FOOTSTEPS AMONGST THE BERRIES:
THE ECOLOGY AND FIRE HISTORY OF TRADITIONAL
GITSXAN
AND WET'SUWET'EN HUCKLEBERRY SITES
j\._?
by
Scott Trusler
B.Sc., University of Victoria, 1995

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
m

NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

© Scott Trusler, 2002
~

THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHEN BRITISH COLUMBIA

"

May2002

All rights reserved. This work may not be
Reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without the permission of the author.
·'if'" - - • . ,.....~~·~t - n:>(
UNJV Eo.-.
t'1vi 1 'i t. ~ · : -~ vrd ~ t .Cn•.,.
BRITISH COLUMBiA
LIBRARY
Prince George, BC

ABSTRACT

This is a multidisciplinary study of first Nations environmental
management using landscape burning. Five Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en
traditional black huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) gathering areas
were sampled for ecological, cultural and fire history attributes. The sites
were divided into three elevation categories (400-700m , 701-1000m,
1001 +m) for the purposes of analysis. Low elevation sites were located
on cool (NE) aspects, while middle and high elevation sites were on warm
(SW) aspects. Low and middle elevation sites had relatively even terrain
and moderate to steep slopes, while high elevation sites were
characterized by rolling , upland plateaus. All sites were predominantly
mesic to submesic with medium to poor nutrient status. Higher elevation
sites were most variable with a broader ecological niche occupied by
black huckleberry. Fire history sampling indicated that fires had been
much more frequent on these sites than the benchmark values of the
"natural" fire regimes. Most sites exhibited little evidence of previous
forest conditions, and in all cases huckleberry production was nonexistent at present due to competition from fire sensitive species.
Successional patterns were variable at middle and low elevations with
both trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla) dominated stands occupying similar site types. It is
postulated that the characteristics of recent fire events and the availability
of abundant hemlock seed are important determinants of post-fire
succession on these sites. The Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en managed
several specific site types for black huckleberry, a strategy that would
both extend the effective harvest period and mitigate against crop failure
in any particular locale. Landscape burning of black huckleberry patches
was an environmental management tool, which promoted predictability
and reliability in this patchy resource that was critically important to the
subsistence, commercial and cultural lives of both the Wet'suwet'en and
the Gitxsan.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT •••••••••••••••••.••..•.•.••.•••••••••••.•.•...................•...........................•.•.....•.•...•.•...................... II
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...•.•.................................................•....................•.•............................ III
LIST OF TABLES ......................•..................................................................•...........•...•...•...... VII
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. VIII
APPENDICES ...............................................................................•..........•................................... X
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .....•...•.•........•...•...•.........•.•.•.......•...•.•...•.•.•...•.•........•.....•.•.•.......•.•.•. XI
CHAPTER 1: A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSIDP:
RESEARCH OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND .•.•.•.•.•.•.•...•.•.•.........•...•.•...•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•........•.. 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 2

1. 2.1

Research Context ....................................................................................................... 3

STUDY AREA ........................................ ........ ... .................... .............. ....... .. ......................... 5
PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................................... 7

1.4.1 Research and Documentation ofTraditional Knowledge and Cultural Heritage
Evidence7
1.4. 2 Field Survey and Analysis ofEcological and Fire History Information ................... 8
1.4.3 Contemporary Berry Management Approaches ........................................................ 8
1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................... 9
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................ 9
1. 7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... ........... ....... ................. .............. ............................... .... ... .. 10
1. 7. 1 Identification and Delineation of the Traditional Huckleberry Patch. .................... 13
1. 7. 2 Ecological Sampling ................................................................................................ 14
1. 7.3 Fire History Sampling.............................................................................................. 15
1. 7.4 Cultural Heritage Surveying............................................................................ ........ 19
1. 7.5 Interviews with First Nations Advisors .................................................................... 19
1. 7.6 Historical and Ethnographic Research ........................................... .. ...................... 20
1. 7. 7 Data Collection and Mapping ................................................................................. 20
1.8 THESIS SUMMARY ... ................................................................... ........ ..... ........................... 20
CHAPTER 2: THE REGIONAL ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT AND BLACK
HUCKLEBERRY .........•........•.•.•.•.•.•...•...•...•.•.•.•.•.•...•...•.•.............•.......•.•...•..•.•.......•................. 22
2.1
2.2

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 22
ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT ..................................................................... ................... .............. 22

2. 2.1 Regional Setting ....................................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 Regional Climates Past and Present... ..................................................................... 24
2.3 HISTORICAL LANDSCAPES ............................... .................................................................. 25
2.3.1 Early Accounts ......................................................................................................... 25
2.3.2 Traditional Knowledge - Landscape Changes ........................................................ 26

iii

2.4

REGIONAL FIRE REGIMES .................................................................................................. 27
2.4.1 ICH Fire Regimes .................................................................................................... 30
2.4.2 SBS Fire Regimes ............................................................. ........................................ 32
2. 4. 3 ESSF Fire Regimes .................................................................................................. 32
2.5 ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK HUCKLEBERRY .............................................. 33
2.5.1 Species Description .................................................................................................. 33
2.5.2 Climate ...................................................... ............................................................... 34
2.5.3 Environmental (Site) Relations ................................................................................ 34
2.5.4 Light Relations ......................................................................................................... 35
2.5.5 Nutrient Relations .................................................................................................... 36
2.5.6 Huckleberry Productivity ......................................................................................... 37
2.6 FIRE ADAPTATIONS ............................................................................................................ 37
2. 6.1 Successional Status .................................................................................................. 39
2.7 SUMMARY ............ ........ ............................ .......................................................................... 40

CHAPTER 3: SIM MAIY OR DEGII: THE CULTURAL CONTEXT AND THE ROLE
OF BLACK HUCKLEBERRY ................................................................................................. 41
3.1
3.2
3.3

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. .. .............................. 41
GITXSAN AND WET'SUWET'EN CULTURE .......................................................................... 42

3.2.1

Role ofBlackHuckleberry ......................................................... .. ... ......................... 43

GATHERING ....................................................................................................................... 44

3. 3.1 Seasonal Round.................................................. ...................................................... 45
3.3.2 Gathering Strategies ............................................................................ .......... ........ .. 46
3.4 PROCESSING ....................................................................................................................... 47
3.5 STEWARDSHIP .................................................................................................................... 48
3.5.1 Ownership ......................... ....................................................................................... 48
3.6 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE ........................................................................... ........................ 49
3.7 SCALE OF HUCKLEBERRY HARVEST .................................................................................. 51
3. 7.1 Introduction................................................................. ............................................. 51
3. 7.2 Indications ofScale ofHarvest ................................................................................ 52
3. 7.3 Population Estimates ............................................................................................... 53
3. 7.4 The Potential Scale of the Traditional Huckleberry Harvest .................... .. ............ 53
3.8 SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 4: WHEN YOU CAN'T SEE YOUR FOOTSTEPS AMONGST THE
BERRIES: TRADITIONAL HUCKLEBERRY MANAGEMENT ...................................... 55
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 55
FIRST NATIONS MANAGEMENT OF BLACK HUCKLEBERRY ................................................ 56
ANTIQUITY OF BURNING PRACTICES ..... .................................... ......................................... 58
GITXSAN AND WET'SUWET'EN HUCKLEBERRY MANAGEMENT ......................................... 59
SUMMARY .................................................. ........................................................................ 60

CHAPTER 5: PIECES OF THE PUZZLE: CASE STUDIES - FIELD
RECONNAISSANCE OF FIVE TRADITIONAL HUCKLEBERRY PATCHES •.•.•.•.•.•... 63
5.1

BEK'ET DEGII TS'OOYIIN: CASE STUDY ............................................................................. 65
5.1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 65
5.1.2 Ecological Overview .................................................................................... ............ 66

5.1.2.1
5.1 .2.2

Ridge Crest ..................................................................... .. ............................68
Northeast Slope .. .. .. ... ............................................. ....................................... 70

iv

5.1.2.3
5.1.2.4
5.1.2.5

Southwest Facing Slope ............................... .............. ................ ................... 71
Cow Creek Draw ... ..... .................................. ................................................. 72
Black Huckleberry Suitability .......................................................................... 73
Cultural Context and Field Data ............................................................................. 73

5.1. 3
5.1.4 Fire History .............................................................................................................. 78
5.1.5 Site Summary .............................................................................................. ............. 81
5.2 REISETER RIDGE (SOOL Nn): CASE STUDY ................ .......................... ..................... ......... S2
5.2.1 Introduction............................................ ............................................................., .... 82
5. 2. 2 Ecological Overview ............ ................... .... .... ................ .... ...................... ............... 84
5.2.2.1
5.2.2.2
5.2.2.3

Lower Slopes (Deciduous Complexes) ....... .. ... .......... ..... .... .... .... .... .. ............. 86
Upper Slopes (Coniferous Stands) .................... ..... ....................................... 88
Ecological Summary .. ............. ... ....... .............. .... ....... .... ................. .. ............. 89

5.3.2.1
5.3.2.2
5.3.2.3

Mesic Hillslope ...... ................................................ .. ................. .. ...... ....... .. ... 101
Toe Slope and Other Receiving Sites ........................... ...... ..... .................... 103
Successional Dynamics ................. .... .. ............. .. ......................................... 103

5.2.3 Cultural Context and Field Data ............................................................................. 89
5. 2. 4 Fire History .............................................................................................................. 91
5.2.5 Site Summary ........................................................................................................... 95
5.3 HAROLD PRICE: CASE STUDY .......... .......................................... ................ ............... ......... 97
5.3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 97
5.3.2 Ecological Overview ................................................................................................ 97

5. 3. 3 Cultural Context and Field Data ........................................................................... 105
5.3.4 Fire History ............................................................................................................ 112
5.3. 5 Site Summary ......................................................................................................... 115
5.4 STAKAIYT: CASE STUDY .................................................................................................. 117
5. 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 117
5.4. 2 Ecological Overview .............................................................................................. 121
5.4.2.1
5.4.2.2

5.4.3
5. 4. 4

Subalpine Area ..................................... ......... .............................................. 121
Mid-lower Slope Area ........... .... ................................................................... 126
Cultural Context and Field Data ........................................................................... 12 7

Fire History ..... ................ ....................................................................................... 131

5.4.4.1
5.4.4.2

Subalpine Area ............................................................................................ 132
Mid-lower Slope .............. .. ............... ......... ....... .. .... ................ ....... ............... 134

5.5.2.1
5.5.2.2

Western Ridge .... ...... ................................................................................... 147
Eastern Hills ................ ............................................................... ................ 148

5. 4. 5 Site Summary ................................................................... ...................................... 13 7
5.46. LAX ANSA MAATSA: CASE STUDY ..... .............. ............................................................... 141
5.5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 141
5.5.2 Ecological Overview .............................................................................................. 143
5.5.2 Ecological Overview .............................................................................................. 144
5.5.3 Cultural Context and Field Data ........................................................................... 149
5.5.4 Fire History ............................................................................................................ 153
5.5.5 Site Summary ......................................................................................................... 160
CHAPTER 6: FRUIT LEATHER AND FIRE SNAGS: CASE STUDY ANALYSIS ....... 161
6.1
6.2
6.3

INTRODUCTION ............. ................. ............................ ...................... ................. ............... 161
STUDY SITE STRATIFICATION .......................................................................................... 161
ECOLOGICAL PROFILE ...................................................................................................... 163

6. 3.1 Valley Bottom (low elevation) Sites ....................................................................... 163
6.3. 2 Montane (mid-elevation) Sites ............................................................................... 164
v

6.3.3 Subalpine Sites ....................................................................................................... 165
6.3.4 Summary ................................................................................................................ 167
6.4 OVERALL FIRE HISTORY .................................................................................................. 169
6.4.1 Valley Bottom (low elevation) Sites ....................................................................... 169
6.4.2 Montane (mid elevation) Sites ............................................................................... 170
6. 4. 3 Subalpine Sites .................................................................................... ..... .. ............ 170
6.5 THE NATURE OF SUCCESSIONAL PATHWAYS ................................................................... 173
6. 5.1 Low elevation sites ......... ............... .. .. ..... ................................................................ 173
6.5.2 Middle elevation sites ...................................................... ...................................... 175
6.5.3 High elevation sites ................................................................................................ 176
6.6 TRADITIONAL BERRY PATCH MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES .............................................. 178
6.6.1 Stewardship Strategies .................................................... .. ..................................... 178
6.6.1.1
6.6.1.2
6.6.1.3

Reasons for Burning ............................................................................... ..... 178
Rotational Burning ............................................................................ .... ... .... 179
Variable Site Types ..................................................................................... 182

6.6.2.1
6.6.2.2
6.6.2.3

Frequency ............................................................................................... ... . 183
Timing ...... ................................................................. .......... .. ...................... 184
Intensity ............................................................. ...... ............... ..................... 185

6.6.2

6.7
6.8

Techniques ........................................................................................................ ..... 183

RESEARCH SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 186
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................ 188

6.8.2 Anthropogenic Burning and "Natural Disturbance" Regimes ............................. 189
6.8.3 Huckleberry Patches as Cultural Landscapes ....................................................... 190
6.8.4 Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en Environmental Management ....................................... 190
6. 8. 5 Contemporary Huckleberry Management ............................................................. 191
6.8.6 Multidisciplinary Fire History Research Methods ..................... ........................... 192
6.9 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 193
LITERATURE CITED ............................................................................................................ 195

vi

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

CHAPTER 1: A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP:
RESEARCH OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND
He (the Chief) knows the territory. When it is the right time he bums the
berry patches so the berries are fat and plump. If he didn't do that the
berries would become old and overgrown and there would be berries but
they would just be small. But he knows when to bum so that it cleans up
just the berry patch and doesn't spread to the trees.
1
(Pat Namox recorded by Antonia Mills 1994)
"In the Pacific Northwest we must make use of those fragments of
information about former and different land management systems that
remain available to us in elders. These fragments are what remains of
indigenous systems of knowledge that, though different, were extensive
and effective. In our search for more and better ways to manage the rich
but threatened ecosystems of the Pacific Northwest, it is folly to ignore
them".
(Robert Boyd, 1999a)

This research thesis is an effort to document one of the fragments that Boyd speaks of,
following not only the leads that he has identified, but also the evidence that remains on the
land, as well as the fading signs of traditional use and management of black huckleberry
patches, which are part of the environmental and cultural legacy of the Gitxsan and
Wet'suwet'en.

1.1

Overview

Northwestern British Columbia (BC) is a region characterized by variety; in climate,
topography and ecological assemblages. In this region the coast range in the west is cut by
deep, flat-bottomed valleys, which dissolve into the gentler topography of the Nechako Plateau
to the east. Maritime air masses move far up the broad valley of the Skeena River moderating
climates and supporting interior rainforests far inland. This variability in topography and climate
supports a great diversity of plant and animal species adapted to the physical and
environmental attributes of the many unique habitats in the region. This richness and diversity

1

Chapter 1: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

have allowed several First Nations cultures to flourish in this region over many millennia. Two of
these First Nations groups, the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en, have traditionally interacted with the
physical environment in a manner that promoted growth and renewal of the plant and animal
resources that have supported them. As other writers have described (Gottesfeld, 1994a;
Gottesfeld, 1994b), these groups are both governed by a cultural framework, which embodies a
strong conservation ethic. They have traditionally utilized a number of resource stewardship
strategies and techniques designed to promote abundance and reliability in plant and animal
resources that they depended upon.

1.2

Introduction

The primary objective of this thesis is to develop a more comprehensive understanding of
the ecological and cultural characteristics of traditional land stewardship approaches and
techniques employed by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. This research objective is addressed by
investigating and documenting one of the primary environmental management tools used by
many Aboriginal cultures; landscape burning. It has long been recognized that this tool was
widely used by traditional cultures worldwide (Lewis, 1988; Stewart, 1954). However, in many
cases, relatively little is known about the actual application of fire as a tool (Lepofsky et al., in
press). Investigating the ecology and the fire history of traditional gathering areas, managed
through the application of prescribed fire, can tell us a great deal about how and why this tool
was used.

The upland huckleberry sites that are the focus of this research have gone largely
unrecognized as hubs of cultural activity by the archaeological community (Mack and McClure,
in review; Rabnett, 2000). Descriptions of these huckleberry gathering and processing areas,
which emphasize their importance in the seasonal round of First Nations groups and the cultural

1

The late Chief Wah Tah Kwets of the Wet'suwet'en Laksilyu (small frog) clan

2

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

associations that these landscape embody will assist in the interpretation, documentation and
protection of cultural heritage resources. It is important in this day of disappearing traditional
languages and loss of culture that examples of First Nations cultural practices are well
documented, particularly interactions with the environment. This will ensure, that in a future
where First Nations people are entrusted with additional opportunities and responsibilities for
land stewardship, they will have a solid basis from which to make culturally relevant
environmental management decisions.

In the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en context, the topic of environmental management is
explored by looking closely at the management of a single, very important resource, black
huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. ex Hook.). Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en elders
report that they and their ancestors traditionally promoted abundant harvests of this species
through the careful application of landscape burning (Gottesfeld, 1994a; Mills, 1994). This study
focuses on research and documentation of the ecological and cultural aspects of these land
stewardship practices.

1.2.1

Research Context

First Nations people in northwestern BC have traditionally used fire as a tool to shape their
environments and improve opportunities to harvest abundant, sustainable plant and animal
resources (Gottesfeld, 1994a). By manipulating plant communities and landscape patterns, First
Nations became active facilitators of ecological disturbance and change within their traditional
territories. Evidence presented in a number of ecological studies (Williams et al., 2000a;
Haeussler et al., 1985), strongly suggests that the landscape burning activities of First Nations
have contributed to the maintenance of the extensive seral landscapes which characterize the
"Hazelton variant" of the Interior Cedar Hemlock (ICH) biogeoclimatic2 zone. Anthropogenic fire
2

climate.

biogeoclimatic classification represents classes of ecosystems under the influence of the same regional

3

Chapter I: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

has also been identified as a factor contributing to the existence and persistence of the
extensive seral aspen landscapes in the Bulkley Valley (Williams et al., 2000a). Other research
suggests that burning by aboriginal people is responsible for the persistence of many xerophytic
habitat types such as scrub-steppe grassland which, it is suggested would have disappeared
from the region due to climate changes without active intervention by First Nations (Haeussler,
1994). Several plant species found in this region are far outside or at the northern limit of their
general distribution (Haeussler, 1998a, 1998b). Such range extensions have been cited by
some authors as indirect evidence of prescribed burning by First Nations (Lepofsky et al., in
press). Further evidence presented in a paleoecological study conducted in this region
(Gottesfeld et al. , 1991) indicates the existence of an "enigmatic" increase of lodgepole pine
(Pinus contorta var. /atifolia Engelm.) pollen during the period from 2200 years BP to present,

suggesting an increased fire frequency in a period of cooling climate that characterized the late
Holocene Epoch. The authors of this study postulate that this unexpected increase in fire activity
was likely due to anthropogenic burning activity in the region . These various lines of evidence
from a variety of disciplines support the contention that Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en have
traditionally managed a variety of habitat types through the apf'ication of fire, and suggest that
these management activities are of considerable time depth.

Traditional landscape burning practices were reportedly being carried out by First Nations
in northwestern BC well into the 1930s, but a program of active fire suppression by the
provincial forest service in the 1930's and 40's largely halted these activities (Gottesfeld,
1994a). Cessation of this anthropogenic burning, as well as general fire suppression activities
which have severely limited the frequency and extent of natural fires, have also initiated a
process of successional change that has profoundly influenced the ecological character of these
once fire-maintained, anthropogenic landscapes. This contention is supported by the
documentation of several fire maintained ecological types listed as locally rare or threatened
due to cessation of natural and anthropogenic burning (Haeussler, 1998a, 1998b). With respect

4

Chapter I: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

to traditional huckleberry patches, the lack of fire disturbance has, in every case I am aware of,
resulted in an increase of (often culturally undesirable) fire sensitive shrub species and
coniferous regeneration . Many of these traditional gathering areas, some reportedly used for
many generations, have now succeeded to closed forest condition after several decades without
disturbance by fire.

Berries formed major components of the traditional diets of First Nations people throughout
BC (Kuhnlein and Turner, 1991 ). The Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en harvested large quantities of
berries, which were processed, preserved and stored for use during the winter months
(Gottesfeld, 1993; Johnson-Gottesfeld, 1995; Daly, 1988). Berries were also an impor!9nt item
of trade for the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en, often being exchanged with coastal groups\or highly
valued products such as oolichan grease, seaweed and herring roe (Mills and Overstall, 1996).
Many of these berry producing species are most productive in early seral environments (Burton,
1998), and are well adapted to recovery following fire (Haeussler, 1987). Gitxsan and
Wet'suwet'en needed abundant, reliable harvests of key berry species in predictable locations,
to meet their subsistence needs. In order to meet this requirement, several key berry species
such as black huckleberry and dwarf blueberry (Vaccinium caespitosum Michx.), were managed
using landscape burning techniques (Gottesfeld, 1994a).

1.3

Study Area

The study area is located in northwestern British Columbia, more specifically, in the Bulkley
and Kispiox ranges of the Hazelton Mountains in the northwestern portion of the Skeena River
drainage. This region encompasses an area of transition between the rugged coast ranges to
the west, characterized by steep mountainous terrain and the Nechako plateau to the east, an
extensive upland region of gently rolling hills. Regional climate is also transitional, with
significant maritime influence moderating temperatures in the western portion of the study area

5

Chapter 1: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

and more continental boreal climates, with seasonal extremes of temperature and heavy
snowloads in eastern portions. The study area encompasses portions of the traditional
territories of two First Nations groups: the Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en.

TO STEWART
CASSIAR

Figure 1.1. Study Area and Traditional Territories of the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en with Study
Sites Marked- Case Study Sites in Red. Adapted from Gisday Wa and Delgamuukw, 1992.

6

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

1.4

Problem Statement

Traditional huckleberry management is one component of a complex system of resource
stewardship practiced by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. Cultural mores provided a series of
checks and balances to ensure that the land, plants, animals and fish were accorded respect
and cared for (Gottesfeld, 1994b). It was this stewardship approach which permeated these
traditional cultures and directed their interactions with the physical environment. This
investigation of one aspect of territorial stewardship is intended to further illuminate the complex
interactions between First Nations and the environment so that their descendants and others
might better understand and learn from the wisdom that was acquired through so much
experience. The following sections describe the primary problem areas that are addressed in
this thesis.

1.4.1

Research and Documentation of Traditional Knowledge and Cultural
Heritage Evidence

As widespread landscape burning practices have been discontinued for many years, much
of the knowledge about where, when and how to burn huckleberry patches has been lost.
Fortunately, knowledgeable elders have passed a great deal of traditional ecological knowledge
to succeeding generations of Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. Much valuable information has also
been recorded in historical journals, ethnographic studies and in a variety of cultural heritage
documents. As well, there are still Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en people with knowledge of
traditional landscape burning practices used to manage black huckleberry patches early in their
lifetimes. Therefore, the present challenge is to document unrecorded traditional knowledge of
landscape burning and to analyse it in the context of existing information on this topic, as well as
to review relevant historical and ethnographic sources to develop a clearer understanding of the
strategies and techniques employed. The development of a more comprehensive picture of
traditional huckleberry management will facilitate transmission of this knowledge to younger
generations of Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en people. In addition, it will help to develop the

7

Chapter 1: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

necessary knowledge base to actively use this experience in developing projects such as the
reinstatement of landscape burning practices as a territorial stewardship tool.

1.4.2

Field Survey and Analysis of Ecological and Fire History Information

Traditional berry patches hold many of the clues that may help to improve our
understanding of traditional management of berry resources by First Nations. To date there has
been very little focus on ecological sampling, or research on the ground in these berry patch
sites. As time passes, processes of decay and new growth further obscure signs of the burning
regime that played a key role in shaping the plant communities that presently exist in these
areas. It is important that the ecology and fire history of these sites be recorded soon while the
effects of traditional environmental management activities are still in evidence.

1.4.3

Contemporary Berry Management Approaches

As contemporary resource managers move towards more effective use of integrated
resource management models, they will increasingly find themselves managing for a number of
economically important non-timber forest products as well as for timber production. Due to the
long-standing focus on timber as the forest product of primary importance, there are few welltested management strategies or techniques available to promote sustainable, abundant
populations of non-timber species such as berries (deGues, 1995). First Nations groups such as
the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en have experience managing some of these economically
important, non-timber species over long time periods, and have developed well-tested resource
management approaches which achieved many of the objectives currently being pursued by
contemporary resource managers. Traditional stewardship strategies and techniques, such as
landscape burning of huckleberry patches, should be closely examined and analysed when
attempting to develop resource management models to integrate non-timber species into
contemporary resource management planning. This research is intended to help bridge the gap

8

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

between First Nations approaches to resource stewardship and contemporary integrated
resource management by presenting information about traditional huckleberry management,
which includes an ecological perspective and empirical field data.

1.5

Research Objectives

The primary goal of this research is to investigate and document the ecological and fire
history aspects of traditional huckleberry management by Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en people.
The following objectives are focused on achieving this primary goal:

1. Outline the cultural context of Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en berry management,
particularly as it applies to resource stewardship strategies and techniques.
2. Analyze aspects of the climate, ecology and natural fire regimes of the region
that are relevant to this study, and describe the influence of these factors on
vegetation growth patterns, species composition and stand dynamics.
3. Analyze ecological, cultural and fire history data from several berry patch
sites to identify and describe ecological patterns, successional pathways,
traditional use characteristics and fire regimes on these sites.

1.6

Research Questions

The following research questions are addressed by this research thesis:

1. Is there a set of ecological and or topographical characteristics that is
commonly associated with traditional huckleberry sites?
2. Based on the ecological and fire history evidence collected , are there
commonalties in fire regime characteristics among the huckleberry sites
studied?
3. Have individual traditional huckleberry patches followed similar successional
pathways after the cessation of anthropogenic burning?
4. Based on the analysis of field data from the case studies, what can be
inferred about stewardship strategies and techniques used by the Gitxsan
and Wet'suwet'en to manage the huckleberry resource?

9

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Chapter 1: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

1. 7

Research Methodology

During the past fifty years, the study of landscape burning by First Nations has been
undertaken using a wide variety of methods drawn from several disciplines. The method chosen
in any particular research project appears to depend to some extent on the availability of
knowledgeable First Natrons advisors. In some cases, the lack of advisors requires the use of
increasingly multidisciplinary approaches to marshal several lines of evidence with which to
reconstruct the nature and extent of landscape burning activities.

Where knowledgeable elders are still living , oral history research is quite obviously the
most productive and respectful option. However, even in cases where knowledgeable elders are
able to provide detailed information, there are often outstanding questions. It is commonly the
specific techniques of landscape burning that have been lost over decades of suppression of
traditional management activities, as well as through continuing processes of cultural change.
To address these knowledge gaps, secondary lines of evidence can be drawn from the
ethnographic and historical literature. Many researchers have made effective use of these tools
to elucidate a clearer picture of traditional management activities by First Nations peoples.
Several authors have provided excellent summary papers of traditional burning activities by First
Nations in BC (Turner, 1991 ; Gottesfeld, 1994a) utilizing such secondary sources to
complement oral history accounts.

The use of ecological data as a contextual framework on which to "project" temporally and
spatially scattered ethnographic and historic references was pioneered by Henry Lewis (1973)
in his seminal paper, "Patterns of Indian Burning in California: Ecology and Ethnohistory". This
"ethnoecological" approach uses ecology as the linkage to tie seemingly disparate sources of
information together into a clear picture of environmental management of specific habitats. This
approach has been modified and followed to some extent by other authors (Boyd, 1986; Norton,
1979).

10

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Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

Paleoecological analyses are also a useful tool for determining the characteristics of
anthropogenic burning in precontact periods. A recent study combines this tool with oral history
investigations and standard ecological and fire history methods, for the express purpose of
describing environmental management (Lepofsky et al. , in press). Judging from initial results,
this multidisciplinary approach appears to be an effective way of both describing, and identifying
the time depth of anthropogenic burning activities. Other studies such as the archaeobotanical
and archaeological investigations of berry processing features in the Washington Cascades
(Mack and McClure, in review) also combine oral history and historical records to discern the
time depth and resource use patterns in these extensive subalpine berry grounds. Novel,
multidisciplinary approaches such as these are needed to successfully reconstruct traditional
subsistence economies and gain a more comprehensive understanding of the nature and extent
of environmental management by First Nations.

