with specific abilities to change our natural inferior shape to more a comn1ercially and culturally perfect version of femininity are ne ded . Bra companies with their sales teams have come to our rescue. MEDIA INTERVENTION Advertising takes away our natural body re-packages it and se ll s it back to us . ( e ppendi'< 1 fig . 44). A natural (naked) body does not come with a bra. Exercise tones the female bodi e into a tight, slight body, but breasts do not cooperate. (See Appendix 1 fi g.45 to show advertising 17 1 172 Ibid. , 39 Candace Savage, Beauty Queens, A Playful History(Vanco uver:Greysto ne Books, 199 ) 5 70 that fe d 1r .D r a g n adju t th ir 'w t k gain at tl int that :[! ar. pend1 · 1 fig, 4 t h \.\ m n are ad t ed n t t1 n. nn m r er ummanze d better and b t re the ontr 1 f uni~ nnit fl t red b th bra indu t ut 0 p r ent f \ m n hav the left br a t 1 rger than the nght, nd nt f w m n h the right larg r than th left, and a ut per nt 45 ha e a t1 qual rea t . n br t that are equa1m tied n t ne e ani it at the arne angl n the rib g . ne tht i tmp rtant ex pt t w men h when th e in the mirr r that their brea t are n t perfect! ymmetn aL feel that the ar d fi m1 d. h tratghja ket fth bra tcreequaltJe .upltft, pad out an parate br a t int ng1difie p 1r . t"'l a br [i r 11 c a 1 n Th bra indu tr ha d vi while at p1a th d bra. When I ue ti n d said : th 11 g pu h-up bra D r that are p ci 1 better. Less lik a littl training. Their statem ent the unce and jiggle f c urse, the trainin g fa traming bra they were unsure. They ha a bra. You get a bra [and it] makes you feel c u e nobod 174 and ectal ung girl ab ut th purpo e kid . ' rt bra t reduce Both of them laugh d h n I asked them why they were m een1ed to reflect that a step toward adulthood had been taken . This notion is supported by Joan Bromb rg when he states that ' the trammg that a trammg bra was supposed to accomplish was the fi rst step toward motherhood and a sex ua lly all uring figure, as it was defined in the 1950s." acquire the trappings ofwomanhood." 17 : It seems to till be th "occas ion on whtch a g1rl 176 BRAS AND BREAST CANCER The underwire bra, however, has been blamed for blocking the return flo w of lymphatic fl uid from the breast. Painful, cystic breasts are becoming common, and m an y wom en be li eve th at th underwire bra is the culprit. There is an interesting book that links the bra with increased breas t cancer incidence, and I would certainly recommend readin g thi s semi -sc ienti fie participator) 173 Germain Greer. The Whole Woman. (London: Anchor Publishing, 2000) 57 Artemis, interviewed by author, June 15 ,2000 175 Joan Jacobs Bromberg. The Body Project. An Intimate History of American Girls. ( Random House Publishing Inc., 1998) 112 174 71 \V York : th 11 w tn n. t 177 rD t r a t 1 G r le th ugh, nd \\til be cv.am11l d a part I the m di al gaz r a ta that th 'nippl ring w m b mall g ld n chain an k t the mp Illd , but a fl d w m nt p th ir ra Th medical tabli hm nt f that t1 m \\a mg ured . 17 Th during th fl 11 v mg ub qu nt d finiti n 111 th 1111 n ti n fl r the mn tuall , tn th e lat ht nab! h nng \\ere m tim e link ed b a tate fc n tantcrc tt n. lt\\ J m tc c tnllllll for It h fe\\ a tuall rn erted rubb r under th e1r k111 . utraged, bccau e the tntc purp f the medtcal e ta li hment 111 ur wn era minatt n f m dtcal tmagmg. eedle cc ptance f the 'medtcal need ' fi r the e type ha compli d with the commerctall t pe 1 le t da all th m n and \v m n, 1 a n \ Idea. m ring' \\a bnen , in Pari , th 1 e n an er ha alv a nun nth of the b1ea t \va'5 til be c ami ned a , thetr I c ptni ns and melle pr cec.lurcs iabl r que t n d of th ir female patient . Marilyn Yalom offers thi comm nt on nippl ring : 'Many observers ee th e nippl e ring less as a sign of a stage of liD or an erotic adornment, than a a form of bodil y mutilation." 17 <; Women ha e used th nipple ring to mak many stat ments from markmg a transition from one stage of life to another to distinguishing themsel es from others to signal sex ual availability (but not fo r procreation at the moment), to including a desire to make th e statement of brea t ownership. (Appendix 1 fig. 4 7 images a nipple ring.) Joan Brumberg has revealed in her research that piercing "signals your personal politics '. If you become an "urban aboriginal" at the end of the twentieth century, it is usua lly a sign of two things : sexual liberalism (because piercing symbolizes opposition to con entional se ual norms) and cultural relati vism (because it evok s the primitive and otic) . 1 ~ 0 176 Carolyn Lattier, Breasts, 22 Sydney Singer, and Soma Gresmaijer. Dres ed to Kill. The Link Between Breast Bras. (New York: Avery Publishing Group, 1995) passi m 178 Stephen Kern, Anatomy and Destiny, 97 179 Marilyn Yalom , Th e History of the Breast 203 180 Joan Bromberg, Th e Body Project, 134 177 72 ancer and Wh n d ab ut h r ni pl nng he em ter wa int rvi id: I had m nippl i r e h n I a tw nt . I h d 1t n b au e I llkc piercing Th roc dure hurt m at th time but h led qui kl nd I eld m h v c n tr uble ar lat r] I hav n ver en unt red a 1 cr h with it. I c ntinu t w ar it. [thre wa n t nthu ia ti r turne n b the ring. hem t mm n mm nt r m friend i u uall rel t d t pain-did 1t hurt? th nng m tmagmar pam and h ld th 1r 1 1 brea t. lth ugh mtrmntin brag, he e nt a it\\a atrnitintime[irher. he plain herd ir to acquire a nipple ring a part f h r pattern f multiple ptercmg and n t a b ing ite p ifi . h al her 1 er d e n t a ' hat it d e [i r h r er tic fe ling , but perhaps pleasing inh r nt in h r pre i n f her e ual1 t . emeter al ha adorned her breast with a tattoo and t 11 me about it in the e w rd : The tattoo on m brea t i onl v1 ibl if I wear a lo cut hirt . II iked the femininity of th lad bug and d cided that\ a a good place to ha e it. I am still happ about thi d ci ion. 1 2 I ha e heard women sa it i m brea t and I ill do what I