ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COUNSELLORS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR
ROLE WITH FAMILIES
by
Jennifer Ritchie
B.A., McMaster University, 1990
Grad. Dip. (Primary Teaching), Northern Territory University, 1993
BEd., Queensland University of Technology, 1998

TIIESIS SUB:MITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF TilE
REQUIREMENTS FOR TilE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in

EDUCATIONAL COUNSELLING

©Jennifer Ritchie, 2001

TilE UNIVERSITY OF NORTIIERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
March2001

UNIVER lTV Or NORl~~ML\11
BRITISH COLUMBIA
LIBRARY
Prince
George, BC
All rights reserved. This work may not be

reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without the permission of the author.

11

Abstract

Elementary school counsellors (ESC) play a crucial role in facilitating
partnerships between family and school. lbis study explores ESCs' perceptions of
their role with families. lbis qualitative, inductive research utilizes a
descriptive/ exploratory approach. The participants were four ESCs, with
backgrounds in teaching, and elementary school counselling, working in elementary
schools within one school district in the Northern British Columbian public school
system. Data were obtained using semi-structured interviews. Interviews were
transcribed verbatim, and data analysis processes included: sorting, coding,
categorizing, and memoing. The participants discussed a number of ways of
working with families to promote the child's progress in school. A variety of role
and family related challenges emerged from the participants' discussions. Strategies
to address these challenges are explored. Findings from this study indicated that
ESCs use consultation processes to work in partnership with families, and with the
child, to support the child's positive academic and social development.

v

Acknowledgments

I wish to express my gratitude to the participants who took the time to
contribute their knowledge, ideas, and opinions, and without whom this study
would not have been possible.

My sincere thank you to my supervisor, Dr. Paul Madak, for his expert
guidance and support throughout this process. I would also like to express my
appreciation to my committee members Sylvia Barton, Dr. Judith Lapadat, and
Trudy Mothus for sharing their knowledge and expertise.

To my parents Linda and Noel I extend my profound appreciation for their
support, advise, and encouragement throughout this endeavor.

1

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction
In the end, we've decided as a culture that education is too important to be
left just to educators, and that parenting is too important to be left solely to
the parents. Those axioms .. .lead to shared power and shared responsibilities
(BC Teachers' Federation, 1996, p. 7).
Partnerships between families and schools acknowledge the important role of
family in influencing a child's school experiences, and the school's responsibility in
providing a nurturing environment that promotes social and scholastic success.
Elementary school counsellors (ESC) play a crucial role in facilitating this
partnership.
The purpose of this qualitative study is to contribute to an understanding of
ESCs' roles with families. This research poses the following question:

What are ESCs' perceptions of their role with families?
The aim of this research concerning the ESCs' role with families is fourfold:
To explore perceptions of their actual and ideal roles when working with
families.
To articulate strategies that support their role with families.
To identify barriers to their work with families.
To determine ways ESCs overcome obstacles, which impact on their capacity
to work with families.
In satisfying the research aim, I interviewed four ESCs who shared their
thoughts on the ESC role with me. This process served to uncover their perceptions
regarding their role with families which included strategies, and challenges in their
work.

2

Rationale for the Study
It has long been acknowledged that the family is the most influential factor in

a child's personality development (Samis, Allan, & Echols, 1993). It is within the
family system that children learn attitudes, perceptions of self and others, behavioral
patterns, and how to function within the social and academic environment of school
(Lusterman 1985; Samis et al., 1993).
Although the influence of family on a child's learning experiences has been
widely recognized, traditionally, school counsellors have been primarily engaged in
individual counselling (Amatea & Fabrick 1981; Friesen, 1976; McDaniel, 1981;
Nicoll, 1984; Ryan & Sawatzky, 1989). School counsellors have conceptualized
counselling processes more intrapsychically than systematically, maintaining a focus
on the child to the exclusion of the family (Amatea & Fabrick, 1981; Samis et al.,
1993). A system can be defined as a network of elements in collective interaction
(Wright & Leahey, 2000). When this definition is related to families, the family is
recognized as a unit, whereby the emphasis is on exploring interactions between
family members rather than focusing on individual members of a family (Wright &
Leahey, 2000). Throughout the 1980's and 90's, there has been an increased
infiltration of family systems theory into the literature concerning the understanding
and treatment of children's school problems (Golden, 1983; Goldenberg &
Goldenberg, 1981; McDaniel, 1981; Peeks, 1993; Welch & McCarroll, 1993; Wilcoxen
& Comas, 1987). According to Hardesty and Dillard (1994) ESCs tend to work more

with families than their middle and secondary school counterparts but these authors
did not suggest reasons for this phenomenon.
Various problems including poor communication, ill-defined goals and
activities, decreased job satisfaction, service overlay and replication, ineffective

3

planning and implementation of educational and counselling programs are linked to
poor ESC role definition (Madak & Gieni, 1991). Paulson and Edwards (1997)
purported that students, parents, and school staff often have widely differing
perceptions of the role of the ESC. This confusion or lack of knowledge concerning
the role could mean that families do not solicit support from the ESC. Viewing ESCs'
work with families as a component of their role, it is feasible to extrapolate that the
aforementioned problems could emerge as a result of a poor definition of the ESCs'
role within the context of their work with families. By affording the participants, in
this study, opportunities to evaluate, define, and articulate the parameters of their
role with families, role related problems were examined, and recommendations
offered that will improve practice and contribute to educational counselling
theories.
The emphasis and priority of the roles has shifted from direct service
provider to coordinating, consulting, and linking as main functions of the ESC role
(Carroll, 1993). Counselling, consulting, and coordinating have been identified as the
major roles of ESCs (Hardesty & Dillard, 1994). A change involving more indirect
services means the school counsellor needs to make a conceptual shift from an
individualistic closed-systems model to an open-systems approach, resulting in a
more collaborative group oriented approach to the role of counsellor (Welch &
McCarroll, 1993). Collaborative functions indicate an emphasis on family, school,
and community as resources for the counsellor and student partnership. An
exploration of the ESCs' perceptions of their role revealed the counsellors' affiliation
with collaborative family systems approaches, and elucidated barriers to the
evolution of their role with families.

4

As stated in the British Columbia Ministry for Education's Special Education
Services: A Manual of Policies, Procedures and Guidelines (1998) (Appendix A),
ESCs are mandated to counsel families. A policy description, apart from the
aforementioned guidelines outlining the role of the ESC, does not currently exist.
There is planning underway for the development of professional knowledge by
providing policy guidelines that clearly articulate the ESCs' role and function
(personal communication, anonymous source, February 11, 2000). This research
could contribute to policy development by assisting with a clear articulation of the
role of the ESC as it relates to working with families.
My Story
I will now situate myself in the research process to provide context for this
study and reveal my thoughts and feelings about the topic. I was born in Canada but
have lived in both Australia and Canada during my adult years. I have worked as a
community worker, special education teacher, and elementary school teacher in
urban and remote areas of Australia. As a teacher, I am interested in understanding
students' behaviors in school, and developing skills to intervene when behaviors are
disruptive to the child and others.
It has long been established that a child's family is the single most

instrumental factor concerning personality development. To understand a child's
behavior at school it is beneficial to relate behaviors to interactions within the
family. Yet, I became aware of a gap between the need for, and the implementation
of family interventions within the elementary school system. When problems arose
families were contacted. However, a strong separation remained between the school
and family systems. As a student's behavior can be strongly influenced by
interactions within the family, it is necessary to adopt an increasingly collaborative

5

approach between the family and school. Involving the family in problem-solving
processes can lead to improved student success in school. I believe that mutual
respect, understanding, and commitment to the child's success are important
components of the partnership between home and school. Elementary school
counsellors are in a strategic position to strengthen the bond between families and
school.
An Explanation of Terms

Family
The following definition of family is applicable to this study:
This term applies to two or more people who consider themselves family.
These persons generally share a common residence and assume the
obligations, functions, and responsibilities generally essential to healthy
family life, such as economic support (Barker as cited in Capuzzi & Gross,
1999, p. 320).

The participants used the terms family and parents interchangeably, a
reflection of the fact that most of their family contact was with parents. In
acknowledgement of their perspective, I have also alternated the use of both terms
throughout this thesis.
Elementary School Counsellor
For the purposes of this study, an ESC is one who provides counselling
services for grades kindergarten to seven.
Overview of the Thesis
In Chapter 2, I present a review of the literature as it relates to the ESCs' role
with families. The research approach is outlined in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 contains the
participants' perceptions concerning their role, and Chapter 5 explores the

6

challenges to the ESC role with families. I summarize the thesis in Chapter 6, and
present conclusions, recommendations, educational implications, study limitations,
and future research possibilities.

7

CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
Introduction
My initial literature review was cursory, targeting the aims of this study as
mentioned in Chapter 1. Strauss and Corbin (1990) explained that the beginning
literature search, in qualitative research studies, is implemented for the purpose of
validating the feasibility of the intended research, based on gaps in the literature.
Strauss and Corbin (1990) contended that in-depth knowledge of the established
theories and information beforehand may inhibit the researcher's creativity and
ability to discover new categories and ideas. They suggested returning to the
literature after the data begins to reveal categories and relationships. Following
Strauss and Corbin's (1990) recommendations, I used the literature, in tandem with
the analysis of the data, to promote questioning, and substantiate the categories and
ideas that emerged from the data.
My search of the literature uncovered deficiencies regarding the ESCs' role
with families. I could locate only one quantitative study, by Samis, Allen, and Echols
(1993) which specifically targeted the ECSs' perceptions of their role with families.
This paucity in the literature prompted me to extend my search as far back as 1984
where I found one unpublished doctoral dissertation carried out by Beck (1984) that
focused on elementary and middle school counsellors and counsellor educators'
attitudes towards family counselling as a role function.
My data analysis process directed me to broaden the scope of my literature
review and look beyond studies that specifically targeted the ESCs' role with
families to incorporate literature which acknowledged the role of the ESC with
varied degrees of emphasis, from a variety of vantage points. I limited the search

8

solely to the literature which incorporated information regarding elementary school
counselling, since it has a distinct identity from middle and secondary school
counselling (Hardesty & Dillard, 1994).
My search of the literature revealed the categories of "Elementary School
Counsellors' Role Defined", "Elementary School Counsellors' Role with Families"
and "Barriers to Elementary School Counsellors' Role with Families".
Elementary School Counsellors' Role Described
Elementary school counsellors' roles have been described from a variety of
perspectives including principals, teachers, parents, and ESCs themselves.
Elementary School Counsellors' Described their Roles
Carroll (1993) examined the actual and ideal roles as perceived by 95 ESCs in
the state of Connecticut. A three part, 44 question survey, designed by the author,
was distributed to the respondents. The questionnaires were sent to 108 randomly
selected ESCs in Connecticut, with 54 questionnaires requesting responses which
reflected the actual role of the counsellor, and 54 requesting the respondents'
thoughts on the ideal role. A total of 97 questionnaires were returned with 95 being
used for analysis. The main section of the survey instrument consisted of 44
questions that included five ESC roles including: coordinator, consultant, counsellor,
teacher, and manager. In comparing the actual versus ideal consultant role and
preparation areas, the most significant discrepancies were found in working with
parents and families. Counsellors perceived their role with families as important
ideally, but expressed concern that they lacked the time and the preparation to work
with families. The author suggested that, in the future, counsellors will be
increasingly recognized as specialists in the areas of child development and
parenting, necessitating more preparation in working with families.

9

As with Carroll (1993), Wilgus and Shelly (1988) found that ESCs would
ideally like to spend more time with parents. The director of special education asked
the ESCs to participate in a study examining their role. They used a log procedure
for their study of seven elementary schools in the United States. Every 15 minutes
the counsellors coded their activities according to a list of 15 activities. The results
indicated that individual counselling appropriated most of their time, followed by
duties such as paper work and administration. Individual, other, and ESCs' staff
consultation accounted for 48% of the counsellors' time. Guidance and counselling
meetings, parent contact, and group counselling consumed 24% of their time. Eight
per cent of the counsellors' time per day was involved in working with families
(Wilgus & Shelley, 1988). Activities were also ranked according to actual and ideal
functions. Parent contact rated third, as an ideal function, which is higher than the
counsellors' actual involvement with parents which was ranked fifth. This suggested
that the counsellors placed importance on consultation with parents, and would like
to spend more time with parents. The study recommended that, due to changing
family structures, counsellors need to provide parents with parenting information,
support, and behavioral management skills. As suggested by the study, the ESCs'
role continues to evolve. A continual redefining of priority functions and activities
has resulted in direct counselling, and parent and staff consultation becoming
important. Due to an ill-defined role of the ESC, the three priorities are often
replaced·by the 'other' role activities. The study recommended that it is necessary
for ESCs to prioritize their time, and clearly define their role so they can spend more
time working with families, thus reducing the discrepancy between actual and ideal
roles with families (Wilgus & Shelley, 1988).

10

The need for ESCs to prioritize their time was also recommended in a study
by Carreiro and Schultz (1988). In this research study, 65 ESCs from five Canadian
provinces were asked to indicate the amount of time spent on individual role
activities, and the value of each activity, on a questionnaire of 25 role items. Meeting
with parents was an activity which ESCs highly valued, as it was ranked as one of
the top five activities. Despite this emphasis on working with parents the ESCs
indicated that they spent little time collaborating with families. Lack of training and
the need for ESCs' to prioritize their time were suggested as reasons for the limited
time that they worked with families. The authors recommended enhanced
educational opportunities for ESCs to facilitate their work with families (Carreiro &
Schultz, 1988).
The discrepancy between the actual and ideal role of ESCs was evident in a
study conducted by Morse and Russell (1988). They distributed a self-designed
questionnaire containing 40 items. The items described the every day work of ESCs,
including the following role components: individual counselling, group counselling,
and parent and teacher consulting. The questionnaires were sent to 267 ESCs who
were employed in the kindergarten through grade five settings in the northwest
United States. There was a response rate of 55%. Respondents stated that they
would ideally like to be more involved with parent consultant activities. Elementary
· school counsellors ranked individual counselling as an activity that currently does
and would ideally continue to take the most time, followed by consulting, and then
parent involvement. Like the studies conducted by Carroll {1993), Carreiro and
Schultz (1998), and Wilgus and Shelley (1998), the recommendations from this study
also addressed barriers to working with families such as the need for more time,
administrative support, and practical training.