This research is being conducted in collaboration with Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. Both
groups are fortunate to have elders with first and second hand knowledge of landscape burning
practices. A large amount of this information has been recorded during testimony in the
Delgamuukw/Gisday Wa court case 3 and through research initiatives (Gottesfeld, 1994a). There

are, however, several questions that remain outstanding regarding management of specific
species using landscape burning. This study focuses solely on one species, black huckleberry,
in order to narrow the focus and understand the myriad of interactions that are involved in a
system of environmental management.

The methodological framework employed in this research initiative was developed after a
review of several papers by researchers who have endeavoured to understand and document
the use of fire as a tool by First Nations groups throughout the Pacific Northwest (Lewis, 1993;

11

•
Chapter I: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

Norton, 1979; Boyd, 1986; Turner, 1991; Gottesfeld, 1994a). Based on a review of these papers
the following research framework was developed:

1. Detailed descriptions of the ecological characteristics of the landscape, often
involving classification of component plant communities or successional
stages.
2. Demonstrations of the ecological importance of an anthropogenic fire regime
for persistence of an ecosystem or successional stage.
3. The use of ethno-historical sources to present the anecdotal evidence for
aboriginal landscape burning.
4. Documentation of the dietary characteristics and subsistence round of the
First Nations group and identification and description of linkages between
these economically important plant communities and particular patterns of fire
disturbance.

For this research initiative the guidance of contemporary elders provides the initial
framework, and the research is focused on specific managed huckleberry patches that they
have identified. Permission to conduct field research in these areas was sought from the
appropriate owners (Hereditary Chiefs) of the traditional House (Yikh4 or Wilp 5) territory in which
the patch is located. In some cases House members made trips to the field to assist with the
research.

Interviews were arranged with advisors who were recommended as being knowledgeable
about certain berry patches through first hand experience, or through information passed down
to them from older relatives or community members. Interviews were essentially unstructured
within a framework laid out in an introductory discussion about the nature and extent of the
research as well as with a set of key questions. Advisors were encouraged to talk in a general
sense about their experiences harvesting, managing and processing berries on the territories.
3

Delgamuukw et al. vs. the Queen - for a thorough discussion of this case see Cassidy, Frank (editor).1992.
Aboriginal Title in British Columbia: Delgamuukw vs the Queen. Oolichan Books, Lantzville, BC, and The Institute
for Research on Public Policy, Montreal, PQ.
4
Wet' suwet'en territories are traditionally known as "Yikh" referred to here as House -meaning the actual
territory or the corporate group which "owns" this territory.

12

Chapter I: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

Field reconnaissance of these sites seeks to build on the knowledge of the elders, drawing
out details about the ecology, fire history and successional status of these sites using standard
ecological and fire history sampling methods. Field reconnaissance and sampling were carried
out in a number of traditional huckleberry patches to gather ecological and fire history evidence,
which remains on the landscape, the trees and in the soil decades after these landscape
burning practices have ceased. This ecological and fire history information was then analysed in
the context of relevant historical, ethnological and ethnobotanicalliterature to further reconstruct
the strategies and techniques employed in the traditional management of huckleberry patches.

As the research objectives were focused on reconstructing an anthropogenic disturbance
regime, it was important to locate and document cultural features as well as to conduct
ecological and fire history sampling. Ground reconnaissance was conducted in areas that were
predicted to have evidence of cultural use, exhibit fire history evidence, or in areas that
represented an extensive, distinct ecological stratum. There were seven field sites surveyed in
the course of the field data collection. Five of these sites are discussed as case studies in this
thesis.

1. 7.1

Identification and Delineation of the Traditional Huckleberry Patch

One of the first steps in the process of examining anthropogenic burning, as in any other fire
history study, is to define the sampling frame. In standard fire history studies this is often an
approximation of the total area, which could be burned in the largest fire event. This area is
often difficult to define, as past patterns are at least partially obscured by subsequent fire
disturbance. However, the areas managed by aboriginal landscape burning often had specific
characteristics related to their suitability for specific plants species or communities attributable to
underlying physiographic or topographic variables, allowing the areas managed to be identified
5

Gitxsan traditional territories are owned by the "Wilp" referred to here as House - meaning the actual
territory or the corporate group which "owns" this territory.

13

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

and defined. While the area of suitable habitat may not necessarily correspond to the area
burned in any particular treatment, it will be the focus of repeated management efforts over
time. The ability to identify the boundaries of managed areas provides researchers investigating
anthropogenic burning with an opportunity to tailor their related research initiatives to a specific,
relatively well defined sampling frame. In addition, analysis of stand structure, historical
photographs and maps of other physiographic landscape features can provide incremental
improvements in identifying areas which were managed through the application of landscape
burning.

For the purposes of this initiative traditional huckleberry patches are defined as areas identified
by two or more Gitxsan or Wet'suwet'en elders, and in one case (lower Harold Price Creek) an
area identified through the location of berry processing camps. Using oral history as a
framework, patch boundaries were defined more precisely using ecological, physiographic and
fire history attributes.

1.7.2

Ecological Sampling

Areas identified as traditional huckleberry patches were selected for field sampling. Aerial
photos of these areas were stratified 6 by timber type, slope, aspect and vegetation patterns to
identify and delineate homogenous polygons.

Ecological sampling was conducted in many of the more extensive, broadly representative
polygons on each of the huckleberry sites sampled. Plot locations were selected on the aerial
photos, transferred to the map and then located on the ground. Vegetation, stand structure, soil
and topographic information were collected from 20mx20 metre plots and recorded on standard
Ground Inventory Forms according to the methodology outlined in the Field Manual for
Describing Terrestrial Ecosystems (Anonymous, 1998). Fire history data and specific ecological

14

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

information regarding the vigour, stem density, competitive status and fruit yield of black
huckleberry and other ericaceous species were also recorded on these forms. Additional
ecological data including site series, aspect, vegetation assemblages and successional stage
were recorded for the majority of fire history and cultural heritage sampling sites.

1.7.3

Fire History Sampling

One of the most significant challenges faced by researchers investigating the
characteristics of aboriginal burning regimes is the low and moderate severity burns that often
characterized these activities. It is difficult to identify and characterize a fire regime, which
operated at finer scales both temporally and spatially than many fire regimes which originate
only from non-anthropogenic ignition sources such as more coarsely grained stand initiating
events. When two or more fire regimes coincide on the same landscape, the result is a mixed
fire frequency distribution, which can occur, in the temporal and/or spatial dimension.

As lertzman et al. (1998) suggest, mixed distribution fire regimes are not nearly as well
understood as high intensity (crown fire) or low intensity (surface fire) dominated systems and
development of a statistically rigorous sampling protocol for such a fire regime is difficult
because the statistical methods and sampling strategies for each fire regime differ from one
another. Mixed severity regimes are complex combinations of severities and investigation of
these regimes must therefore utilize a combination of methodologies (often fire scar analysis
and cohort age identification).

The exploration of the fire history of these traditional berry patches was undertaken using a
methodological approach similar to that employed by Tande (1979) in his analysis of fire history
in Jasper National Park. However, in contrast to the work conducted by Tande (1979}, this study
focused on an anthropogenic fire regime that affected a smaller area, and was located in forest
6

Divided into homogenous polygons based on slope, aspect, vegetation type.

15

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

types with more fire sensitive species, and therefore fewer opportunities to obtain fire scar
samples from living "veteran" 7 trees. The approach used in this study included analysis of the
age structure of forest stands and dendrochronological analysis of fire-scarred living trees.
Additional information was gathered from observations of snag and coarse woody debris
characteristics, as well as the presence of charcoal in soil and humus layers.

Age structure analysis focused on the collection of age samples from as many distinct
ecological strata as possible throughout the study areas. Plot locations were selected for
ecological data collection and fire history sampling, with one or two age samples collected from
large lodgepole pine in the vicinity of each plot centre. Additional age samples were taken, and
fire scar samples were collected opportunistically throughout the course of the fieldwork. In
several instances intensive reconnaissance was conducted at the boundaries of ecological
strata and timber types to determine the nature of the difference between strata, particularly as
these differences related to variability in ecological site characteristics and fire history. As in
other fire history studies (Brown and Kaye, 1999; Gray and Riccius, 1999) this opportunistic
approach was used in order to obtain fire scar samples for suitable for analysis and because fire
scarred trees were generally scarce within the berry patch areas surveyed.

The benefits of opportunistic sampling of fire scarred trees include the ability to capture
sample specimens that document fire history over a very long period or preserve high quality
evidence of past fires and the opportunity to collect other data such as cultural heritage
evidence that may be found in and around areas managed by aboriginal people using
landscape burning. The major drawback is that the data is not gathered in a systematic or
random manner and this reduces the opportunities to use this data for statistical analysis and to
make inferences and generalizations from the results of data analysis.
7

Trees that are significantly older than the trees in the main canopy. The species may have survived one or
more fires as evidenced by fire scars. The veterans are usually isolated in distribution and often extend well above

16

Chapter I: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

Age samples were obtained using an increment borer. Samples were drilled at breast
height (1.3 m) on the bole of the tree providing a conservative estimate of tree age. Breast
height was measured vertically from ground level on the uphill side of the tree. Sampling at this
height enters a potential source of error when estimating stand age, as the time between
germination and growth to 1.3 metres will vary between species and sites. In addition, early
suppression of seedlings can greatly extend the time required to reach breast height. However,
it is expected that seedlings regenerating after fire will grow at a relatively rapid, even pace
(Camp et al. , 1997). Ages have therefore been corrected using average yearly height estimates
derived from site index values (Anonymous, 1997a). Core samples were mounted and sanded
for counting. The age estimates for core samples that did not hit the pith were geometrically
corrected using a circular template to estimate the number of uncounted rings based on the
average width and curvature of the innermost rings in the sample.

The objective of age structure sampling was to gather sufficient data to determine the
cohort age (an average of the sample ages) of each timber type. The cohort age is used as a
surrogate estimate of 'time since fire' for each stratum, and analysed collectively to get a broad
picture of stand structure and dynamics for the site as a whole. In addition to sampling tree ages
of younger vegetation types within berry patch areas, efforts were made to obtain sample ages
from older stands in the vicinity of berry patch sites {often at the margins). Lodgepole pine was
favored for age sampling due to its status as a suitable marker of fire events (Agee, 1993),
based on its tendency to germinate quickly following fire events, and the ease of coring and
counting its rings relative to those of other species.

Evidence of previous stand characteristics were inferred from snag size distribution and
density. Indications of general characteristics of local fire intensity and flame height apparent on
the main tree canopy. (Anonymous, 1990b)

17

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

remnant woody debris and snags were also documented. In some cases multiple scars on old
snags gave an indication of past fire return intervals. Additional fire history information was
collected by examining and recording charcoal layers in humus or soil samples and noting the
occurrence and density of fire dependent or fire sensitive species in vegetation complexes.

Fire scar data and tree age cohorts were analysed together to estimate the occurrence of
fire events within each of the five berry ground areas. This method is often used to identify the
date of a stand replacing fire event but also has applicability to the study of low and moderate
intensity fire regimes where relatively intensely burned pockets will experience stand initiation
and the development of an identifiable cohort. In addition most forest types occasionally
experience stand-replacing events after a long fire free period or during extreme fire weather. In
the cases of forest remnants or older stands unburned only partially burned by previous fire
events, cohort ages can be used effectively in concert with fire scar data to identify fire
occurrence and the relative intensity and extent of these events (e.g. Tande 1979; Dansereau
and Bergeron, 1993; Wills and Stuart, 1994).

In this study, corrected tree ages were broken into five-year age classes and plotted in
frequency histograms for each case study site. All ages have been plotted on field maps, and in
general, fire history sample sites are relatively evenly distributed across the reconnaissance
area 8 of each site. However, sampling was not strictly systematic and significant areas of each
site have not been sampled. In the interests of having as many tree ages as possible for
analysis, all trees sampled were included in this analysis. These analyses therefore, are
intended only to provide a general, largely descriptive account of fire history within these five
berry patch areas. Additional age samples, and particularly fire scar samples, will be required to
develop a more robust model of the fire regimes for these sites. Additional data, including

8

Most sites were very extensive and field surveys generally covered a particular portion of the site.

18

Chapter I: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

vegetation growth patterns and topography, have also been used to provide additional context
to the fire history analysis.

Analysis of fire history data from study sites will be examined as a composite of so called
"natural" fire and traditional burning by First Nations. It is well known that Euro-Canadians have
also had a marked impact on fire regimes in British Columbia (Parminter, 1995) during the
historic period. In the context of this study, this Euro-Canadian influence is essentially "noise"
which obscures the signs of First Nations management using landscape burning. This issue will
be dealt with on a site-specific basis within each of the case studies, as the influence of other
anthropogenic burning activity varies by site.

1.7.4

Cultural Heritage Surveying

Cultural heritage features such as bark-stripped cedar, pine or hemlock food trees, berry
racks, berry buckets/boxes, cache pits, trails, blazes and campsites were all photographed and
recorded as they were encountered in the field. Measurements and ages were recorded where
possible. Efforts were made to survey older (age class 9 8 and 9) stands at the perimeter of berry
patch sites as there was often abundant evidence of past traditional use in these older forest
types.

1.7.5

Interviews with First Nations Advisors

Detailed interviews were conducted with four Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en advisors.
Interviews were either recorded with a handheld cassette recorder or through handwritten notes
depending on the interview location and the wishes of the advisor. A number of informal
interviews and conversations with Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en elders provided additional
information and clarification of key points.

19

Chapter 1: A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

In addition to the interviews carried out as part of this project, a great deal of information
about berry management, harvesting and processing has been collected by the researcher from
Wet'suwet'en elders during a series of 25 landscape unit planning 10 field trips during the period
1998-2001. Numerous conversations with field ecologists and other researchers have also
added baseline information and context to this research.

1.7.6

Historical and Ethnographic Research

Much additional information was collected from a number of primary and secondary
sources and reviewed to provide context and improve the analysis and interpretation of field and
interview information. Delgamuukw trial testimony, affidavits and exhibits, expert witness
reports, historical photos, accounts of early travelers, and previous ethnographic studies have
been used extensively in the development of this thesis.

1.7. 7

Data Collection and Mapping

Point data representing ecological plot centres, timber type or ecological boundaries and
cultural heritage features were collected with a handheld GPS unit (Garmin 12XL). GPS data
was downloaded into ArcView 3.2 GIS for spatial analysis and mapping.

1.8

Thesis Summary

The body of this thesis will pull together cultural, historical and ecological context that will
be used to analyse the field research data effectively. Analyses will focus on linkages between

9

Age Classes: I (l-20yrs), 2 (2 1-40yrs), 3 (41-60yrs), 4 (61 -80yrs), 5 (81-lOOyrs), 6 (101-120yrs), 7 (121l40yrs), 8 (141-250yrs), 9 (25 1+ yrs)
10
Landscape unit planning is a British Columbia government process to create resource development planning
guidelines at the landscape (often watershed) level within each provincial forest district based on stakeholder input
and biodiversity objectives.

20

Chapter I : A Retrospective Study of Environmental Stewardship: Research Overview and Background

culture and environment to illuminate the resource stewardship strategies and techniques used
in the management of black huckleberry gathering areas by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en.

Chapter 2 will examine the ecological, historical and fire history aspects of the regional
landscape to provide a well-defined backdrop upon which to analyze the research data. Chapter
3 will review Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en cultural approaches to environmental stewardship with
particular focus on strategies and techniques employed in the production of berry resources.
Chapter 4 will focus on traditional huckleberry management linking the ecological niche filled by
black huckleberry to the subsistence round of a number of First Nations and discussing the role
of management in ensuring predictable, reliable harvests. The fifth chapter will cover the five
case studies, summarizing and analysing the data from each site for ecological, cultural and fire
history patterns. Chapter 6 is an analysis and discussion of the research results that will provide
additional insights into the strategies and techniques traditionally used by Gitxsan and
Wet'suwet'en to manage black huckleberry patches.

21

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

CHAPTER 2: THE REGIONAL ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT AND BLACK HUCKLEBERRY

2.1

Introduction

This chapter is intended to provide a contextual backdrop for the analysis of the role that
anthropogenic disturbance has played in shaping and maintaining fire adapted vegetation
assemblages within the study area. There is of course a particular focus on the importance and
dynamics of the management of a single species, black huckleberry. This chapter will include a
section focusing on the regional ecological character, based on a description of regional climate
patterns as they have developed over time, as well as an overview of current vegetation
assemblages and the role of fire disturbance in shaping some of these vegetation communities.
A second section examines the historical landscape of the region with a focus on descriptions of
landscapes from the historic period, as well as descriptions of past landscapes and observed
changes in vegetation patterns drawn from Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en accounts. A third section
will provide an overview of regional fire regimes focusing on the roles of natural and
anthropogenic fire, prior to active fire suppression efforts. Two final sections will detail the
autecology of black huckleberry and the adaptations to fire disturbance that this species
exhibits.

2.2

Ecological Context

This section will focus on describing physiographic and ecological characteristics of the
study area, identifying the linkages between vegetation types and disturbance history, primarily
fire disturbance. Following this is an examination of the climatic history of the region beginning
at the end of the last ice age and focusing particular attention on the relationship of these
climate patterns to regional vegetation patterns.

22

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

2.2.1

Regional Setting

The study area encompasses a large expanse in the lower Bulkley and upper Skeena
drainages, and is centred on the southeastern portion of the "Hazelton variant" of the Interior
Cedar - Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone (ICHmc2). This ecological type follows the valley bottoms
of the central Skeena, lower Bulkley, Suskwa and Kispiox drainages. In general, the cJimate of
the ICH zone is transitional between the coastal and interior plateau regions and is
characterized by warm, moist summers, cool , wet falls, and cold winters with average annual
precipitation between 500-1200mm (Banner et al 1993). The ICHmc2 variant is the warmest
and driest of the ICHmc units, a function of its location in the rainshadow of surrounding
mountain ranges, resulting in the common occurrence of summer moisture deficits (Banner et
al. , 1993; Haeussler et al. , 1985). As Haeussler (1987) points out, this biogeoclimatic unit
includes the centres of settlement and economic activity in the region. In addition, the largest
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en villages are located in the ICHmc2.

While some of the huckleberry patches surveyed as part of this research fall within the
ICHmc2 (Table 2.1), most are in adjacent biogeoclimatic units at slightly higher elevations
(ICHmc1 , ESSFwv) or more continental units (SBSdk, SBSmc2). As several authors have
noted, fire was an important determinant of vegetation patterns in the ICHmc2 (Banner et al. ,
1993; Haeussler et al. , 1985; Williams et al. 2000a), and we can infer that adjacent
biogeoclimatic units were also influenced by this frequent fire regime to some extent.

23

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

BGC Unit

Full Name

Elevation Range

Climate

Precip

Vegetation

ICHmc2

Interior Cedar-Hemlock moist,
cold subzone - Hazelton variant

100-750m

transitional - long growing
season, summer drought

5351136mm

HW, Cw, 81, Sx,
PI, At, Ep, Act

ICHmc1

Interior Cedar-Hemlock moist,
cold subzone - Nass variant

350-11 OOm (in
study area)

transitional -wet snow,
cool, moist

5351136mm

Hw, 81, Sx, PI,
Ep

SBSmc2

Sub-boreal Spruce moist, cold
subzone - Sabine variant

850-1350m
(south*)

continental

416724mm

Sxw, PI, 81, Sb,
At, Act, Ep

SBSdk

Sub-boreal spruce dry, cool
subzone

500-750m (north*)

continental

416724mm

Sxw, PI, 81, Sb,
At, Act, Ep

ESSFwv

Engelmann Spruce Subalpine
Fir wet, very cold subzone

900-1550m

sub-continental

6501000mm

81, Hm , Sxw, Hw

. .

* SBS subzone elevations vary With latitude and aspect, the actual spilt IS around BOOm for study s1tes (adapted from Banner et al. , 1993) .

Table 2.1 Summary of biogeoclimatic unit characteristics for the study area.

2.2.2

Regional Climates Past and Present

Periods with cooler, wetter climates tend to reduce the frequency of fire disturbance, and
therefore are characterized by a reduction in the occurrence of early seral habitats across the
landscape. As these early seral habitats produce many of the plant and animal resources that
formed an important part of the subsistence needs of the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en, these cool
wet periods can be seen as times of relative scarcity. In these times, there would have been a
strong incentive for native peoples to actively promote the creation and persistence of early
seral vegetation types. It is therefore important to look at an extended ecological timeframe to
better understand the circumstances under which anthropogenic burning may have been
necessary, and to establish an additional reference point from which to evaluate other evidence
of traditional burning by Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en.

The study of the environmental history and debris flow activity from Seeley Lake near
Hazelton (Gottesfeld et al. , 1991) provides an indication of the post-glacial climate of the study
area. This study examined pollen and macrofossil remains in lake-bottom sediment cores. The
results of this research suggest that the early Holocene xerothermic or hypsithermal period
occurred between approximately 9000 and 8000 years BP in the study area. This period was

24

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

characterized by a relatively warm, dry climate with associated early seral vegetation
assemblages that reflected frequent disturbance by fire. A similar pattern has been found in
other areas of BC (Hebda and Mathewes, 1984; Mathewes and King , 1990),

Paleoecological research from Vancouver Island indicates a warm , wet mesothermic
interval1persisted from 7000-4000 BP and was followed by neo-glacial cooling from 4000 years
to present (Hebda, 1999). A cooling trend occurring after 6000 BP is evidenced at Seeley Lake
by declining lodgepole pine pollen and increasing western hemlock (Tsuga heterophyl/a [Raf.]
Sarg.) pollen, a trend that continues until approximately 2200 BP (Gottesfeld et al., 1991). This
research also indicated that during this latter period (2200BP-present} there was a marked rise
in the presence of lodgepole pine pollen, accompanied by a rise in western red cedar (Thuja
p/icata Donn ex D. Don in Lamb.} pollen indicative of continuing wet, cool conditions. The

authors referred to this occurrence as "enigmatic" and postulate that the increase in cedar may
reflect the prevailing climatic influence, while the increase in pine pollen may be related to the
influence of anthropogenic burning by native peoples. Similarly, the persistence of abundant
charcoal in the cooler, wetter mid-late Holocene at sites on southeastern Vancouver Island
suggests that anthropogenic fire may have been a significant environmental influence there as
well (Hebda, 1999}.

2.3
2.3.1

Historical Landscapes
Early Accounts

Early Euro-Canadian visitors to the Skeena and Bulkley valleys provided telling
descriptions of the regional landscape, the role of fire and the relationship between First Nations
and the land. In 1891, A.L. Poudrier conducted a "crown land survey" on behalf of the provincial
Department of Lands and Works. In his report, Poudrier (1891) describes the landscape as

25

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

seen from the Skeena River between Gitsegukla Village and the confluence with the
"Watsonkwa" or Bulkley River at Hazelton:

The fire has formerly destroyed the high timber and these terraces are now
covered with a short growth, where aspen poplar predominates (P. tremuloides);
it is one of the favourite spots where the Indians prepare their crop of small fruits
for the winter use.
Returning two years later to survey land in the Bulkley Valley, Poudrier (1893) comments
on the landscape approaching Moricetown and then on the relationship of the Wet'suwet'en to
the land surrounding Moricetown or Kyah Wiget, their primary summer fishing village:

The climate here seems to become somewhat drier, judging from the vegetation,
and it was noticed that the fire had done much greater damage here than
heretofore. The benches are generally bare of trees, and shrubs even are
scarce, the most marked being the service berry. In approaching Moricetown,
several fine open meadows were met with, but these were cut up by numerous
small streams, with a fringe like border of willow and alder.
Berries, like the service berry, high bush cranberries, wild cherries, of three
species, wild currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries, are all most
prolific and plentiful. In no part of British Columbia have I found such a variety
and quantity of these. To the Indians they are a staple .. .
The abundance of berries of different kinds, and the proximity of the mountains,
where cariboo, mountain goats and bears are plentiful, render this spot one of
the most desirable homes for the Indians, and as a rule they live in abundance.
Poudrier's accounts of his 1891 and 1893 surveys of the Skeena and Bulkley drainages
contain many additional references to a recently burnt landscape and extensive areas of early
seral habitats including moist, rich meadows, prairie grasslands, young aspen thickets and
stands of lodgepole pine.

2.3.2

Traditional Knowledge - Landscape Changes

Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en elders have often remarked that many important habitat types
have changed during the past decades so that they are no longer good places for gathering the
resources that were once abundant in these areas. Huckleberry and blueberry patches are

26

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

examples that have often been raised, and many references to
successional changes in these areas can be found in Delgamuukw
testimony, oral history documentation and ethnographic research reports.
Perry Sampson, a Gitxsan elder, made the following remarks about a
Figure 2.1.
Overgrown
blueberry patch

managed blueberry flat on a glacio-fluvial terrace near the Skeena River
that he had not visited for many years, until he returned with me in the
fall of 2000:

Last time I was here was in 1952. There was nothing here, no trees, just
rosebushes, no pine or spruce - you could see a very long distance. The berries
( Vaccinium caespitosum) were thick, very large. The ground was grey blue, you
could see a trail where you picked.
There was no moss before, just covered with blueberry and a little bit of grass (there are still lots of bushes but they're not bearing very much fruit). There used
to be the odd tree here and there (aspen trees), they were small, 12 inches in
diameter and young aspen were really thick in here (at the base of the hill -edge
of glaciofluvial terrace). Right down in a bit of a gully it used to be thick with
blueberries. Fire went up the bottom part of the hillside (now heavily treed).

Accounts such as this indicate the profound influence that cessation of burning has had in
a relatively short period of time. Another Gitxsan advisor, Walter Wilson remembers seeing this
blueberry patch burned when he was a boy, thirty years ago (personal communication, 2001 ).

2.4

Regional Fire Regimes

The frequency, severity, size and duration of fires in an area are the variables that
influence the fire regime. Agee (1998) has described fire regimes in terms of fire severity as
determined by the effect of fires on dominant organisms within a vegetation community. This
approach characterizes high severity fire regimes as those that involve stand replacement and
low severity fire regimes as those that have little or no effect on the dominant organisms.
Moderate severity regimes are a "complex mix of severity levels (Agee, 1998).

27

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

To a large extent the fire regime determines the ecological characteristics of an ecosystem
by favoring species which are adapted to the disturbance pattern. The influence of burning on
vegetation and soil characteristics is related to fire severity, which affects the survival of different
species, the amount of humus consumed and the degree of soil heating (Hamilton, 1988). Fire
effects are generally dependent on the following factors:

1. Weather conditions prior to burning (dry- wet) ,
2. Weather conditions at the time of burning (wind, rain, temperature).
3. Fuel loading (fine and coarse fuels).
4. Moisture content of fuels.
5. Moisture content and density of soil.

The relative importance of any of these factors is somewhat debatable and difficult to
discern because of correlation between the variables. Essentially, these factors can be
summarized to two primary factors: weather and fuel loading . In a study of upland conifer stands
in the southern Canadian Rockies W .C. Bessie and E.A. Johnson (1995) found that weather
was the primary determinant of surface fire intensity. The two main contributing factors identified
were:

1. Weather prior to the fire as it affects fuel moisture.

2. Weather at the time of the fire, most importantly wind speed.

Fire frequency is also an important component of a fire regime, and is related to severity by
fuel loading. Essentially, frequent fires consume available fuel, reducing fuel loads and the
potential for high severity burns. Conversely, long intervals between fires allow fuels to
accumulate, increasing the potential for severe fires.

28

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

Fire also has a major effect on the chemical and physical ·properties of soil. These effects
depend to a large extent on the severity ·o f the fire, which is a function of fire intensity and
duration. In general the impacts of fire on soil are as follows:

1. Organic layer consumption.
2. Mineral soil exposure.
3. Alteration of soil temperature regime.
4. Alteration of the soil moisture regime.
5. Changes in the nutrient regime.