like with it' and I have to c ncur with the ownership issue. Ho e er, for me, the issue of medical problems ansmg durin g pregnancy as a result of torn milk ducts seems horrendous. My age and professional concerns have placed me in a gray area for understanding this phenomenon . MEDICAL GAZE My profession as a mammographer has caused me to study the female breast in anatomical and radiographic detail. The medical gaze or medical imaging continues the traditional fragmentation of body parts, and provides a site for the ongoing discourse of recognition of th who le person . It can also be said of the invention of x-ray in particular (W.C.Roentgen 1895), that this diagnostic tool caused doctors to depend more on the information gained from the sense of si ght 18 1 182 Demeter, interviewed by author, September 30th 2000 Ibid. 73 rath r than fr m th traditi nal en e f t u h. in t ri r th f th with ut urgi ti n f the bj ctifi ati n nd uantifi Th ith a bri f com pari d int part mamm graph n f th nt d a 11 a the\ Medical taff 2nd or 3rd rib ext rd hi r fr gment . b 1 cu dd1 all n, 1 4 ill in lud the nat my f the m ut riz d t m gr ph imaging m th d . n granted acce br ught th a e them di al gaze, a redu cti n and augm ntati n mamm pla t , p pr h medical gaze h nti n. 1 int nt nt f thi Ia t art f cha ter thr br a t 1m ge g ner t d b 13 and ultra und al ng n ar und urgtcal interventt n t m uch br a t rec n tructi n will be [\\ men wh have engag d wtth th e e pr cedure . the brea t a t o gland 1 cat d n the anteri r chest wall, at the level f the nding t the I 1 of the thor ih rib . he e gland are c mpo sed of fat , skin, connecti e ti u and glandular ti ue. They ha e an arterial and enous blood uppl y, and arc liberally supplied with a lymphatic drainage y tern . Th brea t are co ered wtth skin w1th a nipple and areo la and t nd from the m dial margin of the sternum to the midaxillary line. (Appendix 1 fi g.49) For the purposes of localizing and mapping areas of breast tissue, the breast is di vided into four quadrants and an axillary tail, which expends into the armpit. These gland s are modified sweat glands that secrete a thin white substance when stimulated (by hormones), called milk. The glands arise along a 'milk line' or ridge during embryonic life that extend from the axilla to the groin. (See App endix 1 fig. 50 fo r the illustration of the mi lk line. 185 ) Usually only two papillae develop at the level of the 5th intercostal space. It is possib le for nipple to he found anywhere along this line, and are not cause for execution of the patient as a witch. In my practice as a mammographer, I have seen these ex tra nipples, usual! around the ba e of the breast, and have heard from patients that during lactation (milk-production) they may leak or 183 William A. Ewing, The Body. Photographs of the Hum an Form, (San Francisco: Chronic le Books, 1994) 18 184 Ibid. , 35 185 H. Stephen Gallager et al, Th e Breast (Saint Louis: C. V.Mosby Co., 197 ) 3 74 b co1n di t n th a The d. h br a t f th n \J b m m rpti n f la ntal r la tin. Thi i att m fl r i ntif ing fl rm d a refer n e t on dar I fl r a ual h ract ri ti . till all d \\it h n rmal gr J.M.Tann r. 1 7 ann r linke ag and ll n b ing pub rt l lth ugh h tat milk. tim an 1 ak milk due l 1 6 a M. allcd tatu f m n truati n and br a t gr th and hange in relati n t th p tt rn ight t th t thi \i a t bli h d b the d I pm nt f that \an an e 1 n n11al, and that incgular growth can experienc . Wh n mbin d v ith ur ultural fi ati n large ma r m tic a, r se m permi ible to rre t th surgery I would like to am in th proce ith rea t , tr u le n arise . If y ur ur mall brea t are called mtcr mastica, it then 'd feet b urgery. H e er, before getting into c smetic of mamm graphy. MEDI ALIMAG MAMMOGRAPHY Mammography is the production of breast images using ionizing radiation . This is done either as a screening or diagnostic service; both being part of a standard breast cancer detection program. As women age, their breast tissue is replaced from front to back with fat. hts brea t tissue appears white on the film, fat appears black and cancers or benign growths appear white. Microcalcifications (suspicious small bits of calcium) and their relative, macrocalcifications (non-suspicious larger bits of calcium) appear white as well. It makes differentiation of these areas difficult or impossible when the breast tissue is still present as in the breasts of a young (under 40) woman. The inability of the marnn1ogran1 to distinguish between two areas of tissue 186 Ruth A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding A Guide for the Medical Profession,( t.Lewis: C.V.Mosb Co ., 1994) 267 187 Henry M. Seidel et al, Mosby's Guide to Physical Examination, (St.Lewis: C.V.Mosby o., 1987) 79 75 be au m1 f th ir imilar d n iti 1 -2 °/o r ult m the tati ti f r a t an er t eing d by mrunm gr ph . f a h r a t are r ad t g th r, Th image att m ar indi idual th h th r. ar lik ar l forth urg e fig .54 [i ran Brea t images 1n th tagn tic sometimes h artbr aking. her ork. The ord survey and intervi h nge in rea t ar hite ture re c mpared th1 ppendt dle that ha hi i th pr - p rativ n. ba k, be au e alth ugh br ast ti u king [i r int rval hange . 188 and 2 D r n rmal ra i gra hi br a t image . in the brea t and a k t I fig.5 ee pendi l figs 5 1 [i r a\ hite cancer vt iblc ecn placed w1thin the brea t t act as a marker alJzatJ n fan n-palpablc mamm grapht c lc~ton . dical Imaging epartment are not erotic, and are a \ man, the mamm grapher bring a pers nal perspective into f mamm graphic t chn I gi t will be re tewed in th e next chapter on r ult . ULTRASOUND An ultrasound of the breast is another imaging modality usmg sound waves rather than ionizing radiation. The sound waves are sent out from a hand held device called a transducer, which also receives the waves being returned or 'bounced back' from the internal structures. The ability to distinguish between a cyst and a solid lesion is vital to the patient as surgtcal intervention can then usually be avoided. Mammography may not be able to make that determination and the aspiration of the cyst can be performed under ultrasound guidance. There is no compression required or any radiation exposure so investigations on young women are usually initiated this way. (See Appendix 1 fig . 