11

Elementary School Counsellors' Roles as Described by Principals, Teachers and
Parents
In the following studies, the perspectives of ESCs and others including

principals, teachers, and parents were explored. Madak and Gieni (1991) studied
teachers' expectations, and the role activities of five half-time ESCs. The ESCs
worked in two school divisions, comprised of six schools, in Manitoba. Elementary
school counsellors kept daily notes concerning their activities for three consecutive
weeks, at three randomly selected times during the school year. A survey, which
assessed teachers' perceptions and expectations of ESC role activities, was also sent
to 181 teachers in the six schools. There were 141 completed, and/ or partially
completed surveys. The results of this study indicated that counsellors were
spending their time on individual counselling, meetings, paper work, committee
work, and administration. Through the log procedure, this study revealed that
counsellors spent 4.5% of their day consulting with parents. Forty-eight per cent of
the teachers perceived that the ESC involvement with family was important, while
15.6 %felt that family involvement was actually being provided. When comparing
the log procedure and the survey that collected perceptions of ESCs' activities, there
proved to be a discrepancy between actual and ideal roles. The teachers perceived a
need for counsellors in the elementary school setting, but confusion concerning the
counsellor role was evident in the teachers' responses. Madak and Gieni (1991)
further stated that if future research supports this discrepancy, then the results
would indicate that ESCs are allowing low priority activities to take precedence over
high priority activities. This is an outcome that can frequently occur when role
confusion exists. The results of this study suggested that ESCs are spending the
majority of their time on individual counselling, and on 'other' activities involving

12

paper work, meetings, administration, and committees. It may be extrapolated that
individual counselling, and the 'other' activities reduce the priority given to
working with families. Madak and Gieni {1991) acknowledged study limitations
which included the nonrandomized school selection process, the small sample size
of five counsellors, and the fact that all of the counsellors worked half time. The
authors pointed out that the study indicated the trend for a more cost effective
approach to counselling which incorporates methods such as group counselling and
consulting.
Similar to Madak and Gieni (1991), Ginter, Scalise and Presse (1990) examined
teachers' perceptions of the ESC role. This study produced an empirical base for the
conceptualization of the ESC role. The authors maintained that the effectiveness of
the ESCs' work with parents, students, and teachers could be hindered when a
discrepancy exists between how ESCs view their role , and how others understand
the ESC role. A sample of elementary school teachers in Louisiana was obtained
using a stratified procedure based on the location, and population of the school
system. Participants were given a questionnaire asking the teachers to indicate, on a
7-point scale, which of the ESC counselling functions would be of assistance to them.
Eleven descriptors of the ESCs' role where provided, and participants were asked to
select seven that they felt were the most important aspects of the ESCs' role. The
teachers indicated that the role of the ESC constituted a helper and consultant
dimension. The helper role encompassed activities which included problem
identification and solution, group and individual counselling, interpretation of test
results, and referrals. The consultant role incorporated activities which provided
information and technical support, such as home visits with families. The usefulness
of this study is compromised by the fact that the number of participants involved in

13

the study, and the response rate was not indicated. The results of this study
provided empirical data defining the role of the ESC as helper-consultant by
teachers. The authors suggested that this conceptualization, of the ESC role, may
lead to a decrease in role conflict and confusion. According to Ginter et al. (1990), an
agreement of the ESCs' role definition, between teachers and ESCs, may lead to
teachers being able to provide an increasingly accurate description of the ESCs' role
to parents and students.
Similar to Ginter et al. (1990), Miller (1989) stated that support for the ESCs'
role could be impeded when a discrepancy exists concerning others' understanding
of the ESC role. Miller (1989) conducted a study to determine what elementary
school principals, teachers, and parents thought concerning the relevance of
elementary school counselling within their schools. A 20% sample, of randomly
selected, Minnesota elementary school principals were chosen for this study. Each
principal was then asked to select one teacher and parent from each school to
participate. The authors suggested that the principals may have selected people who
reflected their bias. The response rate for principals was 83%, the teacher response
rate was 72%, and the parent response rate was 68%. The survey contained 28
elementary school functions, and the respondents were invited to mark each
function by indicating "could be helpful," "not needed," and "uncertain" in
supporting the growth and development of students. The functions were placed into
five categories including development and career counselling, consulting,
counselling, evaluation and assessment, and guidance program development and
management. Consulting was addressed in nine items of the questionnaire. In this
instance, consultation referred to interactions with teachers and parents concerning
developmental issues of children at school and at home. The results indicated that

14

the respondents all strongly supported the counsellor functions that encouraged
healthy social, emotional, and physical development. The respondents differed in
their response to the guidance program development and management functions.
The principals supported the planning and organization functions more than
parents and teachers. The researchers stated this discrepancy in responses could
have occurred due to principals having an increased role emphasis on
administrative functions. Overall, the five areas received a high degree of support
from all respondents. Developmental/ career guidance and consultation areas,
which included counselling young children to prevent the development of more
severe behavior problems, maintained the highest level of agreement between the
respondents. Miller (1989) discussed the respondents' support for prevention
strategies, within schools, as indicating a need for ESCs to focus on early childhood
intervention programs.
The necessity to involve parents in the conceptualization of the ESCs' role
was also present in the study conducted by Paulson and Edwards (1997). This
research study involved parents in the development of a role definition for ESCs.
The researchers employed concept mapping as a needs assessment tool to develop a
conceptualization of parents' expectations concerning the role of the ESC. Part of
this process was the formulation of themes within which the roles were classified.
Concept mapping was used because of its participant orientation. It combined
quantitative and qualitative research methods, and involved participants in
generating and gathering data. The 25 participant volunteers were parents of
students enrolled in the same elementary school. The study does not mention the
location of the school. Study limitations included the fact that the parents

15

volunteered for the study rather than being randomly selected, and the study was
implemented in one setting.
Each grade level was represented by two parents. The participants were first
asked to respond to the question "What do parents expect an elementary counsellor
to do?" Parents were asked to brainstorm responses in small groups. A list of 91
statements was compiled, and sorted into individual task statements. Each
participant was given a set of the 91 statements, and asked to sort them into piles
that identified relationships between

~

Participants were asked to rank the

91 statements, that were developed into a questionnaire, using a Likert scale. The
result of the concept mapping process was a set of themes, which represented the
conceptualization of parents' expectations concerning the ESC role. The themes that
emerged included information resource, conflict resolution, consultant to teachers,
communication link, counselling services, special needs programming, and
developmental programs. The most highly rated items included within these themes
were: accessibility for students and parents, ability to refer parents to resources,
maintenance of open communications with parents to inform them of any problems
their child may be experiencing. Paulson and Edwards (1997) stated that concept
mapping is an effective needs assessment tool. The success of the concept mapping
method lead the researchers to recommend its use to promote parental involvement
in program planning.
Elementary School Counsellor Roles as Described by High, Middle, and Elementary
School Counsellors
The following studies explored the role of the ESC, combined with an
examination of middle and high school counsellor roles. Ballard and Murgatroyd
(1999) studied the role of all school counsellors including grades pre-kindergarten to

16

12, in Louisiana and Oregon. 1brough a 37 item survey, they measured the attitudes
of school counsellors regarding their functions within schools. These attitudes were
then translated into factors, and identified as components of the school counsellor
roles. There were 812 responses to the survey in Oregon, and 324 from Louisiana.
The researchers did not mention the number of school counsellors present in the
initial population, nor did they distinguish between the responses from varying
grade levels. The results indicated that school counsellors in Oregon and Louisiana
shared three major role definitions including: developmental counselling, crisis
intervention which included counselling on family problems, and college and career
counselling. This study did not outline recommendations specific to the role of the
ESC. However, the authors did suggest possibilities for further research that
encompassed an exploration of role differentiation among school counsellors at
varying grade levels. Ballard & Murgatroyd (1999) stated that their research could
contribute to the development of clear role definitions for all school counsellors, to
strengthen their positions within schools.
Coli and Freeman (1997) also recommended that counsellors needed to
demonstrate their contributions to schools through the development of secure role
definitions. They surveyed 2,790 secondary, middle, and ESCs randomly drawn
from a list purchased from the American School Counselors' Association. There was
a return rate of 54%. The survey included a questionnaire which measured eight
areas including the degree of role conflict related to internal standards, external
expectations, heavy work loads, conflicting responsibilities, resource, and structural
conflict. Study scores indicated that ESCs experienced more role conflict than their
middle or secondary school counterparts. These results supported the study's
hypothesis that ECSs have more roles and functions, including working more with

17

families, within less secure positions than secondary and middle school counsellors.
These factors result in more role conflict. This study recommended that ESCs
needed to demonstrate how their work contributed to the school environment
through documenting and advertising what they do. Before becoming involved in
activities, ESCs should have clear role definitions, and prioritize their role activities.
Professional development programs should emphasize work with parents,
consultation,

~ assessment, and accountability (Coli & Freeman, 1997).

Hardesty and Dillard (1994) used a questionnaire to gain information
concerning the activities of counsellors at different grade levels in schools in
Kentucky. The respondents were asked to indicate how much time they spent on 17
activities. From a list of 1,214 counsellors, 795 were randomly selected, and mailed
the survey. The response rate was 55%. The results indicated that ESCs performed
more consultation and

~ less administrative activities, and worked more

systematically with families, teachers, and the community as compared to middle
school and secondary school counsellors. Due to the differences in counsellors'
activities, in particular the lack of administrative duties performed by ESCs,
Hardesty and Dillard (1994) suggested that convincing administrators and
legislators that the activities of ESCs are valuable to schools could present
challenges. They pointed out that ESCs need to actively outline their roles to address
any concerns or issues to increase the awareness of legislators and administrators
about the contributions of ESCs to effective functioning of elementary schools. This
study made recommendations indicating that ECSs need to demonstrate how their
work contributes to the overall school environment. Like Coli and Freeman (1997),
Hardesty and Dillard (1994) also suggested that documentation of the effectiveness

18

of the ESC in the literature is needed to further increase awareness concerning the
role of the ESC.
Partin (1993) conducted a study to ascertain the amount of time school
counsellors spent on each of their functions, which of those functions they deemed
as a waste of time, and what activities would constitute their ideal allocation of time.
A questionnaire listing nine counsellor activity areas, was mailed to 300 randomly
selected elementary, middle, and secondary school counsellors. Counsellors were
invited to estimate what percentage of their time was spent on each of the activity
areas. They were also asked to indicate the ideal percentage of time they would
spend on each activity. There was a response rate of 70%. The results indicated that
elementary, middle and secondary counsellors rated paperwork as their greatest
waste of time. Elementary school counsellors rated teaching duties as a more
significant time waster when compared to middle and secondary counsellors. All
counsellors would have preferred to spend more time involved in individual
counselling, group counselling, and professional development activities. The
counsellors' role with families was not included in this study. The counsellors
would have preferred to devote less time to testing and administrative functions. As
with Hardesty and Dillard (1994), Partin (1993) recommended that counsellors
prioritize their use of time, and communicate this to others within the school and
community. Partin (1993) discussed the need for ESCs to record their functions as a
safeguard against administrative expectations that may impinge on their counselling
activities.
Miller (1988) also discussed the necessity for counsellors to communicate
their role to the community and school personnel. 1bis study surveyed middle,
elementary, and high school counsellors in "excellent" schools. Excellent schools

19

were required to meet 14 criteria including: clear academic and behavioral goals,
discipline and structure, positive school environment, and community support. The
study was designed to determine what functions counsellors in excellent schools
viewed as important. The survey was developed, by the researcher, and mailed to
school counsellors in 666 of the excellent schools identified by the United States
Department of Education. There was a return rate of 75%. However, only 63% of
these surveys were completed properly, and used in the research study. The results
of the survey indicated that elementary and middle school counsellors ranked
individual and group counselling, consultation with parents and teachers, and
coordination as their most important activities. Elementary school counsellors
ranked the consultation with parents and teachers, and professional development
areas higher than middle and high school counsellors. Miller (1988) suggested the
results of this study could help school counsellors examine their functions, and
compare them with those counsellors in excellent schools. He also indicated that the
findings could be used to assist school counsellors when articulating their functions
to parents, administrators, and school boards (Miller, 1988).
In summary, a search of the literature uncovered numerous studies focussing

on the role of the ESC as perceived by ESCs, high and middle school counsellors,
teachers, principals, and parents. Constituents of the ESC role were examined and
described in a variety of ways and the ESCs' role with families emerged as one
feature of a complex array of role components. Four quantitative studies specifically
stated that the ESCs' role with families was important. The ESC respondents in all of
these studies lamented the lack of time that ESCs' had to devote to consulting with
families. One quantitative study examined teachers' expectations of the ESC role and
ESCs' role descriptions but did not include the ESCs' role with families. One

20

quantitative study explored teachers' perceptions of the ESC role and briefly alluded
to the ESC role with families. A quantitative study provided an examination of the
ESC role from the perspective of principals, teachers and parents but the role of the
ESC with families was not explicated. One study used a concept mapping process
with parents to reveal their views on ESC role components which included their
expectations regarding ESC work with families. In five quantitative studies,
elementary, middle, and high school counsellors' examined their roles. Four of the
studies maintained the importance of the counsellor's role with families while one
study did not mention counsellor I family involvement. Overall, although this
portion of the literature review provided multiple perspectives regarding the ESC
role it presented a limited view of their work with families.
Elementary School Counsellor's Role with Families
My search of the literature revealed the following studies which explicitly
focussed on the ESCs' role with families.
A quantitative study by Samis, Allen, and Echols {1993) examined British
Columbian ESCs' attitudes concerning their current and ideal role

~ families. A

17 item questionnaire was distributed to 327 ESCs in the 76 BC school districts, and
responses were received from 76% of the counsellors. The study indicated that the
counsellors wanted to spend more time with families, but they felt restricted by
work load, and by a belief that traditional functions, involving individual student
counselling and consultation with other professionals, must take precedence over
family counselling. The study recommended that ESCs make involvement with
families a clearly defined part of their role. The authors also suggested a reduction in
the counsellor I student ratio to create more opportunities for ESCs to work with
families. Further results from this study indicated that training programs should

21

place more emphasis on family systems theory to increase the awareness of the role
families play concerning the individual student. The study also stated that ESCs
need to work in conjunction with administrative staff to create flexibility within
their schedules to work with families. The final recommendation outlined the
necessity for ESCs to clarify their roles with families through assumed leadership in
defining their roles (Samis et al., 1993). The homogeneous nature of the study results
meant that specific information regarding Northern BC ESCs was not available.
Although not current, I have chosen to include Beck's (1984) doctoral thesis
since, along with Samis et al. (1993), it is the only other study which explicitly
targeted the counsellors' perceptions of their role with families. Like Samis et al.
(1993), Beck (1984) also utilized a quantitative approach. The school counsellors, in
this study, worked in elementary and middle schools on a full time basis. Unlike
Samis et al. (1993), Beck invited counsellor educators as well as counsellors to share
their views concerning the ESC role. The counsellor educators worked in public or
private colleges holding at least a half time position. A survey, which was developed
specifically for this study, was sent to 144 elementary and middle school counsellors
in four county Milwaukee metropolitan areas. The response rate was 81.3 %. A list of
counsellor educators was also obtained from the Wisconsin Department of Public
Instruction and mailed to 38 counsellor educators with a response rate of 78.9%. The
survey asked the participants to comment on the appropriateness of the ESC role in
family counselling, discrepancies between the ideal and real priority concerning
family counselling, barriers that impacted on the ESC role with families, and
suggestions for changes to counselling programs. Beck's results demonstrated a gap
between the need for, and implementation of family counselling within elementary
and middle schools. Elementary and middle school counsellors, and counsellor

22

educators indicated a need for family counselling in schools. However, most
counsellors were infrequently or never involved in family counselling. The results of
the study suggested that elementary and middle school counsellors viewed family
counselling as compatible with their role in schools but work load, lack of training,
and time constraints were barriers to the implementation of family counselling in
schools. The results also indicated that family educators were interested in
providing training in family counselling to school counsellors. The study
recommended that elementary and middle school counsellors develop a high
profile, among students and parents, to increase the priority of family counselling in
schools. Beck (1984) also suggested surveying the needs of students and their
parents to determine the validity of elementary and middle school counsellors
perceptions of family counselling in schools.
Sawatzky, Eckert, and Ryan (1993) recognized school counsellors' work with
families, and focussed their qualitative study on determining how school
counsellors applied a family systems model to working with families and students.
The study did not define the family systems model. Five participants were chosen
based on the following criteria: presently employed in a school, two years work
experience in a school system, and a Masters degree which included training in
family systems theory. Two of the participants worked in a kindergarten to year six
school setting, two in a kindergarten to year nine school environment, and one in a
kindergarten to year 12 school. The participants were involved with a focus group
on three occasions. During these sessions they were orientated to the study's
purpose and approach, reviewed family systems theory, and discussed the
application of family system interventions. Following the focus group meetings the
participants were interviewed, and asked to describe their use of a family systems

23

intervention that resulted in positive change. There were six categories of
interventions that emerged from the participants' discussions which included:
joining, refrarning, realigning the family structure, teaching, behavior modification,
and supporting symptomatic behavior. The outcomes indicated that school
counsellors applied family systems frameworks, and non-systemic approaches, to
their work with students. Sawatzky, et al. (1993) stated that this research provided
school counsellors with ways to conceptualize their work, bring family and school
together, and incorporate a systematic approach. Although this study provided
some interesting information regarding the use of family systems theory, the authors
did not acknowledge the differences between elementary, middle and high school
counselling, and the role expectations concerning counsellors' work with families.
Evans and Hines (1997) emphasized the school counsellors' role with families
through the implementation of the 'Lunch With School Counsellors Program'
(LWSCP). The parents in this program were employed by seven industries in
Greencastle, Indiana. School counsellors had difficulty meeting with the parents
during school hours due to the parents' work schedules. This

~ provided

opportunities for parents and school counsellors to meet and discuss the educational
and social needs of their children. There were two elementary, middle, and high
school counsellors involved in the project. During the school year counsellors made
10 lunch time visits which included evening and late night visits depending on
which shifts the parents worked. School counsellors provided information
concerning parenting, academic, and career goals, and school activities. The results
of this project were reported in anecdotal form. The authors felt that the LWSCP
increased communication between home and school, and facilitated community
acceptance of counsellors. Evans and Hines (1997) suggested that their project