These fire effects have numerous implications for species composition by creating a variety
of post-fire conditions favourable to different groups of species. For example, exposed mineral
soil associated with very hot burns will favour off-site colonizers such as fireweed (Epilobium
angustifolium L.) which reproduces effectively over long distances by way of wind-dispersed

seed, while the abundance and vigour of plants which only reproduce clonally will likely be
greatly reduced due to damage to underground rhizomes, corms or tubers caused by extreme
heat.

The primary source for estimations of mean fire return intervals for biogeoclimatic units in
British Columbia is the Forest Practices Code Biodiversity guidebook (Anonymous, 1995).
These estimates were based to some extent on research into disturbance patterns for each
biogeoclimatic zone (Parminter, 1992) which detailed the range of fire return intervals and patch
sizes, as well as a characterization of fire type and intensity by forest type across the province
of British Columbia.

Additional research in the Prince Rupert Forest Region (which includes all study sites) by
Doug Steventon (1997) using forest cover age data has determined that the biodiversity

29

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

guidebook estimates of mean fire return interval for high elevation forests in the region,
including the ESSFwv, likely underestimate actual values by a large margin.

Research in analogous forest types (ESSF wk2/wc3 and SBSvk) in northeastern BC have
also indicated that the biodiversity guidebook mean return intervals for some stands (particularly
I

higher elevation forests) may underestimate the true return interval values by a substantial
margin (Hawkes et al. , 1997). The findings of these other studies suggest that the return interval
estimates for the subalpine forest types in the study area, primarily the ESSFwv, may also
underestimate the actual return interval.

Available information for fire return intervals of biogeoclimatic units in this study area are
summarised in Table 2.2. These fire return interval estimates are used in this research initiative
as a benchmark estimate of the "natural" fire regime which can be loosely defined as fire activity
and occurrence without the influence of anthropogenic ignitions.

Biogeoclimatic
Unit

Biodiversity Guidebook
(Anonymous, 1995)

Steventon (1997)

Biogeoclimatic Zone Estimates
(Parminter, 1992)
minimum

ESSFwv

350

ICHmc1

1150*

average .

maximum

150-200

200-300

350-500

200*

100-150

150-250

250-350

ICHmc2

200

100-150*

150-250

250-350

SBSdk

125

95*

75-100

125-175

175-250

SBSmc2

125

148*

75-100

125-175

175-250

Table 2. 2. Summary of available information for fire return intervals for biogeoclimatic units in this study
area. * Bold numbers are return interval values used as benchmark fire return intervals in this study.

2.4.1

ICH Fire Regimes

A review of fire history and ecology of the Prince Rupert Forest Region by Parminter (1983)
found that the fire pattern in ICH forests is variable, creating a mosaic of burned, partially
burned and unburned forests. The characterization of wildfire in the ICH (Parminter, 1992)

30

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

indicated that in cedar hemlock types, both low intensity surface fire and medium to high
intensity surface/crown fires could be expected. In addition, this study found that the sizes of
existing fire initiated patches in the ICH are extremely variable, ranging from a minimum of .1-5
to an average of 150-500 and a maximum of >25,000 hectares.

A 1994 review of the fire ecology of analogous interior cedar-hemlock forests in northern
Idaho (Shiplett and Neuenschwander) described the role of fire in initiating five "idealized
successional chronologies" which reflect the variable nature of fire events in these wet interior
forest types. They cite the influence of seed source and species survival in creating variable
successional pathways. Observations from this study also found the fire patterns in ICH forests
to be variable, a reflection of variations in fire intensity which results in the initiation of multiple
successional pathways. The influence of anthropogenic burning adds another layer of
complexity to fire history and fire ecology interpretation in these forest types.

Bessie and Johnson (1995) have shown that weather is the primary determinant of fire
intensity. Elevation affects fire behaviour as it is a determinant of temperature (Agee 1993) and
precipitation. The ICHmc2 and ICHmc1 are known to be different from one another with respect
to climate. the higher elevation ICHmc1 be1ng cooler and moister w1th a shorter growmg season

than the ICHmc2 (Banner et al. , 1993). Therefore, the rating of both of these units with an
equivalent estimated mean fire return interval of 200 years (Anonymous, 1995) seems
inappropriate. For the purposes of this study the 200 year fire return interval for the ICHmc1 is
accepted (Anonymous, 1995) but for the ICHmc2 the shorter estimate of minimum fire return
interval for the ICH zone as a whole of 100-150 years (Parminter, 1992) is used as a
benchmark.

31

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

2.4.2

SBS Fire Regimes

Parminter (1992) describes SBS fire regime characteristics as medium to high intensity
surface and crown fires with an average patch size of 50-500 hectares. Delong and Tanner
(1996) indicate that the SBSmk1 fire regime is heterogeneous, and that the majority of presuppression fires were larger than 500 hectares. Research in the wet (1250 mm/year average
precip.) SBSvk subzone in northeastern BC indicates that the return interval for stand replacing
fire events in this ecological type likely ranges from 1200 to 6250 years (Hawkes et al. , 1997).
This type of fire return interval is in sharp contrast to the intervals calculated for the SBS
subzones in the study region (Steventon, 1997) indicating that there may be a very large degree
of heterogeneity among fire regimes within the SBS zone. Research by Delong (1998) further
emphasizes the variability in fire cycle amongst several "plateau" and montane SBS variants 11 .

Due to wide variation in reported fire cycles it is difficult to clarify the fire regime
characteristics of SBS forest types in the study region through an examination of fire
regimes in other SBS ecosystems. However, the estimates provided by Steventon
(1997) are considered to be the most appropriate estimate of the natural fire regime for
use in this study due to his focus on the study region (the western extremity of the SBS
biogeoclimatic zone).

2.4.3

ESSF Fire Regimes

Parminter (1992) identifies the fire regime in the ESSF biogeoclimatic zone as one
characterized by low to medium intensity surface fires as well as medium to high intensity
surface and crown fires and an average patch size between 50 and 500 hectares. The
biodiversity guidebook (Anonymous, 1995) estimates a mean fire return interval of 350 years.
Research in the ESSF wk2/wc3 indicates that fire return intervals for these types range from
11

study.

The SBS variants studied by Delong (1998) do not include the SBSmc2 or SBSdk variants surveyed in this

32

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

532-1429 years (Hawkes et al., 1997). As noted previously, analysis of local ESSFwv forests by
Steventon (1997) has indicated a mean return interval of 1150 years.

There seems to be agreement between recent fire history research in the ESSF that mean
return intervals of stand replacing fires are far longer than biodiversity guidebook estimates.
Therefore, the work of Steventon is assumed to be a more accurate estimate of fire cycle and
will be used as a benchmark of the natural fire regime in these forest types for the purposes of
this study.

2.5
2.5.1

Ecological Characteristics of Black Huckleberry
Species Description

Black huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. ex Hook) is an ericaceous,
deciduous shrub with pink, urn-shaped flowers, and round black to dark blue fruits. Black
huckleberry has a distribution, which is concentrated in the northwestern US and western
Canada, primarily west of the continental divide, with a few outlying populations in eastern
Canada. Reproduction of black huckleberry is primarily clonal through lateral rhizome spread
and resprouting following disturbance. These rhizomes form extensive networks and generally
support several clones (Minore, 1975), with new plants being formed when rhizomes become

separated through decay or disturbance (Haeussler et al. , 1990). Vaccinium rhizomes often
develop in response to vigorous aerial growth (Kenner, 1967 in Miller, 1977).

33

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

fJ

.J

·- -- - - -- ..-···

• ,,, ... '·' 7' ... -

" -

... _ ., ..

Figure 2. 2. Distribution of V. membranaceum (taken from Vander Kloet, 1988).

2.5.2

Climate

A review of the autecology of a number of British Columbia plant species (Haeussler et al.,
1990) found that in general, the distribution of black huckleberry coincides with areas
experiencing at least moderate snowfalls and without pronounced summer drought. Black
huckleberry occurrence increases with increasing elevation and continentality (Kiinka et al.,
1989). This is likely due to the noted ability of black huckleberry to tolerate a short growing
season (Haeussler et al., 1990) and cold temperatures (Beaudry et al. , 1999).

2.5.3

Environmental (Site) Relations

Black huckleberry favours mesic sites and is typically found on well-drained substrates with
acidic soil types and mor humus forms (Haeussler et al., 1990). Black huckleberry is capable of
surviving in a wide range of environmental conditions by virtue of its dependence on rhizomes
for reproduction and nutrient storage. This species tends to have quite wide ecological

34

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

amplitude in many biogeoclimatic subzones; notably, black huckleberry occurs on a wide range
of site types in the ESSFwv (Beaudry et al., 1999) a biogeoclimatic subzone which
encompasses a significant portion of the subalpine study sites. Recent research in northwestern
BC (Burton et al. , 2000) has led to the development of a predictive berry habitat model. This
model predicted that high quality black huckleberry habitat should have the following attributes:

1.

Within the ICHmc1 biogeoclimatic variant.

2.

On south aspects.

3.

On slopes between 16.1%-28.0%.

4.

Located in an elevation band from 931 .5-1047.1 metres.

5.

Soil saturation index between 0.317 and 2.00.

6.

Site index value between 11.2 and 15.0 metres at 50 years.

7.

Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) dominated stands.

2.5.4

Light Relations

Black huckleberry is able to persist as an understorey shrub in most forest stands, but is
most vigorous and productive (for berries) in open, early seral habitats. Research into light
relations of berry producing shrubs (Burton, 1998) indicated that black huckleberry exhibits
depressed berry yield below 60% irradiance, and maximum productivity at 90% irradiance.
Following is a summary of Burton's research findings:

1. Black huckleberry is most productive at global irradiance values of 75% to 90%.
2. Productivity drops off sharply below 60% irradiance.
3. There is a proliferation of black huckleberry stems at the highest light intensities
but these are largely small and unproductive.
4. Berry size is insensitive to variation in light.
5. Black huckleberry productivity appears to be more sensitive to moisture status
than to light levels.

Burton (1998) also indicated the need for moderate shading for highest levels of
productivity. This requirement for shade for Vaccinium health and productivity has also been

35

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

documented for Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. and Vaccinium myrtilloides Michx. in Alberta (Smith,
1962).

2.5.5

Nutrient Relations

In northern ESSF subzones black huckleberry occurs across the full range of nutrient
regimes, while in the SBS its occurrence varies, being found in all but the very rich nutrient
regime in the SBSmc. It is limited to the poor and medium nutrient regimes in the SBSdk
(Beaudry et al. , 1999). In coastal biogeoclimatic types, black huckleberry is described as
growing on nitrogen poor soils (Kiinka et al., 1989).

Fertilization trials with black huckleberry conducted by Nelson (1974) indicate that
additional nitrogen, applied as ammonium nitrate increases shoot and root growth, and that
without nitrogen addition, increases of phosphorous and potassium will not increase growth.
Nelson also found that black huckleberry had a wide tolerance for variable soil pH, but observed
optimal growth at a pH of 5.0. Field observations by Minore and Dubraisch (1978) on Mount
Adams, Washington documented highest black huckleberry productivity on sites with a soil pH
value of 5.5.

Vaccinium species form symbiotic associations with ericoid mycorrhizae, which facilitate

the acquisition of nitrogen for the plant (Read, 1995). In addition, the activity of nitrogen fixing
bacteria is stimulated by the influx of nutrients following a burn and the increase in pH
associated with the release of base elements in the ash (Barbour et. al. , 1987). These factors
give Vaccinium species an adaptive advantage in the low nitrogen conditions associated with
frequent burning and nutrient poor sites in general. The living rhizome network of Vaccinium
species also acts as an effective means of capturing and recycling nutrients released by burning
(Miller, 1977).

36

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

2.5.6

Huckleberry Productivity

In a study of environmental variables influencing the productivity of black huckleberry,
Minore and Dubraisch (1978) found that huckleberry cover is strongly influenced by succession
and the degree of shading. As noted previously (Burton, 1998), high levels of shading severely
restrict black huckleberry productivity.

In addition to shading, research indicates that black huckleberry productivity is affected
more by year-to-year weather conditions than by site characteristics (Minore and Dubraisch,
1978). Factors affecting fruit yield include: late or early frost, drought, excessive rain, pollinator
failure (Haeussler, 1987) and extreme cold weather with inadequate snowpack (Nelson, 1974).
Other factors may include insect pests, a rationale cited by some First Nations as a primary
motivation for burning huckleberry patches (Lepofsky et al. , in press).

Black huckleberry yields of 720-935 litres/hectare were recorded for sites in Washington
and Oregon (Minore et al. , 1978) and James Agee (1993) states that production can reach
1,000 litres/hectare in a high quality field. Research in northwestern BC documented yields
averaging 200 grams/square metre for sites with 60-80% full sunlight, and this is reported to be
almost 10 times the productivity level reported by Minore et al. for Washington (Burton, 1998).

2.6

Fire Adaptations

Black huckleberry is well adapted to environments with relatively frequent fire disturbance
by virtue of its extensive rhizome network. Studies by Minore (1975) found that rhizomes of
Vaccinium membranaceum were located between 8 and 30 centimetres below the soil surface,

largely protecting them from most fire damage. These rhizomes bear dormant buds, which
sprout vigorously when the aerial portions of the plant are removed. Soil heating is dependent
on burn intensity, duration and soil moisture (Hamilton, 1988), and is the primary determinant of

37

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

survival of underground plant organs such as rhizomes (Flinn and Wein , 1977). Rhizomes of

Vaccinium species experience mortality after 10 minutes of heating by temperatures in the 55590 C range (Schimmel and Granstromm, 1996). In a study of two clonal Vaccinium species
(Mallik and Gimingham , 1985) found an inverse relationship between fire temperature and postfire regeneration and growth performance of Vaccinium species. In a study of the effects of
short duration, low intensity fires in areas with moist soils in the SBS biogeoclimatic zone,
temperatures above 60° C were found only in the upper few centimetres of the soil horizon
(Hamilton, 1988). From this we can infer, that the deeper buried rhizomes of black huckleberry
generally survive low intensity fire. However, higher intensity burns in huckleberry shrub fields of
the US northwest have been observed to result in long recovery periods followed by markedly
lower huckleberry abundance and yields relative to control plots (Minore et al. 1979).

Haeussler (1987) rates black huckleberry along with lowbush blueberry and high-bush
cranberry (Viburnum edule [Michx.] Raf.) as being "intermediate" in their adaptations to fire,
showing best response to moderate fire return intervals, and stating that more frequent fire
would be detrimental to these species. Studies of black huckleberry response to burn
treatments have documented that, seven years post-burn, black huckleberry had not regained
its pre-fire levels (Minore et al. , 1979). Based on observations and sampling from a variety of
populations, Haeussler (1987) indicates that the best berries are produced 10 to 25 years after
a burn or canopy removal .

In a description of prescribed fire trials with a closely associated species, Vaccinium

globulare Rydb., the foliage of this species is noted as being "very nonflammable' and in
addition, "plants are consumed by fire only after being dried and pre-heated by woody fuels"
(Miller, 1977). Several efforts to conduct prescribed burns in huckleberry types in the US Pacific

38

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

northwest by Don Minore 12 led him to comment (1997) that, "except in extreme high-hazard
conditions that do not occur every year, huckleberry fields in the Cascades of Oregon and
Washington are almost fireproof'.

The prescribed fire trials with V. globulare (Miller, 1977) noted that spring fires resulted in
increased numbers of shoots, and fall burns often resulted in a decrease in total numbers of
sprouts. In addition, it was observed that the depth of heat penetration controlled the number of
sprouts produced. Plants burned off above the ground produced several sprouts from dormant
axillary buds on existing root crowns, whereas plants killed below the ground functioned as
separate plants. The study concludes that, "a fire treatment most beneficial to V. globulare will
remove senescent stems but cause minimal rhizome damage".

2.6.1

Successional Status

Black huckleberry typically occurs in montane and subalpine forests (Haeussler et al.
1990). Both of these habitats occur in this study area, and are represented by the ICHmc1 and
ESSFwv, respectively. Black huckleberry is often found as a component of an ericaceous shrub
complex, which , in the study area generally includes the ericaceous associates, false azalea
(Menzesia ferruginea Sm.) and oval-leaved blueberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium Sm.). These two

species have been observed singly or sparsely distributed under closed canopies in mature and
maturing hemlock - subalpine fir forests. In higher light environments, false azalea most often
dominates this complex with oval-leaved blueberry, and black huckleberry is most often
relegated to understorey status. Both false azalea and oval-leaved huckleberry are fire sensitive
species that do not respond quickly or vigorously after disturbance by fire (Haeussler et al.,
1990).

12

Forest ecologist USDA Forest Service - Pacific Northwest Research Station (retired).

39

Chapter 2: The Regional Ecological Context and Black Huckleberry

On middle and lower elevation sites in, or immediately adjacent to the ICH mc2 in this
study area, black huckleberry has been observed to persist as an understorey component below
coniferous overstory (mostly lodgepole pine). However in deciduous (trembling aspen [Populus
tremu/oides Michx.] dominated) complexes, black huckleberry was generally observed to be

absent or to persist only at very low levels of abundance.

2.7

Summary

The environmental setting of the upper Skeena and lower Bulkley drainages is one
characterized by transition. Middle and lower elevation sites (ICHmc2, ICHmc1 SBSdk,
SBSmc2) experience relatively frequent disturbance, but rapid succession and competition from
herbaceous and deciduous species often reduce opportunities for productive huckleberry
patches to persist without additional disturbance. Higher elevation sites have harsher climates,
shorter growing seasons and fewer species that can compete successfully with black
huckleberry. Black huckleberry is known to be relatively well adapted to short growing season
and cold temperatures in these ecological types. Ericaceous shrub complexes can persist in
these areas (upper ICHmc1 and ESSFwv) for extended periods. However, encroachment by
fire-sensitive shrubs and conifers and the very long natural fire return intervals mean that
productive (for black huckleberry) early seral habitats will be rare in these types under the
influences of only the natural fire regime.

Historical accounts of regional landscapes indicate that many were influenced by
anthropogenic fire. These accounts are in agreement with descriptions of traditional berry patch
sites by First Nations elders, as remembered from their youth. The current recognition of drastic
change in the character and productivity of these berry patches, is one indication of the degree
to which the reduction in anthropogenic burning (Native and non-Native), during the last century,
has changed some landscapes and vegetation communities in the region.

40

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

CHAPTER 3: SIM MAIY OR DEGII: THE CULTURAL CONTEXT AND THE ROLE OF
BLACK HUCKLEBERRY
For us, the ownership of the territory is a marriage of the Chief and the land.
Each Chief has an ancestor who encountered and acknowledged the life of the
land. From such encounters come power. The land, the plants, the animals and
the people all have spirit - they all must be shown respect. That is the basis of
our law.
Gisday Wa and De/gam Uukw, 1990

Figure 3. 1 Berry Pickers,
Hazelton, BC

3.1

Figure 3. 2 Drying cooked berries at
Moricetown, BC

Introduction

In order to begin to reconstruct' the traditional management of black huckleberry by the
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en it is necessary to first develop a clear understanding of the traditional
systems of governance and territorial management that informed and guided humanenvironment interactions in these cultures. It is particularly important to look at huckleberry
harvesting and management as components of a seasonal round of subsistence activities in
which all activities had to mesh. In addition, it is instructive to consider the dietary and

41

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

commercial value of this fruit in order to more fully appreciate the relative importance of the
berry harvest and management activities to the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en.

3.2

Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en Culture

The Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en speak entirely different languages, an indication of their
distinct cultural origins. The Gitxsan are a Tsimshianic group related to other coastal First
Nations such as the Tsimshian. The Wet'suwet'en are an Athapaskan culture related to inland
Carrier groups and speaking a unique dialect that they share with the Nat'oot'en or Sabine
people. Despite the fundamental linguistic and ethnic differences, the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en
share many common cultural structures and approaches to stewardship of carefully defined
traditional territories.

Both the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en are matrilineal societies organized into a number of
exogamous clans. Within each clan are a number of kin based groups known as Yikh
(Wet'suwet'en) or Wilp (Gitxsan) but often referred to as house groups. Each house group is an
autonomous collective that "owns" one or more defined geographical areas known as the house
territory. Within the context of both Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en societies, this ownership is
considered to be a responsibility rather than a right. It is a common belief of both the Gitxsan
and Wet'suwet'en that the people belong to the land, the land does not belong to the people.
Further to this point, hereditary Chiefs are entrusted with a responsibility as stewards of a
territory by virtue of the hereditary name they hold, and they are the caretakers of these
territories, for as long as they hold the name. It is the responsibility of a head Chief to ensure
that the house territory is managed in a responsible manner so that the territory will always
produce enough game, fish, berries and medicines to support the subsistence, trade and
customary needs of house members. The house is a partnership between the people and the

42

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

territory and it formed the primary unit of production that supported the subsistence needs of the
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en.

The rights and responsibilities of Chiefs to manage and harvest resources within the house
territory on behalf of their house members are validated in the feast, the central governance
institution of both the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. The resources from the territories are brought
into the feast hall and distributed to witnesses by the host clan to validate their ownership of the
territories and show respect for their guests.

3.2.1

Role of Black Huckleberry

Black huckleberry was utilized by dozens of First Nations groups throughout its western
range where it was highly valued as a dietary staple and item of trade. In BC it was utilized by
all interior First Nations wherever it was available (MacKinnon et al., 1992). The high value of
this fruit to First Nations groups is reflected in a variety of ways, including names for Vaccinium
membranaceum which identify the fruit as "the one, the true berry" in the Gitxsan language
(People of K'san , 1980) and simply as "berry" in the Nuxalk language (Turner, 1975). In
addition, the high value of black huckleberry to many First Nations is indicated by the
performance of first fruit rituals among the Klikitat (Norton et al., 1999) and the Yakama and
Warm Springs Indians of Washington State (Mack and McClure, in review) . Annie York, a
Thompson elder, considers black huckleberry as, "the head of all fruits" and notes that, "if
somebody gave you a little handful of huckleberries, you have to give .... the old people always
tell you ... something in return" (Turner, 1990).

Berries, particularly black huckleberrie&, have played and continue to play a critically
important role in the exercise of Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en governance and ceremonial life
through the feast system. Feast bowls, such as those that can be seen at K'san in Hazelton
would hold many gallons of fresh berries for distribution. The Wet'suwet'en perform a berry

43

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

dance to distribute huckleberries and celebrate and validate the conferring of a hereditary title
on a new Chief. At a recent feast hosted by the Wet'suwet'en Gitdumden (Wolf) clan, 30 gallons
of huckleberries were distributed to honour guests who had assembled to witness and validate
the conferring of the hereditary name "Skedans" on Andrew George Jr. (Rita George personal
communication, 2001 ).

Some of the reasons for the importance of this fruit are summarised in the following excerpt
from People of 'Ksan (1980):

They are the favourite for drying, retaining their fine flavour through the drying
process, and they are easy to roll when dried. Also, they preserve well in grease.
We can even keep them for quite a while by putting them away in a cool place in
boxes without any preservative.
Black huckleberry played a key role in the cultural life of many First Nations groups, an
indication of its universal appeal and the important role black huckleberry played in aboriginal
subsistence economies wherever it was available.

3.3

Gathering

Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en people collected, preserved and stored a wide variety of plant
and animal foods for winter consumption and trade with neighbouring First Nations groups.
Each resource was available at specific times and places within the territories of a house group.
It was therefore critically important to develop strategies of resource harvesting, which allowed
each family to gather and preserve sufficient quantities of necessary foods to see them through
the winter months. By following a seasonal round tailored to the specific physical attributes and
resource availability patterns within their house territories, each house group attempted to
gather, process and store sufficient provisions to last the winter. Inherent in these seasonal

44

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

rounds were a number of resource stewardship strategies that facilitated the efficient use of the
skills and resources available to each house group.

3.3.1

Seasonal Round

Documentation from several First Nations indicate that huckleberry harvesting excursions
to upland berry grounds commonly lasted a month or more and involved gathering a variety of
plant and animal resources (Lepofsky et al., in press; Norton et al., 1999). The following excerpt
provides some insight into these excursions from the Gitxsan perspective:

In the month of September when the huckleberries are ripe, the housewives
make plans to go berry picking. All in the house help prepare and gather food
such as fish and meats, put them in boxes, enough to last a month or until the
berries are picked and dried. Early in the morning they start off with the large
Indian Boxes and cedar and spruce root baskets. They reach the cabin in the
mountains, called wilp ha'nii jokx (house for all the world), the place where the
berries are dried. They start to pick the berries.

People of 'Ksan, 1980

Berry ripening occurred coincident with salmon runs and Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en people
had to fit the harvest and processing of these two resources together within their subsistence
patterns. Sometimes this could be easily achieved when berry patches were proximal to fishing
sites. However, this was generally not the case for montane and subalpine black huckleberry
grounds. Several reports indicate that among the Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en , huckleberry
harvesting and other upland resource harvests would take place after the critical sockeye
salmon runs had passed and the fish had been processed (Daly, 1988). Well-used huckleberry
patches were often located in upland areas in relatively close proximity to summer fishing
stations. Art Loring a Gitxsan Chief in the Eagle clan house of Sakxswmhigook, reports that for
the Fiddler Creek territory, a person would travel ahead to.the huckleberry patch and monitor
berry ripeness, lighting a signal fire to summon the people from the riverside fishing village
when the berries were ready (personal communication , 2000). This berry patch was located
directly behind and above the fishing village on the Skeena, approximately a one day walk up

45

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

very steep slopes. This type of strategy would have allowed maximum utilization of the fish and
the berry resource, with a minimum of wasted effort or time.

For both the Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en, huckleberry harvesting coincided with the
gathering of a number of root foods and medicinal plants as well as hunting for a variety of
upland game species. The ability to access a number of upland habitats and harvest the many
species associated with the early seral types in and around the berry patch made these upland
berry camps "hubs" of resource gathering in the late summer and early fall.

3.3.2

Gathering Strategies

While each house group had a unique combination of resources, gathering sites and
logistical challenges, resulting in many different variations on the seasonal round, there were
some strategies that were widely employed to achieve efficiencies and ensure abundant
harvests.

One strategy was that of specialization, where an individual or group with specific
knowledge or skills, or with access to an abundance of a particular resource, would focus a
relatively large amount of time and effort on the collection and processing of that item. Similarly,
other groups would focus on other resources readily available to them. In the fall these items
would be traded or bartered for other goods (Cassidy, 1987).

Another strategy was the practice of caching food which would allow continued collection at
a site or moving on to another gathering site (this was often done with berries). Perry Sampson
related that Gitxsan people travelling to the fishing site at Kisegas would stop at a blueberry flat
on a terrace above the Skeena River between the outlets of Sediesh and Sterritt Creeks.
Blueberries would be picked at this site and cached after which the people would carry on to
Kisegas for several weeks of fishing. Berries would be collected from cache pits on the return

46

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

journey several weeks later. (personal communication, 2000). Several cache pit depressions
were observed at this site during fieldwork in the summer of 2000.

A third resource gathering strategy was to gather berries in areas that afforded access to
two or more important resources. By setting up remote gathering and processing camps, a
variety of plant and animal resources could be collected and preserved. Late summer and fall
berry camps were often the base for hunting goat, caribou and groundhog as well as gathering
and processing medicinal plants and berries.

3.4

Processing

Gitxsan elders report that black huckleberry was held in high esteem, in part due to its fine
storage qualities. As noted previously, the attributes included maintaining its flavor when dried,
being easy to roll when dried, storing well in grease and keeping fresh (without processing) for
long periods (People of the K'san , 1980).

Berry pickers would make their way to the berry patch where they would camp for a period
of several days or weeks. Berries were processed and dried on site on drying racks, often
housed in the berry drying house. Productive huckleberry patches were regularly maintained
and often used every year when they were in productive condition. As a result of this regular
pattern of harvesting of productive sites, berry drying racks, picking containers and storage
boxes were often left on site in the berry drying house (People of 'Ksan, 1980). Berry racks, a
large bent box and old kerosene tins (used in historic times for berry collection) were found
within a berry patch area in the lower Harold Price watershed in 1998 (Rabnett, 1999). First
Nations advisors have reported finding evidence of other berry processing camps in areas
known to have been montane huckleberry sites (Perry Sampson, personal communication
2000).