55 for the ultrasound image of a brea t c t.) The cyst is the black area within the gray tissue. Pain and cyclic swelling of the breast(s) may 188 Interval changes occur between screenings. e.g.one to two years 76 indi at c t an th r nign fi r ti hang u h a ther infl am1nat r and d n I 9 ro alcificati n ar n t . r m ma." 190 cult n npalpa 1 br a t ecau imp rtan th are u ing thi te hmqu . n r 1 "it r liable in d tccti ng m n trat r ne r, a 1 ft n in v h n att m ting t ifi h ir ha 11. [i r brea t can et nmnb r and 1 at1 n re r u pl l u n ar tl ' lZ , nnmati n. m k th1 PH MP T RIZ om put riz d a i a1 t m gr a rotating tub that pr due h , i th u e f a [! cu d beam tmage m lice . -radiati n deli ered by c mputer an rea emble the e !ices, and the di tin t [! r l cati n. , at this time is t I w and c stly to be u ed a a ere ning t ol, and i re erv d for demon trat]ng lestons located posteriorly and peripherally in th br a t. T can detennin metastatic di ea e in the thora and a illa. 191 taging of the brea t cancer, as it is able to identify e ( ppendi 1 fig . 56 for two T cross-sectional i1nages of a thorax. The breasts show si licone implants, which are starting to lose their integrity and leak into the breast tissue. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING The imaging modality called magnetic resonance (MR) is the use of an extremely strong magnet, which produces the most detailed cro ss-sectional image produced to date. This new modality is not accessible to everyone, is very expensive, and still not as good as mammography for the detection of cancer. MR has a sensitivity that is too hi gh for the breast, and too low a specificity, possibly resulting in an increased biopsy rate. The image shows too much without 189 Carole M. Rumack, and Stephen Wilson, et al , Diagnostic Ultrasound Vol. 1 ( t.Louis: Mosby Yearbook, 1991) 541 190 Ibid., 541 19 1 Ibid. , 541 77 b ing able t diffl r ntiate tv e n n rmal 1 nt ar f ti u . It 1 1. "' tg. 7 a tur n nd mali 1 n t able, at n . R M I Tak n in 1 0 , thi ph t gra h, u f radiati n hi vuln ra ilit contr 1 r u animali ti a tre tm nt m th d. rti al tan ubmi . 1 n. 192 or genital fo u toward th light. When desir becom p f the fir t -ray lr atments he at1ent 1 h n7 ntal \v h1ch eem t empha J7e her c mbin d \\ tth h1 high h t, eem t re-infl rce this image c rdl!1g t 1gmund while the v rt1cal md1 ate hi f reud, the h r11 ntal plane ind1catc an b aut , a departure from the earth u can intr duce th element of di lance int ublimated. 193 inherent in the medical ndi k111g, then the carnal hotograph illu trates for me the hi t rica! p wer imbalance en toda . A painting called The Giantes , b R n Magritt offers us a fairly recent image to compare with the medical man and his patient. The female image in The Giantess towers over the man, and it is his image that seems out of proportion with the accoutennents of their setting. (Examine Appendix 1 fig. 58 .) The woman is seemingly unconcerned with the tiny male who is looking at her, and control of her body seems to be hers alone. In this case, the vertical woman seems to require a great height to be in control. In contrast, the horizontal position of the woman receiving therapy seems passive and submissive. Struggles for equality are still being made and the history of our images once again establishes this fact. Did I uncover any other images that may have been produced in resistance to the penetrating gaze of the x-ray beam ? (Look at Appendix 1 fig. 59 to see the work of Meret Oppenhei1n.) This x-ray image has earrings, and other jewelry, which seem to declare the subject female. The issue here seems to be 192 Yalom, The History of the The Breast, 230 78 that if no :D minin n truct w re pr a radi graph r I kn w th ati nt and n it el i . \ e r, the h \ 1th1n w h1 h h ppen 1 1 fig . 1 mpanng her h p1tal e pen n e Y\ 1th th are pmk, and hairle . The p1 g pat1ent ha her head bandaged. he h ld f h r b d , n t hiding b hind it, but rather an a offering. f h r 1mag d ning h r in the m dical healthcare work r thi i hat I \ f uperfi ialtt h \\n \ 1th great dram m tht tmage. n tru t1 n mal f a an d t nnine th e e 1 and th numb r a namele impri f th kull e abd m n in front ankle f th nfigurati n laughterh u pig in into a b m le r fi mal ul b th b n li n Watt ha paint d a tn drip an n lw ur rna uline/[i minin that f nt part . The heel meant t c an -ra I hc1 he has bee me a er her winds around her t m. H r r ducti n t a p1ece f meat grie es me. sa rk again t. Image need to be hown to the 'imager' as well. Professional need to con tantl reminded that their patient i a human being. CO METI OR RRE TI R RY osmetic surgery is considered either an accessible option for many women, or as the frivolous pursuit of a 'perfect' body. If exercise or body shaping bras do not secure the desired shape for you, then the molded or sculpted body is for sale. Plastic surgery represen ts the branch of medicine that corrects defects and promises to make your dreams a reality. The ability to make breasts larger, smaller or to make corrections in shape and of placement on the chest wall is now a reality. Breast implants became the most common procedure in cosmetic surgery by the 1980s. 194 Several reasons are identified for this increased demand. First, an excess of plastic surgeons graduated in the United States resulted in an advertising campaign designed to prom ote ea y, accessible and affordable access to their services. This no-money down easy-credit solution to 193 as quoted in Rosalind Krauss . Cindy