24

provided guidelines and suggestions for the development of other outreach
programs, promoting increased communication between parents and the school.
Conroy and Mayer {1994) discussed consultation as an important aspect of
the ESCs' role. For the purposes of the study, consultation involved providing
parents with information concerning parenting skills to help their children achieve
school success. Parents in two elementary and one middle school in the southeastern
United States were surveyed to assess the need for parental education. The survey
instrument was not described. The response rate was 40% at one elementary school,
and 33% at the other elementary school. The middle school response rate was 22%.
This study involved the implementation of a two year parenting program at
Mangum Primary School, in Bahama, North Carolina. Three different parent
education approaches were used by ESCs including: multiweek small group
sessions, monthly parent nights, and a parent resource library. The parents who
participated in the multiweek parenting course stated that the course improved their
parenting skills. Of the 24 parents who completed the course all said that they
would recommend it to a friend. The qualitative data indicated parents were
positive concerning the opportunity to attend the monthly parent nights. However,
the authors did not mention the qualitative methods used to gain this information.
Conroy and Mayer (1994) stressed the need for ESCs to be involved in consultation
with parents. In response to identified issues facing families, ESCs could provide
parent education programs, and resource materials to help parents develop positive
and effective parenting skills.
Smith (1997) also discussed the facilitation of parental involvement in schools
as an important aspect of the ESC's role. The purpose of this quantitative,
experimental design study was to examine the efficacy of parent/ child/ school

25

behavior contracts in promoting collaboration between home and school. The
behavior contract used in this study was developed to promote interaction between
parents and the school, provide parent skills training, and address students'
behavioral problems. This initiative was a component of the elementary school
counselling program. The parents of 12 students, attending a kindergarten to grade
eight northern New Jersey school, volunteered, and were assigned to the
experimental group. The control group was comprised of students whose behaviors,
age, sex, grade, and teacher matched those of the experimental group. The parents in
the experimental group participated in educational sessions where they identified
their children's behaviors of concern, and learned the contracting process. Parents of
the control group children were asked to give permission for their children to be
monitored as part of the research process but were not privy to the experimental
group interventions. The participating parents, and the involved teachers,
completed questionnaires, pre and post intervention, which asked them to indicate
the frequency of the behaviors of concern, and the amount of parent/ teacher
interaction. The results of the study indicated that parent/ child/ school contracts
were effective in promoting positive school related behavior. Parents of the sample
group indicated that they experienced improved communications with the school,
and with their children as a result of the contract process (Smith, 1997). There were a
number of limitations to this study which included: the sampling method, lack of
clarity regarding the interventions, and poor explanations concerning the pre and
post testing.
In summary, one quantitative study was found which specifically examined

the role of the ESC with families. This study is of particular interest since it
emanated from BC and emphasized the ESCs' need to take the lead in defining their

26

role with families. One outdated quantitative study indicated that elementary and
middle school counsellors valued their role with families but a number of barriers
prevented them from fully realizing their potential in this regard. Four studies did
not explicitly examine the ESC role with families but covered a variety of related
areas including the application of a family systems model, an evaluation of a
counsellor I parent collaborative initiative, an evaluation of a parenting course, and
the efficacy of parent/ child behavioral contracts.
Barriers to Elementary School Counsellors' Role with Families
Studies by Samis et al. (1993), Carroll (1993), Wilgus and Shelly (1988), Morse
and Russell (1988), and Beck (1984) (as mentioned in previous sections) explicated
some of the barriers concerning the implementation of the ESC role with families.
These included issues related to role confusion, time constraints, and a lack of
educational preparation. The results of these studies were reflected in a number of
publications which discussed similar barriers to the implementation of ESCs' role
with families including: deficiencies in training (Ryan & Sawatzky, 1989; Carroll,
1993); a lack of administrative support (Umansky & Holloway as cited in Samis et
al., 1993); insufficient time (Carroll, 1993; Partin, 1993); unmanageable client/
counsellor ratios (Samis et al., 1993), and a traditionally strong separation between
families and schools (Lightfoot as cited in Ryan & Swatsky, 1989).
Summary
A search of the literature as far back as 1984, revealed 19 research studies
which explored the role of the ESC, ESCs' involvement with families, and barriers to
the ESC role. One quantitative study, from British Columbia, specifically targeted
ESCs' perceptions concerning their current and ideal role with families. The review
of the literature indicated that working with families is compatible with the ESCs'

27

role. However, a gap does exist between the perceived need for parent and family
counselling, and the implementation of parent and family counselling in elementary
schools. Role conflict, time constraints, lack of administrative support, and poor
educational preparation are some of the barriers that inhibit ESCs' work with
families. By exploring the perceptions of Northern British Columbian ESCs
concerning their role with families, this qualitative study will contribute to an
understanding of their roles when working with families, strategies that support
their roles, and barriers that inhibit ESCs' involvement with families.

28

CHAPTER THREE
The Research Approach
Introduction
"Qualitative inquiry cultivates the most useful of all human capacities - the
capacity to learn from others" (Patton 1990, Introduction). The overall goal of this
qualitative, inductive study is to contribute to an understanding of ESCs' roles with
families. Qualitative research situates the researcher as learner in a collaborative
process with the participants. This process was congruent with my philosophical
assumptions as an educator, which according to Minichiello, Aroni, Timewell, and
Alexander (1995) is a necessary starting point of inquiry. In order to understand the
ESCs' role with families I wanted to ascertain the thoughts and ideas on the topic
from the ESCs themselves. Understanding that reality is situated in people's
perspectives is an important notion, as the participants' perceptions are the
paramount focus of qualitative research projects (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999).
The Nature of Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is inductive, meaning that the researcher tries to
understand situations " ... without imposing preexisting expectations on the research
setting" (Patton, 1980, p. 40). The researcher experiences the perceptions of the
participants v.rithout presupposing or outlining what those experiences v.rill be
before beginning fieldwork (Patton, 1980). The inductive process begins with the
particular and moves to the general (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999). Categories
emerge as a result of this process that help us to understand the phenomena under
study (Patton, 1990). Qualitative research provides opportunities to explore answers
to questions based on social experiences, how they are created, and how they give
meaning to human existence (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999). Streubert and Carpenter

29
(1999) outlined the basic tenets of qualitative inquiry which included: commitment
to the viewpoint of the participants, development of a research approach that
understands and supports the social experiences of the participants, communication
of an understanding of the phenomena by providing quotations from the
participants, and acknowledged participation of the researcher in the research
process.
In this study, my commitment to the ideas and experiences of the ESC

participants was evidenced by the participant centered interview process, the openended nature of the questions, and the use of the participants' data to promote our
understanding of the ESCs' role with families. The inductive approach meant that
participant quotations were pivotal to the development of knowledge related to the
ESC role.
Situating myself as a learner and collaborator meant the acknowledgement of
my role in the research process. This recognition involved an ongoing commitment
to self-reflection, whereby I evaluated my thoughts and feelings concerning the role
of the ESC with families as the research unfolded. Merton et al. (as cited in
McCracken, 1988, p . 32) stated, ''The investigator must inventory and examine the
associations, incidents, and assumptions that surround the topic in his or her mind".
Joumalling my feelings and thoughts helped me to maintain an awareness
concerning the parallels between my assumptions and the participants' perspectives.
Study Approach
The study approach was descriptive/ exploratory. According to McMillan
and Schumacher (1997), exploratory research examines new areas and phenomena
that have not been studied before. As indicated by the literature review, in Chapter
2, there was a paucity of qualitative studies exploring ESCs' views on their roles

30

with families. In descriptive studies the analysis process involves the condensation
of data to themes. There is some conceptualization but the themes do not form a
conceptual scheme (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In this study
the themes that emerged were framed by the broad, exploratory questions that
invited the participants to share their views on their role with families, strategies
that they used when working with families, and barriers that they encountered in
their work with families.
The Participants
I interviewed four ESCs, with backgrounds in teaching, and elementary
school counselling. The participants worked in elementary schools within one school
district in the Northern British Columbian public school system. Respect for the
confidentiality and anonymity of the participants prevented me from providing
further detail regarding their workplace locations.
I contacted the school district office, informed them of the research project,
and obtained a list of the seven ESCs employed by the school district as possible
study participants. I telephoned all of the ESCs on the list and four ESCs (three
women and one man) out of the seven on the list agreed to participate in this study.
Miles and Huberman (1994) stated that qualitative researchers frequently work with
small sample sizes of people who are active participants within the culture, social
interaction, or area of interest.
Since the participants form a very small and close knit network within the
school district, the protection of their anonymity and confidentiality was particularly
challenging. In order to address the confidentiality issue I felt that it was necessary
to forgo in-depth descriptions of each individual, as prescribed in a qualitative
approach, in favor of a collective description of the participants. Two of the ESCs

31

worked full time and were called itinerant counsellors since their position required
that each of them provide counselling services to eight elementary schools. The
other two participants held part time positions, in two different schools. The ECSs
had an average of 13 years teaching experience and four years elementary school
counselling experience. The least amount of experience was six months, and the
maximum experience was 10 years. Their ages ranged from 32 to 58 years, with an
average age of 43 years. All of the ESCs had bachelor degrees in a variety of
disciplines including education, and the social and natural sciences. Two were
prepared at the Masters level with MEd (counselling) degrees. One ESC was
completing an MEd (counselling) degree, while another had a diploma in
counselling. One had completed additional certification in a specific counselling
approach.
Data Collection
The purpose of the qualitative interview is not to discover how many, and
what kinds of, people share a certain characteristic. It is to gain access to the
cultural categories and assumptions according to which one culture construes
the world. (McCracken, 1988, p. 16).
I used semi-structured face-to-face interviews to collect data. According to
Kvale (1996), although this type of interview incorporates themes for discussion,
conversation that is participant centered and directed is promoted and valued.
McMillan and Schumacher (1997) explained that semi-structured questions are
open-ended but have a specific intent. I organized the interview questions
(Appendix B) around the aims of the study. At the same time, the questions were
open-ended to allow flexibility in the scope and depth of the responses (McMillan &
Schumacher, 1997). Open-ended questions gave the participants the opportunity to

32

share their perceptions of their role with families. This approach to interviewing
granted me opportunities to probe, and seek explanations regarding the
participants' responses. The result was the generation of rich detailed information
used in data analysis.
Four one-time interviews, one to two hours in duration, took place at a
mutually convenient venue to the participant and me. Two of the interviews were
held at the elementary schools where the participants worked. One interview was
conducted at the participant's home, and another interview was held at my home at
the request of the participant. Follow-up interviews were made by phone. All of the
face-to-face interviews were audiotaped and field notes were made following the
interviews, about my impressions, themes, and issues that arose. Observations and
interpretations are recorded in field notes through a reflexive process (Mason, 1996).
The Interview Process
According to Spradley (1979), both the researcher and participant experience
anxiety prior to the commencement of the interview. We began the interviews with a
few minutes of friendly conversation to put both the participants and myself at ease.
I then explained the research purpose and process, and the participants were invited
to read an overview of the research (Appendix C). They were given an opportunity
to ask questions, or express possible concerns prior to signing the "Consent Form"
(Appendix D). The participants were then invited to complete the "Participant Data"
sheet (Appendix E). ·
I began the interview by asking participants to describe a typical day. This
type of question was an "experience question" (Patton, 1990, p . 320). Its noncontroversial tone promoted descriptive conversation. The participants described a
typical day concerning their counselling roles.

33

This first question began a "funnelling" process, as described by Minichiello
et al. (1995, p. 46). This technique started the participants thinking about the research
in broad terms. Questions of increasing specificity followed, refining the focus on
the topic (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983). As the interview unfolded, my use of
probes, such as "Tell me more", added depth to the participants' responses
(McCracken, 1988, p. 23). Minichello et al. (1995) suggested the interviewer invite
participants to "tell a story" as a way to clarify their input. I used probing, and
story-telling questions as techniques to elicit rich descriptions.
Upon concluding the intelview, I asked the participants if they had any
further thoughts. I thanked them for their valuable contributions, and gained their
permission to conduct a follow-up phone interview. I explained that a further phone
interview would be helpful to fill in any gaps that emerged during the analysis of
the data, and to clarify any areas of confusion.
Data Analysis
I began my data analysis by listening to the participants' audiotaped
interviews. Following this first step, I transcribed the interviews, and then read the
verbatim transcripts several times. These processes allowed me to " ... become
immersed in the data" (Streubert & Carpenter, 1999, p. 60). Transcribing the
audiotapes was a long process which gave me the opportunity to reflect upon each
interview, and begin the data analysis process. As Lapadat (in press) stated,
" ... transcription is an integral process in the qualitative analysis of language data"
(p. 3). Transcribing affords the researcher the opportunity to develop a high degree
of affiliation, with the data, to interpret meaning (Lapadat, in press).
Methods of data analysis, as outlined by Miles and Huberman (1994), formed
the basis for my data analysis process. These methods included: coding, marginal

II

34

remarks, and memoing.
Coding
I began the coding process by numbering each line of the transcripts. I then
went through the transcripts, word for word, and attached codes to chunks of
words, phrases, and paragraphs (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The units of meaning or
codes that I used to retrieve and organize the chunks included: "ENC"
(encouragement) indicated an approach one ESC took when working with parents,
"ADL" (Adlerian), "GLAS" (Glasser), identified the theories, discussed by the ESCs,
and "LOAD" represented the ESCs' discussions regarding workload. These were
descriptive codes which involved minimal interpretation (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
I then placed the coded words and segments along with a line number(s), page
number(s), and letter assigned to each participant on index cards. By working with
and seeking meaning from the coded segments, I derived broader themes or
patterns. I took the coded data and recoded, placing them into categories indicating
patterns or themes. For example, "PATI-PROC" indicated the processes ECSs
utilized when working with families and students. "PATI-THEORY" ~

the

theories that the participants discussed, and "PATI-BARRIERS" were the barriers,
such as workload, that the participants encountered when working with families.
The coded data was further explored, understood, and explained using these
patterns.
Marginal Notes
I used marginal notes to record interpretations, ~

themes, and

connections that emerged during data analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1994). These
notes led to questions, issues, and themes that could be explored during subsequent
interviews, including follow-up interviews. At times my marginal remarks added

35

clarity to my coding of the data.
Mernoing
While immersed in the data I rnernoed sections. Memoing brought together
pieces of data into a cluster indicating a general theme or concept. Memos helped
me to make the transition from the raw data to more abstract levels. As the data
analysis proceeded, memoing was required to organize my thinking regarding
approaches and interpretations. Both memoing and marginal notes were methods
for studying and reflecting upon the data (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
Research Quality
Streubert and Carpenter (1999) stated that the goal of rigor in qualitative
research is the accurate representation of the study participants' experiences. I have
chosen the following terms that provide a framework for critiquing this study:
dependability, credibility, and transferability.
Dependability
According to Miles and Huberman (1994), dependability involves ensuring
and demonstrating that data generation and analysis are not only appropriate to the
research question but are an honest and reliable reflection of it. Avoiding data
misrepresentation, misinterpretation, or unreliable recording maintains the
dependability of the research (Mason, 1996). A review of my research questions and
proposal by my committee members, and two graduate students, ensured that the
interview questions were clear, and the study design was concurrent with the
questions. I attended a research class which focussed on the development of my
research proposal. This experience provided me with ongoing feedback concerning
my research. To further ensure dependability, I read through the transcripts
checking for internal consistency or coherence. This involved a word-by-word

36

examination checking that words and statements were appropriate, and consistent
with what I had observed or heard.
Credibility
Credibility, in qualitative research, involves asking what your data sources
and generating methods can tell you and how well this was accomplished (Mason,
1996). When ascertaining credibility it is necessary to establish whether the results of
the study display appropriate meaning. Is there an authentic and accurate depiction
of what is being researched (Miles & Huberman, 1994)? Credibility also refers to the
mutuality of meaning between researcher and participant in relation to
interpretations and concepts.
I asked the participants if they wanted to receive a copy of the transcripts and
they all declined the offer. I forwarded to the participants their direct quotations that
I intended to use in the thesis. Included in this correspondence was an explanation
regarding the context of each quotation, the interpretation, and the option to
comment on the content and suggest any changes. In this way I ensured that their
experiences were accurately represented, and they were in agreement with the
analysis. The participants were reminded of their right to withdraw any statements,
resulting in those segments not being used in the research. None of the participants
changed their contributions.
Transferability
Transferability addresses the question as to whether the conclusions, from the
study, can be transferred to other social contexts (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Within
qualitative research adequate descriptions are essential so that researchers can
possibly extend the findings to other studies, thus addressing the issue of
transferability (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997). Miles and Huberman (1994) stated

37

that the most useful research conclusions, within qualitative research, are
" ... analytic not sample-to-population" (p. 28). The findings from this study may not
be applicable to all ESCs but will contribute to existing and new theories of the role
of ESCs with families.
During the interviews I was sociable, and at the same time, encouraged the
participants to express their views. By " .. . talking little and listening a lot" (Wolcott,
1994, p. 348) I gained an authentic description of the social phenomena. Wherever
reasonable and plausible, within the .research paper, participants had opportunities
to speak for themselves. These descriptive accounts give readers direct access to the
data ('\Volcott, 1994) and provide "thick descriptions" (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p.
279) that facilitate transferability.
Ethical Considerations
I obtained Ethics clearance from the University of Northern British Columbia
Ethics Review Committee prior to beginning the study (Appendix F). Consent forms
(Appendix D) with a study description (Appendix C) were presented to the
participants. Confidentiality was maintained throughout by the assignment of letter
codes to the participants.
Audiotaped interviews and transcripts were kept under lock and key in my
office. I was the only person involved in the transcription of the interviews.
Audiotapes will be destroyed upon completion of the thesis. Transcripts were
retained with any identifying participant characteristics removed. Participants were
informed of their right to stop their participation, in the study, at any time.
Elementary school counsellors are small in number, invoking the evolution of
a very close knit counsellor network. This phenomenon caused me to be particularly
vigilant concerning the confidentiality and anonymity of the study participants. I

38

described the participants in a collective format, avoided elaborating on components
of their demographic details, and did not divulge the location of their workplace
settings. Forwarding the participants' quotations to them for affirmation regarding
their use, ensured that the participants were comfortable with the extent that their
confidentiality and anonymity was protected.