47

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

3.5
3.5.1

Stewardship
Ownership

Most First Nations advisors indicate that berry patches were in fact owned by the House or
Wilp or by members of the House or Wilp in whose territory the patch is located. Art Mathewes
Jr., Chief Tenimgyet, explains that women from other house groups would pay for the right to
harvest huckleberries from Win luu mesxw, a huckleberry patch in his house territory, by
bringing "vast amounts of prepared fruits to his grandmother". The women who were given
permission to harvest in this area were given woven tumplines with a special pattern signifying
that they had been granted access to these gathering areas (Delgamuukw et al. vs. the Queen,
SCBC transcript volume 73, pp.4719-4721). The exercise of similarly strict controls over access
and use of berry patches is also reported for the Huna Tlingit at Galcier Bay, Alaska (Thorton,
1999)

Other reports indicate that permission to harvest was required but was more freely given,
almost as a matter of course, suggesting a more communal approach governed the use of
some huckleberry gathering areas. The following excerpt from the commission evidence of
Johnny David, Chief Maxlaxlex of the Wet'suwet'en Laksilyu (Small Frog) clan provides some
insight into the practice and time depth of this approach for a berry patch near Moricetown:

Q: Were there particular places in your territory where you would pick

huckleberries or soapberries or blueberries?
A: The area on the other side of the Hudson Bay Mountain where all the berries
grew.
Q: Are these berries still picked by the Wet'suwet'en people today?
A: Yes.
Q: Are they still used at the feast today?
THE INTERPRETER: He said they're one of the mountains near Hudson Bay
was called Kengitlow't. That's the area near Dowdey, about five-six miles from
here.
THE WITNESS: That area belonged to Mrs. Peter Alfred, who's known as Dzee,
and when the berries would ripen she would invite all people from the village to
go pick berries.

48

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

Q: Before Mrs. Alfred held that name, did the previous Dzee also do that and
invite the people from the village to go and use the berry grounds?
A: Yes, they did. This was a Madalyn's predecessor, they did the same thing as
she had done. It went quite a ways back.
Delgamuukw et a/. vs. the Queen
Johnny David Commission Evidence
Vol. 1, Text 1, p. 66

There are several other examples of communal use of huckleberry patches. Rita George
indicates that for the huckleberry patches of Matthew Sam, the late Chief Woos of the
Wet'suwet'en Gitdumden (wolf) clan near Tapley, he would invite people from other clans to
harvest in his berry patches in years with exceptionally abundant yields (personal
communication, 2001 ~

The implications for berry patch management relate to the responsibilities for management
versus the rights and benefits of being able to harvest from a productive huckleberry patch.
Active management of huckleberry patches requires significant effort on the part of house
members who were required to monitor weather and fuel conditions to determine an appropriate
burn window and then carry out the burning of the patches. In some cases this required
separate trips to the patches to carry out the burning (Rita George personal communication,
2001 ). Exclusive huckleberry patch ownership would provide a strong incentive for each house
or wilp to actively manage productive huckleberry sites to ensure sustainable, abundant
harvests, as berries would not be available to them in other areas.

3.6

Economic Importance

The importance of dried huckleberries as an item of trade is an important consideration
when trying to understand the role of this fruit in the traditional subsistence economies of the
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. The excellent drying and storage qualities of these berries facilitated
their use as trade goods. Berry cakes were cut into squares, packed in bentwood boxes and
transported to trading fairs in the fall at Skeena Forks and in the early spring at the Nass

49

Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

oolichan grounds (People of 'Ksan, 1980). The Gitxsan traveled to the Nass every spring to
trade for oolichan grease, making a difficult journey despite late winter conditions as "the lure of
grease was like the lure of gold .....with trade in mind, we had put our dried berries into boxes
which were designed to fit the racks of dried clams and oolichans that we hoped to bring home
in the same boxes" (People of 'Ksan, 1980). Trading of berries to coastal peoples continued
throughout the 20th century. Such trading activities were often facilitated when Wet'suwet'en
people traveled to the coast to work at tidewater fish canneries (Fred George 13 , personal
communication, 2001).

Another aspect of the economic importance of huckleberries was their distribution and use
as an important food in feasts. In Gitxsan "G'yaba" is a term sometimes applied to "lavish food
gifts given to the highest Chiefs at feasts, and usually took the form of an immense ladle full of
oolichan grease or crushed berries". Other indications were that women provided, "many, many
rolls of dried berries" and, "every Chief expected to take home at least one giant box of dried
fruit". (People of 'Ksan, 1980).

A further indication of the economic importance of berries comes from the Hudson Bay
Company clerks, who recorded that salmon and berry cakes provided by Native people were
the two dietary staples upon which they subsisted at Fort Kilmaurs on Sabine Lake (Ray, 1985).
Ray's research into the food utilized by traders at Fort Alexandria in the middle Fraser Valley
found that in 1824 approximately 300 berry cakes were consumed by company clerks,
indicating that berries were a widespread staple at early fur trade posts.

13

Fred George, ChiefBistae of the Wet' suwet'en Likhts'amisyu (Fireweed) clan.

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Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

3.7
3.7.1

Scale of Huckleberry Harvest
Introduction

In order to fully understand the traditional management of the huckleberry resource, it is
helpful to gain some perspective on the scale of this activity. What volumes of berries were
being processed? We know from oral history accounts that large numbers of people traveled to
upland berry camps to gather plant foods and hunt upland game species. We know that there
was a distinct division of labour, with women and young children largely engaged in the
gathering and processing of berries (People of 'Ksan, 1980, Perry Sampson, personal
communication , 2000). We also know that these upland gathering expeditions lasted in the
neighborhood of four weeks. What is uncertain however, is the volume of berries that were
harvested and processed. In an attempt to estimate the scale of the huckleberry harvest the
following berry model has been assembled from a number of different sources in an attempt to
define two key variables:

1. Precontact population estimates for Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en.
2. Average volume of huckleberries required per person for food and trade.

While these two variables seem relatively simple, they are not easily determined. The
population estimates I have left to Arthur Ray (1985) and Antonia Mills (1994), based on
interpretations of accounts by Peter Skene Ogden and William Brown. It is a challenge to
estimate the average volume of berries harvested per person due to the variability of the
evidence, the ambiguity of some references, and the large number of component variables
required to define reliable numbers. However, some of the documented numbers provide a
basis for an approximate estimation of the scale of the berry harvest These figures also allow
one to estimate the scale of environmental management that may have been required to
support this critical part of the subsistence economies of the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en.

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Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

The following excerpt was related by Martha Brown, Chief Xhliimlaxha, in an interview with
Richard Daly in 1976.

About August 201h we'd leave and go berry picking. Mom and Grandma would
pick up to 60 packloads of berries in late August and in September (they had
been boiled using heated rocks and water, then smoke-dried on special racks
over a small light smoke fire till dry, then rolled as "fruit leather'') -for packing.
This reference is an example of the ambiguity of the references available. We do not know
whether 60 packloads are dried or fresh berries. With an estimated fresh/dry conversion rate
(based on volume) of 10.25:1, this is an important distinction. Following are the available
references to berry harvesting and processing taken from a variety of references:

3.7.2

Indications of Scale of Harvest

# Boxes/per family or person

1. 60 packloads - probably dried (Daly, 1986).
2. 8-10 cakes per family (Sim Maiy = V. membranaceum) same number of mii yhel (V.
caespitosum) - family of 10 (Overstall and Sterritt, 1986).
3. 40 packloads per family (source unknown).

Berry Box (gal enk)
1. 80-100 litres (Overstall and Sterritt, 1986).
2. Berry boxes vary in size - some are giant sized (People of 'Ksan, 1980).
3. Bent box from Harold Price berry camp measures 42cmx43cmx62cm(tall) (Rabnett,
1999) - given the thickness of 2cm for each side, this box would hold 89 litres (23.5
gallons) of fruit.
Berry Cake
1. .25 - .5 inch thick (People of 'Ksan, 1980).
2. 4-5 loads of 80-100 litres makes 2 berry cakes (Overstall and Sterritt, 1986)- therefore
320-500 litres of fruit are required to make 2 berry cakes.
3. Cake is 200 em by 40 em by 2.5 cm(wet), 2cm (dry) (Overstall and Sterritt, 1986) therefore each cake = 20 litres of dry fruit.
4. V. mem is 86% moisture (Gottesfeld, 1995).
5. fruit is generally dried to 15-20% moisture (below microbial threshold) (Haeussler, 1987).
Berry rack dimensions
1. 6'(1 .83m) long x 18"(46cm) wide (People of 'Ksan, 1980).
2. berry rack (assembled) is 200 centimetres by 50 centimetres (Overstall and Sterritt,
1986).
3. Harold Price berry racks averaged 1.85 metres long (Rabnett, 1999)- possibly rotted
down.
Berry Roll
1. 12 inches in diameter (people of Ksan, 1980).
2. rolled until it would fit in a "gal enk".

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Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

Other
1. Berry cakes were dried in the camp and then cut in squares and put in the Indian box take them home and store them -done mainly for trade (People of Ksan, 1980).
2. Often rolls were "just left that way" - rolled up (People of Ksan, 1980).

3.7.3

Population Estimates

When Peter Skene Ogden visited Moricetown or "Hotset" as he called it in the late 1820s
he observed 28 lodges each housing 6-7 families (Ray, 1985). Antonia Mills (1994) estimates
that there may have been 6 people in each family for a total population of 1092. It should be
noted that some of the Wet'suwet'en house groups occupying the southeastern territories may
not have traveled to Moricetown, choosing instead to use fishing stations on the Morice and
Nanika Rivers (Warner Naziel 14 personal communication, 2001). The figure of 1092 is therefore
likely to be conservative.

Arthur Ray (1985) estimates a Gitxsan population of 7000 based on an analysis of the
journals of William Brown, Hudson Bay Company clerk at Fort Kilamurs (Sabine), based on his
account of a trip from Fort Kilamurs down the Sabine and Skeena Rivers towards the
confluence with the Bulkley River. On this trip Brown visited a number of Gitxsan villages and
provided information on the inhabitants.

3.7.4

The Potential Scale of the Traditional Huckleberry Harvest

Huckleberries were eaten fresh, dried for winter consumption, as well as being dried and
traded for coastal foods. Based on the work of Overstall and Sterritt (1986), an estimate of the
dried huckleberry requirement is one huckleberry cake per person/year, at an average fresh
volume of 200 litres of huckleberries per cake. Therefore, each person required approximately
200 litres, or 53 gallons ( 13 four gallon pails) of fresh huckleberries each year.

14

Warner Naziel, ChiefToghestiy of the Wet'suwet'en Fireweed (Likhts' amisyu) clan.

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Chapter 3: Sim Maiy or Degii: The Cultural Context and the Role of Black Huckleberry

It is assumed that large volumes of berries were also harvested to be eaten fresh and dried
for trade. Therefore, it seems reasonable to suggest that the total huckleberry harvest was likely
at least once again the volume harvested for winter storage. Based on early population
estimates of 1092 for the Wet'suwet'en and 7000 for the Gitxsan, these groups would have
required a minimum of 57,700 gallons (218,400 litres) and 370,000 gallons (1,400,000 litres) of
fresh huckleberries respectively for subsistence purposes (winter storage). Based on an
average huckleberry yield of 827 litres/hectare (average of range reported by Minore et al.
1979) these harvest levels correspond to a need for at least 264 hectares and 1693 hectares of
productive huckleberry harvesting area maintained each year for the Wet'suwet'en and Gitxsan
respectively. As black huckleberry requires a significant time to recover from burn treatments,
the actual area under management would have been at least two, likely three times as large as
the minimum annual productive area. When one further considers the increase in the scale of
harvest and management necessary to accommodate the harvest of additional fresh berries for
consumption and berries to be processed for trade purposes, it is probable that the total area
under management for huckleberry production would comprise several thousand hectares. This
level of environmental interaction would have required a tremendous effort on the part of the
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en and would have constituted significant and substantial environmental
management of the landscape.

3.8

Summary
It is clear that black huckleberry played a very important role in the subsistence, economic

and cultural life of both the Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en. It was critically important that large
volumes of this fruit be harvested and preserved every year to meet the nutritional needs of the
communities, both through use as an important food but also to facilitate the acquisition of
highly nutritious oolichan grease and seafoods through trade with coastal neighbours.

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Chapter 4: When You Can't See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

CHAPTER 4: WHEN YOU CAN'T SEE YOUR FOOTSTEPS AMONGST THE BERRIES:
TRADITIONAL HUCKLEBERRY MANAGEMENT

4.1

Introduction

The practice of landscape burning By Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en people to promote
reliable, abundant harvests of fruit in predictable locations was a logical approach to improving
the harvest of a patchy resource such as black huckleberry. That this practice was widely used
for the management of black huckleberry (Boyd, 1999a) is a testament to its efficacy, and
perhaps necessity in the montane and subalpine habitats where this species is most prolific.

Following are three excerpts from a Gitxsan elder, Martha Brown, the late Chief
Xhliimlaxha in her commission evidence for the Delgamuukw court case, providing context for
this chapter:
Q: Did you burn part of your territory so that the berries would grow there?
A: That's what they used to do in the old days. Whenever there's not a good crop
of berries on one side of the river grandfather used to burn and it's the same on
the other side of the river. If there's a poor crop they will bum and just move over,
to and fro.
Q: How often would you burn one part of the valley up the river? How much of a
period of time before you would go and burn the other side?
A: They go by the crop of the berry patch. If you don't see your footprints
amongst the berries.
Q: Do you remember your grandfather burning the territory so that berries would
grow, in your lifetime?
A: I remember when my grandfather burned the area at Luumina axa
Asa'anseegit. And how - Pretty well burned the area every two years because
this is their livelihood where they pick their berry crop. The berries are used for a
feast that is why they take care of the patch,
Delgamuukw et a/ vs. the Queen
Commission Evidence of Martha Brown
Volume 1, Text 2

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Chapter 4: When You Can't See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

4.2

First Nations Management of Black Huckleberry

An initial review of some of the ethnobotanical literature containing references to First
Nations management of black huckleberry (French, 1999; Turner et al., 1990,; Turner, 1991;
Norton et al. , 1999; Boyd, 1986; Ross, 1999; Gottesfeld, 1994a; lepofsky et al., in press)
reveals that (at least) ten First Nations groups, throughout the western range of Vaccinium
membranaceum, managed this species using landscape burning practices (Table 4.1).

Furthermore, many of these groups reportedly considered this berry an important staple and
dried large quantities that were then stored for winter consumption. Other studies (Mack and
McClure, in review) have emphasized the critical role that berries played in meeting vitamin C
requirements during winter months, indicating that only a single cup of dried berries is required
to meet daily vitamin C requirements. leslie Johnson (1997) reported that entire Gitxsan
villages would move to upland berry camps to pick and dry berries for winter use. Some of these
First Nations cultures reported that special knowledge of weather patterns was needed to
determine when and how to burn berry patches (Gottesfeld, 1994a; Ross, 1999; lepofsky et al. ,
in press). This knowledge was likely critical for successful berry management, as Vaccinium
shrubfields are known to be a relatively fire resistant vegetation type (Minore, 1997; Miller,
1977).

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Chapter 4: When You Can ' t See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

Group

Location

Indication of
Importance

Landscape
Burning

Time of
Burning

Bum
Interval

4+

Source(s)
Gottesfeld,
1994a

Gitxsan

Skeena Valley

Name means
"true berry"

Yes

Fall

Wet'suwet'en

Bulkley Valley

Ceremonial "berry dance"

Yes

Unknown

Sto:lo

Lower Fraser
Valley

Burn specialist

Yes

Fall

Stl'atl'imx

Mt. Currie

Yes

Fall

Nlaka'pamux

Nicola Valley

Yes

Turner, 1991

Yes

Turner, 1991

Secwepemc
Burn specialist

Yes

Spring/late
Fall

Yes

Fall

years

Gottesfeld,
1994a
years

3-5

Lepofsky et al.,
in press

5-6

Turner, 1991

years

4-5

Spokan

Eastern
Washington

Sahaptin and
Chinook

Columbia River

Klikitat

South-central
Washington State

Name of the
season means
huckleberry time

Likely

Norton et al. ,
1999

Thompson

Fraser Valley

"Head of all
fruits"

Yes

Turner et al.,
1990

years

Ross, 1999
French, 1999

Table 4. 1. Summary of huckleberry management by First Nations.

Many First Nations people have commented on the role that prescribed fire played in
encouraging abundant yields of large, sweet, high quality huckleberries. Sto:lo elders report that
in the past (not like today) it was easy to fill a basket (approximately 165 litres) at berry
gathering sites that were managed by burning (Lepofsky et al., in press).

Given the high light requirements of black huckleberry and the forest conditions that
generally develop in moist, montane environments where it grows, the practice of traditional
berry patch burning can be viewed as an ecological imperative for groups dependent on the
huckleberry resource. Actively managing this species would provide increased reliability and
predictability of huckleberry crops, ensuring sufficient quantities could be harvested at
predictable locations to meet subsistence needs. The huckleberry harvest had to fit into a busy
seasonal round that required the Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en to be "in the right place at the
right time" to acquire a wide range of critical resources which were spatially and temporally

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Chapter 4: When You Can ' t See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

transitory. The intense gathering activities that occurred during July, August and September
would have left little time for misspent efforts thereby heightening the value of the predictability
and reliability factors for important resources such as black huckleberry.

The system of house territories as the primary unit of production restricted the area
available for huckleberry harvesting for each individual house group. The need to ensure
constant and consistent availability of huckleberries within the confines of territory boundaries
created an incentive for active environmental management by each house group.

4.3

Antiquity of Burning Practices

In a study of Sto:lo burning (Lepofsky et al. , in press), the large number of references to
burning by First Nations on the northwest coast for a variety of resources is cited as an
indication of the significant time depth associated with this practice. This study further predicts
that the intensification of the salmon resource utilization that occurred approximately 2400 years
BP was accompanied by an intensification of other resources such as berries. They therefore
expect to see evidence of increased anthropogenic fire beginning at that time. This would
correspond to results reported from Seeley Lake (Gottesfeld et al.. 1991) that document an
increase in pyrophytic species approximately 2200 years ago despite a cooling climate, which
Gottesfeld et al. postulate is indirect evidence of increasing anthropogenic burning.

Mack and McClure (in review) note that intensification of resource use among the
Columbia River and plateau peoples is known to have begun sometime in the mid Holocene,
between 3000 and 5000 years BP, characterized by a move from general foraging to, "a more
logistically organized system". They indicate that large scale berry processing was a part of that
shift and contributed to maintenance of populations of Columbia River peoples in semipermanent villages.

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Chapter 4: When You Can 't See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

4.4

Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en Huckleberry Management

Leslie Gottesfeld (1994a) has provided a well-researched description of

~

management and utilization by the Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en, including maps indicating
locations of several traditional, managed huckleberry patches, as well as documentation of
other burning activities for a variety of purposes. In addition to this paper, the accumulated
historical, ecological and anecdotal evidence for traditional management of maintained
huckleberry patches in this region is substantial. A great deal of this type of information has
been documented (Gottesfeld, 1994a; Burton et al. , 2000), however, a couple of additional
references, not cited elsewhere, are included here to provide context for the field summaries
and discussion that follows.

This excerpt is taken from the 1934 annual report of the Prince Rupert Forest District from
a section entitled "Cause of Fires":
Campers and travelers - [caused] 35 fires - This is a slight increase over last
year and fires caused by Indian berry pickers are included. As soon as the fish
canning season closes the Indians take to the hills hunting and gathering berries.
Owing to the very dry season, fires lighted anywhere except on gravel or rock
were nearly impossible to extinguish. On August 24th, the weather turned very
dry and windy. Numerous fires sprang up in isolated areas frequented by Indian
berry pickers, no doubt caused by neglected campfires. Every year that we have
a late fall this trouble occurs and the only way to cope with it is to keep our patrol
on until the hazard is definitely over.

References to native incendiarism were a common and consistent feature of the Prince
Rupert Forest District annual reports from the 1930's (Anonymous, 1932-35, 1937). As other
authors have documented (Gottesfeld, 1994a), a concerted effort was made by the forest
service to discourage human ignitions (particularly by Indians) under threat of criminal charges
and fines. Apparently, these policies were effective, as forest district annual reports from the
early 1940's do not cite any additional incidence of Indian ignitions (Anonymous, 1940-44).

59

Chapter 4: When You Can 't See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

The pattern described in the Prince Rupert Forest Region annual report for 1934 reflects
the traditional pattern of berry patch management described by many Gitxsan people. Art
Matthews, Chief Tenimgyet, provided a succinct overview in his Delgamuukw testimony:

These berry patches, I said that the berries only grow where it was burnt, so what
they did was every time there was a growth, like every about six to seven years,
they would burn these over again so -- so that they maintain the taste because if
you would leave it too long these berries would begin to lose their taste and
sweetness.
Delgamuukw eta/. vs. the Queen
Supreme Court of BC
Transcript Volume 76, pp. 4718- 9

Later in his testimony, Art Matthews named six huckleberry patches within the house
territory of Tsihl Gwellii. Two of these were actively managed by his mother and grandmother
with permission of the high Chief or Sim'oogit of this house. He reported that these berry
patches had camps equipped with berry drying racks. Similarly, within the relatively small area
including the west flank of Caribou (Sidina) Mountain and the southwest flank of Mt. Tomlinson
(east side of the Skeena River, north of Hazelton), there have been three large huckleberry
gathering areas identified, all associated with campsites, including one area with reported
evidence of a berry processing site (Perry Sampson personal communication, 2000). The total
area covered by these three sites is estimated to be between 600-800 hectares. In The
Wet'suwet'en territory of Tsekalkaiyax (House on Top of a Flat Rock) under Chief Ut'akhgit, six
distinct, named, traditional huckleberry patches have been documented. Based on these three
areas, it appears that huckleberry management traditionally involved a large number of sites,
and likely a large number of hectares of montane and subalpine habitats within Gitxsan and
Wet'suwet'en territories.

4.5

Summary

From the evidence assembled in these preliminary chapters it can be amply seen that both
the Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en relied to a very large extent on abundant harvests of black

60

Chapter 4: When You Can ' t See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

huckleberry as well as other berries to meet their caloric and nutritional needs, particularly
during the winter. Processing of berries did not detract from their vitamin C value making them a
valuable source of this crucial nutrient through the winter. It is has also been illustrated that the
regional climate does not favour the persistence of the early seral environments which are
necessary for productive black huckleberry. The role of fire in creating and maintaining seral
shrubfield complexes productive for black huckleberry has been indicated. Therefore, both the
Gitxsan and the Wet'suwet'en shared a strong incentive to maintain this resource to promote
abundant, predictable and reliable harvest of fruit every year.

In addition, it has been shown that First Nations groups throughout the natural range of this
species included it as a very significant component of their seasonal round, likely owing to its
abundance, ease of processing, palatability, nutrient value and possibly, its response to
management. It has also been illustrated, that throughout the western range of black
huckleberry, First Nations people managed this species through the application of landscape
burning. This evidence mirrors the myriad reports by Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en about their use
of landscape burning to manage black huckleberry as well as a number of other plant and
animal resources. Descriptions of the regional landscape by early visitors to the Bulkley and
Skeena Valleys indicate the influence of extensive fire on the vegetation patterns, and the
abundance of berries and other plant foods, which they observed were very important to Native
subsistence economies.

Evidence of frequent fire and seral habitats is found at considerable time depth in the
paleoecological record of the region , likely indicating the importance of landscape burning as an
environmental management tool from ancient times until the mid 20111 century, consistent with
reports of Wet'suwet'en and Gitxsan elders. Now that this basis has been established with some
degree of certainty, it is possible to move on to a more detailed examination of the

61

Chapter 4: When You Can't See Your Footsteps amongst the Berries: Traditional Huckleberry Management

characteristics of this management regime based on the results of field reconnaissance from
five traditional Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en huckleberry sites.

62

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

CHAPTER 5: PIECES OF THE PUZZLE: CASE STUDIES - FIELD RECONNAISSANCE
OF FIVE TRADITIONAL HUCKLEBERRY PATCHES
The following five case study summaries detail the results of field reconnaissance and
ecological and fire history sampling from five traditional huckleberry patches. These sites
represent a relatively small sample of the many traditional huckleberry patches that have been
identified in oral history accounts by Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en elders.

Each case study summary will detail the ecological, cultural and fire history data collected
on site in the context of any available background information available, particularly interviews
and recorded oral history.

Ecological classification and inventory was conducted using the biogeoclimatic ecosystem
classification system that is the standard for British Columbia. All classification is based on the
field manual, "Field Guide to Site Identification and Interpretation for the Prince Rupert Forest
Region , Land Management Handbook #26" (Banner et al. , 1993). Hardwood dominated forests
in the moist cold subzone (Hazelton variant) of the Interior Cedar-Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone
(ICHmc2) and the dry cool subzone of the Sub-Boreal Spruce zone (SBSdk) are classified
according to the "Field Guide to the Identification of Hardwood Dominated Ecosystems in the
SBSdk and ICHmc2 of the Prince Rupert Forest Region: Insert #1 to Land Management
Handbook No. 26 (Williams et al. , 2000b). The distribution of biogeoclimatic variants in the study
region and the study sites themselves are illustrated in following map (Figure 5.1).

63

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

N

·~·

.

':[J

Biogeodimalic Variant looian Reserves
0ATp

0
0

0
0

0
0
0

ESSFmc
ESSFwv

ICHmc2
ICHmc1
resmc2

ffiSdk
CWHws2

O

tR

Roads

(\./

(\J

N
0
0
0

,

.

.•

Seconday
Highwa)I'Urban

Railroad
Hgh Elevction Site

LDw Elevation Sites

Figure 5.1 Huckleberry Patch Study Sites and Biogeoclimatic Variants

64

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.1

5.1.1

Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin: Case Study

Introduction

This berry harvesting area is located in the Bulkley Valley near Doughty, a former railroad
stop midway between the town of Smithers and the Wet'suwet'en village of Moricetown. This
site is characterized by a prominent basalt ridge, east of the Bulkley River, trending northwest to
southeast, locally known as Cow Hill. According to several Wet'suwet'en advisors, an important
traditional berry ground was located on the northeast slope of this ridge, encompassing the area
from the ridge crest down to the base of the slope. The 1949 air photo (Figure 5.2) shows the
basalt ridge and the mosaic of coniferous and hardwood dominated stands on and around the
ridge. Important Wet'suwet'en sites discussed in this case study are labeled on the photo with
the Wet'suwet'en names.

65

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Figure 5.
basalt ridge and the mosaic of coniferous and hardwood dominated types
on and around the ridge (airphoto scale is approximately 1 :40,000).

5.1.2

Ecological Overview

The site ranges in elevation from 440 to 635 metres above sea level, and is located in the
ICHmc2 biogeoclimatic variant, just north of the boundary with the SBSdk biogeoclimatic
subzone. There are a number of distinct ecological communities located on and around the
ridge. This ecological variability is related to physical site factors, particularly aspect and soil
parent material as well as to the fire history of this area.

66

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

LEGEND
A

0\
~

D

Sample Points (GPS)
Traditimal Berry

Stream
lRIM ContOU"S

Non-forest Features

D

•
D

D
D
D
D

Alpine
River

Lake
MeadC>N

Non-productive
Brush Complex
Rock

9.Ya11p

Biogeocl imatic U nits

D
D
D
D
D

ESSFwv

ICHmc1
ICHmc2
SBS<i<
SBSmc2

Figure 5. 3 Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin (Cow Hill) Huckleberry Area

67

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

The following tables (Table 5.1 , Table 5.2) summarize the data from five ecological plots
established on this site during field reconnaissance.
Area

PlotiD

BGC Unit

Site
Series

*Stand
Crown Slope Aspect Elev. Dominant
(%)
(deg.)
(m)
Structure Closure
tree

NE slope

.6.RR25

Dominant
shrub

ICHmc2

/Atpw

YF Bt

40

10

340

547

Ep

R . parvifloros

Ridge crest .6.RR28P1 ICHmc2

/01b

MF Ct

35

14

014

613

PI

A. lasiocarpa

NE slope

.6.RR38

ICH mc2

/Atpw

YF Bt

65

21

015

535

Ep

R. parvifloros

NE slope

.6.RR46

ICH mc2

/01

MFCm

65

12

045

482

Hw

T. heterophylla

NE slope

.6.RR58

ICH mc2

/55

YF Bs

55

20

032

523

Ep

R. parvifloros

*YF- young forest, MF= mature forest, LS= low shrub, B- broadleaf, C- comferous, t= two stoned, m=multt-stoned

Table 5. 1. EcologicaVSite Summary for Cow Hill (Rocky Ridge).