Sherman: 1975-1993. (New York: Rizzoli international publications, inc. 1993) 90 79 th pr blem f imp rfe ti n r ult d in the d u ling f tient in th fi e ar b tween 1 and 1 lth ilable t \ a utilized t refle t their de ire t bu perfi ti n a re ard 1 o a n w gen rati n f r fe i nat and \ pen . he c ncept f 'ch f them 1 for w rking hard and t mg ar k p th ir implant a ultural ideal ret. h Th anal interfere trange thing i that ften th e e men m re a ceptabl t the 1 f beaut , but th fl h hanging ritual mu t remain a e ret. lJ" I wa unaware f nfi f th t pte . \V men \\ere reluctant to talk, or be tap ed and ntialit . r a t augmentati n ph n m nat ll u that form b come more Important than function . Look take priorit o rna . Th men n \ had the ing l rg r brea t a \\ man bee In thi truth until I tri d t re arch th1 insi t don trict rking \ r fi ling. These implant can feel hard to the touch, and ith br a tfi ding and mammography. ( ee ppendt fig 61 '- for th e mammographic image of silicone implant .) The brea t tissue is compressed and hidden behind the opaque mass of the implant. Breast cancer detection becomes much more difficult due to the severe discomfort of the examination and ill probably be either neglected or performed improperly. The little publicized complications of pain, hardness, postoperative infection, and decreased sensation as well as the health risks of silicone do not seem affect the request rate for this procedure. (See Appendix 1 fig . 62 presenting an advertisement for augmentation presently found on the Internet.) Breast reconstruction us1ng implants after the amputation of a cancerous breast (20o/o of surgeries) is usually seen as medically necessary for the patient, but the und erlying rea on of returning ' the appearance of normalcy' can still be questioned. Many women feel that one breast is natural, no breasts can be natural, and it is wmnen dead from breast cancer that is 194 195 Carolyn Lattier, Breasts, 44 Ibid. , 54 80 lt m ti r t u1n a pre- an er u ap fri ar n t n onte t that fl atur had b n r ce1 conditi n in r fl r n for corr cti pn z urger pnz t th fl 1 that th all t th gr '" th, weight poor po tur inabilit to find cloth and d . The e p ll nt lZ , atl n brea t p ak ain ' hen att mpting p rt th t tgntf a ' d1 ea c f \\ m en ' brea t r th rem f h uld r pain fr m ran a f the arti le .... ,000 entri es tune m d1 a l t 1111 r lac m ent hap uve r n pub in urg1 al intel\' nt1 n. Reducti n man1m Worn n with larg h av m dt al n 196 graduati n gift a \\ ell in pla ti d .197 I al nd th de ir ing the ra r a t implant ar gi , 11 quallf an th pr al , pens th e d )O r f brca t ttssue is ra trap , back pain from th e heat ra he und er th e breasts and the that fit prop rl . The m dical in uranc plans of all provinces reco gnize that thi is a qual it of life i ue and co er the urgical cost for breast reduction s. Does the image of a slim female ith large breasts reassure these women that what they have been given is wonderful? The reality of exce s amounts ofbrea t tissue is not as pleasant as you might expect. Although the surgery is painful any woman that I have spoken to about thi s surgery believes she made the right choice, and indeed would make the same decision again . I am one of those women, and would consider having it done again due to the additional accumulation of breast fat after my mid-life weight gain. This surgery leaves scars, bruises, sometimes desensitizes the nipple area, and creates an unnaturally round areola. (View Appendix 1 fig. 63 for ' before and after' reduction images obtained from the Internet.) Most women are thrilled with the results, and apparentl y fondle th e ir 196 For an interesting study, I recommend reading: Linda Cook et al, "Characte1istics of Worn n With and Without Breast Augmentation" in Th e Journal of the American Medical Association, May 28, 1997-Vol.277, No .20 1612-1617 197 Southan1 Newspapers, "Bar's Breast Surgery Contest Drawing Plenty of Attention ." 81 r a t fr qu ntl after h aling, a elf and b d - im g . m y wn 19 art f th a imi lati n nth ugh I fl 1 that th metin1 h 1 gi al hift . me p f gmzc 1t a n t da th after m . Th large r a t i r qmre their en e t int ul n t ha e verb 117 d lht behavJ r, l r The adju tment t a mall r 1z and hape i 1 f the ne\ br m tim r f1 ted thr ugh feeling f grief and In n and her rid, and thi u a uffer et\ en th \ 199 t w men, h \\ e\'er_ are ati fi ed b t urg1 al effl t ar a m 11 pn e l pa [! r their u rgc ry and 1ther reduct! n r augmentati n m a1nm pl a t Th comm rcial u of rea t in ad ert1 ing and ale is a d1rect appr priati n four bodies for the use of oth r . tar and cultural icon capitalized on thi ob e career for them e l 1 n . The qu ith th uch a fl male b d ad nna and arilyn Munro e have especially breast , to create a ti n her i \ h doe ur ociety have th1s ob e 1 ucccssful n') Do ec; the obsession create th consumeri t society, or do th commercial productions of our society create the obsession? I believe th at the images shown to date have demonstrated that the fascination with breasts is historical and not related to female self-perception. Images created during the 1950s certain ly exp loi ted breasts: the post card pin-up girls were blatantly sexist. The nostalgic remembrance of times past, of Leave it to Beaver, June Cleaver and other family sit-coms, neglect the true position of women duri ng those tim es . Women of all colors, ethnic and economic groups fe lt the pressure to be the model mother and housewi 0 , while the economic realities were quite different. The Prince George Citizen Friday September 1, 2000, 5 198 Marcia Kraft Goin, "Psychological Reactions to Surgery of the Breast" in Clinic in Pia ttc Surgery July 1982 Vol. 9, No .3. 