I

39

CHAPTER FOUR

The Elementary School Counsellors' Work with Families
Introduction
Qualitative research is "context bound", meaning that an understanding of a
topic's setting is integral to the research process (Dempsey & Dempsey, 1996, p. 27;
Norwood, 2000). I begin this chapter by exploring the context of the ESCs' role. Authors
such as Kagan and Maehr (as cited in Winzer & Grigg, 1992) and Riecken and Court
(1993) described both home and school, respectively, as cultures. I have taken the liberty
of borrowing these authors' perspectives to provide a backdrop for this chapter which
explores the ESCs' role in liaising between home and school for the benefit of the child,
their use of counselling theory in their practice, and their perceptions regarding the
components of the elementary school counselling process.
Culture as Context
For the purposes of this thesis culture is broadly defined as, " ... the rules,
expectations, attitudes, beliefs and values that guide behavior in a particular group of
people (Winzer & Grigg, 1992, p. 244).
Riecken and Court (1993) discussed the emergence of culture as an approach to
understanding schools as organizations. According to Morgan (1986, p . 121),
organizations are " ... mini-societies that have their own distinctive patterns of culture
and subculture". Many descriptions of school cultures are depictions of occupational
subcultures that represent the values of the adults who are employed by a school
(Riecken & Court 1993). Johnson (as cited in Riecken & Court, 1993, p. 88) summarized
the importance of culture as it related to the school system, " ...unfortunately, it is the
culture that makes people behave as they do. The culture will affect school performance

40

and student outcomes. The only question remaining is who \\rill take responsibility for
shaping the culture?"
The broader definition of culture, as applied to families, relates to the value
systems, beliefs, and rules of behavior that guide family life. Kagan and Maehr (as cited
in Winzer & Grigg, 1992), discussed a number of factors that, when applied to family,
illustrated keys ways in which the unique culture of each family can be described.
These components included: the rules that guide interpersonal interactions, past,
present and future orientation, beliefs relating to the use of time, the relationship
between humans and nature, and the most cherished values. The family's ethnicity
plays an integral role in the organization of family life. Ethnicity was described by
Wright and Leahey (2000, p. 80) as a family's "peoplehood" or an amalgamation of its
historical, racial, social, and religious characteristics that are transmitted over
generations. These factors greatly influence the ways that families interact \\ri.th their
members and with others beyond the family group. According to Stewin and McCann
(1993), Canadian families encompass varying values and beliefs, goals for education,
and approaches to raising children. The special culture of each family adds to the rich
tapestry of the school. Sawatzky and Ryan (1989) discussed society as having
maintained a traditional separation between the cultures of family and school. The
remainder of this chapter examines the two cultures, the roots of their division, and
explores the role of the ESC as a broker between them.
Cultures Described
The School
The industrial

l

~ that began in the late eighteenth century, transformed

Western society. Prior to that time seventeenth and early eighteenth century families
taught their children at home (Stewin & McCann, 1993). When society transformed

41

from an agrarian to industrial base teachers were hired to teach children from across
whole communities. Work changed as factories replaced workshops, and industry
transposed agriculture (Osborne, 1999). Men and women who had previously worked
on the land, or in local workshops were required to keep pace with machines (Osborne,
1999). With factories emphasizing centralized control, mass production, uniform
products, technology, and cost effectiveness, workers became subservient to the
products created by large factory units (Purkey & Novak, 1996). As efficient
complements to machines, workers were expected to be dependable, conforming,
servile, and busy. Employers wanted workers controlled by bells, whistles, shifts,
assembly lines, and supervisors (Purkey & Novak. 1996).
The school system provided a supply of future factory workers. Children were
taught to tell time, become disassociated from the outcome of their labor, obey orders
from superiors, and accept the reality of conformity (Osborne, 1999). Education was
used " .. . to facilitate the integration of the younger generation into the logic of the
present system and bring about conformity" (Freire, 1990, p. 276).
This "efficient factory school" (Purkey & Novak. 1996, p. 123), exists to date with
students and teachers being controlled by external sources. Days are structured around
schedules and bells. What and when subjects are taught is preordained by formal
statements of curriculum objectives, school administration, and text books that provide
the foundations for many educational experiences. Learning is often described as the
mastery of skills that can be reproduced on standardized tests. Freire (1990) talked
about the "banking concept of education".
The banking concept of education, which serves the interests of oppression, is
also necrophilic. Based on a mechanistic, static, naturalistic, spatialized view of
consciousness, it transforms students into receiving objects. It attempts to control

42

thinking and action, leads men to adjust to the world, and inhibits their creative
power (Freire, 1990, p. 64).
The uniformity and standardization of education valued by an industrial society
are incompatible with the requirements of a post-industrial era (Gallagher, 1995).
Gallagher (1995) argued that learner conformity continues to be valued within
contemporary education. A focus on individuality is needed to assist the learner to
successfully integrate into a rapidly changing society. Valuing the child's uniqueness
requires an understanding of the family and the child's interaction within that system
(Holmgren, 1996). It would therefore follow that such an approach would require
linkages between the cultures of school and family. Mass schooling needs to respond by
recognizing the family as fundamental to student achievement, including the family
within the educational process, and understanding that each culture influences the other.
The Family
Reactions to the predominance of intrapsychic explanations of human
development, in the 1960's and 1970's, promoted the family as an essential and
predominant factor in affecting a child's development ( Stewin & McCann, 1993).
Systems theory suggests looking at family as a system or entity rather than an
independent collection of individuals (Scrutton, 1999). The family's "wholeness" is
more than the sum of each family member (Wright & Leahey, 2000, p. 40). Salvador
Munuchin, a leading family therapist, compared the family to a kaleidoscope, " ...a
changing pattern of mosaics in which the pattern is larger than any one piece" (as cited
in \Vade & Tavris, 1998, p . 629).
Canadian families have endured continued changes since the 1960's. Despite a
much touted disintegration of the family in contemporary society, the family continues
to be the stabilizing force in Canadian society (Bowd, McDougall, & Yewchuck, 1994).

43

The definition of family has evolved from the traditional two parent nuclear family, with
(typically) two or three children, to include a variety of forms. Some of these forms of
families include: double income, single parent, blended, and homosexual partnerships,
to name a few. With the trend towards single parents and dual career families children
are expected to mature earlier, become more responsible, individualistic, and responsive
to change (McDowell & Sayger, 1992). Current changes in our industrialized society such
as divorce, unemployment, and an increase of women into the workforce impact on the
family culture (Winzer & Grigg, 1992).
When considering the relationship between family and school cultures it is
essential to note when difficulties occur in one system the other system is often
impacted (Holmgren, 1996). The child is an active participant interacting within these
cultural contexts. The ESC is an invaluable resource to facilitate the collaboration
between family and school in order to support the child's adaptation to the school
environment.
The Elementary School Counsellor's Role as Cultural Broker
Elementary school counsellors have the opportunity to engage in a unique role as
cultural broker between the school and family cultures. Chalanda (1995) explained that a
cultural broker translates and processes information and beliefs from one cultural group
to another. A cultural broker should be respected by both cultural groups, have the
knowledge of both systems, and be able to translate ideas from both involved parties. As
a cultural broker, the ESC needs to have knowledge of the family and school cultures to
enhance family involvement in their child's education, thus promoting the child's
achievements in school. Parental involvement, in the education of their children, has
been demonstrated as essential to school success (Evans & Hines, 1997).

44

When I invited Sarah to recount a story illustrating her role with families, she
succinctly outlined her role as cultural broker. Sarah explained:
So in this one situation I am thinking of, there was a fair amount of

communication with mom, support for the teacher, and then working directly
with the child to understand that these are ways you are expected to behave in
school. We have very simple school rules, we all have a choice, you can choose to
follow them or not.. .So it's teaching some communication skills until the
individual has what they need to focus and be effective. And in this one case that
I'm thinking of the child started off with a fair amount of destructive behavior
that gradually decreased. And what happened also was that mom had to change
what she was doing at home as well. Because there was a need for more firmness
and more stricter guidelines. Because there was definitely strict and firm
guidelines in the classroom.
Sarah's method of counselling encompassed knowledge of the family,
communicating the expectations of the school, translating and working with family
expectations, and teaching parenting skills. In order for the child and family to
understand the school culture Sarah suggested, "Every school must have a firm, and
very clear, and very fair sense of consequences for behavior." She explained that
consistent school guidelines helped her to be an effective ESC. Knowing the family, and
gaining an understanding of the parenting styles were the foundation of a sharing
process whereby the parents could promote and support the child's success in school.
As described by Sarah, the behaviors and values that a child learns within the
family culture, may not match the expectations of the school. One of the challenges
confronting ESCs, as cultural brokers, is the shift from the traditional family system
towards diverse family structures. Elementary school counsellors need to be involved in

45

helping schools respond to the needs of changing family systems, while facilitating the
family's understanding of the elementary school as an important agent in the
socialization of their children.
As cultural brokers, ESCs have the opportunity to intervene at varying levels
including the family, classroom dynamics, and within the wider social context of the
community. They have a knowledge of both family and school systems. Elementary
school counsellors are in a position to support the relationships between the family and
school cultures to ensure a student's success in school. The ESC, as cultural broker, is
involved in an interactional process, with families and schools, for the effective and
responsible development of children. The following discussion presents the
participants' perspectives on the role of the ESC. Counselling theory and process
emerged as categories to illustrate the ESCs' approaches to cultural brokerage.
Counselling Theory
Counselling theory, as a foundation for the ESC participants' practice, emerged
as a major theme from the data. Brammer and MacDonald (1999) stated that theory
helps the counsellor to understand the complex helping process and gives direction for
the establishment of relationships with clients. Theory provides direction during the
action stage of the helping process. It encompasses assumptions about how people learn
and change their behavior. The theory used by the counsellors should match their
values and expectations concerning the counselling process.
According to Brammer and MacDonald (1999), counsellors can be unaware of the
theories that guide their actions. They explained that " ...each helper has an implicit
theory of helping" (Brammer & MacDonald, 1999, p . 164). The following discussion
illustrates the participants' theories that guided their practice.

46

Sarah's Theory
Sarah identified reality therapy as the theory that she integrated into her work as
an ESC. William Glasser is acknowledged as the creator of reality therapy. He was
originally trained in traditional Freudian method. However, he deemed much of
classical psychiatry as futile (Glasser, 1965}. According to Glasser, the achievement of
personal insight into one's behaviors does not always result in behavioral change.
Reality therapy focusses on behavioral change, while often excluding past events and
the unconscious (Cappuzi & Gross, 1999). Glasser's approach to therapy involves taking
control of one's life. Through increased responsibility clients exercise better choices than
those they have been making (Cappuzi & Gross, 1999).
Sarah discussed her use of reality therapy, and critiqued the school's approach to
the discipline of students. Sarah explained:
There's too much of an orientation towards punishment rather than restitution.
And my personal focus because of my reality training is definitely restitution.
Let's figure out a way to make this work better next time. Let's not dwell on the
problem!
Reality therapy emphasizes taking responsibility for one's own life to make
positive choices for future action (Glasser, 1997). The focus is not on the past but on the
possibilities in the future. Reality therapy provided Sarah with a reference point for her
views on restitution, which promoted positive behavioral change. Restitution involves
working together to make good choices for the future.
Sarah's adherence to reality therapy was suggested by the value that she placed
on "self control". The ability to control one's life is an essential aspect in reality therapy
(Glasser, 1997). Sarah stated:

l

47

I'm using self control rather than blaming, judging, criticizing in any way, shape,
or form. It takes a lot of self discipline and self control not to use the old
fashioned language that places blame on someone else for another party's
behavior.
Sarah's value on self control was reflected in her actions and language. She used
language cautiously in order to convey the notion to parents that they are not
responsible for the child's behavior. Once rapport ·with parents had been established,
Sarah believed this approach could result in collaborative problem solving.
Sarah further described her use of reality therapy:
I like to have them [the parents] involved, and also to have them know that their
child is choosing their own behavior. They may have influence on the child, it's
still their child's problem. How can a child solve his or her own problems, rather
than saying how are you going to solve this problem with your kid? And that
way you get full parental cooperation because you're not saying its your
problem. This is a problem with your child. What can we do to help this little
person make better choices?
Sarah's application of reality therapy involved encouraging and supporting
parents to place the onus on the child for the child's behavior. Helping the child to
choose appropriate behaviors was the focal point of Sarah's interaction ·with the child
and family. Reality therapy discusses how we can control events in our environment
through the choices that we make. Other people or events cannot have control over how
we think and feel. The only behavior we can control is our own (Corey, 2000).
David's Theory
David's theoretical underpinnings were based on the work of Alfred Adler. As
David stated, "11y foundations are Adlerian, its all Adlerian stuff there. Everything I'm

48

talking about is Adlerian." Alfred Adler's theory is grounded in the phenomenological
awareness of individual motivation and behavior (Patterson & Watkins, 1996). Alderian
theory suggests that people are directors of their own lives, and almost everyone has a
desire for self-improvement (Cappuzi & Gross, 1999). 'While Freud was developing his
theory of psychoanalysis, Adler was studying the human personality (Corey, 2000).
Adler stresses self determination and consciousness as central to personality
development. Adlerian theory can be described as educative and collaborative, as Adler
believes that healthy development results from receiving love, encouragement, and
parental interest as a child (Corey, 2000).
David explained one aspect of his Adlerian approach:
I have a sort of routine that I go through with parents that focuses on helping
them understand the encouragement process. To me, that's the most powerful
tool that there is to affect change within kids.
David collaborated with families to guide them through the encouragement
process with their

l

~ as advocated by Adlerian theory (Patterson & Watkins,

1996). Adlerian theory places a high priority on specific techniques such as
encouragement, to prevent children's behavioral problems (Dustin, 1992).
David provided a further description of his use of Adlerian theory:
I spend an hour or so going through the kind of typical interview that I have
with kids. To understand the kid's position in the family because it really affects
how kids view the world.
David's knowledge of a child's position in the family facilitated his
understanding of the child's behaviors. Adlerian theory maintains that the child's
position in the family can influence personality development (Patterson & Watkins,
1996).