Area

PlotiD

Drainage Soil Texture

Humus
Form

Coarse
%
Frag. (%) V.mem

Snags&CWD

Charcoal
Presence

NE slope

.6.RR25

moderate loam

mullmoder

35

1

few CWO and snags in H layer

ridge crest

.6.RR28P1

rapid

hemimor

40

7

no stumps

none

NE slope

.6.RR38

moderate loam

leptomoder

10

4

some CWO

in F layer

NE slope

.6.RR46

well

fine sandy
loam

mormoder

35

0

sparse CWO

in humus

NE slope

.6.RR58

moderate silty loam

mormoder

15

0

sparse stumps

black humus

sandy loam

Table 5. 2. Soil/Huckleberry/Fire Summary for Cow Hill (Rocky Ridge).

5.1.2.1

Ridge Crest

The majority of the ridge crest area is classified as the dry (submesic) Western hemlockStep moss (ICHmc2 /01 b) site series (Figure 5.4}, often in complex with minor components of
the drier (xeric - subxeric) Western hemlock, Lodgepole pine - Kinnikinik - Cladonia (ICH mc2
/02) site series (Figure 5.5). This /02 site series is a rare vegetation community in the BulkleyCassiar Forest District (Haeussler, 1998a). According to the rare ecosystem maps prepared for
the Bulkley-Cassiar Forest District this ecological type occurs as the major ecological type at
southeast end of the ridge. Field reconnaissance confirmed the existence of this site series in

68

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

this area. This subxeric-xeric site series is most prominent on south facing portions of the ridge
and may require intermittent fire to avoid succeeding to western hemlock (Haeussler, 1998a).

Figure 5. 4 ICHmc2
/01 b on NE slope
near ridge top

Figure 5. 5 ICHmc2 /02:
lodgepole pine with
fire scar

The vegetation of the large ICHmc2 /02 area identified on the southeast portion of the ridge
was characterized by mature lodgepole pine, with an understorey dominated by kinnikinik

(Arctostaphylos uva-ursi [L.] Spreng.) and dwarf blueberry. There was some evidence of fire
scarring on mature pines in this stand, particularly on. mature trees located on or very close to
the edge of the ridge crest.

The more common ICHmc2 /01 b sites were characterized by open lodgepole pine stands
growing on relatively shallow, coarse textured soils with a sparse shrub and herb layer and a
dense moss layer composed primarily of feather mosses. Shrub cover was relatively light with
representation from a number of xerophytic species such as soapberry (Shepherdia canadensis
[L.] Nutt.), saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. [Nutt.]), falsebox (Pachistima myrsinites
[Pursh.] Rat.), and prince's pine (Chimaphi/a umbellata [L.] Bart.) as well as black huckleberry.
These areas characteristically had thin mor humus forms often containing charcoal fragments.

69

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Black huckleberry was present in these dry ridgetop associations at cover levels between
five and fifteen percent. Black huckleberry cover increased to very high levels in canopy
(windfall) gaps, particularly in areas transitional to more mesic types on gentle slopes with a
northeast aspect. The dense cover of black huckleberry on the mesic - submesic site in the
transmission line clearing at plot .6RR24 (Figure 5.10) is an indication of the high suitability of
these sites to support vigorous growth and high cover of black huckleberry in an early seral
setting. However, despite their apparent vigour, huckleberry shrubs in the hydro cut had not
produced fruit in the summer of 2000.

5.1.2.2

Northeast Slope
Birch and aspen dominated hardwood communities extend over most of
the northeast slope on the northern half of the ridge, and are primarily
classified as the Trembling aspen - Pink wintergreen (ICH mc2 /Atpw) site
series and the Trembling aspen - Canada violet (ICHmc2 /Atcv) site series
(Figure 5.6) with some richer areas in wet depressions and shallow draws
classified as the Mountain alder - Mitrewort site series (ICH mc2 /55) . There

Figure 5. 6
ICHmc2 /Atcv:
NE slope

was very little coniferous regeneration observed in these hardwood stands
with a notable exception being a dense cedar hemlock thicket immediately

north of plot .6RR37. Paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) was the dominant species in the
majority of these hardwood complexes with an increasing trembling aspen component on the
drier, poorer /Atpw sites toward the upper slope and crest areas of the ridge. The understorey
layer was characterized by well developed shrub communities dominated by thimbleberry

(Rubus parviflorus Nutt.), prickly rose (Rosa acicularis Lindl.) and red osier dogwood (Comus
stolonifera Michx.) on most sites with some moister, richer ICHmc2 /55 areas on mid and lower
slopes dominated by devil's club (Oplopanax horridus [Smith] Miq.). Generally speaking , the
herb layer was less well developed than the shrub strata and bunch berry (Comus canadensis
L.) was the dominant herbaceous species on many sites.

70

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Overall, the percent cover of black huckleberry was very low in the hardwood stands on
this site. However, it was generally present on mesic and submesic hardwood sites as was
observed in the two /Atpw plots which had covers of one and four percent. Black huckleberry
was generally non-existent in the permesic and subhygric hardwood types, an observation
which was confirmed at the JCHmc2 /55 ecosystem plot. On the majority of sites in the
hardwood complexes, huckleberry exhibited a diminutive growth form and sparse distribution.

5.1 .2.3

Southwest Facing Slope

Abundant colluvium , droughty soils, and dense brush complexes dominated by xerophytic
species, and abundant evidence of fire, characterized south and west facing slopes close to the
base of the basalt ridge. This south side of the ridge was dominated by a combination of
trembling aspen and paper birch dominated stands with smaller proportions of pin cherry
(Prunus pensylvanica L.f.) and Scouter's Willow (Salix scouleriana Barratt ex Hook.). Douglas

maple (Acer glabrum Torr.) and saskatoon dominate the increasingly xerophytic habitats on
scree slopes towards the base of the cliff (Figure 5.8). Xeric and submesic ecological types in
the steeper areas at the cliff base were classified as the Paper birch - Douglas maple site
series (ICHmc2 /Epdm) and the Trembling aspen - Kinnikinik site series (ICHmc2 /Atki).
Beaked hazelnut (Gory/us comuta Marsh.) was observed in this area, but was far below the
expected abundance for a warm aspect site with recent fire history. It is postulated that this
reflects the transitional nature of this site to the more continental climate of the sub-boreal
spruce biogeoclimatic zone where beaked hazelnut is generally absent.

Figure 5. 7 ICHmc2 /Atpw: SW
slope, fire scarred aspen

Figure 5. 8 ICHmc2 /Atss:
SW slope, colluvium

71

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Moving south, away from the ridge, stand characteristics reflect increasing moisture and
the rich nutrient status of this area. Large diameter aspen and birch dominate the overstory with
a vigorous understorey layer comprised of prickly rose, red-osier dogwood and thimbleberry.
These sites were classified as ICHmc2 /Atpw (Figure 5. 7). Well developed examples occurred
on the bench area near plot ~

.

This plot is in the middle of a small fire-skip area treed with

large lodgepole pine fire veterans, as well as some large spruce, and was classified as the
mesic Western' hemlock- Step moss site series (ICHmc2 /01 ).

This fire-skip area supported abundant black huckleberry in the understorey. However,
black huckleberry was absent from all of the hardwood associations on this southwest aspect
apparently due to the extremely vigorous competition from other woody, fire-adapted shrubs.

5. 1.2.4

Cow Creek Draw

The small north-south valley to the west of Cow Hill is the
source area of Cow Creek. There is a rich wetland area in the draw
which is classified as the western red cedar, Hybrid white spruce Horsetail - Skunk cabbage site series (ICHmc2 /07) (Figure 5.9)
which has significant occurrence of skunk cabbage (Lysichiton

Figure 5. 9 ICHmc2 /07

americanum Hult. & St. John).

This locally rare plant community is blue-listed in the Bulkley Forest District (Haeussler,
1998a). The occurrence of skunk cabbage at this site extends the known range of this species
inland in the Bulkley Valley based on the reported distribution and outlying occurrences of this
species described in a report on rare plant communities of the Bulkley valley (Haeussler,
1998a).

72

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.1.2.5

Black Huckleberry Suitability
A south-facing aspect is one of the predictors of high suitability

'·'

-· ...,;

t..
•

...,

·1'-;J.

:-·~.

huckleberry patches, (Burton et al. , 2000). The Bek'etDegii Ts'ooyiin

~

~

·-~~ .,'t

.

huckleberry habitat, based on an analysis of current and historic black

.,;. k

• II

·~

:vf.-.r.

~ ~-~ ~

.,-,.

"
'

. .·

Figure 5. 10 Vigorous
huckleberry along
powerline

~~

berry ground is situated primarily on slopes with cool northeast
aspects. This is seemingly inconsistent with the expectation that
traditional huckleberry patches would be located on sites with the
highest potential for huckleberry growth and berry production.
However, black huckleberry establishes and grows most vigorously
on sites that do not have a summer moisture deficit (Haeussler et al. ,

1990). The valley bottom SBS dk subzone and ICHmc2 variant areas are very much drier than
the higher elevation sites where black huckleberry is more extensively distributed and generally
more abundant. Summer moisture deficits on warm aspects are common in these valley
bottoms sites and cool aspects in these warmer drier climates may therefore provide better
conditions for huckleberry growth and berry production. This is further corroborated by the
existence of two other nearby, low elevation traditional huckleberry areas at Decen De'tekw and
Oonim aay (Figure 5. 1) which are both located on largely cool (east) aspects.

5.1.3

Cultural Context and Field Data

The Wet'suwet'en call this ridge "Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin" 15 meaning "we pick huckleberries
on it" This site is widely recognized by this name among Wet'suwet'en speakers and it is a
prominent valley landmark, visible from Highway 16 travelling north, just past the Trout Creek
store. This ridge is one of three hills west of the Bulkley River in the vicinity of the Trout
Creek/Bulkley River confluence reported as being traditional Wet'suwet'en huckleberry patches.
The other hills named Ooniin'aay and Decen Det'ekw are north and west of Bek'et Degii

73

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Ts'ooyiin (Figure 5.2). These traditional huckleberry areas are all within the Laksilyu house
territory of Tsekalkaiyax (House on Top of a Flat Rock). The Chief of this house is Ut'akhgit, a
name currently held by Henry Alfred of Moricetown. Several advisors report that they had often
harvested huckleberries on this site in their lifetimes although huckleberry harvesting here
seems to have stopped or declined markedly since approximately 196016 .

Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin is located on an old trail which links the ancient Wet'suwet'en fishing
site at Kyah Wiget (Moricetown) to the Gitxsan village of Gitsegukla through the Trout Creek
and Gitsegukla valleys. This trail also provided the main linkage to the Wet'suwet'en (Laksilyu)
territory of Kilwoneets in the McDonnell Lake area, an important trading site. This trail therefore
linked the Wet'suwet'en with coastal groups and trade goods through the Copper River drainage
and to the southwestern Wet'suwet'en territories via the Telkwa River and Burnie Lakes.

This Kilwoneets trail reportedly ran in the small valley between Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin and
the other two adjacent huckleberry areas located on the east end of the Rocky Ridge. The trail
ran through a rich wetland area that is the source of Cow Creek, an area that is significant
because it is one of the few places where people from Moricetown could come to harvest skunk
cabbage leaves to use in the drying of berries. Another significant skunk cabbage swamp
occurs on northeast side of Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin between highway 16 and the Bulkley River. In

Oe/gamuukwtestimony, the late Madeline Alfred, former holder of the Chief name D'zeeh, refers
to a named skunk cabbage harvesting area near Cow Hill at Doughty called, "Hag'il tzil yiih"
(Madeline Alfred testimony Delgamuukw et a/. vs the Queen, SCBC Transcript 40 p. 2658,
2659). This traditional harvesting site is quite likely the twenty hectare skunk cabbage swamp
identified in Haeussler's 1998 rare ecosystem inventory and classified as ICHmc2 /07, a blue
listed (locally rare association). The relative rarity of skunk cabbage in Wet'suwet'en territory, its
15

This name is reported by a number of Wet'suwet'en advisors including Henry Alfred, Alfred Mitchell,
Johnny David, Sarah Tait and Stanley Morris.

74

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

importance in berry drying and other food preparation processes, as well as the fact that this
area is a named plant harvesting area, underline
the cultural importance of this site. Furthermore,
the proximity of two rare skunk cabbage sites to
three important huckleberry picking areas would
surely have added to the overall appeal of this
general area as a destination for huckleberry
harvesting and processing.

Figure 5.11. Melana Bazil with skunk
cabbage leaves from Hag'il Tzil Yiih.

There was a great deal of physical evidence
of traditional use documented on Bek'et Degii

Ts'ooyiin. This included several sections of old trail, pockets of culturally modified lodgepole
pine "food" 17 trees and two possible camp locations. A ridgetop trail running the length of the
ridge crest had a clearly identifiable trailbed that was particularly well defined in the drier areas.
Consistent blazes were found along sections of trail that ran through mature pine stands. In
addition, there were several concentrations of culturally modified lodgepole pine trees (CMTs)
adjacent to the trail. It is likely that the trailbed has been maintained by wildlife and occasional
hikers but the antiquity of the blazes and the adjacent CMTs definitely confirm use of the trail by
First Nations people. An additional section of trailbed was located running north-south along the
contour in the middle of the north half of the slope. This trail was characterized by a very well
defined trailbed. However, no blazes were observed even when the trail entered mature timber
at the extreme north end of the ridge. It is expected that these trails branch off from the
Kilwoneets trail although the linkage was not identified on the ground. It appears that the
ridgetop trail enters the hydro cut at several locations and it is possible that the trail junction is
lost in this disturbance.
16

Most advisors discuss using this area in the 1950s or earlier, it may have been used later but it has not been
reported.

75

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Several pockets of pine "food" trees were found scattered in mixed pine, spruce, and
hemlock stands on the north slope as well as in larger pockets of fifteen to twenty trees apiece
in the mature pine stands which dominate the south end of the ridge. Lodgepole pine "noodles"
were harvested in early spring (likely May at this low elevation) indicating that Wet'suwet'en
made some use of this area in early summer prior to the berry picking season. Most CMTs were
located in pine stands ranging in age from 100 to 135 years of age. However, some CMTs were
observed to be in the younger 60 - 70 year old pine stands and were likely harvested in the
1950's or 60's. One pine GMT (Figure 5.12) located in an older hemlock/pine type at b.RR45
was aged at 188 years and had a harvesting date of 1846 when the tree was 34 years old. The
existence of seral stands of pine on some areas of the ridge may have attracted the
Wet'suwet'en to make use of this accessible site in the early spring. Spring use of Bek'et Degii
Ts'ooyiin was reported by a Wet'suwet'en advisor who indicated that the young seral areas
around the ridge were used for bear hunting in the spring (Stanley Morris 18 , personal
communication, 2001 ).

Henry Alfred recalls that this was the first place to find ripe
huckleberries within this house territory, and picking took place here early
in the season. Later in the season, members of Tsekalkaiyax house would
travel to other huckleberry harvesting sites such as Reiseter ridge (Sool
Nii) and an area across from Moricetown on the ridge between
Gramophone Creek and Causqua Creek known as We'til Xoos. By
Figure 5. 12 PI
CMT: stripped in

1846

utilizing a variety of sites, the members of this house group were able to
extend the productive huckleberry harvesting period, providing additional

17

Gitxsan and Wet'suwet' en people traditionally stripped the bark from lodgepole pine in the spring to scrape
off the sweet phloem which was an important staple food.
18
Stanley Morris, Chief Caspit of the Wet'suwet'en Cilhts'ekhyu (big frog) clan.

76

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

opportunities to gather and process sufficient berry supplies, and facilitating the integration of
this activity with other aspects of the seasonal round .

The apparent importance of Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin as a huckleberry harvesting site is likely
related to a number of locational, topographic and ecological factors. First and likely foremost,
the proximity of this site and the two other nearby huckleberry hills to the major Wet'suwet'en
summer fishing village (Moricetown), would have made this an ideal gathering site.
Huckleberries ripening early on Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin would have been available at the height of
the summer sockeye fishing season when most Wet'suwet'en, many from distant house
territories, were gathered at Kyah Wiget to catch and dry their winter fish supply. Without
straying too far from the fishing activities, Wet'suwet'en people could collect fresh huckleberries
for feasting or easy drying in the valley bottom during some of the best mid-summer drying
weather. In addition, the location of this site on two main travel corridors, the Bulkley River and
the Kilwoneets trail made it very accessible and an easy stop going to or from Kyah Wiget
(Moricetown).

The availability of skunk cabbage leaves, a locally rare and extremely useful resource,
particularly for berry drying, must have added to the importance of this site as a berry gathering
area. In historic times, berries from this site were transported back to Moricetown for drying
(Alfred, 2000a), but prior to motorized access, berries may well have been dried on site.

An additional factor favoring this was likely its topography, as the basalt ridge forms a very
effective firebreak. One can see a great deal of variability in the fire history of different areas
around the ridge very clearly in the 1949 aerial photograph (Figure 5.1 ). The topography of this
site therefore lends itself very well to a process of rotational burning to maintain productive berry
patch areas on this site on a continual basis. In addition, the various aspects and relatively dry

77

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

climate in this valley bottom site would create many good opportunities to burn one or another
berry patch area on the ridge in any given year.

Another Laksilyu Chief, the late Pat Namox (Wah'tah'kwets), indicated that the
Wet'suwet'en managed black huckleberry areas using landscape burning techniques and that
Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin or one of the other nearby huckleberry harvesting sites was managed in
this way:
People would burn certain areas. One area that is close to town is Doughty near
Moricetown. The place is a big hill near Gitsegulka Lake Rd. on the west side of
Hwy 16, this side (south) of Moricetown and behind the train crossing on the
hillside
Wintergreen Consultants 1998

Other Wet'suwet'en elders have also indicated that this site was managed using landscape
burning.

5.1.4

Fire History

The abundant fire history evidence on this site suggests the influence of relatively frequent,
low - moderate intensity fires. The existence of this type of fire regime was inferred from the
following site factors:

1. Very little coniferous regeneration within the deciduous dominated stand.
2. Much older age classes in pockets at the bottom of the slope.
3. Very sparsely distributed large old stumps, particularly in the deciduous
dominated stand.
4. Very sparse, large coarse woody debris which pre-dated the most recent fire.
5. An abundance of small charcoal fragments and ash in humus layers in soil
pits and a general lack of large charcoal fragments.
6. Living coniferous trees at the edges of seral hardwood stands exhibiting fire
scars.
7. Old coniferous snags within hardwood dominated complexes showing
evidence of two fire events (Figure 5.13).
8. A variety of coniferous and deciduous stands representing different initiation
dates in a relatively small area on and around the ridge.

78

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

9. Existence of large area of ICH mc2 /02 site series on the ridge, a community
which likely requires maintenance by regular fire.
10. Areas at the edge of sera I hardwood complexes, treed with coniferous
species (Hw) with low branches intact (not burned)- no evidence of scarring.
11. Light charring on the surface of coarse woody debris that survived the last fire
event.

Based on several tree core age samples and a number of fire scar
dates, four distinct cohorts of trees were identified on this site, with a
possible fifth cohort represented by only a single sample. These cohorts
are associated with a series of stand initiating fires that have occurred over
Figures. 13 Pine
snag records two
fire events

the past 225 years revealing a general pattern of fire frequency for this
period.

The following cohorts were identified; 1) 65-75 years, 2) 101-109 years, 3) 118-139 years,
4) 165-216 years with another possible cohort based on a single sample, 5) 146 years (Figure
5.14). An accurate fire scar date was obtained from a tree stump in the harvested opening at
.6.RR4 yielding a fire scar age of 120 years and indicating a fire event in 1880, the likely origin
of cohort two. The age of this tree was 142 years suggesting a stand initiation date in the period
from 1855-57 19 , a date that fits well with the sample ages from cohort three. A group of older
trees (cohort four) was located near the base of the slope in the area around .6.RR46 with the
oldest sampled age being 216 years for an estimated initiation date between 1775-1785 or
possibly earlier. The fire scar lobe at .6.RR42 is aged 58 years and was sampled with an
increment borer, likely underestimating the scar date. This fire scar is believed to coincide with
cohort one. This cohort is estimated to have originated from a fire event between 75 and 80
years ago, for a fire date between 1920 and 1925. The additional age sample of 146 years
would coincide with an initiation date of approximately 150 years ago. It is however possible that

19

This stand initiation period is an estimate based on the assumption that seedbanks of serotinous pine will
germinate within 1-3 years of a fire event and allowing for a years growth hidden below stump height.

79

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

this individual tree (lodgepole pine) initiated in the understorey after the establishment of cohort
four and may not be closely associated with a fire event.

az s

"S..

s7

• fire scar saJ11ies

e'l:l

"'~ 6

• tree age saJ11ies

e'l:l
~

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t
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-=s
0

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.,.,

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0'1

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00

Year of tree initiation or fire scaning (5 year categories)
Figure 5. 14 Tree age cohorts from trees sampled at Cow Hill (Rocky Ridge).

In summary, there is significant evidence to support the occurrence of four fires on this site
between approximately 1780 and 1925, after which active fire suppression began in the region
(Gottesfeld, 1994a). Four fires over a 145 year period yields an average fire return interval of
approximately fifty years with two fires occurring at an interval of 23-25 years. This fire return
interval is markedly different than the 100-150 year mean event (fire) interval (Parminter, 1992)
which is used in this study as the benchmark for the ICHmc2 variant and also much different
from the 98 year return interval which is expected for the adjacent SBSdk biogeoclimatic
subzone (Steventon, 1997). The fire return interval estimate for this site is conservative, and it is
quite likely that other fires occurred on this site between these more significant events, but little
evidence may remain to confirm this. It should be noted that all of the fire history evidence
collected at this site is dated in the historic period when the influence of non-Aboriginal human
ignition sources was also a cause of fires (Parminter, 1995).

80

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.1.5

Site Summary

Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin is an early season traditional huckleberry site, conveniently situated
near the major Wet'suwet'en fishing village of Kyah Wiget and in close proximity to two other
named traditional huckleberry harvesting areas. In addition, this site is located near two
important skunk cabbage swamps. Opportunities for berry drying at or near this site during the
early huckleberry harvest were likely excellent given the time of year (height of summer) and the
dry, valley bottom location. The proximity of this site to major travel trails would have made it a
very convenient stop even for a short period while enroute to or from Kyah Wiget. Reports from
Wet'suwet'en advisors indicate that this site was well used and is still commonly recognized and
referred to by its Wet'suwet'en name.

The ecological data collected confirms that the majority of this site is highly suitable for
huckleberry production during early seral stages. Huckleberry was observed to be growing
vigorously on suitable habitats and persisting in many mesic and submesic hardwood stands
despite low light levels and strong competition.

The fire history evidence for this site indicates a relatively frequent fire regime in the
historic period. Wet'suwet'en elders indicate that this general area was managed for
huckleberries using landscape burning, most likely referring to the Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin ridge.
Site characteristics such as the lack of old stumps and coarse woody debris on the site suggest
that a frequent fire regime has influenced site characteristics for a significant period of time,
quite likely predating the historic period.

81

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.2
5.2.1

Reiseter Ridge (Sool Nii): Case Study
Introduction

This berry harvesting site is located on a southwest facing slope at the northwest end of
Reiseter ridge (Sool Nii) on the south side of Reiseter Creek. This area is located on the east
side of the Bulkley River, approximately 10 km south of the traditional Wet'suwet'en fishing
village of Moricetown (Kyah Wiget).

While field reconnaissance data for this site is somewhat inconclusive on its own, when
combined with interview information as well as historical and ethnographic research there are
strong indications that this site and Reiseter Ridge as whole were very important berry gathering
areas for the Wet'suwet'en

This site is characterized by predominantly deciduous complexes (aspen dominated) on
the lower areas (below 750 metres), and seral pine communities on the upper slopes. Some of
the older lodgepole pine communities are succeeding to subalpine fir and hybrid white spruce
(Picea glauca x enge/manni1) , particularly at higher elevations. The entire hillside was reportedly

used as a berry gathering area, with saskatoons harvested at lower elevations and along the
Telkwa High Road and black huckleberries harvested on the upper slopes (Alfred, 2000a). The
aerial photo (Figure 5.15) shows the extensive deciduous vegetation complexes that existed on
this site in 1949. Much of the area continues to be occupied by deciduous vegetation
communities.

82

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Hucklebeny Patches

Figure 5. 15 Air photo depicting Reiseter Berry Patch (taken in 1949). Photo shows the extensive
deciduous vegetation complexes that existed on this site in 1949 (airphoto scale is approximately
1:33,000).

A.L. Poudrier, surveying this area in the summer of 1892 included the lower reaches of this
berry harvesting site and the entire lower (southwest facing) slope of Reiseter Ridge (between
Reiseter and Driftwood Creeks) in township two. Poudrier (1893) made the following comments
on the landscape of this township:

83

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

.. . On the hills the spruce and balsam predominate, but on the lower land the
vegetation is composed of a light thicket of aspen poplar, balsam poplar and
small birch. There are also numerous extents of open country covered with a rich
growth of hay where from two to three tons can be cut to the acre. Several tons
have been cut by the Indians ...

5.2.2

Ecological Overview

The Reiseter ridge site ranges in elevation from 600m to 1300m (near the top of the ridge).
However, the early seral vegetation types (within the study site) that would have been used for
berry harvesting in historic times (within the memories of Wet'suwet'en elders) were generally
located below 1100m. This berry harvesting area is located within the Sub-Boreal Spruce (SBS)
biogeoclimatic subzone. The lower area of the berry patch is located in the dry, cool (SBS dk)
subzone and the upper slope in the "Sabine" (SBS mc2) variant. The site series encountered
during the fieldwork were primarily mesic and submesic, although wetter areas are located in
and around seepage zones, and depressional areas that make up a relatively minor portion of
the overall landscape of this site. Ecological data for the ground inventory plots installed on this
site are included in tables 5.3 and 5.4.

84

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

LEGEND
1>.

San pie Poin1s (GPS)
Traditional Beny Pat:h
Stream

.r

D

D
D
D
D

TRIM Contours

Alpine

River
I.Bke
Mead em
Non-productive
Brush Complex
Rock
SWanp

Biogeocl imatic Units

\\

7

D
D
D

)

D
D

ESSFwv
ICHmc1
ICHmc2
SBSdk
SBSmc2

Figure 5. 16 Sool Nii (Reiseter Ridge) Huckleberry Area and Field Sample Points

85

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Area

PlotiD

BGC
Unit

Crown Slope Aspect
Site
*Stand
(deg.)
Series Structure Closure (Ofo)

Elev. Dominant Dominant shrub
(m.)
tree

Lower slope .6.RE9 SBS dk
(transitional)

/05

YF Ct

35

40

230

749

PI

Upper slope .6.RE22 SBSmc2

/01c

YF Ct

75

34

003

878

PI

Lower slope .6.RE25 SBS dk

/Atcv YF Bs

80

25

232

715

At

R. acicularis

V.

membranaceum
S. a/bus

*YF- young forest, B- broadleaf, C- comferous, t= two stoned, s- smgle-stoned

Table 5. 3 Ecological/Site Summary for Reiseter Ridge.
PlotiD Drainage

Soil
Texture

Lower slope
(transitional)

.6.RE9 rapid

sandy
loam

mormoder

15

10

some old rootwads (CWO) in F layer

Upper slope

.6.RE22 rapid

loam

hemimor

65

12

some snags and stumps

in F layer

Lower slope

.6.RE25 moderate silty clay mullmoder
loam

0

0

no stumps or CWO

in F and H
layers

Area

Humus
Form

Coarse
Ofo
Frag. (Ofo) V.mem.