349 199 Marcia Goin, et al "The Psychic Consequences of a Reduction Mammoplasty." In Plastic Reconstructive Surgery , April 19 1977 530-534 82 1nanufa tur r pr m that r 11 d ~ r r tri ting and un y fa hi n Image g n rat rt \ a d u med indi ati n f maturit , imp rfl ti n r natural m \ m nt w Thi n th in i ten r tri ti e g rm nt thr ugh n thi bu t r du ing n1a t ctom fi r brea t of ham ha !Til 11 urger he u n t r nl th e u e r W men fee l that th e d not eptl 11 b a\ ail ing th em lvc nd r haping bra and fi nal! , n er. nd n all \\ ed. f bre t p e r~ t1 n lead d n d fl r r la t1 but t th m a ur up and fi 11 product urr nt d finiti n r all br a t enti ra ultural imperat1v c rfl t hap ' 'hlie re ting t nti 1 fl r br a t h alth. w re und rg 1111 nt . mfl rt f bu t enh ancl ng e lm g abn rm al aft er surgical fa br a t pr the 1 , rec n tru t1 c surgery and fee lin gs b n cr at d and upp rt d thi cultural b e i n. I d n' t beli e c that we arc r ad to abandon the bra but perh p \\ e an in i n am re c mfo rt ab lc garm ent des tgncd fo r our bodi s rath r than for cultural fad g n rated b ociet . Medical imaging i intru i , fragm nt ing and codi fy ing but the per onn el re ponsi bl c fl r ordering and performing these te ts need not be part of thi s sys tem. are, emp ath y, and co mpl ete explanations given in an under tanding manner would do a lot to redu ce this negati vc c ffcct Medical personnel are most often dedicated individuals who are subject to extraordin ary pressures. Time to reconnect with our primary function of patient care is becoming a lu xury. It i time for women to not only participate in their own healthcare and decision making, but to in sist that everyone involved in their care behave in a caring ethical and professional mann er. Looking at all the images in the thesis so far has shown us that historically our images were not generated by, nor were they intended for, women themselves. Surrounded by our history, we realize that we have a rich heritage on which to draw for help . "Help to work through th e 83 ariati n dep nd nc . 2oo L n n natur ln 200 h rd f artifi i lit n ualit men and th ir anal · Breasts,39 ather, 84 1 an m ve u di iplin , and p h pter fi ve r and In thi chapt r I will gi e re ear h. 201 patt rn i e t th er breast augm ntati n"" 0 '" nd re h int rvi nd th rea ti n and [! ltng had n th ir li u lit . I at r men' h \\ men f th ked [! r the r ult Their r m rk v ill b int grat d and c mpared \\ 1th from 1 to mid-fiftie r 1n tl wh1t , one self-id ntifi d 1 1an and middl cIa . M urv £1 rm hav illuminated and di cu th ne ir t '\I n tnt ti n: r du ti n. gr \v th gre\\, and the e fc f e ternal G r e n ell-pcrceptt n. tmg lt teratur . he \\ men ar 1n age ati n w m n , hetcr cxual, e ccpt for be n anal z d £1 r ontent, and an.J tnterc tmg d. thctt brea t. pet kitt n 'helped by damagmg my b r unusual lindlllg~ of survey fon11s, o my husband and I had a gr at aftemo n eparating and recording the data. We both felt that the surveys came close to b ing thro n out but I felt determined to rescue the information . Wc fo und that this form of research allows peo pl e to write comments without being identified, and this was both astounding and enlightening. Throughout this chapter I will continue to use images that help demon strate my points and support the voices of women. Women themselves do not always generate th ese images, but the; reflect the purposes of their creation as defined by their male creators. VOICES REDUCTION MAMMOPLASTY In initiating my research on breast surgery, I interviewed a plastic surgeon. He gave me a lot of printed material on the different procedures available, and was very willing to discuss his 20 1 All names given are pseudon yn1s, picked by the researcher and son1etime by th e women, and bear no relationship or association with real women. 202 Augmentation means to make larger, hence implants. - 85 - w rk fr m m ial p r p ti e. Wh n a k d h p r du ti n mamm pla t , h The re n are lm quite ignifi ant u tra · inabilit t pr ti ight. Ra h n th u happ n anytim an a 1 t Thi i ub tantiat d and th t urg r for the b ut th r m n g1 n r a id: r al and he lth 1 qu1te 1gnifi ant. [ he uffer fr m] h uld r m \ ement r m th e bra ti ltJe : lffi rtdnt luff becau e r the brea t f the brea t m tl 111 the umme111me, ut tl can . 201 he dache , and that 1 pr tt mu h 1t. th lit r tur , which c nfinn the hr nic effe t pati .... a mblanc f gtgantonwstL a, f n m1alc . ' 205 204 he bjcctJ e of reduction mamn1opl t are: ym tom cau ed he v brea t ; l.To r li 2.To imp ro a th ti c nical appearance f th brea t · and 20 3.To pr erv proJe ti n en ation nd er ctile functi n f the nipple . () Ages of the omen ill ar . In addition to ph ical ymptom man y\\ omen are self-conscious and ha e b ens n itized by casual and thoughtle s remarks about their large breasts. Th lderly ho urvi ed the mockery simply seek the op ratron to ·relieve the symptom .207 This article by harlene Di obile continue by gi ing indications and contratnclicatton for this type of surgery. She discusses how to determine resulting size ( patient 's own v1ew rather than the surgeon"), the presence of stretch marks, and th e requirement of ideal weight. he stresses emotional support, both during the administrati on of pre-operative medication, and later during the post-operative recovery period. Her contraindications include: motivation from external sources, expectations that the surgery will produce immediate change in attitude others may have towards the patient, a vagueness in the pati ent describing what she e pect and a history of severe mental illness. Zeus, interviewed by the author, July 16 1h, 2000 204 Italics by author, medicalization of breasts to justify correction of a faul t. 205 Charlene DiNobile, "Reconstructing a self-image Reduction Mammoplasty" in Today ' O.R.Nurse vol.7, No .ll. 18 206 Ibid.' 18 203 - 86 - Th r ulting n ti n in th ni pl th ar br a tfl d ar n t di u ed. It i int r ting th t alth ugh urgi illu tration gi uth r 1 n thi sati fa ti n wa arne m re fr quent aring 11 f ati nt , l ucc Th abilit full re ult 1n d fr ducti n urge r a n and