49

David discussed another way that he used Adlerian theory as a foundation for
his work:
Because kids when they're misbehaving, in their heads, what they're doing is
working for them. They're not stupid and they don't fool around with behaviors
that don't work. So what they do works for them and they're not interested in
changing that behavior usually. And so it's extremely difficult to get kids to
change their behavior. It's much easier to get the parents to change their behavior
and then the kids will change.
Adlerian theory provided a reference point for David's assumptions about how
children learn, and change their methods of interacting. Adlerian theory states that
behavior stems from attitudes, beliefs, and a desire to obtain one's goals (Patterson &
Watkins, 1996). Therefore, to understand behavior is to understand the goal. Children
learn to choose certain behaviors that result in positive outcomes. Even if the chosen
behavior is negatively affecting others it is maintained because it meets the child's
needs.
David expressed the following viewpoint concerning ESCs' use of theory:
Well I guess I should say, when working with families, you really want to have a
thorough understanding of what ever the counselling model with children you
operate under. So you're really solid in yourself and what you're talking about is
consistent and has a solid philosophical foundation that its built on and you
really know what you're talking about. Because if you have counsellors out there
that are say eclectic, which to me means- or can mean that they don't understand
any theory well, but picks up a bunch of pieces out of them all, then they become
gimmicky to me. If you don't have a solid foundation. And I don't thipk it would
work well and you won't be able to build a credible reputation.

50

David discussed the importance of ESCs' adherence to one theoretical
foundation in their role with families. He contended that an eclectic approach impacted
negatively on a counsellor's practice. Counsellors with an eclectic orientation synthesize
concepts and techniques from a variety of approaches (Brammer & McDonald, 1999).
David viewed the establishment of a solid foundation, indicated by his adherence to
Adlerian theory, as essential to establishing his credibility as a counsellor. Christine's
and Janet's theoretical approaches were eclectic. It can be a difficult theoretical position
to adopt due to the work necessary to combine many complex ideas within counselling
practice. However, more counsellors are moving towards this eclectic view which
emphasizes the development of one's own personal theory of counselling (Brammer &
McDonald, 1999).
Christine's Theory
Christine's explanation of her theory began with her description of the
"mediums" she used to work with children. "Some people call it play therapy .. .it is a
whole lot of different mediums to work with like play dough and puppets and games
and all that sort of stuff." Play therapy utilizes many tools and techniques for
supporting children to "play out" their experiences and feelings in a natural and lively
process (Landreth, 1993, p.1).
When asked to describe how she worked with families, Christine stated,
" ... listening to them. Just hearing their stories and getting their gist of where they're
coming from." Christine's approach was reminiscent of narrative therapy which
involves the engagement of clients as the authors of their stories that give meaning to
their lives (O'Hanlon, 1994). Through listening to clients' stories the counsellor explores
how these narratives are influencing the client. Christine listened to the clients' stories
to understand their perspective concerning the presenting issues. A therapeutic

51

outcome involves the counsellor engaging the client in creating new possibilities
through different stories (O'Hanlon, 1994).
Christine emphasized trying to understand the parent's perspective. She listened
to them to understand their view on the situations. Within client-centred therapy the
emphasis is on understanding how people view themselves and their situations (Corey,
2000). Understanding and empathy are used, by the counsellor, to support the client's
thoughts and perceptions.
Janet's Theory
Janet described an eclectic orientation to counselling which incorporated
behavioral, client-centered, and systems approaches. She discussed her involvement in
a behavioral program at the school, " ... EBS, at our school, which is Effective Behavioral
Support, which is a school wide system approach. And so there are lots of incentives
and positives and that sort of thing." The EBS program is based on behavior therapy
which outlines reinforcement as a factor in learning (Patterson & Watkins, 1996). In
utilizing behavior therapy the school provides incentives and rewards to strengthen
students' motivation to learn and maintain effective actions and responses.Janet stressed the value she placed on creating a friendly relaxed atmosphere
within the school, " .. .I really try to keep it relaxed and casual, drop by and say 'Hi' . I
really try to focus on that kids can come here [to my office] for any reason." In building
an inviting atmosphere and encouraging students to "drop by" Janet is communicating
acceptance, consistency, and understanding. Client-centered therapy stresses the
importance of those attributes being communicated to the client. When the client
perceives the counsellor as dependable, accepting, and trustworthy then change can
occur (Patterson & Watkins, 1996).

52

Janet's work with students and families incorporated systems theory. Janet
stated, " ... and they're welcome to come in any time and see what's happening. What's
happening out in the community affects what's happening in here."
Janet's systems theory orientation implied that she viewed the student and
family as an integrated part of the community and school systems. According to
Brammer and MacDonald (1999) the main implication of systems theory is that the
counsellor must consider the place of the client in the family and neighbourhood system.
Each system has rules that guide behavior and it behooves the counsellor to know these
rules since what affects one will affect all individuals. Janet is looking to the community
and school to provide possible indicators as to the causes of students' behavior as well as
ways that the behavioral change can be supported.
Counselling Process
Process refers to a flow of events and the meaning that those events have for the
participants. The term process also refers to the methods that counsellors employ to
help clientS reach their goals. There is an unfolding of the process of problem solving as
counsellor and client move from first contact, to fulfilling a need, or resolving a conflict.
Counsellors may collaborate to provide direct interventions, act as support systems,
and resource providers (Brammer & MacDonald, 1999). The following sections describe
the components of the ESC participants' counselling process.
Collaboration
Elementary school counsellors, as cultural brokers, utilized processes that
supported the collaboration between the school and family cultures. In describing their
roles with families, the participants presented collaboration as the pivotal feature in
their work. Christine explained:

53

When everybody works together. When all the people on my team, when
they're helpful, and when the school staff where the child is, whether it be the
support teacher, the learning assistant, the teacher, the teaching assistant, the
principal, all those types of people, as well as the family and myself. We all know
what the concerns are and we all have ideas that might work and that we're all
trying to do the best for the child. And not only do we talk about it, but we do
what we're supposed to do.
Christine stressed the importance of the school and family partnership resulting
in the development of strategies that create effective social and learning environments
for students. Christine stated her belief that such cooperation and understanding
between both home and school resulted in outcomes that were "best for the child."
David told a story that exemplified collaboration as the underlying feature of his
role with families. David's story involved a grade two child who was sent home from
school because he was not doing his school work. He was restless and inattentive at
school, as David stated he was " ... walking all over the place." David explained:
And so he went home and the parents had to be really coached, ''Don't get angry
at him, and don't make the day interesting. It has to be less fun than at school".
Mom understood that. He had school work too. And Mom's job was to say stuff
like, "I'm sorry that you didn't make it at school today, but I'm sure you'll take
care of it tomorrow" ... anyhow, the kid hasn't been sent home again. He's been
doing school work for a couple of weeks now. I don't know if he'll have to go
home again or not. A neat little guy.
David and the child's parents met to assess the situation, plan a strategy and put
the plan into action. It was decided to send the student home when he was not meeting

54

the school's behavioral expectations. David's experiences, \Vith this child and his
family, demonstrated an effective collaborative process.
Collaboration involves individuals working together, sharing ideas to achieve a
common goal. The ESCs, as cultural brokers, are ideally situated to facilitate the
collaboration process. According to the participants the processes of building
relationships, enabling, problem solving, educating, referring, and cultural sensitivity
are components of the collaborative process.
Building Relationships
Brammer and MacDonald (1999) stated that helping relationships can be as
diverse as the people involved. Sarah's unique counselling style incorporated an
informal approach which she maintained was essential to the establishment of
relationships with students and their families.
I am a human being, my role is a teacher I counselor, I've been hired to do that.
That's a set of responsibilities, it is not who I am. And the reason that I am able to
make really good contact and rapport with parents and kids is because I drop the
role. The minute we get in I can drop the role.
Sarah talked about her responsibilities as a teacher I counsellor as separate from
her view of herself as a person. Her thoughts portrayed the balancing act involved in
the negotiation of relationships that are appropriate to counselling practice. Reality
therapy advocates the creation of a supportive environment through the counsellor
becoming friends with the client. Effective therapy requires personal involvement
(Corey, 2000). Brammer and MacDonald (1999) discussed the need for counsellors to be
cognizant of the level of their emotional involvement vvith a client. It is necessary for
counsellors to maintain a reasonable sense of control over their emotional levels, while
reflecting the emotional intensity of the client. This "paradox of involvement'' is one of

55

the dilemmas of counselling (Brammer & MacDonald, 1999, p. 50). One approach to
resolving this paradox is to state the purposes of the counselling process. In this study,
participants indicated the development of ESC/ family relationships based on
friendships that were bounded by their professional roles.
Janet described her approach to building relationships:
And then with the families I try to keep a high profile so that they know. I let
them know I'm here and available. So any new students that come in, I let
families know that this is what we're here for and this sort of thing.
Janet made herself known to any new students that arrived in the school. She
increased the students' and families' awareness concerning her role within the school.
Those actions facilitated the establishment of relationships, as Janet took the initiative to
connect with families.
Enablin&
Enablement is described as helping another to obtain a goal (Burrows, 1997).
Within the counselling process, enablement helps people to make choices, create change,
take control of their lives, and develop new possibilities for the future. As an enabler,
David facilitated perceptual change. "Sometimes I tell people that I'm not a counsellor,
I'm an optometrist. I'll give you new glasses to view the world. Another way to look at
things." People behave according to how they view themselves and the world.
Perceptions are learned and can be reflected upon (Purkey & Novak, 1996). Although
one cannot change past events, changing your perceptions of them can lead to new
possibilities in the future. By giving people "new glasses" David created possibilities for
clients to embark on perceptual change.
Christine enabled parents to facilitate changes in their child's behavior to create
positive interactions within the family. Christine explained:

56

Friday was a really good day because I met this family who said, "Oh here's the
lady that has done so much". I said, "Actually, you know, it's been you and your
child. I just happened to be there and provide some of the right information. You
guys really pulled it together. You're with her everyday. I see her once a week.
Once every two weeks".
Christine provided the "right information" to the parents to create opportunities
for change within the family. She emphasized that the family's efforts were responsible
for the changes. She was present to provide information that could enable them, and
guide their actions.
Problem Solving
A number of issues and concerns that clients present during counselling, can be
transformed into solvable problems (Brammer & MacDonald, 1999). Problem solving is
accomplished through the interpersonal communication process between counsellor
and client (Hall & Lin, 1994). Sarah discussed her approaches to problem solving with
parents:
I like them [the parents] to have them [their children] involved, and also to have
them know that their child is choosing their behavior. They may have influence
on their child and impact on their child, it's still their child's problems. How can
we help their child solve his or her own problems, instead of saying, "How are
you going to solve this problem with your kid?" And that way you get full
parental cooperation because you're really not saying it's your problem. You're
saying this is a problem with your child. What can we do to help this little person
make better choices? So I want to shift the responsibility for the actual behavior
onto the child, and yet get the parents looking at "What could I be doing

57

differently here? Am I somehow creating this? What am I doing to create this
situation? What can I do to make it better?" So it's a mental shift.
Sarah's interpersonal communications with parents involved gaining their
cooperation by focussing on the child as accountable for the problematic behaviors.
Solutions were achieved through parents helping their child make positive choices.
Difficult behaviors were chosen by the child, and the choice to change remained with
the child.
Janet's story exemplified her approach to problem solving:
We had a young student, primary student, who was brought to my attention by
the mom who said she was having difficulty getting him to school on time and had
some struggles with him at home. So prior to going into the home, I talked with
her together with the student and then I would meet with mom when she would
come and get him here in the morning ..She would drop her son off and then we'd
talk strategies and she'd just let me know what she had tried, what was working,
what wasn't working and that sort of thing. We talked with the student to see
what was going on from his perspective. So sort of seeing them separately, I guess
and also together. And then from there, from meeting at the school, we went to
going into the home and spending a lot of time there. Not just speaking with them
but we tried some things out ... some different things.
Janet's problem solving strategies involved working closely with the parent and
the student. lbrough her collaborative approach, Janet maintained parental
involvement in the problem solving process.
Goal Settin&
Goals are statements concerning what the client wants and needs (Egan, 1998).
Goals often emerge from the counsellor I client interaction. Once goals surface

58

counsellors can help clients to elucidate and implement them (Egan, 1998). Janet
discussed goal setting with students and parents:
Lots of parents come and give the initial referral. We set goals for counselling and
decide how often per week, or what it's going to look like, and what the goals are.
We'll sit down together with the student and come up with some goals or I'll
explain confidentiality and that sort of thing. I ask them, if parents have anything
they want us to work on, to phone and let me know.
According to the participants, parents are often the referral agents for their
children to receive counselling from ESCs. Janet, the parents, and the student met to
formulate goals, and decided upon a course of action. Goal setting is integral to the
counselling relationship, where goals emerge as an outcome of the problem solving
process (Egan, 1998). Through ongoing consultation with the parents, Janet and the
parents work together with the child to promote the child's well-being.
Sarah discussed the importance of mutual goal setting as a group activity within
the school. Sarah explained, "Plus another one of my duties is sitting in on the school
based team which is one mechanism to try to keep everybody tied together and
working on similar goals". Sarah was a member of a school based team that included
school personnel such as the child's teacher and learning assistant, a school
psychologist, a school counsellor, and a youth care worker. These educational workers
met to solve problems affecting the child's social and academic performance. School
based team members gave their perspectives on the child's problems and issues, and
planned and implemented strategies that focussed on the group goals. The group
evaluated the attainment of prescribed goals on an ongoing basis.

59
Educating
As educators, ESCs played an integral role in the provision of an atmosphere that
supported information sharing, resulting in decision making that was based on an
understanding of choices. David discussed his role as an educator:
Counsellors are just educators. There's nothing wrong with people. They need
more information when things aren't working very well. And when you give
them good information they will usually use it. And so I'm an educator.
David believed that people need information to facilitate positive ways of
interacting. David's role as an educator was to provide the information that supported
change.
Christine also identified the main component of her counselling process as being
an information resource. Christine explained:
I work most as a resource person, in a sense of trying to help them help their
child. Either with ideas for interventions to straighten things out or ideas to
promote something else. Trying to provide them with information that you
know would help them with their child and help them as well, so that their
children can do better in school or at home.
In Christine's role as "resource person" she helped parents develop ideas for

interventions and create new possibilities. She provided information and ideas that
supported the family to help the child achieve academic and social success. Egan (1998)
indicated that the sharing of information, by counselors, with clients can sometimes be
the determining factor in achieving positive outcomes. Oients may be unable to
completely explore their difficulties, or take action because they are without the
necessary information. Information can assist clients in developing new perspectives on

60

their problems which may lead to the development of effective problem solving
strategies.
Referring
Elementary school counsellors must work as a part of a team to ensure that the
child's needs are met. Referral to other professionals is a part of this teamwork process.
Janet explained:
And in a lot of cases I'm just the liaison. Like if they have to go to [name of
agency], it might be sexual abuse or they need to be referred out to [name of
agency], I try and do all the leg work for the parent in that case so that it's not so
scary for them. So I'll go with them to the intake. I try to be an advocate or a
support system for them.
Janet assisted families and children to access other professional resources, as
needed. Whiteside (1993) explained that the school counsellor often takes primary
responsibility for referring family and students for outside therapy. Janet's function
went beyond the referral process to involve supporting the child and family in an
advocacy role. According to Kurpius and Rozecki (1992), advocacy is demonstrated
when counsellors join with clients to encourage and support the client's cause.
Christine also discussed her role in referring the child and family to services
within the community. Christine stated:
Their child's going to be needing some more ongoing things, and really we only
have six weeks or so before we're done this year. So we're going to try and get the
family and the child into some different services within the town.
Christine cited the example of a child who required ongoing services, which she
could not provide due to time constraints. Christine referred the child and family to
agencies within the community to ensure that they received continual service. Kurpius