Snags&CWD

Charcoal
Presence

Table 5. 4 Soil/Huckleberry/Fire Summary for Reiseter Ridge.

Ecological summaries for the upper and lower sections of this area are provided in the
following sections.

5.2.2.1

Lower Slopes (Deciduous Complexes)

Seral aspen stands with a significant component of Scouler's willow and some black
cottonwood (Populus ba/sa/mifera ssp. trichocarpa [T.&G.] Brayshaw) dominate the lower
slopes. These hardwood dominated stands typically have a vigorous shrub layer characterized
by snowberry (Symphoricarpos a/bus [L.] Blake), thimbleberry, prickly rose and red osier
dogwood. Drier exposed openings had significant populations of pin cherry, saskatoon and
rocky mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.). In most cases, these fire dependent
species were observed to have been overtopped by aspen and birch and generally exhibited
declining vigour. Coniferous regeneration was sparse to non-existent in most of these hardwood

86

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

ecosystems indicating , as others have postulated, the influence of a fire regime with a return
interval short enough to preclude seed production and regeneration of coniferous species
(Williams et al. , 2000a). In some cases, single or small groups of lodgepole pine veterans were
scattered within the stand. The herb layers of these hardwood stands were dominated by
peavines (Lathyrus species) with variable components of showy aster (Aster conspicuus Lindl.
in Hook.), blue wildrye (E/ymus glaucus Buckl.) and fireweed. Generally speaking these
hardwood stands have little or no moss/lichen layer apparently due to low light levels and deep
annual deposits of deciduous and herbaceous litter.
The hardwood dominated stands on the lower hillside are a
mosaic of the Trembling aspen - Saskatoon - Snowberry site series
(SBS dk /Atss), the Trembling aspen - Kinnikinik site series (SBS dk
/Atki) and the Trembling aspen - Canada violet site series (SBSdk
/Atcv). An occurrence of the red listed Saskatoon-Slender wheatgrass
scrub/steppe (SBSdk /81) site series was recorded at .6RE11 (Figure
5.17). In addition, there are three other occurrences of rare seral
Figure 5.17 SBSdk /81
and view to the NW

grassland scrub communities (SBSdk /81 (1 site], Bluegrass- Slender
wheatgrass grassland site series (SBSdk /82 (2 sites])) identified on

this site(Haeussler 1998a). The predominant site series in the area was the submesic, mediumrich SBSdk /Atss (very high snowberry component) with a few areas of the subxeric SBSdk /Atki
site series in areas with steep slopes and rocky or shallow soils. Sites toward the toe of the
slope were dominated by the subhygric, rich-very rich SBSdk /Atcv site series with scattered
large cottonwood veterans and vigorous shrub layers.

Black huckleberry was conspicuous by its absence throughout most of the hardwood
complexes on this site, occurring only in the drier SBSdk /Atki associations and then only in very
low abundance with patchy distribution. It appears unlikely that black huckleberry would

87

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

colonize any but the driest areas of the deciduous stands following future disturbance, as most
sites have deep, rich moder humus forms, dense covers of other fire adapted rhizomatous
species such as snowberry and thimbleberry and little or no huckleberry cover at present.

5.2.2.2

Upper Slopes (Coniferous Stands)
The upper slopes (above 800 metres) were forested with a variety
of lodgepole pine dominated stands, which varied with respect to age
class and species composition , depending on elevation, aspect and
disturbance history. The lower elevation coniferous areas are located in
the transition zone between the SBSdk and SBSmc2. They were
predominantly young lodgepole pine stands of recent fire origin with

Figure 5.18
Remnant pine
stand succeeding
to subalpine fir

some fire-skip areas dominated by widely spaced lodgepole pine
veterans and substantial ingress of subalpine fir poles and saplings

(Figure 5.18). Pure seral pine stands (Figure 5.20) were generally located on sites with well
drained, coarse textured soils on warm aspects. Ecological associations were a mosaic of
SBSdk /01 b and /05 types with a moderately developed, relatively sparse, low shrub/herb layer.
Higher elevation pine dominated stands in the SBSmc2 were characterized by an understorey
with dense coverage of subalpine fir regeneration and canopy layers containing few deciduous
stems. The cool northwest facing slope above Reiseter Creek was characterized by areas of
coarse colluvial parent materials and a significant amount of western hemlock in the subcanopy
and understorey layers, an indication of the proximity of this area to the Interior Cedar-Hemlock
biogeoclimatic zone, more specifically, the ICHmc1 (Nass variant).

Generally speaking, these higher elevation coniferous forests had low to moderate cover of
black huckleberry with a fairly even distribution. In some areas black huckleberry cover was
quite high (Figure 5.19) although it was not observed to bear fruit in any of these areas in 2000.

88

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Black huckleberry was observed to grow very vigorously on disturbed roadside areas on coarse
textured substrates in upper slope areas above Reiseter Creek.

Figure 5. 19 Vigorous
huckleberry and PI vets in a
fire "skip"

5.2.2.3

Figure 5. 20 Vigorous
huckleberry in a
young pine stand

Ecological Summary

Coniferous and deciduous forest stands are stratified by elevation on this former berry
patch site. However, these vegetation types also roughly correspond to variations in soil texture
with hardwood stands dominating areas with finer textured, clayey soils and pine dominated
coniferous stands dominating on coarser textured soils and in areas with a high coarse fragment '
component. The vegetation assemblages on this site reflect the influences of the predominantly
warm southwest aspect, relatively frequent fire events as well as historic disturbance factors
such as logging and grazing. Generally speaking, these topographic and disturbance factors
have encouraged the growth of the deciduous complexes and other early seral types on this
site, favouring the persistence of these communities over long periods.

5.2.3

Cultural Context and Field Data

This site is located within the Laksilyu house territory of Tsekalkaiyax (House on Top of a
Flat Rock) under Chief Ut'akhgit, a name currently held by Henry Alfred of Moricetown. It is one

89

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

of several traditional Wet'suwet'en huckleberry harvesting areas reported on the slopes and
ridges east of the Bulkley River from Kwun Creek to Driftwood Creek. This site is part of a large
ridge called "Sool Nii" (Reiseter Ridge) which runs northwest to southeast between the Reiseter
and Driftwood Creek drainages. This site is reported to have ripe huckleberries later in the
season than Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin (discussed earlier) and traditionally was the main
huckleberry site for Tsekalkaiyax (Alfred, 2000a).

This site is located to the northwest of an old Wet'suwet'en trail which joined the ancient
fishing village of Kyah Wiget (Moricetown) with the Tsekalkaiyax traditional winter village at
"Deets'il yee" now known as Glentanna. This trail later became the Telkwa High Road. A
second trail connects the old Wet'suwet'en village at Glentanna to the goat hunting area and
fish trap site at Reiseter (Two Bridge) Lake, crossing Reiseter Ridge in the vicinity of a large
grassland/meadow mosaic now commonly known as "Moose Meadows".

Near the west end of Reiseter ridge and immediately south of the former berry patch area
is an area named "Gguus Cen" meaning literally "Cow parsnip at the base of a hill". Tender
stalks of cow parsnip were harvested as an early spring vegetable by the Wet'suwet'en, and the
name suggests they may have used this area early in the year to harvest this important food as
well as during late summer for berry picking. The lower slopes of Reiseter ridge and the level
areas along what is now the Telkwa High Road were commonly used for picking saskatoon
berries (Alfred, 2000a).

Henry Alfred (2000a) relates a story about picking berries at this site with his family and
other house members in the 1950's:

We would leave Moricetown with two wagons and travel south along the Telkwa
High Road until we got to the bridge over Reiseter Creek. We would cross the
bridge and stop the wagons. My Dad would walk to the ranch house that was

90

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Hucklebeny Patches

owned by Gertie Douglas to ask permission to access the berry patch on the
hillside, behind her ranch. With permission granted , the berry pickers moved the
wagons to the base of the hill and set up camp. The adults and able youngsters
would make the journey up the hill to the huckleberry areas, younger children
and older people would pick saskatoons along the Telkwa High Road. The group
would stay at this spot for about two days, until they had enough berries to fill the
spare wagon (about the size of a pickup truck box). The berries would then be
taken back to Moricetown (fresh) and processed at home. I remember my mother
and grandmother drying berries in Moricetown using the traditional berry racks. I
would have to collect thimbleberry leaves (no holes!) to line the racks. Dried
berry cakes were then stored in elevated cache boxes to avoid spoilage. In later
years my mother jarred or froze our berries.

There was very little cultural evidence encountered during field reconnaissance on this site.
It should be noted that the majority of the field time was spent surveying early to mid-seral
stands where there is much less opportunity to encounter cultural evidence than in older timber
types. Also, this site has had a longstanding history of significant non-native use by prospectors,
hunters and recreationalists and is crisscrossed with a number of roads, used most recently to
access two cutblocks higher on the slope. Evidence of prospecting cabins and small mining
operations were found in several areas on this site. There were also some blazes encountered
on the upper slope: age samples indicated that they were made within the last 50 years and it is
not possible to determine their origin. Agricultural developments and grazing activities
associated with an active ranch operation located at the base of the hill may have erased signs
of the camp area reported by Henry Alfred.

5.2.4

Fire History

This site is located within both the SBSdk and SBSmc2 biogeoclimatic variants. Mean fire
return interval estimates for the SBSdk are 98 years and for the SBSmc2, 148 years (Steventon,
1997). Other research has found that large ridges are susceptible to higher fire frequency than
the surrounding landscape (Heinselman, 1973). This topographic propensity to burn, the
southwest aspect and the drier climate at lower elevations in the Bulkley Valley have likely all
contributed to a relatively short natural fire return interval, as compared to other sites in this
area. Conversely, the location of this site at the boundary with the wetter interior cedar hemlock

91

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

biogeoclimatic zone would suggest a slightly wetter climate than other areas of the SBSdk and
SBSmc2 and possibly a fire frequency longer than the average for these sub-boreal
biogeoclimatic variants.

The fire history of this berry patch area is defined to a large extent by a significant fire
event occurring around 192520 (Figure 5.21 ). Fire scar lobes from three lodgepole pine veterans
distributed across this site were counted at 74, 75, and 76 years. The very high occurrence of
age class 3 and 4 stands (40-80 years) on the southwest face of Reiseter Ridge as a whole, is
an indication of the large amount of fire activity which took place here during this time period.
An additional pine fire scar lobe at .6RE1 was sampled with an increment borer yielding an
approximate fire date of fifty three years ago (1947). However, increment borer samples of fire
scars are often inaccurate (unless several samples are taken) and it is quite possible that this
scar also records the 1925 fire event.

4

• fire scar samples
• tree age samples

3

2

0

-..;. !..;. ..,. ..,...;. .., "' ~..,. ==~ -..,."" ..,.""""~ ..;. -""..;. -"" ..,...;. -"" -"'"" -;;;;;:! -=="" -..;. -..;."" -..;.
"' ~
- - -"" - "' -"" -"" - -"" =
......
C\

= =
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0\

Vl
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=

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~

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= =
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Year of initiation or fire scarring (5 year categories)

Figure 5. 21 Tree age cohorts from trees sampled at Reiseter Ridge.

20

This date is used for the purposes of discussion, actual fire date could be between 1924-1926 based on the
fire scar evidence collected during field reconnaissance.

92

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Cohort ages for many of the pine stands on this site seem to correspond to a fire
disturbance in 1925. Older fires are recorded in core samples from lodgepole pine veterans
located in upper slope areas and fire-skip patches and from single lodgepole pine veterans
within the hardwood types indicate that there may be a variety of older age classes, as ages of
181 , 187 and 211 . The age of the pine fire snag at .6.RE5, likely killed by the most recent
conflagration is 88 years, and based on the assumption that it was killed by the 1925 fire, would
correspond with a current age of 163 years. A living pine also located at .6.RE5 was aged at 84
years and a nearby aspen at .6.RE3 was 82 years, both pre-dating the most recent fire event
(based on fire history sampling) and indicating the probable occurrence of an earlier fire in the
early 1900s. On the whole, it appears that there have been at least three fire events between
1775 and 1925 with fire events apparently occurring in the following time periods: 1) 1771 -1786,
2) 1906-1916 and 3) 1923-1926. However, without many more ages, from a variety of stands on
this site, it is difficult to determine cohort classes with a sufficient degree of certainty to
reconstruct the fire history of this site prior to the 1925 fire.

Figure 5. 22
Cottonwood with fire
scar in SBS dk /Atcv

Figure 5. 23
pine fire snag

Figure 5. 24 Fire
scarred pine in
SBS dk/Atpw

In summary, the fire history evidence confirms a significant fire event at this site between
1924-1926 which was apparently the origin for the majority of the seral hardwood and pine
stands in the study area. Adjacent older pine dominated stands and fire-skip areas yielded a

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

number of older stand initiation dates which correspond to one or more fire events in the late
1700s and possibly the early 1800s. An additional intermediary age class was identified,
corresponding to a stand initiating event prior to the 1924-26 period, likely in the period between
1910 and 1920. The field data indicates that there were at least three, and possibly four stand
initiating events on this study site in the 150 year period between 1771 and 1925. It is likely that
other stand initiation events occurred in the area such as the one which created the young seral
aspen stands observed by Poudrier in the summer of 1892.

The long term fire history of this site may be inferred from the predominance and
persistence of hardwood communities over the majority of the lower elevation areas. These
areas were observed to have little or no coniferous regeneration, an indication that these
communities have likely developed under the influence of a relatively frequent fire regime. In
theory, these fires would have recurred at short enough intervals to preclude the production of a
coniferous seed source by fire-following coniferous species such as lodgepole pine. Increasing
occurrence of pine stands in higher elevation areas of this site may be related to longer fire
return intervals (cooler, wetter climate) and or the proximity to seed sources in the older
coniferous stands dominating the higher elevation areas of the ridge. Lower intensity fires likely
contributed to the maintenance of early seral hardwood, shrub and grassland communities on
this site, including the locally rare scrub/steppe communities.

The fire history data from this site indicate a fire return interval that is significantly different
(more frequent) than that expected for the "natural" fire regime. The data indicate a fire return
interval of approximately 50 years or less as compared to the average of 98 years for SBSdk
and 148 years for the SBSmc2 as identified by Steventon (1997). It is important to recognize
that this mean fire return interval estimate is derived from evidence of fires that occurred in the
historic period, and the impacts of non-aboriginal land management activities that likely affected
the fire regime on this site, cannot be discerned from aboriginal burning activities.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.2.5

Site Summary

The large amount of early seral habitat on this northwest end of Reiseter Ridge would have
provided good opportunities for huckleberry picking from the 1930's through until the 1960's
when this site was reportedly used by Wet'suwet'en advisors and a number of other valley
residents. AI Fletcher, a long time valley resident testifying in Delgamuukw vs. the Queen
identified an area near Deer Meadows (further south on Reiseter Ridge) as a huckleberry
harvesting site used by early pioneer families in the Driftwood and Glentanna area:

Q: When you were growing up, was there any place that you or your family went
for berries or other pioneers?
A: Yes, we went for huckleberries up on the mountain about two miles, an old
place called the Deer Meadows. Some clearings up on the hills a couple of miles
from there we used to pick huckleberries ... .Between Driftwood and Glen Tanna.
Q: But it would be up higher?
A: Yes.
Q: And how would you get there?
A: It was an old traii. ...From Driftwood
Q: Okay. And it cuts in up to these berry grounds?
A: Yes.
Q: Was that an area, do you remember, did it look like an area that had been
burned?
A: Yes - I don't know. Those meadows have been there since I can
remember.... there is a lot of burnt windfalls around- there could have been a fire
there.
Q: Do you remember that there were - there are trails above the Deer Meadows
going northeast -- or northwest and southeast?
A: It's possible. I have seen trails on top of the mountain, but you know I just
assumed they are game trails.
Q: Okay. I would like to show you Exhibit 164 again. And I would just like to point
to you the dotted line from Glen Tanna numbered six going up to Two Bridge
lake and then circling over to the number 3 and coming down at a place labeled
IR number 3, which is- it goes along Gramophone Creek. Now, do you- have
you seen -- you have traveled, as I understand it, up to Two Bridge lake on
many occasions? ... And have you seen this trail?
A: I am pretty sure I have seen it. Where we used to pick huckleberries on those
meadows up there ... .Up above a mile above that, I'm sure there is some old
blazes in this trail there. It's on the height of land.
Q: Do you recall seeing on this trail the left fork of the trail going up on your
trapline towards Two Bridge - do you recall seeing blazes on that trail. .. I
understood there was an Indian blaze with Indian names ... in that area. You
remember that?
A: Yes, I think so.
Delgamuukw et a/. vs the Queen
Commission Evidence of Allen Fletcher
Exhibit 355, pages 49, 52, 83

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Given the apparent suitability of this ridge as a huckleberry producing area it is quite
probable that Wet'suwet'en people once used a large portion of this area as a berry ground. The
following evidence supports this hypothesis:

1. The current existence of extensive fire dependent seral vegetation complexes
on the ridge.
2. The existence of early seral vegetation throughout the lower reaches of the
ridge prior to the turn of the century (as reported by Poudrier).
3. The proximity of this site to the main Bulkley Valley travel trail (Telkwa High
Road) and to the Reiseter Lake hunting/trapping trail.
4. The proximity of this site to the traditional Wet'suwet'en winter village site at
Glentanna.
5. The existence of other known huckleberry patches on this ridge as reported
by early settlers and the reported existence of trails near these areas.
6. Several other Wet'suwet'en huckleberry patches located on similar ridges in
the area.

The Reiseter ridge huckleberry harvesting area remains a bit of a mystery, for although it
was used in historic times, Wet'suwet'en advisors do not mention it nearly as often as other
huckleberry sites further north such as Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin and Wetil Xoos. This could be
related to the forced removal of the Wet'suwet'en from their winter village at Glentanna (Henry
Alfred, personal communication , 2000; Mills and Overstall, 1996) and the alienation of virtually
all of the land at the base of Reiseter ridge to private holdings in the early 1900s. These factors
likely favored the use of other sites closer to Moricetown and the Wet'suwet'en summer places
at Hudson Bay Ranch (Oschawinna IR #3). Despite the limited amount of current anecdotal
evidence and the relative paucity of cultural heritage evidence at the site, the ecological,
historical and fire history information assembled supports the longstanding importance of this
site as Wet'suwet'en huckleberry gathering area. The final word goes to Henry Alfred, Chief
Utakhg'it who explains, "A long time ago, Reiseter was the main place for berries, the people
would always go there".

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.3

5.3.1

Harold Price: Case Study

Introduction

This berry harvesting area is located on a northeast facing slope of Blunt Mountain in the
lower Harold Price drainage, immediately south of the confluence of Harold Price Creek and the
Suskwa River (Figure 5.25). The site ranges in elevation from approximately 500 metres at
Harold Price Creek to approximately 1200 metres at timberline. The vegetation of this site is
largely characterized by mature hemlock dominated forests on moderate northeast slopes.

5.3.2

Ecological Overview

This area is located on the cusp of the transition between the extensive, rolling uplands of
the Nechako plateau and the deeply incised topography and moderate climate of the coastal
mountains. Lower elevation sites within the study area are classified within ICHmc2 and
ICHmc1 variants. The ICH mc2 variant is predominant on the north end of the site, while the
ICH mc1 biogeoclimatic variant covers the southern portion, both ICH variants giving way to the
ESSFwv biogeoclimatic subzone at elevations above 1000 metres based on recent
biogeoclimatic mapping for the Bulkley Forest District (Figure 5.26). The berry area is located on
a moderate northeast slope, which gradually increases in pitch as one moves southwest, away
from Harold Price Creek. The site is predominantly mesic and submesic, particularly on upper
slopes and toward the steeper northwest end of the berry area, with some extensive submesic
types on well-drained sites with loamy soils. Small, isolated seepage sites, wet benches and
depressional areas supporting richer permesic and subhygric site associations were found
across the slope, increasing in frequency and extent toward the southeast end of the berry
patch area.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Figure 5. 25 Airphoto of Harold Price huckleberry Area (1960), scale is approximately 1: 23,000

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

LEGEND
"'

San pie Points (GPS)
Traditional Berry Pat:h

Stream
lRIM ContOli"S

Non-forest Features
Alpine
River

Lake
Meado.v

Noo-p-ocU::tive
Brush Complex
Rock
SWanp

Biogeoclimat ic Units

D
D
D
D

D

ESSFwv
ICHmc1
ICHmc2
SBSd<
SBSmc2

Figure 5. 26 Lower Harold Price Huckleberry Area and Field Sample Points

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

At present, the site is heavily timbered with western hemlock, Roche spruce (Picea x
lutzii Little), western red cedar, subalpine fir and lodgepole pine, with some pockets having a

significant deciduous component comprised of black cottonwood, trembling aspen and scattered
paper birch. Western hemlock and lodgepole pine dominated stands were predominant in
submesic areas on well drained soils, with some lodgepole pine dominated stands on the driest
sites (ICHmc2 /01 b) such as the extensive pine/hemlock stand (Figure 5.27) located south and
east of the berry camp (.6.HP21). To the southeast and on lower slopes, the deciduous
component becomes more prevalent with increasing moisture status and more open stand
characteristics. Cedar and spruce began to form a larger component of the stand in these
moister, richer areas. The following tables (Table 5.5 and Table 5.6) summarize the results of
four ecosystem sample plots installed across the site:

Area

PlotiD

BGC
Unit

Hillslope

.6.HP12

ICHmc2

/01

YFCs

90

45

060

495

Hw

none

Hills lope

.6.HP20

ICHmc1

/01b

YF Ct

60

19

038

595

Hw

M. ferruginea

Hills lope

.6.HP24

ICHmc1

/01a

MFCm

75

20

040

630

Hw

T. plicata

Hill slope

.6.HP41

ICHmc1

/01a

YF Ct

70

12

015

575

Hw

T. heterophylla

Site
*Stand
Series Structure

Crown
Closure

Slope Aspect Elev.
(%)
(deg)
(m)

Dominant Dominant shrub

tree

*YF= young forest, MF= mature forest, C= comferous, s= smgle-ston ed, t= two stoned, m= multi-stoned

Table 5. 5. Ecological/Site Summary for Harold Price.
Area

PlotiD Drainage

Soil

Humus

Coarse
Frag.%

%
V.mem

Prev. forest

Hillslope .6. HP12 moderate Silty loam

lignomoder

50

0

sparse old stumps

charcoal in humus

Hillslope .6.HP20 well

loam

hemimor

35

10

no stumps or CWO

no charcoal

Hillslope .6.HP24 moderate loam

hemimor

20

4

few stumps

no charcoal

Hillslope .6.HP41 moderate Silty loam

mormoder

15

2

no stumps some CWO charcoal in humus

Charcoal

Table 5. 6. Soil/Huckleberry/Fire Summary for Harold Price.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.3.2.1

Mesic Hillslope

Ecological sampling was carried out primarily in the mesic and submesic sites which
dominated this area. These zonal sites were primarily situated on moderate slopes (10%-40%)
with northeast aspects. The well drained soils on these sites were formed on morainal parent
materials and classified as dystric brunisols. Soil texture varied from silty loam to loam and the
coarse fragment component was moderate, generally in the 20-30% range.

These sites were classified As ICHmc2 /01 and ICHmc1 /01 b
(Figure 5.27) and ICHmc1

/01 a. Vegetation communities were

characterized most prominently by dense covers of feather mosses,
primarily stepmoss (Hy/ocomium splendens [Hedw.] B.S.G.). Shrub
layers were generally sparse and weakly developed and were often
dominated by coniferous regeneration but most areas had at least
some coverage of ericaceous species such as false azalea as well
as black huckleberry. The herb layer was very sparse and was
primarily represented by diminutive species such as bunchberry and

Figures. 271CHmc2
/01 b: Hw/moss

five-leaved bramble (Rubus pedatus J.E. Sm.).

Fairly high levels of crown closure were observed in the predominantly hemlock dominated
stands on these mesic and submesic sites, drastically limiting light transmission to understorey
layers. Ecological plots had crown closure values from 60% to 90% (Table 5.5) with an overall
average of about 70%, which was a result of the dense overstory as well as the influence of
high numbers hemlock poles and saplings in many areas.

Black huckleberry was generally present on these mesic sites and had a relatively even but
sparse distribution. Most huckleberry shrubs exhibited a low, reduced growth form and low to
moderate vigour (Figure 5.28). Canopy gaps generally exhibited increased cover of huckleberry

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

relative to other areas but were often also associated with higher
levels of competitive coniferous regeneration. The drier submesic
types such as the area at plot 6 HP20 appear to afford the best
opportunities for huckleberry growth and persistence as stand
densities and coniferous regeneration are both relatively low. This
plot had the highest black huckleberry cover values of the four
sample plots, and in general, huckleberry in this submesic type was
observed to have higher cover and better vigour than other areas
Figure 5. 28
Huckleberry in low
light environment

within the patch as a whole.

Reconnaissance of a nearby cutblock on a mesic - submesic site revealed that canopy
removal alone will not necessarily result in a return of black huckleberry to these sites. This
cutblock had been harvested approximately ten years ago and was planted with lodgepole pine
seedlings. A transect of the block revealed that the site was dominated by the following species;
raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.), fireweed, paper birch, and thimbelberry. Black huckleberry was not
observed in this opening at this time. The surrounding forest was classified as ICHmc2 /01 and
was characterized by a dense hemlock stand (100 years approx.) with few shrubs or herbs and
a continuous carpet of feathermosses. Huckleberry was present at low densities in this
(adjacent) mature stand, persisting as a low shrub as it had throughout similarly mesic areas on
the nearby study area.

Reports from fieldwork carried out in 1986 on "fresh unburned clearcut" sites in this area, at
slightly higher elevations (800m) revealed fruiting black huckleberry growing in relatively open
vegetation communities, apparently free from strong competitors (Haeussler, 1987). It is quite
possible that black huckleberry had initially been present on the clearcut area surveyed in 2000,
and responded well to canopy removal but was later displaced due to competition from other
shrub species.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.3.2.2

Toe Slope and Other Receiving 21 Sites

Moister, richer sites were located in receiving areas such as toe slope, small benches,
depressional areas and adjacent to drainage features. These sites were increasingly common
toward the south end of the area, particularly on lower slopes. Common site series were the
Western hemlock, Subalpine fir - Oak fern site series (ICHmc1 /03) and the Western hemlock,
Subalpine fir- Devil's club site series (ICHmc1 /04) with the drier, poorer /03 association being
most common and covering extensive areas south and east of ..6.HP34. A large Cottonwood I
devil's club site classified as ICHmc1 /04 is also located 100 metres north of the berry camp
located at ..6.HP21. Toe slope areas and terraces adjacent to Harold Price Creek at the
northeast end of the area surveyed were largely comprised of complexes of Western hemlock,
Western red cedar - Oak fern site series (ICH mc2 /03) and the Western hemlock, Western red
cedar - Devil's club site series (ICHmc2 /04) , which are the corollaries of the ICHmc1 rich,
subhygric types. Some mesic areas were also found on these terraces in areas of coarse
glacio-fluvial deposits.

Black huckleberry was conspicuous by its absence on these wetter, richer sites. It was
occasionally observed in the permesic ICHmc1 /03 and ICHmc2 /03 associations but generally
only as individual occurrences exhibiting a low growth form and reduced vigour.