p r . ut m 1 \ r mpli ati n on a lo are di u ed and f h r patient. hi nur e. th r r ear h r jet d ign d t a e om n r du ed apa tl l l t hniqu n th m ntal a w 11 a ph uth r fl u r v rweight patt nt ll1 f ndar numb r 5%) of patient . The a! o found that I found the 1 advancing age replaced the initial mplicati n p t urger had a h1 gh r percentage did . e h \\ ed that pnm ar were Infec tion . and reduced ae th tic appearance. n ati n al ho r port d not b ing abl t do east']y at1.s fi1ed .20 CI11 er h \vn b pattent f ucce , than tho se ar repair urgery v.a perlom1cd lder patient (30 and up) were more e t po sible w ight requir ment problematic, especially as eight lo and returned the generou breast size. Venus explained her need fo r a br ast reduction by telling this story. Mentally you must be prepared for the physical changes and the way people see you. One week after having the reduction [surgery] I was presenting awards at a conference. One sales representative came up to introduce himself to me, thinking we had ne er met me before. I had in fact known him foro er five years. However, it was the first time he had looked above my chest level and actually seen me. This event repeated itself many times over the next year as I re-met people. I had been known as the lady with the big breasts and now they had to (rec01mect) recognize me some other way. 20 () Demeter was only 14 years old when she started to develop breasts, and had a r duction at the age of 17. She explains that: For a short time I was the same size as other girls in my age group, but soon developed at a more rapid speed. I was e1nbarrassed by how big my breasts got by the tin1e I was 15. I went from being flat toaD cup by 14 years. I don't recall experiencing any 207 Ibid.' 18 Michael Pers, Inger Margrethe Nielsen and Neel Gen1er "Results Fo llowing Reduction Mammoplasty as Evaluated by the Pati ents ." in Annals of Plastic urgery 17 December 1986, 454 209 Venus, interviewed by the author July 28 th 2000 - 87 208 r k \ hen pla ing p rt r ridin g mv ' II J d at th m fl ppmg ar und all th e t1m e. growing p in but I d r m m r t ndem an h r . Th hurt n1 a k and I a er mban h g n t tell m that th m di al plan paid fl r th man urg n tem1med the tze, and th at th 1 r \ m 1al r edure in e it w d gradmg her qual!t r !tfl . he, llke un erg n thi pr c dure, mcludmg m elf. 1 till pl ea cd th r w men wh h and ati fied wi th th r ult . em ter peak r all r u \ h n he a h 1 happ , fr alit . but intr du lvi ng, but I am therv i e thn lled with I had troubl ith the di lving titche n t di th r ult . I find that m car are w r e than th c I' Ye seen m p1 ctur r pers nall y on th r . h rare! b mt th er l v r c1th er. I feel th at I should ha \ it d a ear r tv,. t dev 1 p and g t the urger a I am again bac k t aD or DD and am light! ut fpr p rt1 n \\Jth m bulld .2 1 I would ha de ribe m it again, and ha e m t \i m n h have had m re th an one surgery. I cann ot d light in being able to wear a one- p1ece embarrassed in a bathing uit. niform , dr se utfi t, shoe tnng traps, and not be weaters, and sleepwear are all optio ns new to a: former sufferer. Reduction is a change in life-style for women and I belie e for th e better. Media images are infl uential in causing you to feel o er-endowed but ph ys ical di sco mfort 111 our active lives plays a crucial part in the decision. ( ee Appendix 1 fi g. 23 for the ex press ion of th e statement made by Venus). Women whose breasts are defined as ' too small ' docum ent th e opposite scenario. BREAST AUGMENTION AND RECONSTRUCTION During my research, medical sizing standards for reduction were not revealed however medical men in the 1950' s proposed these standards for developing perfect breast geom etry in cases requiring augmentation. 2 10 Demeter, interviewed by the author, September 30 111 2000 - 88 - 1 ing n quilat r 1 triangl [a P nn 1 45 - 1 55 d e h mpple nd tn h and ed t i 1 t een dt ard d 111 fav r The e tand ard h thr ugh pi tur n id 1mage nd n ur g t th wn r of that it . R D r 1mag ad Thi pr f e r ar atal gu typ nd after 1111, ge and p1 k ne the w m n t k t fa f appr ach men ltke . he Internet ke th e 1 1 ture t the1r urge n r me c!Jrecth pp ndi . I fig 6... and t reYiew the be[i re and after rti ing br a t augment ti nand r du t1 n) dur make br a t mt detennin d b th m rtion bje t e p Iall ' v\hen the hape and feel f a man-made bject. he c ntr er y r th e hrcasl 1s urr unding ilrc ne implant and salin fill d ilic ne c ntainer is too e ten i e t e plore here, but these concerns do not seem to reduc e the numb er of worn n a king for the e devices. anthropologist at the ni r it silicone implants in th fa ce of negat i e publicity. 21 1 Hiliary unningham, an of Toronto offer her asse sment of women who request he state that: 'the mental gam [of th1s cosmetic surgery] outweighs the ri sk factors." 214 All in vasi e tests including the use of radiation are subject to the risk versus benefit nde. Cunningham also goes on to explain that the \\oman requesting this type of surgery suffers from an aberration of her intern al harm ony, which cannot be resolved any other way.215 Silverman states that although exact fi gure are hard to obtain, numbers of women with implants in the United States range from 8 per 1000 wo men, to I 1-1 2 Ibid. 2 12 Lattier, Breasts, 55 2 13 Recommended reading; Barbara Silverman et al. ' Reported omplications of ili cone Ge l Breast Implants: An Epidemiologic Review." Annals of Intern al Jvfedicine 124 April 1996: 744765 2 14 Life Network, "Skin D eep", December 8th 2130 2 15 Ibid. - 89 - 2 11 per 1 00 w m n. B tw n 1 f ugm ntati n are : ru tur mplicati n ntra tur hang f th 1n m m Y rk t te 111d1 atcd that . 