61

and Rozecki (1992) discussed ESCs' contributions to the problem solving process with
clients but explained that heavy workloads inhibited ESCs from implementing long
term therapeutic interventions.
Cultural Sensitivity
To work effectively between cultures, ESCs must have knowledge of and
constructive attitudes towards the traditions, beliefs, and values held by the children
and families found in their practice settings. David explained:
The basic Adlerian philosophies hold for any family but you still need to be
sensitive to the different cultural values under which families may operate. I
have counselled lots of First Nations families and you need to be very sensitivefor example they tend to be permissive with their children - but the basic
Adlerian philosophy holds true for all.
Culture emerged as a prominent consideration in David's work, but underlying
his discussions was an adherence to the principles of Adlerian theory that guided his
practice with all cultural groups. The Association for the Advancement of Health
Education (as cited in Palmer 1997, p. 67), defined cultural sensitivity as: " ... knowledge
that cultural differences (as well as similarities) exist, along with a refusal to assign
cultural differences such as values as better or worse, more or less intelligent, right or
wrong; they are simply differences." David acknowledged First Nation's cultural views
on raising children as different from predominant Western societal norms. Corey (2000)
stated that when counselling within a multicultural context it is necessary to modify
many counselling theories and techniques, to meet the diverse needs of clients, in ways
that are compatible with their cultural values, beliefs, and behaviors. This requires the
evaluation of the assumptions, within many counselling theories, regarding their
appropriateness within a multicultural setting (Corey, 2000). David's Adlerian

62

foundations promoted his ability to work respectfully and sensitively with clients,
while maintaining a universal perspective that believes fundamental human qualities
are important regardless of culture (Fukuyama as cited in Corey 2000).
Christine described her work from a multicultural perspective:
I ask about their culture and work with it. For instance I may ask "How would
you deal with something like this?" How much they are part of their culture can
make a difference. If they are strong in their culture or don't practice it. An
example is when a First Nation's child kept talking about the death of her mother
and I found out that some First Nations people have many mothers so their
grieving process is different.
When asking about a client's culture Christine began to develop strategies to
engage in multicultural counselling. She acknowledged the complexities that emerged,
among individuals, from varying cultural groups. She also recognized that differences
within and among various cultural groups do exist. Corey (2000) stated it is essential
that counsellors do not perceive clients as belonging to one group, as the differences
between individuals within one cultural group can be greater than the differences
between groups.
Summary
In this chapter I have discussed counselling theory and process as the two
domains that characterize the ESCs' role as cultural broker. In their role as cultural
brokers ESCs need to have knowledge of both home and school, and be respected by
both cultures. The participants presented a variety of perspectives on their use of theory
which directed their work with the two cultural systems. Theory assisted the ESCs to
develop their knowledge concerning how people learn and change behaviors, and

63

provided them with the language to describe their work v.rith schools and families . It
also guided their interactions within the family and school cultures.
Collaboration was fundamental to the cultural broker role. 1bis solid foundation
facilitated the counselling processes of relationship building, enabling, problem solving,
educating, and referring. Cultural sensitivity emerged as an important consideration in
their work with children and families. Elementary school counsellors forged the
partnerships between the family and school cultures with a view to promoting the
child's successful adaptation to the school environment.

64

CHAPfERFIVE
Challenges to the Elementary School Counsellors' Role with Families
Introduction
As cultural brokers, ESCs work with the school and family to support the
child's educational success. Brokering between the two cultures requires the ability
to work with the family and school while maintaining the focus on the child's
difficult situation. Elementary school counsellors embarking on this complex process
can encounter a number of challenges that impact on their work with families. In
this study, the challenges that emerged were categorized first as family and
secondly as role related. Some strategies ESCs employed to overcome the barriers
are described.
Family Related Challenges
The participants raised a number of family related issues that affected their
capacity to work as cultural brokers. These challenges included: access to families,
family resistance, family commitment, and past experiences.
Access to Families
Elementary school counsellors' access to families is affected by factors such as
the increased prevalence of single parent and dual income families. This societal
change means that parents have less time to be involved in their child's schooling.
Christine discussed the difficulties she experienced when attempting to meet with
parents. She stated, " ... some parents need to work nine to five and they can't come
in". According to Evans and Hines (1997), access is a barrier to working with
families when the work schedules of parents can make setting and keeping
appointments with ESCs difficult.

65

Sarah echoed Orris tine's sentiments when she explained, "It's very difficult
sometimes because many of them [parents] are working. So how do you get them to
come in?" Smith (1997) suggested that school counsellors meet with parents, at their
workplace, to promote parental involvement in school. David concurred with Sarah
when he stated, "The fact that so many parents are working sometimes makes it
difficult to meet with them. It's hard to get them to come in during the day." David
continued:
I'd be working evenings all the time because that's when they [the parents]
would like to meet. But I don't do that. When I first started out I did that and
I was just going all the time. But then I finally said, "Hey, I've got my own life
too. They don't pay me for those hours." It would be different if my work day
started at 3:00 and I worked till 9:00 or something. Then I guess I could do
that. But I just don't do it anymore. If your kids are important to you you'll
meet with me during the day.
David placed the challenges of parental access within the context of time
constraints with the ESC role and the necessity of maintaining bounda?es between
his work and home life. David expressed the need for parental responsibility to
enhance their availability. Time constraints in the ESC role and parental
responsibility are further explored in upcoming sections.
Family Resistance
Resistance is defined as the counsellor's failure to successfully engage a client
in a problem-solving process (Campbell, 1993). It is a natural emotional reaction
against the helping process, and against acknowledging difficulties (Campbell,
1993). In this study, family resistance to the counselling process was related to
family secrets, and stigma.

66

Secrets
In order to know the family culture, the ESC as cultural broker, needs to

work with the family's dynamics. This process may, for some families, be perceived
as an invasion of privacy. David explained:
I don't work with any of the kids without having parental permission which
can be a bit of a drawback, in some cases, because some of the parents don't
want their kids to be seen. Usually there's a big family secret .. .and so they
won't let their kids see a counsellor and often those are the ones that really
need it too.
David expressed his frustration at being unable to help children with
particularly difficult family situations due to the family's concerns regarding
privacy. Parr {1991) stated that some parents can view counselling as an invasion of
privacy, fearing that values, life-styles, and patterns of interaction, within the family,
may be divulged.
In seeking parental permission, David is following ethical guidelines for

counselling children. The (unnamed) School District requires that parental
permission be obtained before a student receives counselling. Consent for the
counsellor to interview a child should always be obtained prior to the interview
(Mordock, 1991).
Sarah also experienced an inability to work with some children due to the
lack of parental permission. Sarah stated:
This little boy came here the father said no to counselling. And there's
nothing you can do unless there are signs of abuse. So that was one case. And
in another case it was a boy who the principal has referred for counselling
and the mother decided no. There are some severe problems in that family

67

and the family doesn't want it to be known. But there's still nothing you can
do unless there is clear cut evidence of abuse.
Like David, Sarah expressed her frustration at her inability to help troubled
children and their families when parental permission to enter into a counselling
relationship is denied. Unless, as Sarah stated, there was very clear evidence of child
abuse she was unable to proceed with counselling the students. Only in emergency
situations, whereby delay may put the child at risk, is it advisable to proceed
counselling without consent of the parent or guardian (Mordock, 1991). Parr (1991)
stated that there are parents who may wish to hide information due to legal reasons,
such as child abuse. In such instances it is advisable to seek counsel from an outside
source such as a child welfare agency (Mordock, 1991).
Stigma
Stigma is defined as "A sign of disgrace or discredit'' (Swannell, 1980, p. 582).
When describing the challenges that influenced their role, many of the ESCs referred
to the stigma that some parents attached to counselling. The issue of stigma was
introduced by David:
There's still a stigma in most communities about counselling. "Oh my God!
I'm not going to see a counsellor. There's nothing wrong with us!" And the
stigma that to be seeing a counsellor, or even a school counsellor, implies to
some people that "there is something really wrong with our family".
According to David, society's belief that families should be able to deal with
their problems are reflected in their negative attitudes towards counselling. Working
with a counsellor requires the family to admit that there are problems. According to
Brammer and MacDonald (1999), client resistance to counselling may be due to
cultural values. In some communities a need for counselling is viewed as a

68

weakness, and suggestive of an inability to cope. Cultural pressures for
independence may discourage involvement with a counsellor (Brammer &
MacDonald, 1999).
Sarah discussed the stigma concerning counselling as having influenced the
parents' behaviors, " ... and when I have parents come in, I've had people come in
very defensive, with all sorts of feelings because of the stigma of coming to a
counsellor." The parents concerns about stigma challenged the establishment of
rapport. According to Mordock (1991) rapport is necessary to interview success, is
more than trust, and involves mutual understanding and caring.
Both David and Sarah stated that the stigma parents maintained concerning
counselling often disappeared after the first meeting with the ESC. Sarah explained,
" .. .once we've had one meeting it disappears totally."
Sarah described her approach which served to dissipate the stigma,
" .. .I'm using the self control rather than blaming, judging, criticizing in any way,
shape or form." Sarah did not blame the parents, for their child's behavior, instead
she encouraged them to believe that they were not responsible for their child's
behavior, but could play a role in creating positive solutions. Whiteside (1993)
maintained that it is necessary to begin by focussing on the student's difficulties and
a mutually beneficial outcome, then gradually involve the whole family without
blaming other members of the family (Whiteside, 1993). When parents did not feel
blamed or criticized they were able to overcome their concerns regarding stigma and
engage in a therapeutic process.
David stated:
When they come and talked to me they realize, "Oh well no big deal. There's
nothing wrong with us. We just needed to know this." But if that perception

69

could be conveyed to the communities. That it's safe and fun and there's
nothing wrong with you when you go. That would make it easier.
David discussed how once parents had been to the ESC they realized
counselling could be a positive experience. Counselling did not have to constitute a
negative reflection of clients as having personal problems. The counsellor can
facilitate clients to regard themselves positively, to believe in their abilities and
worth through relationships with the counsellor (Egan, 1998). David discussed
communicating to the community that counselling can be a worthwhile and positive
experience.
Janet outlined her approach to reducing the stigma parents had concerning
counselling:
It's really important that you connect with the community of parents, and the
community in ways that aren't labeled counselling. You just don't want to be
the counsellor in the comer down the hallway. You know like ''Ooh, you
have to go and see the counsellor". If they see you involved in different roles
then you don't have the stigma attached to that. And I think just make sure
you're easily accessible for parents and for kids to let you know if they need
help, or just be ready to answer questions and give them that support where
its okay to just stop by and touch base and that sort of thing.
Instead of remaining the distant expert, Janet connected with parents to carve
her place within the community. She became perceived as someone who was
accessible and available to consistently offer support. She became involved in many
roles that extended the image of counselling, therefore parents had the opportunity
to develop varying perceptions the ESC role.

70

Family Commitment
Family commitment to the counselling process is required to facilitate the
cultural broker's (ESC) role in bringing the cultures of family and school together for
the benefit of the child.
Christine described the "biggest challenge" to working with families as,
" ... whether or not the family is really willing to change. And help their child or
work with their child." She outlined examples of parents' unwillingness to change:
Families will say they care and they say they'll do things and they don't.
They either don't read the information, or the video, or buy the little things
that the kids need, or help with or plan to improve things, or change their
way of being to a more positive role model. And if the kids don't see
something that's positive they say, "Well they don't do this why should I?
And their saying school is important and I should do it, but they're not
willing to give me any of their time."
Christine felt that, at times, a family's stated desire to change was rhetoric.
The child was cognizant of the parent's lack of action to affect change. This inertia
deterred the child's motivation to change.
In overcoming the challenges of parental reluctance to change Christine

suggested the following approach:
I just try to encourage them to make changes in order to help their child, and
to understand. Sometimes trying to understand what they're doing and the
impact it has on their kid. And you have to be pretty diplomatic. Sometimes
that's kind of tricky. You have to be tactful, discrete that sort of thing. And at
the same time get your point across. And sometimes you have to be just really

71

blunt about it. It just depends what kind of relationship you have with the
person.
The interpersonal communication approach Christine adopted when
encouraging families to change, was contingent upon the relationship that had been
established. Elementary school counsellors need to assist parents in understanding
their child's behavior as a part of the change process (Holmgren, 1996). Elementary
school counsellors require skills to establish a harmonious relationship with parents,
showing caring and concern. Assertiveness is a necessary addition to the
counsellor's set of skills (Egan, 1998).
Past Experiences
Sarah discussed how parents' past experiences with bureaucracies resulted in
their aversion to seeking assistance from an ESC. She explained:
I've had people come in and they were reluctant. Some people were even
antagonistic because they dealt with agencies their whole lives. We're dealing
with so many families who are being governed by agencies and they're
rebelling and resisting. So they do it with the agencies, they do it with us.
Parents, feeling repressed by government agencies, often entered the
counselling relationship with a negative frame of mind. Although Sarah was the
only participant to describe the impact of a family's past experiences on their
acceptance of counselling, this phenomenon is presented in the literature. Evans and
Hines (1997) and Campbell (1993) explained that resistance to counselling, due to
negative school affiliations through past contact as a student, or with the educators
of their children, may result in parents avoiding ESCs.

72

Role Related Challenges
A number of role related challenges emerged from the participants'
discussions. These included: workload and time constraints, isolation, lack of
training, and financial constraints.
Workload and Time Constraints
Heavy workloads and time constraints were factors that impinged on the
ESCs' capacity to work with families and students. Janet explained:
Not having enough time to spend the time you'd like to with each of the kids
and the families. There's so many kids and just not enough time to spend and
to really-! feel like I'm not doing enough. I never feel that I'm doing enough
for anybody. If I could have a smaller number of people to work with and do
a really good job, but then I don't want to deny people access to services.
There's just not enough time.
Janet felt her ability to counsel students and families, was compromised due
to a lack of time, and the high student/ counsellor ratios. The pressures of time that
she encountered in her role impacted on her job satisfaction.
Sarah also discussed the issue of workload and time constraints. She stated, "I
usually work right through recess and lunch because I'm needed so much. And as I
said, we could easily do with two counsellors here. Two full time counsellors."
Sarah mentioned hiring more ESCs to deal with lack of time, an idea that was
discussed by other participants. Janet stated, " I wish there was some magical money
that would come so there would be more counsellors because that's one of the
barriers, not having enough access." Samis et al. {1993), in their study focussing on
ESCs in BC, reported overload and lack of time as major inhibitors to the ESCs' role.

73

Prevention
Prevention is seen as an important aspect of the ESC role (McDowell &
Sayger, 1992; Miller, 1989). In this study, workload and time constraints made it
difficult for ESCs to counsel within a preventative framework. Sarah explained:
I see my personal wish list would be I would be counseling and I'd be doing

preventative work. And that would heavily involve students, and it would
involve parents. You want them to come in, you want them to
be a part of this.
Sarah stressed the importance of prevention strategies involving both parents
and students. McDowell and Sayger (1992) linked the paucity of communications
and learning within contemporary families to a need for prevention. In response to
these changes in family dynamics, the educational system needs to adopt an
increasingly "proactive systems intervention with an emphasis on prevention" to
address the social, emotional, and educational needs of children (McDowell &
Sayger, 1992, p. 26). Prevention involves replacing reactive and punitive approaches
to behaviors with prosocial interventions. Prosocial interventions include
collaboration between the school and family in developing the family's and
student's skill enhancement in areas such as cooperation and caring (McDowell &
Sayger, 1992).
Janet stated that prevention was one of the most important aspects of her role
as ESC. However, the toughest challenge was to get information to the parents as a
preventative measure, before the child began to experience difficulties. According to
Janet, parents may be unaware of problems when the child is younger, but as the
child ages those problems may be more difficult to address as they become more
fully integrated into the child's way of relating to the world.

74

In working within a preventative model, Janet provided educational
opportunities for parents. These opportunities included a parenting program
entitled "Second Step", and group sessions with parents addressing drug and
alcohol issues. Janet stated that these programs were developed in response to
parental needs. The aim of these programs, according to Janet, was to " ... stop things
before they moved to the next level." As well as providing programs for parents,
Janet discussed home visits as another preventative measure.
The desire to engage in prevention was voiced by Christine who stated that
being a counsellor who was based at one school " ... would be ideal because you
could do all that proactive type stuff." However, she worked at " ...eight different
schools ... " with" ... about 1800 or 2200 kids or something like that." A high
student/ counsellor ratio afforded Christine little time to be involved in preventative
work with students. Christine explained,

11

• • •

some people sort of see us as the fix it

people, or the bandaid type people. And it's really hard to get any time do any
proactive type work." Christine felt that much of her time was spent intervening in
behavioral crises rather than preventing difficult situations. Christine indicated that
she does, at times, have the opportunity to work with large groups of students with
the purpose of developing their social skills. She felt that these groups enabled her to
" ... reach more students and their families." Christine's strategy of educating the
children within a group context, promoted the child as a vehicle to affect change
within the family. In doing so, Christine demonstrated her affiliation with the family
systems approach, which recognizes that if one family member changes the other
members will also change (Wade & Tavris, 1998).
To overcome time constraints, as a barrier to prevention, Janet also tried to
work with groups of children who had common issues and concerns.