5.3.2.3

Successional Dynamics

Several sections of the stand, particularly the mesic and richer sites, had declining aspen
persisting as single stems or small patches, as well as snags of aspen and Scouler's willow
scattered among thrifty conifers. These dead and declining deciduous remnants are an
indication that seral, deciduous species had formed a significant component of the stand in the
past. Wetter areas and lower slopes still supported healthy, mature stands of black cottonwood
evident as yellow foliage in the aerial view of the area (Figure 5.29).
21

"receiving" refers to sites which receive (and retain) seepage.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

The stands on the hillslope are generally even-aged and dominated by western hemlock.
The regeneration of these stands is of interest in the context of this study due to the seeming
incongruence of a densely stocked, even-aged coniferous
stand existing on a site that has been influenced by what
appears to have been a series of relatively frequent fire
events. If this area had been maintained as a seral
shrubfield by such a fire regime, one would expect conifer
regeneration to be relatively sparse at least in the initial
Figure 5. 29 Aerial view of the
berry patch slope

stages of stand establishment, due to the consumption of
available coniferous seed source by recurring fires.

Deciduous dominated stands observed on other berry patch areas in the ICHmc2 (Bek'et Degii
Ts'ooyiin) exhibited evidence of this effect. Other authors have postulated that a lack of
coniferous regeneration in these deciduous dominated stands is due in large part to a frequent
fire regime (Williams et al., 2000a). Post-fire ingress of coniferous species would therefore be
expected to progress relatively slowly, resulting in a multi-aged stand that reflects the gradual
nature of coniferous establishment. As this is not the case, fire history and ecological data from
this site must be more carefully scrutinized.

It is possible that the attributes of western hemlock, the dominant species in the stand, in
combination with the physical site characteristics, may have facilitated the rapid regeneration of
a relatively even-aged hemlock stand on this site. Western hemlock produces many small,
winged seeds (Farrar, 1995) which are well suited to wind dispersal over long distances, having
been observed to disperse as far as 1.6 km from the parent tree (Anonymous, 1990a). Western
hemlock requires adequate soil and atmospheric moisture in order to germinate and grow
vigorously (Pojar and MacKinnon, 1994; Anonymous, 1990a), conditions which likely existed on
the cool northeast slopes on this site. Hemlock is also reported to have improved regeneration

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success on recently burned sites, seeding in much more thickly on burnt over sites than on
unburned areas (Anonymous, 1990a). According to the forest cover data for this site, several
old growth hemlock stands are located within two kilometres (south) of these younger hemlock
stands in the study area. These older hemlock stands are at similar and higher elevations on the
hillside relative to the sites surveyed and could possibly have provided a seed source for the
regeneration of the dense, even-aged hemlock stands on this site.

Despite the potential for developing scenarios to explain observed stand characteristics,
reconciling the existence of a densely treed , even-aged coniferous stand on a site with evidence
of frequent fire remains problematic.

5.3.3

Cultural Context and Field Data

This site is located within the Wet'suwet'en house territory of "Gees Ng'heen", which
translates from Wet'suwet'en as "grizzly head". This territory belongs to the "Sa Yikh" or sun
house of the Likhts'amisyu (Fireweed Clan). The head Chief for this house and consequently
this territory is Smogelgem, a hereditary name currently held by Leonard George of Hagwilget.
This is the northernmost Wet'suwet'en territory bordering on Gitxsan territory to the west and
Nat'oot'en (Sabine) territory to the north. It is interesting to note that the adjoining Nat'oot'en
(Sabine) house territory is also owned by a Fireweed clan house group. This arrangement
would have encouraged peaceful relations between nations and likely afforded opportunities for
the Wet'suwet'en and the Nat'oot'en to work cooperatively within the framework of the clan on
these territories.

Historical data assembled by Mills and Overstall (1996) indicate that a home place carrying
the territory name "Gees n'gheen" was located at a site five miles above the bridge on Twenty
Mile Creek (Suskwa River), and that there were five people living there in 1910. A second

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

reference in this report indicates that there was a camp located at the mouth of Harold Price
Creek, the confluence with the Suskwa River.

This house territory was located in close proximity to the Sabine trail , a traditional trade
route and "grease trail" from Gitxsan villages near Hazelton to the neighbouring Sabine territory,
by way of the Suskwa Pass and down Tsezekwa Creek to Fort Sabine. There are many
traditional Gitxsan huckleberry patches located along this route (Burton et al., 2000). Early
travelers report that the entire upper Suskwa country was a landscape shaped by fire. George
Dawson (1881) travelling this trail enroute to Fort Sabine in 1879 commented on the country
approaching the confluence of the Suskwa River and Harold Price Creek:

The hillsides generally have been almost denuded of trees by fire, and exhibit a
rank growth of wild grass, wild pea, Herac/eum and Epilobium, in some places
already shoulder high ...
Similarly N. B. Gauvreau (1891) travelling the same route in 1890 remarked:
From the sixth to the sixteenth mile the north portion is good grazing land; on the
south it is heavily timbered from the sixth to the twelfth, and from the twelfth up to
the twenty seventh the country is burnt and barren; on the north from the
sixteenth to the twenty seventh it is the same. At the twelfth mile the river comes
from a direction S. 56 o E taking its water from a small lake in the range
The river Gauvreau speaks of at 12 mile is Harold Price
Creek. What is now known as the upper Suskwa was then
referred to as "Oo-at-zan-li". The Wet'suwet'en name for Harold
Price Creek has always been "Ses kwe" meaning "bear river". It
is apparent from the historical references that the Gitxsan
territory of Gyetm Galdoo (Figure 5.30) adjacent to Cees

Figure 5. 30 Gyetm Galdoo
territory viewed from lower
Harold Price Creek

Ng'heen was a landscape shaped by fire, a legacy that persists to the present day in the
extensive deciduous stands which dominate this area.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

The house territory of Cees Ng'heen has a number of other important gathering and
habitation sites which provide important context for the interpretation of this berry harvesting
area. An important traditional fall coho fishing site (Neenli) is located approximately eight
kilometres upstream at a set of falls on Harold Price Creek. This site was reportedly used for
harvesting coho and steelhead. East of these falls are the Netazul meadows complex, a lake
named Mesdzii Delmuh (Owl Hooting) both featuring old Wet'suwet'en habitation sites
(Wintergreen Consultants, 2000). Further west in a high pass below Netazul Mountain are the
Netazul Lakes, site of a former Wet'suwet'en winter camp area.

To the west of the falls, up on a high plateau is "Xoots Wenii" or Touhy Lake, site of an
important winter whitefish fishery, trapping hub and a winter camp for members of Chief
Goohlat's house of the Wet'suwet'en Cilhts'ekhyu or big frog clan. This site was reportedly
shared by people from different clans in historic times (Stanley Morris, personal communication,
2001). A clearly defined trail connects Xoots Wenii with the Harold Price drainage near the
south end of the berry patch area (Rabnett, 2001 ). Approximately fifteen kilometres north of the
falls at the confluence of Harold Price Creek and Blunt Creek there was reportedly a traditional
winter village called Lhaydii (Rabnett, 2001). The berry patch area is therefore located in the
midst of a large number of winter habitation sites and close to an important fall fishing site.
Trails link this berry gathering area with these other sites.

In Oelgamuukw testimony, Antoine Tom, a member of Smogelgem's house and holder of
the name G'ee Yeeh Ghun indicated that he had used this territory extensively with his uncle
Johnny Dominic (G'wis da). Antoine stated that they maintained and used a smokehouse in the
territory as a base of trapping and hunting activities, and that they lived there for some time. He
also testified to the existence of a berry picking area in the Cees Ng'heen territory:

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

There is a place called Saa wig'us ai, that's where we pick berries and because
the woman's picking berries there, they call it woman's camp.
Antoine does not specifically identify the location of this site but does mention it together
with an unidentified mountain called "Tsa G'es". He indicated that in more recent years they had
been able to travel to this berry picking site by road :

... .we were able to travel up there by cars and they will go picking berries and
around August time we go up in the most to go and hunt for groundhogs"
Delgamuukw et al. vs the Queen
Exhibit 465, pages 9965, 9966

It is not clear whether Saa wig'us ai is the berry picking area surveyed in this study. It is
possible that this is the case based on the cultural evidence that was found on and near this
site. However, there seem to be some problems with the timelines for berry harvesting, as the
study site is heavily timbered with 100-130 yr old hemlock and pine it is almost certain that this
area would not have been a productive huckleberry patch at lower elevations in the last fifty
years. Additional context comes from anecdotal information collected by Ken Rabnett (1999) in
an interview with Ben McKenzie who recalls seeing the bent box and berry racks on the study
site in the 1940's describing it as a "regular berry camp". However, Ben's father, ninety one
years old in 1999 and having grown up in the vicinity could not remember anyone picking
berries on the study site in his lifetime.

It is likely that higher elevation (unsurveyed) areas of this berry harvesting area may have
retained a more open character and remained productive (for black huckleberry) longer than the
more densely timbered areas lower on the slope. Upper elevation areas observed near 6HP39
appeared younger and more open (Sparse pine and large patches of dense, younger hemlock)
and an age of 82 years was obtained from a pine at this site. It appears likely that the lower
slope areas at least would have ceased to be productive berry areas before 1950, as the stand

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

is quite densely stocked and even-aged. The 1960 air photo (Figure 5.25) shows a heavily
stocked stand that would not likely have been productive huckleberry ground at that time.

The meaning of the name Saa wig'us ai is reported to refer to setting sun or shadows
falling 22 . An area bearing a similar name, "Saa Wek'es'aay" is located in the adjacent Gitxsan
fireweed territory of Gyetm Galdoo. According to Delgamuukw maps on file at the Office of the
Wet'suwet'en, this site is a ridge west of the Suskwa River with the old Sabine trail running
along the base, directly west and slightly north of Netazul Mountain. It is possible that this was
the site being discussed by Antoine Tom.

Another Wet'suwet'en who was familiar with this area was Tommy Tait, holder of the
Likht'samisyu name Amgyet. He is reported to have trapped this territory in the late 1930's from
a cabin located at the point of land formed by the confluence of Harold Price Creek and the
Suskwa River (Adam Gagnon 23 , personal communication, 2000). De/gamuukw maps on file at
the Office of the Wet'suwet'en have this cabin site marked as "XIydlii" which was reportedly a
shared Gitxsan I Wet'suwet'en spiritual site (Ken Rabnett, personal communication 2000). This
cabin was reportedly removed during logging of this area.

There was a great deal of physical evidence of traditional use found on this site during field
reconnaissance conducted in the summer and fall of 2000, and by other individuals in recent
years. The most significant find with respect to berry harvesting was the discovery of a berryprocessing site in this area. This berry processing camp was located on the north side of the
largest creek, which flows through the berry patch. The initial discovery was made by a
prospector who happened on the camp and removed a large cedar bentwood box measuring

22
23

Stanley Morris and Theresa Tait, personal communication 2001
Adam Gagnon is Chief Dsahayl of the Wet' suwet' en Fireweed (Likhts'amisyu) Clan

109

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

42cm x 43cm x 62cm and with sides 2 em thick (Rabnett, 1999) which could hold as much as 23
gallons (89 litres) of berries.

Later investigation of this site turned up a large number of cedar splits which had been
carefully shaped to even, uniform dimensions being approximately six feet in length, one inch
across and half an inch deep with light charring in places (Figure 5.32). Traditionally, these
splits were bound to a pair of cross braces to form a rack for drying berries or hemlock bark
(People of 'Ksan, 1980). These cedar splits had been placed leaning against two large spruce
trees estimated to be approximately 11524 years old. Many of the berry rack slats remained
standing while others had fallen to the ground and were in various stages of decay. Also found
near each of these spruce trees were a number of 4 gallon kerosene tins of the type used for
transporting eulachon grease and collecting and transporting berries in historic times. The two
berry rack trees were in close proximity to one another, one located just on the north side of the
creek at .6.HP21 and the other located on a rise fifty metres to the northwest. There was a welldefined trailbed running NW to SE across the contour through this site although no blazes were
found. In addition to this berry camp area, a report from a hiker in the 1985 indicates that fully
assembled berry racks and cedar bentwood berry boxes were located to the east of this berry
camp on a terrace close to Harold Price Creek (Rabnett, 1999). The combined physical and
anecdotal evidence therefore suggests the existence of at least two berry processing camps in
this berry harvesting area suggesting that this area was once a productive and heavily used
berry gathering area.

Reconnaissance of old hemlock forests at the toe of the slope near Harold Price Creek
revealed a great deal of additional evidence of longstanding traditional use of this area. A large
number of hemlock food 25 trees were located which appeared to have been harvested

24
25

Tree age is estimated based on ages of nearby spruce trees of similar diameter.
Hemlock cambium was used traditionally as winter provisioning food and was often dried in cakes.

110

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

approximately 100 years ago. Tree cores taken from two hemlock cambium harvesting scars
indicate harvesting dates of 98 and 89+ years ago, placing these activities in the early 1900s.
Two types of bark stripped western red cedar trees were also encountered, one a common
partial strip type and a second type with all of the bark removed to a height of approximately 12
feet (Figure 5.33). The late Mary Joseph, a Wet'suwet'en Likht'samisyu elder and holder of the
name Skokumhalyte, indicated that cedar bark stripped in this manner was often used for the
production of cedar feast regalia (personal communication , 2001 ). Bark removed in this manner
would also have been suitable roof material for the berry drying houses used to shelter drying
berries from rain. In addition to a variety of culturally modified trees, a well-defined trailbed and
multiple blazes of various ages were found along the low terraces near the south bank of Harold
Price Creek. An older blaze on this trail (Figure 5.31) was accurately dated at 85 years placing
the activity in 1915. It is likely that this blazed trail was one of the main access routes into this
territory branching from the Sabine trail. For a detailed summary of cultural heritage resources
in the Lower Harold Price including trail and camp locations see Rabnett, 2001 .

~

~~

·
.
~
'=
.
.
..

,•, l.t'"· "'.. :.
I

.~

...

;: .

,

... •

'

<C

"

'

,. . .' . .. ·: . .
1'
.' .
'

~
~· ~

"

.

.

J

;

~

i..,.
'·

Figure 5.31
1915 blaze

..
Figure 5.32
berry racks

Figure 5.33
"barked" cedar

A portion of the seasonal round in this house territory might have begun with berry picking
and processing on the study site and other nearby berry patches in the late summer, possibly

111

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

combined with goat hunting on the Blunt massif. These activities would likely have been
followed by fall fishing for coho and steelhead at the Harold Price falls, and then the move to
winter home places for trapping and lake fishing . Having access to this suite of important
subsistence resources within a relatively small area would have allowed the house group to
efficiently gather and store their winter food supply.

5.3.4

Fire History

Two distinct areas with markedly different stand characteristics define the fire history of the
lower Harold Price site. Timber stands on the extensive northeast facing slope in the berry area
appear to have regenerated from one or more fire events within a span of approximately 50
years. The stands on this hillslope area comprise several relatively even-aged areas which
generally contain few remnants of earlier stands. Toe slope areas and the glacio-fluvial terraces
adjacent to Harold Price Creek support old growth stands of hemlock, spruce and cedar that
exhibit signs of fire activity in the form of single, and in several cases, multiple fire scars. Stands
in this area are characteristically multi-aged and multi-layered with windfall and decay agents
appearing to be the predominant disturbance agents driving successional processes.

The most distinctive fire history characteristic of the slope area was the conspicuous lack of
evidence of previous forest stands on this site. While there were a number of veteran cedar
trees and cedar snags located primarily on lower slopes as well as in moist depressional areas
and shallow draws, the vast majority of this hillside area was devoid of old snags, stumps or
coarse woody debris. One possible explanation for this could be the existence of at least one
very intense fire event that could have consumed the bulk of the woody debris. A more plausible
explanation is that frequent fires occurring over an extended period of time have precluded the
development of large trees (and remnant snags or large woody debris) on most areas of this
hillside.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

In the toe slope area, one large hemlock veteran cored at .6HP18 was over 320 years of
age and there are many stems in these older types which appear to be in a similar age class,
however heart rot is common and precludes accurate age sampling in most cases. Several
large western hemlock and cedar in this area were observed to have as many as three fire
scars (Figure 5.34), apparently with a fairly short return interval (judged by the thickness of interscar lobes).

It is possible to develop an approximate fire history reconstruction
for this site based on the fire scar record and the cohort ages of sampled
trees from various areas of the site. Age sampling and fire scar analysis
• indicate that at least four cohort classes are located within the study area.
These cohort classes are defined as follows 1) 85-101 years, 2) 106-112
years, 3) 118-153 years, 4) 300+ years.
Figure 5. 34
.6.HP10: hemlock
with 3 fire scars

The cohort ages are bracketed by the fire scar record . A fire scar

lobe of a veteran cedar at the toe of the slope at .6HP3 was aged at 104 years, indicating a fire
event around 1896. A second cedar veteran at this site carried 2 fire scars recording the 1896
fire and a second fire event 13 years earlier in 1883. A fire-killed cedar snag located in a
midslope area at .6HP27 exhibited evidence of a previous fire scar. An age sample revealed a
total tree age of 168 years when it was killed by fire and a wedge sample of a fire scar lobe
indicated an inter-fire interval of approximately 13 years between the time of the scar and the
fire event that apparently killed the tree. Based on the assumption that the thirteen year fire
return interval recorded by this snag corresponds to the thirteen year inter-fire interval recorded
by the living cedar veteran near the base of the slope at .6HP426 , I postulate that two fires
occurring in 1896 and 1883 encompassed these areas of the slope.

26

This method follows an approach used by Wills and Stuart, 1994.

113

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

9

-g 8

• fire scar samples

8 7

• tree age samples

c.

=
"'~ 6
=
~ 5
"'
<J

~

f 4

....

~ 3
2

~

J:l

8

z= 1
0

I

II I I

II I

gg ....
- .... .... .... -.... -.... -.... .... - i-.... -.... -~ - -~~ ....~

..,
.... ~
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.... .... ....
..t
.... ~ -j; ; ;t ~ .... i
Q

01

-

Q

Oil
01

Q

Q

01

01

01

01

~

Q
N

Q

01

01

01

01

I

~

01

01

~

00

Q

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00

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)j

~

00

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N

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-

g

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01

QC)

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~ ..t
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01
QC)

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QC)

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Year of tree initiation or fire scarring (5 year categories)

--

.... 00....
~ ~
....
~

01

........
..t
........

Q

Figure 5. 35 Tree age cohorts from trees sampled at Harold Price.

The fire scar dated from 1896 corresponds to several trees in cohort one. The fire scar
from thirteen years earlier likely corresponds to the large number of samples that fell into cohort
two. There were five age samples between 118-131 years that may represent a separate cohort
and possibly another fire event. However, these samples have been combined with two older
samples (138+ and 153 years) from a fire-skip area at .6.HP34 to form cohort three. It is
possible that a single fire event initiated all of these sampled trees, however, it is more likely that
they represent two different origins. Cohort four represents the old growth stands found at the
toe of the slope and on valley bottom sites which are typically age class nine stands, the oldest
trees in these types are typically over 300 years of age.

Age class and fire scar analysis reveal that there have been at least three stand initiating
fire events within a period of fifty years (1846-1896) assuming that age class three corresponds
to a fire event after 1846. It appears likely that other fire events have occurred on this slope, but
this is difficult to determine without additional fire scar evidence. The fire history data collected
indicates a mean fire return interval of approximately twenty five years for this relatively short

114

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

period of time. This type of fire regime is consistent with several site characteristics, particularly
the lack of evidence of previous mature stands (few stumps or CWO) and the remnants of
formerly abundant fire adapted deciduous tree species (Scouler's willow and trembling aspen).
The dense coniferous stands which now occupy this site are seemingly inconsistent with a
frequent fire regime which persisted over long time periods, however, nearby seed sources and
the silvics of western hemlock suggest possibilities for reconciling the current stand
characteristics with the fire history reconstruction.

The data collected indicates that for the past 150 years the fire return interval for this site is
markedly different (more frequent)' than the 100-150 year mean event interval expected for
stands in the ICHmc2 (Parminter, 1992) and the 200 year mean fire return interval expected for
the ICHmc1 (Anonymous, 1995). This suggests that anthropogenic ignitions have likely
influenced the fire regime.

5.3.5

Site Summary

The territory of Cees Ng'heen is difficult to research due to the fact that there are very few
living Wet'suwet'en elders who have personal experience of using this area for traditional
activities. However, the wealth of cultural heritage evidence that remains on the ground in the
lower Harold Price drainage adds a great deal of context and detail to existing oral histories.

The ecological data indicate that this extensive mesic hillslope is highly suitable for
huckleberry production, and has maintained huckleberry coverage, although at low vigour and
density, for many decades under low light levels. Due to the apparently rapid ingress and high
survival of western hemlock on this site, as well as the potential for development of vigorous
thimbleberry and fireweed communities as evidenced in the nearby cutblock, frequent fire
disturbance would have been required to maintain conditions suitable for huckleberry
production.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Extensive areas of fire maintained gathering landscapes exist in the adjacent territory of
Gyetm Galdoo. This suggests that similar landscape burning techniques would likely have been
used on Cees Ng'heen territory to promote abundant berry yields close to winter home places.

The presence of substantial evidence of berry camps on this site is the best indication
available that this area was important for berry harvesting. The location of this berry ground in
close proximity to Wet'suwet'en winter home places, as well as fall and winter fishing sites, and
known goat hunting areas increases the likelihood that it was intensively utilized over a long
period of time.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.4
5.4 .1

Stakaiyt: Case Study
Introduction

This site encompasses a large, mildly sloping hillside area located on the south and west
facing flank of Caribou (Sidina) Mountain on the east side of the Skeena River, northwest of the
Gitxsan village of Kispiox. The name Stakaiyt means "half a wing" (Perry Sampson, personal
communication, 2000) and territorial affidavits identify it as being an area on the south end of
Sidina Mountain in the Gutginuxw territory of Lax Xsin Djihl (De/gamuukw et al. vs. the Queen,
exhibit 609). Stakaiyt was identified as a managed berry ground by a Gitxsan elder (Gottesfeld,
1994a), a status that has been confirmed in Delgamuukw testimony and through conversations
with Gitxsan advisors during the course of this research. This site includes two distinct areas of
relatively recent fire origin, which have been reported as huckleberry gathering areas used by
Gitxsan people in the past. One of these areas is an extensive subalpine shrubfield complex,
while the other area occurs at lower elevation on the mid-lower slopes of Caribou Mountain and
is now densely forested in young conifers. These two areas are delineated in the following aerial
photograph (Figure 5.36) and are described separately within each of the following sections.

117

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Figure 5. 36 Subalpine and mid-lower slope huckleberry areas on the west flank of
Caribou Mountain -1978 (Airphoto scale is approximately 1: 13,000)

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

LEGEND
S;o-n ple Poinls (GPS)

Non-Forest Feat<J"es
Alpine

River
Lake
Meadow

f\b ll-prod uctive

Brush Complex
Roc!<

SW> mp

Biogeoclimatic Units

c::::J
c::::J
c::::J
D

c::J

ESSFwv
ICHmc 1
ICH mc 2
SBSd<

S8S mc 2

Figure 5. 37 Stakaiyt Huckleberry Area (subalpine area)

119

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

LEGEND
•

D

Samjle Points (GPS )
Traditiooal berrygro!Sid

-

Streams

-

lRIM Contours

Non-Forest Feattres

D

Alpine

Figure 5. 38 Stakaiyt Huckleberry Area (mid-lower slope area)

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.4.2

Ecological Overview

This ecological overview outlines the ecological characteristics of the two sections of the
berry area. The following tables (Table 5.7, Table 5.8) summarize plot data from the Stakaiyt
area.

Area

Stand
Crown Slope Aspect Elev. Dominant Dominant shrub
Site
(deg.) (m.)
Series Structure* Closure (%)
tree

PlotiD

BGC
Unit

Lower subalpine D.CR5

ICHmc1

/01a

YF Ct

20

17

255

1197

Ba

M. ferruginea

Upper subalpine D.CR31 ESSFwv

/05

LS

8

36

247

1258

none

V. membranaceum

Upper subalpine D.CR37 ESSFwv

107

LS

7

20

249

1261

Ba

M. ferruginea

Low-mid slope

D.CR13 ICHmc2

/01a

YF Ct

75

44

260

702

Hw

T. heterophyl/a

Low-mid slope

D.CR15 ICHmc1

/01a

YF Ct

80

55

269

801

Hw

none

*YF= young forest, LS= low shrub, C= comferous, t= two stoned

Table 5. 7. Ecological/Site Summary for Stakaiyt.

Area

PlotiD Drainage

Soil
Texture

Humus
Form

%
Coarse
Frag. (%) V.mem.

Snags&CWD

Charcoal
Presence

Lower subalpine D.CR5

moderate silty loam mormoder

35

17

some snags & CWO

in F and H layers

Upper subalpine D.CR31

moderate silty loam Mormoder

30

50

few snags and CWO

in F layer

Upper subalpine D.CR37

poor

clay loam mormoder

40

20

some snags & CWO

in humus

Low-mid slope

D.CR13

well

loam

hemimor

30

0

few snags and vets

in F and H layers

Low-mid slope

D.CR15

well

loam

hemimor

40

0

CWO

in humus

Table 5. 8. Soil/Huckleberry/Fire Summary for Stakaiyt.

5.4.2.1

Subalpine Area

This site ranges in elevation from approximately 1000 metres to 1300 metres and is
bordered to the south by Pinenut Creek. The site is primarily located in the Engelmann Spruce
Subalpine Fir moist, very cold biogeoclimatic subzone (ESSFwv) with lower sections classified
in the Nass variant of the Interior Cedar Hemlock moist cold subzone (ICHmc1) (Figure 5.37).
Exposure is warm with aspects varying from west to south, but being predominantly southwest.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Sfudies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

The terrain is characterized by gentle to moderate slopes undulating with low ridges and mild
depressions which are generally oriented parallel to the slope. Several deeply incised drainage
features carry large amounts of meltwater during the summer months and continue to carry
smaller amounts of surface water in the fall in seemingly oversized channels. Soils are
developed on deep morainal and colluvial blankets and are typically fine textured silt loams.
These soils are primarily classified as dystric brunisols and humo-ferric podzols, with some
gleysolic soils occurring on subhygric sites.

This area is characterized by an extensive ericaceous shrubfield complex interspersed with
coniferous regeneration that becomes increasingly sparse and patchy with increasing elevation.
Because of the variability observed within this subalpine area, it has been split into two sections
along elevation lines at 1200 metres: lower parkland (1000-1200m) and upper shrubfield (12001300m). These two types are described separately in the sections that follow.

5.4.2.1.1 Lower Parkland (1000-1200 metres)
The bottom boundary of this lower area follows a
discontinuous edge of burnt areas and fire-skips with
dense clumps of regenerating conifers interspersed with
openings dominated by vigorous ericaceous shrub
communities (Figure 5.39). Predominant tree species are
amabilis fir (Abies amabilis [Dougl. ex Loud.] Forbes},
subalpine fir, western hemlock, Roche spruce and
scattered lodgepole pine. The ecological plot installed in
this area was in an area classified as the mesic Western
hemlock - step moss site series (ICHmc1 /01 a}, the
Figure 5. 39 Lower parkland area at

predominant site series throughout most of this lower

.6.CR5

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

zone. Amabilis fir was prevalent in several areas, suggesting that these sites could possibly be
classified in the amabilis fir phase of the ICHmc1 biogeoclimatic variant. However, the location
of this site on warm aspects makes such a designation problematic and contradictory to the
defining characteristics of the amabilis fir phase (ICHmc1 a), as this phase is typically found on
cool, moist northeast aspects (Banner et al., 1993). Amabilis fir and minor components of
lodgepole pine and Roche spruce were dominant in the taller, more advanced regeneration
layers. Younger western hemlock and subalpine fir were prevalent in lower regeneration layers,
and were invading gaps in the shrub complex and expanding the edges of existing coniferous
clumps.

The ericaceous shrub complex in these areas was dominated by false azalea, which
reached heights of two metres with lesser but significant components of oval-leaved blueberry
and black huckleberry. Minor components of Scouler's willow and sitka mountain ash (Serbus
sitchenchis Roemer) were scattered individually and in small patches throughout the area.

Black huckleberry was fairly abundant throughout this type with cover of 17% at the plot at
.6.CR5 and estimated covers ranging from ten to twenty percent throughout this type. Black
huckleberry was typically found persisting as an understorey shrub, overtopped by false azalea
and oval-leaved blueberry. Black huckleberry generally exhibited a diminutive growth form, good
vigour and was not observed to bear fruit under these circumstances.