1ant .216 1mp 90 000 had w m n r he tun t th and 1 f the ap ul , r 1 aking mt rea t ti uc; a ule c u ing hard br a t , br a t pain, infectJ n, delayed \\ und hcal111g. le an brea t d t ti n e iall app e r n f im 1 nt . b hi mg n ati n, mamm gr ph ... I~ r 1111 p !a ed 11nr !ant PI end1 e I fig. l nJ reduceJ cancet [! r the radt graph1 c h br a t ti ue 1 mpre ed and the mcth d f mamm graph y is made m r difficult b th thr t f ru1 ture. mplete e am1 nati n require t ice as many 1mag and ra iati n, and mu t b per[! rmed b a dedicated techno! gi t d ire t imag a much br a t ti u a p ith the patience and tble. Worn n h e man r a n G r requ ting 1mplant : the are no I nger re tnctcd to the realm of mo i tar entertainer and v omen in the e trad e . Reported rea ons for dcsi n ng augmentati on are to imp ro e body image and confidence· to mark a milestone or major change in their lives and to increa e se ual atisfaction for her If and her sexual partncrs.21x The Issue of breast augmentation is not an easy one, but I wonder how dissatisfaction with our brea ts has been initiated and fost ered. I believe women fee l better after their surgery, but why do we consider small, uneven or flopp y a deformity? 219 Of course my perception is skewed since I experienced the opposite problem, and would undergo the surgery again to obtain smaller breasts. The plastic surgeon discusses reasons that women have given to him. The greatest proportion of augmentation requests are post breastfeeding, or postpartum kinds of involutional changes. It is really just to bring them back to their pre-partum breast size and shape, and sometimes a little bit more. It is really just constant in that aspect; the sense of feeling good. 2 16 Silverman, Reported Complications, 745 Ibid. , 747 2 18 Lattier, Breasts, 56-57 2 19 Ibid., 58 2 17 - 90 - Pati nt that fi 1 that th ar ju t t mall, r ng fr m 1 -17 ear t 40-5- ar fa g . h [ ati nt ] n a hang in th ir li e b au th an affi rd it· a marriag reak up r v hate r. h ha e h 20 th ught th h e want d t it bigg rand g t it. Z u fi I th t hi pati nt fi r r du ti n nd augm nt ti n re happ w1th the r ult unle ther i an und rl ing p due t the Inten1 t and h oft n ring i tur h 1 gi h \V them 1 r blcm. Th \\ men r mmg 111 m re mf m1c I fi re and after p1 ture fr m h1 per ith r fr m the Int met nal fi Ie. men r maga7lne , t help them articulate their peci fie i he fi r chang . inding a w man v ith im ace nt t mmg 1!1\ hcd 111 a 'breach m patient \ ith ut b people were conta t d int rv1 w wa m r difficult than I e peeled . I c uld not f c nfidentiailt ' JtuatJon and did not appear for the appointment, acquaintance to b int rvie d. ur con er ation follo 1 a ked a perso nal and I have included my question s in italics. ·When did ou get implants? 25 years ago. What were our reasons? I didn't want to be big. I just wanted breasts back. I went to nothing after having a baby so all I wanted was a breast back. What size were you before your babies and breastfeeding? 34AA. And after? 34-nipple. I am not exaggerating. I went down. Size after surgery? 34B. I didn t want big ones. I had a good shape, carried no weight at all, very athletic, and wore fairly nice clothes . I got right back to my shape after the babies, but had nothing left on it [chest] and I have fairly large shoulders. Did the surgery affect your sex life? Actually, it didn't really affect it at all. My husband actually preferred it [my breasts] before because they were more sensitive, but it was my choice . Are you happy now with your breasts ? Actually I personally myself have gotten a lot of pleasure and satisfaction. The only problem and it is not even really a problem is them being a little firmer than they should be, and it doesn't really bother me or the husband . Have you ever worried about th em leaking? 220 Zeus, July 16,2000 - 91 - C\cral Y ah but I w uldn' t h 111 mm graph r d n h re. 1 an1 thmking ab ut ha ing th m r In d but n t r h rd. Wo uld ou p ut in th n 1 r unplant 1 \ 'O U had your r mm · d. 0 .221 c rding t b tw n 1 inda R id rea t im lant h n 111 u and 2 \\ m n re 1p1 nt . f the m 0 an ada o \\ere d r \ ne [! r c 1 _0 car \\ 1th mettc rea ms ,, a p t- ancer rec n tn1 t1 n 1 r ) eel. ~ .... ) and th r m1e r ma1mng 2 °/o a part ilicon wa fir t u d in nad [! r r c n tructi n purp moratorium 1n 1 2. R 1d al ilicon r Janua line devi ed lll 1 71, and ha been 111 luntary . pl re th i ue ar und a et , and tell us that ar e a bemg 111 r JU tdiabl e [! r p t-ma tee t my cancer t 111 for cane r, then at a later date opted for contralateral patient .223 Diana und rw nt rna t n1astectomy follov d b bilateral recon tructi n. se ral small pockets of later. 224 Once again I u tal arcino111a In it turned out, the econd breast contained itu or I ) v hich would have caused trouble ill put question in italics and the answers follow : Wh en you went for reconstruction, did you get to choose your s zz ? Pretty much. My end result I wasn t too happy with. I end d up havmg to have another surgery because they hadn t taken enough tissue the first time. I had no shape. I looked worse than I did before and it didn't result [in my not having to wear] a prosthesis. My right side is a little bigger than the left but with the bra it has given me enough that I can wear certain clothing. It hangs better and it looks more like I have got natural breasts. Do y ou still have nipples? No. Are you smaller now than before the reconstruction? Yes. I was really big before my cancer. So, if y ou were able to sp eak to every young girl who is about 19 or 20 vears old and Lhn would take to heart what y ou said to them 22 1 Aphrodite, interviewed by the author, October 29th' 2000 Linda Reid, "Breast implants: A Gendered Issue? in Th e Ca nadian Nurse 92 Februar 1995 : 38-40 223 Ibid. , 39 224 Diana, interviewed by the author, June 2 1,2000 222 - 92 - f ur hmnan d . It i n t th n f ll ur ltfl . ur b d th t n1ak ea ling than d ing m thing t vht uh dn .