75

Janet explained:
One of the things we really try and work on is, like I was saying, when we
work a lot with groups. Some kids obviously need a lot of attention but when
there is that common thread we try to do a lot of proactive and group things.
Through a commonality of issues or concerns Janet attempted to provide a
service which accommodated the varying socializing circumstances within which
the students develop.
Isolation
Isolation from colleagues impinges on ESCs' ability to share ideas, gain
support and learn from each other. David contributed his thoughts:
.. .I think that I'm the only counselor in town working for the school district

that has such a strong focus on families. I don't have another colleague to
bounce ideas off or work together. To say to someone "let's put on some
workshops." So it would be nice to have more people to work with. That
would help.
David's isolation from other ESCs lead to his lack of understanding regarding
their role with families. He expressed regret concerning the missed opportunities for
the sharing of ideas with colleagues that would benefit his work with families.
According to Parr (1991), teachers and administrators have the opportunity to draw
strength and support form each other, however, the ESC is often the sole counsellor
in the school.
Janet discussed the importance of making connections with other school
counsellors at conferences as a way to cope with her isolation. Janet explained, "I
know when I go away to things and like the BC School Counsellors' Conference and
that sort of thing I think 'Aaah! Oh, you are doing the same thing as me!' " Janet was

76

able to discuss ideas and feel that her approaches were validated and supported.
Parr (1991) stated that consulting with colleagues assists counsellors to renew and
upgrade their skills and knowledge.
As an itinerant counsellor working on an area based team, Christine did not

experience feelings of isolation. She stated:
Because I have the team I have three different social workers that I'm working
with this year, plus one school psychologist, so I have excellent resources.
They all have paper resources .and books, and I've got to pick their brains and
the information that they've provided me with is invaluable on how to work
with families.
Christine' membership in an interdisciplinary team provided her with the
resources to complement her work with families.
Lack of Training
Elementary school counsellors require the skill and knowledge to work with
the family and the school to promote the child's success in school. Elementary school
counsellors' educational preparation concerning family promotes this.partnership.
Christine discussed her lack of educational preparation in working with families.
She stated, "The social workers have a lot more training in family work so that
helped me again, and then support and ideas from others. That really helped."
Although Christine was the only participant to raise the issue of lack of training,
other participants did emphasize the importance of a strong educational
background in family theory. Christine was able to compensate for her lack of
training through collaborating with and learning from others. Carroll (1993), Morse
and Russell (1988), and Wilgus and Shelly (1998), referred to ESCs' lack of education
as a barrier to working with families. Samis et al. (1993) outlined the need for ESCs

77

to receive graduate level training in family systems theory and family and parent
consultation skills.
Financial Constraints
Some of the participants indicated that a lack of government funding
supporting the school system affected their work with families. Sarah explained:
This school could easily have two counsellors. Two full time counsellors. I'm
only here four days a week. So I feel tired ... Because we're getting cut back so
badly that we don't have enough time to complete and do all the jobs that we
need to do with the kids and their families, and we need more support. We
have so many kids who have fetal alcohol syndrome. We have more than our
share of kids who are diagnosed with ADHD and other disorders that are now
cropping up. We just have more difficulties and less hands every single year to
help.
According to Sarah, students and families are experiencing increasingly
difficult and complex problems. As a result of financial constraints there are fewer
ESCs to provide counselling services for troubled students and families. Authors
such as Bezeau (1993), and Wotherspoon (1998) discussed the propensity for
Canadian governments to reduce deficits by cut backs in education. In my search of
the literature I was unable to find information concerning reductions in numbers of
counsellors in Canadian educational systems as a cost cutting strategy. However,
Murgatroyd and Ballard (1999) stated that budgetary constraints have resulted in
the elimination of counsellors in some school districts in the United States. These
fiscal constraints are of escalating concern when issues such as substance abuse,
poverty, family instability and resulting mental health problems are increasing in
frequency (Murgatroyd & Ballard, 1999).

78
Christine discussed her concerns regarding budget constraints:
"... well the school social workers, like I said, I work with three of them right
now and they're cut. They're gone. And I'm thinking, the amount of
knowledge that they have just cut out of the system is just incredible because
the one lady who is the most junior has been there eight years. That's going to
be gone so how many years of expertise and knowledge about kids and
families is going to be gone ... somehow find the money, bring them [social
workers] back, get more counselors ... so the ideal would be to have a
counselor and school social worker in the school.
Christine lamented the loss of the social workers, from the school system, as
their knowledge and expertise would no longer support her in the provision of
counselling services to families. Christine valued her collaboration with social
workers and felt that ESCs' and social workers' skills were complementary.
Summazy
Elementary school counsellors collaborated with the school and family to
identify and address the child's needs within the educational system. Elementary
school counsellors setting out on this complex process faced many challenges that
impacted on their work with families. In this study, the challenges that emerged
were categorized as family and role related.
Family related challenges included access to family, family resistance which
incorporated secrets and stigma, family commitment, and past experiences. These
issues affected the ESCs' work as cultural brokers. Many single parent and dual
career families had less time to meet with ESCs due to busy work schedules. To
develop an understanding of the family culture, the ESC as cultural broker, needed
to work with the family system. There were families who viewed this process as an

79

invasion of privacy, and therefore did not grant the ESC permission to counsel their
child. Some families regarded counselling as a stigma that signified an inability to
deal effectively with problems within the family. Family commitment to the
counselling process was required to facilitate the ESCs' role in bringing the cultures
of family and school together for the child's attainment of academic and social
success. Yet the ESCs occasionally experienced barriers to this collaborative process
with some parents expressing an unwillingness to change. At times parents' past
experiences, which had created negative perceptions of the school system, created
challenges for some the ESCs in their role as cultural brokers.
There were many role related challenges which surfaced from the participants'
discussions. These included: workload and time constraints, isolation, lack of
training, and financial constraints. Heavy workloads and time impeded the ESCs'
capacity to work with families and students. Prevention was discussed as a crucial
part of the ESC role; workload and time constraints made it difficult for ESCs to
engage in preventative strategies. Some of the participants expressed feelings of
isolation and a desire to work more closely with other ESCs to share ~

and

approaches. Due to financial constraints, ESCs have fewer opportunities to
collaborate with colleagues. The ESCs worked within the family and school cultures
to overcome both the family and role related challenges to promote the child's
positive development in school.

80

CHAPTER SIX

Summary and Conclusions
Introduction
...elementary school counsellors working with families is probably one
of the most important, yet one of the most challenging things, because if you
can work with the family and help them to work with the child you can
accomplish so much... (Christine).
Christine's statement eloquently summarized the participants' views on the
ESCs' role with families. They placed a high priority on their interactions with
parents, viewing these relationships as vehicles to enhance the child's personal and
scholastic growth. As cultural brokers, the ESCs had an understanding of both
school and family cultures, and the ability to translate the knowledge, beliefs and
values between the two. They built a collaborative foundation; which supported the
processes of relationship building, enabling, problem solving, educating, goal
setting, referring, and cultural sensitivity. These processes were integral to a
consultation approach which ESCs implemented with parents in order to maintain
the focus on the child. According to Fall (1995, p. 151), "A simple definition of
consultation is 'me and you talking about him or her with the purpose of some
change.'"
In this concluding chapter, I provide the rationale for the use of a consultation
model to describe the ESCs' role with families, and use the consultation model to
summarize their role with families. The components of the consultation model
include: consultation partnership, consultant role, consultee role, and strategies to
overcome challenges. I also discuss the educational implications of this research,
study limitations, and future research.

81

Rationale for the Use of a Consultation Model
The ESCs' primary focus is on the child, and the interactions of the child
within the school culture. When a child demonstrates difficulties adapting to the
school environment, ESCs use their counselling skills to intervene, supporting the
child and facilitating behavioral change. According to Scrutton (1999), counselling is
a helping process that facilitates people to reflect on, and gain increased
understanding of their situation. Clients are supported to verbalize their feelings
and, with the counsellor's support, develop new and positive ways of responding to
their situation. The ESCs in this study counselled the children to enhance their wellbeing and promote their success in school. The ESCs viewed the child within a
family system, recognizing the importance of the dynamics within that system on
the child's behavior. They acknowledged that patterns of family interaction can
create difficulties for the child within the school, as the school and family systems
influence each other. This recognition demonstrated the ESCs' affiliation with family
systems theory, where the client is viewed within the context of family (Rosenblatt,
1994).
The participants' input highlighted the differences between family
counselling and family consultation. Samis et al. (1994) acknowledged the need for a
explication of the aforementioned terms as they applied to the ESC role with
families. Friesen's (1976) statement that family counselling is a " ... unsystematized
melange of theory and practice"(p. 181), seems to hold true today. My search of the
literature concerning family counselling revealed a plethora of theoretical and
counselling approaches, and an interchange between the terms family counselling
and family therapy. The basic tenet shared by all of the approaches, was regard of
the family as the functional unit instead of the individual. The participants' focus on

82

the child meant that the whole family was not the unit of treatment as it is in family
therapy (Dykeman & Appleton as cited in Capuzzi and Gross, 1999). Although the
participants' approaches indicated that they did not counsel families, their
recognition of the importance of family was demonstrated by an approach that
could best be described as consultation.
The ESCs maintained a facilitator role in their interactions with parents,
where the ESC and family worked together to set goals and plan interventions that
would support the child's adaptation to school. According to Walter and Peller (as
cited in Miller, Hubble, & Duncan, 1996), consultation maintains an emphasis on
facilitation. The consultant sets goals with the consultee that target the unique
purpose of their meeting. By facilitating the conversation, different possibilities are
unfolded for the client. Hall and Lin (1994) stated that consultation indirectly
attempts to meet the client's needs through the provision of services to the
consul tee, rather than providing direct services to the client. Using Hall and Lin's
(1994) definition as a template, it becomes clear the ESCs have a dual role. They
provide direct counselling to children and adopt a consultant role with families.
The Consultation Model
Consultation Partnership
The participants described collaboration as the cornerstone of their work with
families. Hall and Lin (1994) stated that both the consul tees and consultants are
collaborators in the consultation process. Consultation partnership refers to the
collaborative relationship between the ESC and the parents. This partnership
involves a nonhierarchical, and collaborative approach for the purpose of engaging
in a problem solving process (Hall & Lin, 1995). The participants explained that
parents were often the initiators of the consultation process. Kurpius and Rozecki

83

(1992) stated that the consultation process is initiated by the consultee, and
established on a voluntary basis, with the consultee feeling neither obligated nor
coerced. The ESCs, at times, took a proactive role and introduced the consultation
process to parents. They informed the parents of the child's difficulties and invited
them to be partners in the consultation process.
Consultant Role
In this study, the participants' consultation process involved relationship

building, enabling, problem solving, educating, goal setting, referring, and cultural
sensitivity. Hall and Lin (1994) described two types of consultants, namely, content
expert and process facilitator. As a content expert, the consultant provides expertise
to the consultee that will solve the client's problems. This is a prescriptive approach
where the consultant diagnoses the client's difficulties and then follows through
with treatment. The consultee plays a passive role in the experience. This type of
consultation does not fit with the collaborative underpinnings to the participants'
approaches.
As process facilitators, consultants function as a catalyst and facilitator. The
consultee is an active participant (Hall & Lin, 1994). Building relationships, enabling,
problem solving, goal setting, educating, referring, and cultural sensitivity are
components of the process facilitator role. The ESCs, as consultants, worked to build
collaborative partnerships with the consultees with the aim to problem solving.
They enabled the consultees to formulate goals and reach their own solutions to the
difficulties that confronted them and their children. As consultants, the ESCs
facilitated the problem solving process by providing information, and suggesting
strategies, and ideas. One possible outcome of the problem solving process was the
consultant's and parents' decision to use other agencies to meet the child and

84

family's needs. To facilitate the child's growth and behavioral change, it was
essential for the consultant to appreciate and understand the consultee's cultural
background, while communicating empathy and positive regard.
Consul tee Role
The participants discussed an orientation session with the families where the
consultation process was presented and mutually agreed upon. According to Hall
and Lin, (1994), it is necessary for the consultee to have knowledge and
understanding of the consultation process to facilitate successful consultation. The
participants explained that the parents assumed the role of collaborator throughout
the consultation process. The parents, as consultees, contributed valuable
~ ideas, and strategies, to the problem solving process, to achieve the

agreed upon goals. The characteristics, values, and beliefs that the consultee brings,
to the process, are key influencing factors which will affect the outcome (Hall & Lin,
1994). The consultation process is facilitated when the parents, as consultees, are
willing to share their cultural beliefs, values, parenting approaches, and other
information with the ESC.
Recommendations
The participants highlighted the importance of the family I school
relationship, and the role of the ESC in promoting and supporting these
partnerships. These partnership building approaches fit with national initiatives that
encourage parental input in the school. Within Canada, seven provinces have
enacted legislation which specifies parental involvement in advisory or decision
making roles in schools (BC Teachers' Federation, 1996). Elementary school
counsellors can serve as catalysts in establishing effective partnerships that endorse
this movement towards increased parental involvement, at the same time enhancing

85

their role with families. Some specific strategies that serve the dual purpose of
building family I school partnerships, and increasing the effectiveness of the ESC
role with families include: public relations, creative programming, interdisciplinary
collaboration, and prevention.
Public Relations
The participants discussed the importance of maintaining a high profile at the
school and reaching out to the families to establish rapport, and to extend and make
their counselling services known. These tactics require public relations activities that
are essential to the establishment of ESC/parent partnerships. Coli and Freeman
(1997), and Partin (1993) recommended that ESCs demonstrate how their work
contributed to the school environment, through documenting and advertising their
activities. One of the participants suggested providing parents with opportunities to
see the ESC in different roles. Strategies that address this recommendation could
involve the ESCs' participation in social and sports activities around the school.
Attendance at parent/ teacher nights, and home and school meetings would raise the
profile of the ESC with both students and parents. The ESCs could make regular
contributions to the school newsletter and advertise their services on bulletin
boards. Offering workshops and other educational opportunities to the community
would be ways for ESCs to promote their role with families. These strategies would
help parents to accept, and understand the ESC as part of the school system working
for the benefit of their child. As one of the participants suggested, getting to know
the parents on a personal level helps the establishment of trusting relationships. This
foundation would help families to overcome the stigma that prevents them from
interacting with the ESC, increase the family's willingness to share their difficulties,
and encourage the family's commitment to change.