[ 1 ] Ho1 1 ould J ou d :fin natural ? I £1 1 th t I 1 k n tural. I i u 1 d n t ' e r reall tt ght 1 thmg, I ne er fim inm I amn t g mg id utl £1 l th t i l knatura l.I£1 lthatll bl c t Win do I think in I gue 1t 1s n t j u t m gu to k n a aut m pe wh at per n i reall t m ret a per n. th t u e thr ugh ur Ha ou 1 r be n invoh: d \\ 'Zth a hrea t an r ll/Tl\ 'Or who didn 't want to w ar pro the 1 ') m I r all d n't kn v . t f th e \\ men that I a oCiatc Wi th r urvi r , all w ar a pr th 1 . orn e of the not t and I d n t kn o wh that i . me f om n find that it r all doe n t make mu ch of a di fferenc . I think in the end forth e p ople \ hom I kno 1t IS just a little m ore ecurit . That the look more natural and that 225 there isn ' t something mi ing to people ho j ust happ en to glance. I asked this question because there is a chool of thou ght that wearin g pro thes is co ntribu tes to the invisibility of breast cancer in our society. It also reduc es the di sease to me re ly a cosmetic problem. Many women feel that if large numbers of one/no breas ted wo men marched on our parliament buildings, the effects would be phenomena1. 22 6 B eing able to actually see th e ex tent of this disease would shock those delegating health care funding into more positi ve ac tio n. REFLECTIONS ON BREAST S I interviewed four young women and one wom an in her 1nid- thirti es all of w hom v. ere as"cJ similar questions about their breast origin stories, including reactions of other women/girl s to breast size and visibility and those of their male peer group . They also commented on the 225 Ibid., 8 Recommended reading: Sharon Blatt, Patient No M ore, The Politic of Breast Ca ncer. (Charlottetown, P .E. I., Gynergy Books, 1994) - 93 - 226 mn1ercial rea t r u th p r n 1 br a t. e r · and h ir nam ti m1 nd age ag 14· an £1 II \ th na ag 1 . B I e een gra 6 I b lieve a th fir t n t g t them in m c l I \\ uld ha\ c een 11 r 12. 27 th \ ere pr tt n ti ceable ) I d n t r m mb r a tl , I have a ad m m r ab ut hildh d thing but I think a ut grad 4. I r ented them pr b bl a 1 tju t be au n b dy 1 ere 11 had th n at that tim and I \ a tea ed qmte a bit The vvcre the re but the weren t bi g n ugh that th w re [ b 1 u ], th \\er JUt little nipples an th r ind f funn I kmg b cau e n ne el e had them and all th gu n ticed .2.. HRA I wa in elementar ho 1 o it\ a the nd f m grade 7 ear, I w uld ha e been 1 . M fir t ar in high ch ol I had g n from not weanng a bra at all (I a flat ch t d in l mentar ch ol) t m ptemb er start In high school b ing in a cup. In that fir t ear I went from a to a double and it was a dramatic change. tretch marks from my ars to my ends and 1t was very hard to deal ith the other girl s imagination . I had nothing when ·they had seen me the year b fore to being e temally o erendowed in their eyes and in such a flash. I as accu ed of everything from stuffing my bra to 229 taking shots. I just developed rapidly that is all there is to it. ARTEMIS I was 13. I didn't even notice. I am 15 now, and now wear size C42, which is too small in the cup . Breasts are a pain in the butt. I wear sports bras to 230 k eep from jiggling and bouncing. ATHENA Grade four. (approx. 9) No, they don't really bug me about it because there are quite a few girls in grade 9 that have the 231 sam e problem .... The guys are the probl em. Tell me about bra wearing. Would you ever go without one BODICEA I don ' t know, it w as uncomfortable, itchy, didn 't care m uch for it 227 Bodicea, interviewed by author, October 29, 2000 Gaea, intervi ew ed by the author, October 29,2000 229 H era, interviewed by the author, August 61h, 2000 230 Artemis, interviewed by the author, A ugust 6 111 , 2000 23 1 Athena, interview ed by the author, August 61h 2000 - 94 228 . di ea, _6 utI want d m thing 1 w n 't un ing all er th pla while running up nd d wn in a gym. I 11 id r th m in n ni nt b cau th are in th wa fa 1 t f thing u r u t mght that i what w · w ar th rat h e r hing ffv ith re ling cl thing. I wa n r n t n id r th n art f th mating ritu 1, t h w ff ur lea g .... I g ' ith uta r at h m , ut rar 1 u t in p u li j u t n' t li k a 1 t f m t 1 n nd I J u t \\ ant them t b c h ld in 1 e. 232 I g t m i ter' [ ra] It \va Ju t hand d t m n d and 1t Wa n't training r . I ha g n ' tth ut 11 r a\\ hil e nd The w r larg and it [th bra] dtd n t fit. ... I\ uld l e n t wearing a bra and a tu 11 at h m I tend n t t . n I am ut fth publi I tend t take it ju t becau e it i mor mfl rta l firm . if it be am fa hi nable t n t ~ear on I pr babl till might becau e u ge t mt th e habtt of doing m thing and I d n t kn w, wh n I \ a gr '" mg up it a al a m r pr p r to v ar a bra b u e It mad e ur br a ts 1 b iou to oth r p ple. p ciall mal attenti n 233 and tufflik that. ARTEMI I always wear a bra. I don't look at th m when my bra i off. I would onl not ear a bra at home but not in public. I 234 ·Don t know it just kind of make me feel like a floppy bunny. ATHE A I go without a bra. I have a pink halter-top, and you don t wear a bra with it. I wear sweatshirt in all my classes when I wear it.235 Hera just laughed when I asked her about not wearing a bra and then introduced a n w take n the breast/bra controversy. Hera equated her accelerated breast growth with sexual power, and thought of her breasts as 'mighty weapons', that had gotten her into a lot of trouble by her usin g her breasts as a means to communicate with men . She says: I went from being a country bumpkin to a 'hey, wow' and it was dramatic. This applied to male or female [reactions]. I was immature. To me my breasts weren't a part of who I was. They were more of an add on to use and one day I wouldn't need them. They could be put away. 232 Bodicea Gaea 234 Artemis 235 Athena 233 - 95 - ing1tw th nl \\a p pic d , th n l '' and u m n p lik me, t n n mg an v n11ght tt rth n thi . lt\\a 1f m n had thr 'n a \\It h. [ nl ] like ' h t I h \ g t, th t 1 t ugh, th n g and u e '"hat I hav g t 1 mm It '' th n I amc ba k 11edth hil and hang d l\\entfr mbc1n g ,,hat \Cf\ nc t me It ''a llkc takin g the buill the h rn ed and th ''a; I arr1 cd m; cl Th e I e ''