86

The participants talked about the need for more ESCs in schools and the lack
of financial support to increase their numbers. Increased parental understanding of
the role and valuing of the ESCs' contributions to the child's well-being in school
could lead to political action or lobbying by parents to gain the required financial
support. Enhancing parental understanding of the ESC role could be accomplished
by parental involvement in a group process to clarify the ESC role. Paulson and
Edwards (1997) suggested that parents and ESCs collaborate in a concept mapping
process as a way to define the ESC role.
Creative Programming
Kurpius and Rozecki (1992) stated, "For counsellors in schools, consultation
consists of going outside the counselling office and entering the classrooms and
other elements of the school and community" (p. 89). Creative programming is
required for the ESC to effectively participate in a larger system which includes
school, family, and community. Some of the participants discussed how parents, due
to their busy schedules, found it difficult to meet with the ESC. The development of
programs such as the lunch with school counsellors program provide opportunities
for parents and ESCs to meet at the parents' workplace (Evans & Hines, 1997). Some
of the participants maintained that home visits personalized the contact between
home and school (Fine & Gardner, 1991). Creative and flexible ESC work schedules
would facilitate their contact with parents.
Group work of various types would be an effective way to address some of
the educational and social needs of families. Sessions on parenting, problem solving,
and social skills, would facilitate parents to create change. These groups would
provide an arena for parents to support each other, empowering them to activate
their insights outside of the group. Madak and Gieni (1991) suggested that ESCs, to

overcome financial constraints, could move toward more cost effective strategies
such as group work and consulting. As some participants indicated, working with
groups of students helped them to reduce their workloads.
Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Working as a member of an interdisciplinary team helped the participants to
more effectively meet the needs of families by facilitating their access to other
community resources. Some of the participants discussed how their involvement
with colleagues, from counselling and other disciplines, was an important aspect of
their professional development. Elementary school counsellors acting as advocates
with families, facilitate the family's interactions with other agencies. A crucial goal
of advocacy is to help all the family members to more effectively communicate with
the school and other systems.
Partnerships in Prevention
Building the partnerships between the ESC and family, through strategies
such as public relations, creative programming, and interdisciplinary collaboration,
sets the stage for prevention. These proactive approaches are in contrast to the
remedial practices that have been the traditional focus of the ESC role (Gibson,
1989). Preventing the occurrence of the disorder in the first place should be the
primary concern of both the ESC and the family. Preventing children from
developing maladaptive social and academic behaviors is the goal of a preventative
approach (Gibson, 1989).
The participants deemed prevention an essential part of the ESC role but
regretted that the constraints of their hectic positions made it difficult for them to
engage in preventative strategies. A review of the literature regarding the
prevention role of ESCs revealed personal and community violence as key concerns

88

given the complex social problems creating barriers for students and families today
(Keys & Bemak, 1997; McDowell & Sayger, 1992). Hamilton (1993) stated that violent
incidents involving teens and children are becoming more frequent across Canadian
schools. A recent document entitled British Columbia Teachers' Federation Violence
A&ainst Teachers Survey (Lyon & Douglas, 1999) explained that 81.3 per cent of BC
teachers reported experiencing violence at some point during their careers. For the
purposes of the report, violence was defined as " ... any threatened, attempted, or
actual harm to a person or persons" (Lyon & Douglas, 1999, p. 5).
Breaking the cycle of violence, through offering counselling in schools, is vital
(Prothrow-Stith, 1991). Keys and Bemark (1997) recommended that schools provide
support for families through increased availability of preventative approaches such
as parent education programs, and school counselling services (Keys & Bemark,
1997). In implementing these interventions, prevention becomes an integral focus for
the ESC/ family consultation partnership.
Educational Implications
Elementary school counsellors are well situated to work in consultation
partnerships with families to address the child's difficulties and promote the child's
well-being and academic success. Prevention is an important underpinning to this
partnership. The participants recognized the need for educational opportunities
focussing on working with families, for example, family systems theory and family
counselling approaches. According to Keys and Bemak (1997), few ESCs receive
formal training in the theory and practice of family counselling. School counsellor
graduate training programs need to place an increasing emphasis on the instruction
of family systems theory to develop school counsellors' understanding of the impact
the family has on the child's functioning in school (Samis et al., 1993).

89
This study illuminated the consultation perspective of the ESC role,
consequently training in consultation skills would be a crucial component of
counsellor education programs. Keys and Bemak (1997) agreed, explaining that the
increasing trend towards consultation in schools, means that family consultation
skills training should be a component of school counsellor educational programs.
Educational programs that provide the ESCs opportunities to learn group
theory and skills would facilitate their work with diverse parental groups, and help
the counsellors to implement the public relations, creative programming, and
interdisciplinary collaboration strategies as outlined in a previous section. The
theory and practice of interdisciplinary collaboration should be components of
counselling program curricula.
The participants acknowledged the importance of cultural sensitivity in their
work with families. Stewin and McCann (1993) stressed that school counsellors must
develop skills in working with multicultural populations. Counselling educational
program.S that promote multicultural perspectives are needed to prepare
practitioners that are responsive to all groups in society.
Study Limitations
A methodological critique of this research revealed possible limitations in the
area of the degree of researcher I participant contact. Prolonged engagement refers to
the researcher's involvement in a research site to develop rapport and a trusting
relationship with the participants (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Lincoln and Guba (1985)
explained that trust is a process that satisfies the participants that their confidences
will be upheld, and ensures them that the researcher does not have a hidden agenda.
Although my contact with the participants was limited to one face-to-face interview
with phone follow up, I felt that we related on a comfortable and open level. Prior to

90

the commencement of the interview I chatted and established rapport with the
participants. I feel that my counselling experiences, and those of the participants
helped the interview process.
My participant selection process could be perceived as a limitation. Purposive
sampling techniques involve choosing participants because they are knowledgeable
and informed about the phenomena under study (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). The
participants were ESCs, therefore they were experts in this study's focus. Since only
four out of seven possible ESC volunteers agreed to participate in the study, the
diversity of the participant group was somewhat limited. According to Denzin and
Lincoln (1998), negative case analysis is a key component in purposive sampling. It
refers to the phenomenon whereby there is disagreement between some of the
participants' perspectives. There were no examples of negative cases in this study,
having access to more participants may have allowed such analysis to occur.
The personal perspective that I harbored prior to embarking on this study
was that working with families should be an important aspect of the ESCs' role.
Progressive subjectivity is a reflective process that occurs over the life ~ the research
project to ensure that the subjectivity of the researcher remains in balance with the
participants' constructions (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). I maintained progressive
subjectivity by journalling my assumptions prior to beginning my research. I
continued to journal throughout the research period to evaluate my evolving
thoughts.
Recommendations for Future Research
The participants insights revealed a number of research possibilities related to
ESCs and strategies challenges to working with families. The paucity of research
concerning the role leaves multiple opportunities for further studies. Some broad

91

recommendations include studies that examine the ESC consultation role, and
parental views on the efficacy of the role. Research projects that examine children's
behavioral and academic outcomes as they relate to ESC interventions with families
would be useful. Studies that go beyond the family /ESC role and examine the ESC
role with teachers and community are also needed.
Concluding Thoughts
This thesis has provided an exploration of the ESCs' perceptions of their role with
families. Using consultation processes, ESCs worked in partnership with families
and with the child to tackle behavioral and school difficulties, and to overcome
challenges that decreased the effectiveness of the ESC role. Elementary school
counsellors and families working together can promote a positive and healthy
school life for children, leading the way to their academic and social success.

92
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Appendix A

•CiovernmPnt ol Rr1l1'1.h Columh•a

• M111 ::lr\1 Hor\1'

-

Specaal Programs

.

· ~~
.:.

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.,

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-'-

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~

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-

Special Education Services: A Manual of Policies, Procedures andGuidelines
Special Considerations: Services
Counselling in Schools
The aim of a school counselling program is to support the intellectual development, humarend social development, and
career development of each student so that he or she can become a responsible, productive citizen .
In schools, counselling services are provided primarily by school counsellors and, as specified by local and/or interministerial protocol agreements, by other mentallealth professionals (e.g. , youth and family counsellors, behavioural
therapists). School counselling services should be co-ordinated with services provided in the community by other
ministries (such as mental health services) and community agencies.

School Counselling Services
Purpose

School counselling services are school or district based, non-categorical resource services designed to support
students, their families and educators. These services are intended to facilitate the educational, personal, social,
emotionaland career development of students in schools and in the community.

Description of services

The focus of school counselling is upon enhancing the students development, assisting with the development of an
enabling school culture, and empowering students toward positive change.
School counsellors provide a continuum of preventative, developmental, remedial, and interventionservices and programs
and facilitate referral to community resources. The school counsellor's role includes counselling, school-based
consultation, co-ordination and education. The school counsellor does not discipline, but rather helps in the development
of effective behavioural change. The relative emphasis given to the services described below varies between
elementary and secondary schools and reflects the needs of each school, the school district and community.

Counselling

School counselling functions include individual, group and class work to provide both an intervention and a prevention
service . The counsellor:

•

promotes personal and social development appropriate to developmental stages;

•

counsels students, their families and the community to foster growth in the students' self esteem, individual
responsibility, and in skills such as decision-makingand social skills;

Pal(c 1 of 4

•

ameliorates factors which may precipitate problems for students ;

•

enhances students' educational achievement through goal setting, assisting with the development of SLPs, IEPs
and activities such as promotion of effective work and study habits;

•

provides appropriate interventions to assist students with school-related problems and issues; and

•

facilitate the goals of career education by assisting students and their families to explore and clarify the student's
career options, through developmental activities that stress decision- making, personal planning and career
awareness.

School and

~

consultation and planning

School Counsellors consult and plan collaboratively with students, other educators, the school based team, parents,
community agency personnel and other professionals in planning goals and effective strategies to promote the
educational , social, emotional and career development of students. Consultation mayfocus on students' individual needs
or on school , district or community programs or services. School counsellors are active participants in the planning
process (see Section C7: Plannjng , assisting with the development of IEPs and SLPs.

C(H)rdination

As a member of the school-based team, school counsellors assist in the access to and co-ordination of school, district
and other community services tor students as specified by local and/or inter-ministerial protocol agreements. Co-

ordination may include information gathering, case management,referral, and liaison among home, school and community.
School counsellors frequently assist students with transitions betvleen schools throughout the K-12 system and with
post-secondary plans.

Education

School counsellors may provide direct instruction to students in areas such as peer-helping, conflict resolution, social
skills and life skills. As well, school counsellors provide support to other educators in implementing Career and Personal
Planning and promoting healthy school environments andcomprehensive health services to students. Their educational
role may include staff and curriculum development.

Access to school counselling services

School districts and schools should establish referral procedures for educators, students and
community personnel to access the services of school counsellors.

their families and

The school-based team is usually involved in accessing school counselling services, particularly at the elementary school
level.

Personnel

School counsellors should meet the following qualifications:

J
.Deed .I(OV. be .calspe.:aaledl Pl*lldMfliCrva.;cs 2 .htm

•

a professional teaching certificate ;

•

a Master's degree recognized by the College of Teachers in counselling psychology or a related discipline with a
focus in counselling.

Counselling Services Provided by Community Agencies
and Other Ministries
A number of agencies and ministries (e.g., mental health centres, social services, substance abuse counselling centres)
offer counselling and mental health related services. In some cases, these services are offered outside the school (e.g.,
mental health centres) ; in other cases, personnel are deployed to provide mental health/counselling services in schools
(e.g., youth and family counsellors, behaviour therapists, substance abuse counsellors). In either case, school districts
should establish agreements with the respective agencies regarding service delivery. It is essential that these services
be CCH)rdinated with those provided in schools through integrated case management (see Section G29: lntegratos1 Case
Managomom.
IJIJhen services are provided in the community, school districts and the service agency or ministries should establish
agreements to clarify:

•

referral procedures;

•

procedures for co-ordinated case management;

•

protocols for sharing information that is consistent with the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act;
and

•

procedures for prioritizing areas of services and dealing with emergencies.

IJIJhen services are to be provided in schools, school districts and the respective agency should establish a local
agreement prior to starting the service. The agreement should specify:

•

the role description for the service;

•

the target for the service;

•

the process for referring students;

•

the administrative officer responsible for supervising or managing the service in the school;

•

procedures for sharing information, and parameters for access to confidential information;

•

the desired qualifications of personnel and ethical standards of practice;

PallC 3 of -l

•

access to facilities and resources needed for service;

•

the process for evaluating service; and

•

the duration of the agreement.
Table of Contents

.JCov.bc.calspocialodlppoondwservicc• 2 .htm

Pa11c 4 of-!

AppendixB

Questions
Could you tell me about a typical day in your role as elementary school
counsellor?

What is your current role with families?
Could you tell me a story of an experience with one of your students that would
illustrate your role with families?

How would you describe your ideal role when working with families?

Do you have any recommendations for overcoming any barriers to working with
families?

Is there anything else you would like to add?

AppendixC

Participant Information
Research Project
Elementary school counsellors' perceptions of their roles with families.
Chief Researcher
Jennifer Ritchie :MEd (Education Counselling) Candidate.
Purpose of study
Hello! My name is Jennifer and I am inviting your participation in this study to learn from
you. I am interested in your perceptions about your counselling work with students and their
families, particularly your perceptions of your role with families.
Benefits of the study
This study will contribute to an understanding of elementary school counsellors' work with
families. This exploration will help counsellors, other school personnel, students, their
families, and others gain perspectives on the meaning of the role of elementary school
counsellors with families, and the part that family I counsellor involvement plays within the
school system.
What would be expected of you?
H you decide to take part in this study you will be invited to share your views with the
researcher in an interview. This meeting could take place at your work setting or any other
venue suitable to you. Estimated length of the interview is about one hour but flexibility with
regard to time will be built in.
Confidentiality
The interview will be kept strictly confidential and will be available only to me and my
research committee. Your name will not be used. A coding system will be implemented to
protect the anonymity of you and your workplace. Excerpts of this interview may be made
part of the final research report, but under no circumstances will your name or identifying
characteristics be included in this report.
Your participation
I would like to assure you that as a participant in this project you have several rights. Your
participation in this research is entirely voluntary, You are free to withdraw from the
interview at anytime. You can refuse to answer any of the questions.

Results of the study
A transcription of the tape will be made and you are welcome to read it if you wish. A
summary of the interview will be forwarded to you for your comments. A summary of the
research will also be forwarded to you.
Contact person
If you have any concerns or questions before commencing, during or after the completion of
the project do not hesitate to call:

Jennifer Ritchie
Graduate Student
UNBC, Faculty of Education
Phone: (250) 563- 0480
email: jenritch@hotmail.com

Dr. Paul Madak
Chair, Faculty of Education

UNBC
Phone: (250) 960 6520
email: madakp@unbc.ca

AppendixD

Consent Form

I,,_______________________________ of_________________________________

Hereby consent to be a participant in a research study to be undertaken by Jennifer Ritchie,
:MEd Candidate (Counselling), University of Northern British Columbia.
I understand that the purpose of the research is to explore elementary school counsellors'
perceptions of their roles with families.
I acknowledge that
1. The aims, methods and anticipated benefits of the study have been explained to me.

2. My confidentiality and anonymity will be protected throughout and that the interview and
transcriptions will be kept strictly confidential, shared only between me, the researcher, and
research committee members, and then destroyed after completion of the thesis.
3. I understand that I will be given the opportunity to read the verbatim transcripts and to
indicate portions I wish deleted prior to completion of a written report of the research.
Furthermore, I understand that I will be provided with a summary of the research findings at
my request.
4. I voluntarily and freely give my consent to my participation in such a research study.
5. I understand that aggregated results will be used for research purposes and may be
reported in academic journals. I will be contacted prior to publication of the research.
6. Individual results will not be released to any persons except at my request and my
authorisation.
7. I am free to withdraw my consent at any time during the study, in such an event, my
participation in the research study will immediately cease and any information obtained will
not be used.
Participant's Signature:.____________

Date:.__________

Researcher's Signature.______________

Date:._ _ _ _ __

Copy to Participant

AppendixE

Date: .......Time: ..... ..
Participant Code: ......

Participant Data

Please do not hesitate to omit any questions that you feel uncomfortable
answering.
Personal Information:
1.

Gender: ...... .

2. Birth Date: ..........
3. Ethruc Background: ..................................... ............ ............. .. .... .
4. Present job title:: ....................................................................... ..
5. Number of years in present position: ........ ..
6. Number of hours work per week: ........ ..
7. Number of years of experience in elementary school counselling: ........... ..
8. Number of years of teaching experience: ................ .

9. Other counselling and teaching related work experience: ........................

10. Educational qualifications, certificates, degrees: ................................... .

THA.t'JK YOU!

AppendixF

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA

3333 University Way, Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9
Dr. Alex Michalos
Chair, UNBC Ethics Review Committee
Tel: (250) 960-6697 or 960-5820
Fax: (250) 960-5746
E-mail: michalos@unbc.ca

UNBC Ethics Committee

May 23 , 2000

Ms. Jennifer Ritchie
660 Pilot Street
Prince George, B.C.
V2M 5J1
Proposal: EP20000406.32
Dear Ms. Ritchie:
Thank you for submitting your proposal entitled, "Elementary School Counsellors'
Perceptions of their Role with Families".
Your proposal has been approved and you may proceed with your research.
If you have any questions, please feel free to· contact me.
Sincerely,

.

L ~~

Alex Michalos
Chair, UNBC Ethics Review Committee