A review of the autecological characteristics of these and other species by Haeussler et al.
(1990) indicated that both false azalea and oval-leaved blueberry are fire sensitive species that
do not regenerate vigorously following fire events. This shrub complex appears to be mature
and stable, and the interspecific dynamics of this ericaceous shrubfield community do not
appear to be changing significantly at present. The main dynamic in this type is the increase in
coniferous competition characterized by conifer ingress, and the increasing shade caused by

123

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

the growth of existing saplings and advanced regeneration. Although this process is relatively
slow in this subalpine environment, increased shading will likely cause a significant reduction in
the density and vigour of black huckleberry in the future.

5.4.2.1.2

Upper shrubfield
An

extensive

ericaceous

shrubfield

complex

characterized the upper section of the subalpine area with
sparse coniferous regeneration exhibiting a markedly
clumpy distribution (Figure 5.40) . This section was classified
in the ESSFwv biogeoclimatic subzone (Figure 5.37). A
large number of sites in this area were evidently receiving
seepage water from upslope alpine areas and consequently
there were large permesic and subhygric areas classified as
the Subalpine fir- Oak fern - Heron's bill (ESSFwv /05) site
Figure 5. 40 Upper shrubfield at
6.CR26

series (plot at L CR31) and the Subalpine fir- Horsetail Glow moss (ESSFwv/07) site series (plot at LCR37)
throughout this area.

Subalpine fir and amabilis fir were the dominant tree species with a minor component of
hybrid white spruce, western hemlock and scattered lodgepole pine. Ingress of additional
conifers is occurring in gaps in the shrub layer as well as around existing conifer clumps.
However, this process appears to be occurring at a slower pace than was observed in the lower
section of this subalpine area, and many large shrubfield areas remain open with very little
coniferous regeneration.

The shrub complex in this section contains the same key species as at lower elevations;
however, black huckleberry has maintained prominence here. False azalea, while still a major

124

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

component of the shrub complex, is not dominant. Sitka mountain ash is more common in this
upper area, although it does not appear to compete with huckleberry as it is relatively tall with
sparse foliage and a small basal area. This species is able to coexist relatively well with the
lower growing black huckleberry. Oval-leaved blueberry also occurs in abundance in this area,
growing amongst black huckleberry but at relatively low cover levels and not appearing to exert
a significant competitive influence.

Black huckleberry exhibited good vigour and
high cover throughout this upper slope section of the
subalpine area, occurring on a wide variety of site
series and maintaining relatively high cover and
good vigour even on the subhygric ESSFwv /07
association. Pure patches of black huckleberry were
Figure 5. 41 Pure huckleberry patch at
.6.CR31

common

throughout

this

area

particularly

on

permesic and drier ecological associations. These
areas, such as the one at plot .6.CR31 (Figure 5.41) typically had dense cover of black
huckleberry: 165 stems >=2mm in diameter (measured 1 em above ground level) were counted
in a 1.26 metre radius plot at this site for an overall density of 33 stems per square metre in
addition to many smaller stems. The majority of these huckleberry shrubs were stout, and
apparently very old stems, and were often observed to have been extensively browsed many
times over a period of years. Studies of winter diets of mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus)
in southeast Alaska (Fox and Smith , 1988) indicated that goats utilize Vaccinium species as
winter browse. It is possible that the goat populations on Caribou Mountain have made use of
this subalpine berry area and are responsible for the observed grazing activity. Huckleberry
response to repeated browsing was variable, ranging from vigorous production of robust, large
calibre shoots to much weaker production of thin, frail shoots.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Overall, this area appeared to be maintaining its shrubfield characteristics relatively well.
Late lying snow and moist ground over much of this area reduce opportunities for seedling
establishment and limit tree growth, dramatically slowing successional processes. As a result
there are still open shrub patches with high numbers of black huckleberry shrubs. These sites
appear to have good potential for restoration to productive berry grounds.

5.4.2.2

Mid-lower Slope Area

This area is a large, fire initiated, age class three (41-60 yrs) stand located on the west
face of Caribou Mountain, directly west of (below) the higher elevation berry area discussed
previously (Figure 5.36). Ranging from 600 to 1000 metres elevation (Figure 5.38), this site is
currently forested with a dense, hemlock dominated, coniferous stand.

Overall, this area is

primarily mesic and areas observed during field reconnaissance were classified in the ICHmc2
/01 and ICHmc1 /01 a site series. Soils are formed on a combination of morainal and colluvial
parent materials and were generally coarse textured loams and sandy loams with moderate to
high coarse fragment components and classified as dystric brunisols. Slopes were moderate to
steep, ranging from 20 to 50 percent.

Extremely dense stands of western hemlock poles and saplings have
regenerated on this site following an extensive fire event 55-60 years ago
(Figure 5.42). While western hemlock is the dominant tree species in this
area, western red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Donn in Lamb) often
forms a significant component of the stand; Roche spruce is generally
present but sparsely distributed. A variety of deciduous species, including
black cottonwood , trembling aspen , Scouler's willow and paper birch, were
scattered as individual stems and in small pockets throughout the stand.
Figure 5. 42
Dense hemlock
stand D. CR10

Many of these deciduous stems were observed to be declining due to light

126

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

competition from the densely stocked, overtopping conifers. Scattered lodgepole pine were
observed throughout the area and were generally of larger size than the hemlock and cedar,
however, many were in the same age class, originating from the most recent stand-initiating fire
event. In addition, several scattered pine veterans were located amongst the young stand.
These veterans often exhibited single fire scars.

Most areas of this stand were so densely stocked that very little light reached the forest
floor. Crown closure estimates of 75% and 80% were recorded at the two plot installations in
this type. As a result of the low light levels there was little or no shrub or herb layer in the
understorey throughout most areas. Where light was available, coniferous regeneration of
hemlock and cedar often dominated the understorey.

Black huckleberry was virtually non-existent in these stands, although it was observed to
persist in the understorey of adjacent older and more open stands. However, even on these
more open sites in the mid-lower slope area black huckleberry occurred only at extremely low
densities and exhibited low vigour.

5.4.3

Cultural Context and Field Data

The upper areas of the Stakaiyt area were reportedly a traditional berry harvesting ground,
as well as being important for goat hunting. This area is within the Gitxsan traditional territory of
Gutginuxw (House of the Owl).

Gitxsan elders have reported the use of this area as a berry ground. The following passage
from Pete Muldoe's Delgamuukw testimony confirms that Stakaiyt was a berry ground and
indicates that it was considered part of another huckleberry area south of Pinenut Creek, Lax
Ansa Maja (Maatsa):

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Q: That's United Church on the Kispiox reserve?
A: Yes. That's the United Church .
Q: And is that Sidina Mountain in the background, Sidina Mountain across the
river?
A: Yes. That's also part of that berry picking right in the edge of that snow cap.
Q: Now, if your lordship has Exhibit 498, your lordship will see Sidina Mountain to
the east of the Kispiox River and your lordship will then -A: That's the one they call Lax Ansa Maja right in the slope there.
(Delgamuukw vs the Queen
SCBC transcript volume 101 p. 6463)

In an interview with Neil Sterritt, Abel Brown, Chief Anda Ap related the following
description of travelling between these areas, "had to go way down to a creek, then up again for
half a day walk from Lax Ansa Maatsa to Stakaiyt".

Additional evidence has been previously collected in interviews with Gitxsan elders. In a
1976 interview with Neil John Sterritt, Perry Sampson stated that, "the last place to be burned
for berries is above 'slow down cabins'" (Sterritt, interview notes, 1976). The site referred to as
'slow down cabins' is in the vicinity of a fishing site on the Skeena River, just south of the Sid ina
Creek confluence. Directly above this site is the lower, densely treed portion of the Stakaiyt
berry patch that appears to have burned most recently in about 1950.

There was a great deal of physical cultural heritage evidence documented on and around
these sites. The upper, subalpine areas are accessed by a trail that climbs on high ground
northwest of Pinenut Creek. This trail is currently maintained by the BC Forest Service as a
recreation trail but has abundant evidence of First Nation's use going back to the early parts of
the 20th century and before. Several message trees were encountered with names of Gitxsan
people; the oldest one that was legible was dated in the 1930s and signed by J. and A. Brown.
Other message trees made reference to packing game down the trail as well as to the weather.
Messages were recorded in all seasons.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

In addition, the trail was heavily blazed with some of the oldest blazes disappearing
beneath the bark of the old growth hemlock. A blaze scar on an old hemlock (300+ yrs) that was
still clearly visible was aged at 119 years; the tree was therefore blazed in 1881 at the latest
(quite likely prior to this).

Two old camp locations were encountered along the trail on either side of the main creek.
The remains of an old cook stove and tins from the 1940s or 1950s were located at the first
camp at 6 CR4. A second camp across the creek was situated in the last patch of old growth
below the extensive shrubfield area.

Blazes were found on fire snags within the berry patch such as the one
near 6 CR19 (Figure 5.43), which pre-dated the most recent fire event by
approximately 30 years, dating it in the late 1800s. In addition, several
sections of well-defined trailbed were identified in submesic areas within the
subalpine shrubfield area. Shallow cache pits measuring approximately 60
em square and 20 em deep were found within the upper shrubfield area.
Figure 5. 43
Blaze on fire
snag ~

One was found in sandy soil on the ridge above the main creek through the
upper berry patch area at 6 CR28. A second possible cache pit was located
near 6 CR37.

In the lower, heavily forested area, a large number of bark stripped cedar trees were
located. This was immediately below the burned area, in the vicinity of a recently built road and
planned (laid out) cutblock. The scar lobe on one of these bark stripped cedar trees (Figure
5.44) was aged to at least 156 years old indicating a modification date prior to 1845. A
retrospective study of berry patch management carried out in Washington (Mack and McClure,
2001) found a strong linkage between bark stripped cedar CMTs and hucbkleberry patches,
with bark harvest dates corresponding very closely with periods of use of berry patch areas.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Cedar bark was apparently used to make temporary folded bark baskets for transporting excess
huckleberries back to villages. The authors state that bark stripped cedar trees are, "probably
our best tool for determining the age of adjacent berry processing sites used within the last 300
years".

While there is no available evidence to suggest that the Gitxsan used
folded cedar bark baskets, a number of other uses of cedar bark have been
noted in relation to berry harvesting and processing activities. The Gitxsan
used cedar bark to weave berry picking baskets as well as for roofing
material for berry drying houses and shelters which protected drying berries
from rain (People of 'Ksan , 1980). It is notable that a very large number of
bark stripped cedar are located in an upland location in close proximity to a
significant berry harvesting area on Caribou Mountain. It is quite probable

Figure 5. 44
CedarCMTat
.6..CR7 scar lobe
aged at 156 yrs

that the cedar bark harvesting activity observed could have been associated with berry
harvesting and processing on Stakaiyt. However, late summer is not the best time to be
harvesting cedar bark due to reduced sap flow, and the timing would have been a departure
from traditional patterns of spring cedar bark stripping. The question of timing notwithstanding,
the potential relationship between cedar bark stripping and huckleberry harvesting and
processing merits more careful examination.

The oral history from Gitxsan elders identifying this area as a berry ground and the
extensive physical evidence of human use of this area, much of it distinctive First Nations
activity, indicates the importance of this area as a traditional resource gathering area for the
Gitxsan. Evidence from field reconnaissance confirms that Gitxsan people have used this area
to gather and hunt a variety of resources in all seasons. The proximity of Stakaiyt to Gitxsan
villages and reserves, as well as its proximity to ancestral villages further confirms its place
within a cultural landscape. The evidence documented reflects a pattern of traditional use, which

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

not only included riverine environments, but stretched through old, montane hemlock stands to
subalpine berry grounds, and continued further upslope to alpine habitats where other upland
resources such as goat and marmot could be obtained.

5.4.4

Fire History

There was a great deal of fire history evidence collected from the subalpine and mid-lower
slope sample areas on Caribou Mountain. Fire history data from this site includes a number of
ages collected with an increment borer as well as several wedge samples of fire scar lobes from
cedar veterans in the mid-lower slope area. The two distinct areas (subalpine and mid-lower
slope) exhibit distinctly different fire history traits as a result of the differences in species
composition (influencing response to fire and preservation of fire evidence) and likely a
difference in the fire regime influencing these sites. Therefore, these two areas are examined
and analysed separately in the sections which follow, but, it should be noted that fires
connected these two areas and their fire histories are inter-related to some extent. Recognizing
5

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Figure 5. 45 Tree age cohorts from trees sampled at Stakaiyt (combined areas).

131

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

this inter-related fire history, the data collected during field reconnaissance for both areas
combined is summarized in a composite fire history histogram (Figure 5.45).

5.4.4.1

Subalpine Area
The majority of this upper area was characterized by
open ericaceous shrubfield (Figure 5.46) with a tree layer
dominated by fire sensitive Abies species that tend not to
survive fire events, and are known to have a low
resistance to decay. As a result, there were few veteran
trees remaining and no fire scar evidence was available.
A number of age samples were taken from the largest

area
showing open shrubfield,
scattered fire snags and lodgepole
pine regeneration
~

n

trees (mainly from lodgepole pine) in the stand. The fire
history data collected for this area (independent of other
sample areas) are summarized in the fire history

histogram for this area (Figure 5.47).

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Figure 5. 47 Tree age cohorts from trees sampled at Stakaiyt (subalpine areas).

132

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of f ive Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Several of the age samples collected in this area were bracketed between 67 and 80
years, with ages clustered at 67 and 77-80. One younger age sample (41 years) was collected
from a lodgepole pine at the plot at 6CR37. This sample was taken within an area classified as
age class one (21-40 years) on the forest cover map, suggesting that there may have been
another more recent fire event in this area. However, only one sample was collected within this
area, and more samples are required to determine the time of stand initiation with a sufficient
degree of confidence.

A fringe of older, subalpine fir dominated stands separated
the seral shrub complex from the alpine areas above treeline
(Figure 5.48). Trees in this old growth strip are classed in age
class eight on forest cover maps. An age sample from a large
subalpine fir in this area yielded an approximate age of 226
years. The existence of this strip of old, fire sensitive species
at the upslope edge of a large burn raises some interesting
questions about fire timing and dynamics. The expectation

Figure 5. 48 Airphoto of the
upper subalpine area with
fringe of old subalpine fir at
alpine border

under ordinary summer burning conditions would be that this strip would burn and that the fire
would reach the alpine. However, the observed pattern seems to suggest that this fire burned to
snowline where it was extinguished, suggesting a spring or possibly a late fall burn.

The area below this subalpine shrubfield is treed with widely spaced old growth hemlock
and ingress of subalpine fir in canopy gaps. A few old lodgepole pine are found scattered widely
on submesic sites. A lodgepole pine located just below this subalpine shrubfield area at 6CR3
was aged at 220 years. A second lodgepole pine at this site was aged at 329 years which quite
probably represents the initiation time of many of the large western hemlock trees in these old
growth types, several of which were observed to have fire scars at the base. The existence of
fire scars throughout many of these old growth areas as well as the sparse distribution and

133

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

limbless boles of the larger trees indicates that fire traveled through these stands on at least one
occasion. This suggests that despite the existence of strips of old growth forest between the two
areas of relatively recent fire events, the fire history on this slope is inter-related to some extent.

5.4.4.2

Mid-lower Slope

The mid-lower slope area was apparently influenced by a fairly frequent fire regime. The
most recent fire event is clearly in evidence as a large even-aged stand initiated by what
appears to have been a fairly intense fire event. There were several cedar veterans on the midlower slope area that exhibited one or more fire scars. Wedge samples of fire scar lobes were
collected from a few of these trees. In addition, age samples of lodgepole pine from fire edges
and fire-skips provided additional information that was used to begin reconstructing the fire
regime in this area. It is important to note that this area is immediately below the subalpine area,
separated by a swath of old growth hemlock (age class eight [141-250 years] and nine [250+
years]) , and as noted, there is evidence that fire has passed through these older types.
Therefore, fires recorded in this mid-lower slope area may well have initiated, or been initiated
by, fire events at higher elevations. This observation parallels the findings of a study of the Hoh
fire on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State, which found that more than half of the
subalpine areas (subalpine fir and mountain hemlock) experienced crown fires while only ten
percent of the montane forest (western hemlock, Douglas fir) experienced crown fires (Agee
and Huff, 1980, cited in Parminter, 1983). Therefore there was a major difference in fire
behaviour between these types; a dynamic which may be a factor at the montane/subalpine
interface on Stakaiyt. Fire history samples collected from this area are summarised in the
following chart (Figure 5.49).

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

~----------------------------------------------~-------------.
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A wedge sample from a fire scar lobe on a large cedar veteran located at .6CR11
revealed three fire scars at 50, 71 and 127 years before present (Figure 5.49). This cedar
veteran was located in young , hemlock dominated stand. Scattered lodgepole pine in this young
hemlock stand were aged 54-58 years. Age samples taken from older lodgepole pine in fire-skip
areas and individual pine vets within this young type were aged 132-145 years.

Figure 5. 50 Fire scar wedge
sample from cedar veteran at
6CR11

Figure 5. 51 Fire scarred
cedar (2x) near 6CR8

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

An older stand was located below this youngest hemlock type, and was characterized by
widely spaced cedar and hemlock veterans interspersed with younger pine and hemlock.
Several of these trees, particularly the cedar, exhibited fire scars (Figure 5.51 ), one with two
scars (with a thin inter-scar lobe) indicating that fire passed through these mature stands lower
on the slope as well. An age sample from a younger lodgepole pine at .6.CR8 revealed an age
of 132 years while an old hemlock veteran in the same stand, located below .6.CR12 was aged
226 years. Finally a wedge sample from a large cedar veteran located several hundred metres
south of the youngest stand at .6.CR29 recorded a fire event 103 years ago.

The fire scar data recorded within and immediately adjacent to the youngest stand
indicated three fire events in a 77-year period between 1873 and 1950 (based on the wedge
sample from the cedar veteran), for a mean fire return interval of approximately 39 years at
.6.CR11 . It is unlikely that this veteran cedar recorded all of the fire events that have occurred
on this site and additional fire scar samples need to be collected to more accurately determine
past fire frequency for this area.

While the fire scar record indicates dates of several fire events, the cohort ages of trees
(mostly pine) within this stand do not necessarily correspond to the timing of these fire events.
There are two cohorts of trees with ages greater than the closest fire scar dates. The youngest
cohort aged at 54-58 years could not possibly have been initiated by the fire recorded for 1950,
but could possibly have been initiated by the fire recorded for 1929. However, in order for this
theory to be validated, a 13-17 year period would have been required for the sampled trees to
germinate and reach the sampling height of 1.3 metres. This seems highly unlikely given the
warm aspect and well-drained soils, both of which are excellent conditions for rapid pine growth.
Lodgepole pine is expected to reach 1.3 metres in approximately three years under good
growing conditions (as would be expected after a fire) on zonal ICHmc2 sites such as this

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

(Anonymous, 1997)27 . This therefore suggests that another fire (unrecorded in the fire scar
samples) may have initiated many of the trees in this younger type. However, this would require
that these relatively young trees survived the ensuing fire event of 1950 without exhibiting
evidence of scarring. This seems a highly improbable sequence of events. One additional
possibility is that the fire-scarred cedar has a number of missing rings, possibly as a result of the
shock of the fire event and wounding. Similarly, a second cohort ranging from 132-145 could not
have been initiated by the fire event recorded 127 years ago based on a sample from the firescarred cedar. However, it is likely that an earlier fire event initiated this cohort. Additional fire
scar samples are required to clarify this chronology of fire events.

The wedge shaped burn pattern exhibited by this lower-mid slope area (Figures 5.36 and
5.38) suggests the most recent fire was driven across the slope by wind blowing up the Skeena
Valley from the south. The thin edge of the wedge is located on the old trail up Pinenut Creek,
indicating that this may have been the point of ignition for this fire event.

While it is not feasible to fully reconstruct the fire regime of this lower-mid slope area
without additional fire history data, it is apparent that this area has experienced several fire
events during the last 150 years. Clearly, the fire regime on this slope had a far shorter return
interval than the expected interval of 200 years for the ICHmc2 and ICHmc1, or than the 350
year mean event interval expected for the ESSFwv as identified in the MoF biodiversity
guidebook (Anonymous, 1995).

5.4.5

Site Summary

For the most part, the Stakaiyt berry grounds are dominated by moderately sloping, mesic
sites on warm aspects. However, increasing seepage and wetter ecological associations are
27

The# of years to breast height (3 in this case) is calculated from site index for ICHmc2 /01 of21 metres at
50 years for an average annual growth of .42 metres

137

Chapter 5: Pieces ofthe Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

encountered adjacent to alpine areas that are influenced by snowmelt runoff throughout most of
the growing season.

Dense, uniform, western hemlock dominated stands were observed to occupy lower
elevations, and appeared to have established promptly following a fire event occurring in the
late 1930s or early 1940s. Conifer regeneration dominated by Abies species was sparse and
clumpy in the higher elevation subalpine area. Persistent seral shrub communities, comprised
primarily of ericaceous species, dominated these sites.

Black huckleberry abundance was observed to be strongly correlated with light availability.
Plants varied in vigour and abundance from nonexistent to very low cover and vigour in the
dense hemlock stands on mid-lower slopes, to relatively high cover values with good vigour in
the open shrubfield complexes encountered in the subalpine area.

Large concentrations of black huckleberry in the subalpine area were observed to have
experienced heavy grazing by wildlife over many years. This grazing activity was noted to be
most pronounced in the higher elevations areas, where black huckleberry occurred in greatest
abundance. Caribou Mountain is well known as important mountain goat habitat and as noted
previously it is possible that goats are responsible for the observed grazing patterns.

Several knowledgeable Gitxsan elders indicated that this area is part of a traditional berry
ground. The abundant evidence of cultural use confirms this, and suggests the importance of
this area for the collection of a number of other plant and animal resources, particularly red
cedar bark and mountain goat as well as caribou in the past. The location of two camp areas
below the open shrubfield area suggests the importance of this early seral type as an area
where resources were gathered on multi-day excursions in the past.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

The proximity of this site to the named berry ground across Pinenut Creek at Lax Ansa
Maatsa is an indication that both are important berry grounds and were likely interrelated with
respect to use and management. Warmer aspects and greater elevational range of this area on
Stakaiyt may have provided important site variability to ensure dependable harvests despite
variable weather conditions from year to year. As Pete Muldoe indicated in his Delgamuukw
testimony (cited earlier in this thesis) , this site is considered part of Lax Ansa Maja (Maatsa).

Perry Sampson, a Gitxsan elder, has identified the southwest flank of Mount Tomlinson, a
few kilometres to the north as another traditional huckleberry area (2000). All three huckleberry
areas are situated on higher elevation sites with warm aspects near the major village sites
across the river at Kispiox and nearby at Caribou (Utson Creek), a site which Perry Sampson
refers to as "the hometown of Gutginuxw" (personal communication, September, 2000). In
Delgamuukw affidavits this old village site is referred to as Lax Xsin Djihl ( also the name of the

territory) and is described as a village site on the Skeena river at the mouth of Utson Creek
(De/gamuukw vs. the Queen, exhibit 609, Abel Brown). In addition, several fishing stations are

located along the east side of the Skeena near the base of Caribou Mountain. This indicates
that one or more, and quite probably all three of these factors (elevation, aspect and proximity to
villages or fishing sites) may have been important in determining which areas would be actively
used as huckleberry patches. The consistent aspect and slope across much of the west flank of
Caribou Mountain suggests that other areas of highly suitable habitat may exist in close
proximity to villages and fishing stations. It is therefore possible that other portions of this slope
may have formed part of a more extensive berry ground in the past.

The existence of relatively frequent fire events on this slope, its proximity to major villages,
its history as a berry ground and the importance of abundant huckleberry harvests to Gitxsan
subsistence trade and culture, all suggest that this area was managed for berry production
using landscape burning. While it is difficult to verify this unequivocally, it is also difficult to

139

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

formulate an alternative explanation for the combined oral history, fire history, ecological and
cultural evidence that has been assembled for this site. It is clear that this area was a landscape
that has been actively used by the Gitxsan in the historic period for gathering a variety of
resources, a pattern that is almost certainly a continuation of past patterns.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.46.
5.5.1

Lax Ansa Maatsa: Case Study
Introduction

Lax Ansa Maatsa is a named huckleberry ground identified in territorial affidavits as "berry
area on a ridge south of upper Pinenut Creek" in the Gutginuxw territory of Lax Xsin Djihl
(Oe/gamuukw vs. the Queen, exhibit 609). The extent of this area is illustrated in the following

aerial photo (Figure 5.52) This area is an upland plateau between Nine Mile Mountain and
Sidina Mountain that has been actively used for berry harvesting as recently as the 1950's.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Figure 5. 52 Lax Ansa Maatsa (1978) Airphoto. Scale is approximately 1: 18,000

142

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

D

-

strearrs
TRIM Contours

Non-Faest Featu-es

D

D
D
D
D
D

Alpine

River
LBke

Meaoow
Non.p-<XIuctive
BrL6h Co!Tfllex
Rock

Sw>mp

Ella geoclimatic Unrts

D

D
D
D
D

ESSFwv
tCHrrc1

ICHmc2
sasd<
S8Smc2

Figure 5.53 Lax Ansa Maatsa Berry Area and Field Sample Points

143

- . ·------

- . - -- - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

5.5.2

Ecological Overview

For the purposes of this study, the Lax Ansa Maatsa area is defined by the extent of early
seral communities composed primarily of ericaceous shrubs and areas dominated by relatively
young (less than 100 year old) coniferous regeneration. To characterize it in broad terms, the
area under discussion is an overgrown berry ground that is succeeding to coniferous forest as
trees become established at the margins of the open area. The site is characterized by rolling
terrain punctuated by two substantial hills at the eastern boundary, creating a large area of
warm south and west aspects. Two small lakes are set in a shallow basin located roughly in the
centre of this plateau area. These lakes are linked by a wetland complex and drainage into
Pinenut Creek to the north. Another small creek has its source on this plateau and drains to the
south, eventually emptying into the Shegunia River.

Lax Ansa Maatsa is largely situated at elevations between 11 00 and 1200 metres with a
small area on the south end reaching as low as 1000 metres (Figure 5.53). Ecologically, this
plateau area is transitional between the Nass variant of the Interior Cedar Hemlock moist,
cold subzone (ICHmc1) and the wet, very cold subzone of the Engelmann SpruceSubalpine Fir zone (ESSFwv). The significant numbers of amabilis fir on some areas of
this site suggests that these areas could be classified in the amabilis fir phase of the
ICHmc1 (ICHmc1 a). However, this phase is typically found on cool moist (largely northeast)
aspects (Banner et. al. 1993), conditions that are generally not observed in this berry ground.
Most sites in the area surveyed were placed in the ESSFwv, with some smaller areas classified
as ICHmc1. The latter biogeoclimatic variant occurs primarily on the warmer south and westfacing slopes of the two hills east of the lakes (Figure 5.53).

Aside from the wetland complexes, this area is largely mesic with some submesic and
subxeric sites associated with a gentle north-south ridge that occupies the western half of the
plateau and the narrower ridge crests of the two hills located east of the lakes. Soils were

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

primarily fine textured, silty loams formed on morainal parent materials and classified as dystric
brunisols and, on some sites, humo-ferric podzols.
The following tables (Table 5.9, Table 5.10) summarize the ecological data collected from a
series of plots on this site.

Area

Plot
ID

BGC Unit

Site
Stand
Crown Slope
Series Structure* Closure (%)

(deg.)

Asp.

Elev.
(m)

Dominant

tree

Dominant
shrub

East hills

.6.L9 ICHmc1

/01a

PSCs

30

17

264

1159

Hm

M. ferruginea

East hills

.6.L39 ICHmc1

/01a

YF Ct

25

10

226

1203

Ba

M. ferruginea

West ridge L'I.L 17 ESSFwv

/01

LS

15

0

none

1135

Hw

M. ferruginea

West ridge .6.L34 ESSFwv

/03

LS

15

10

228

1136

Bl

M. ferruginea

West ridge .6.L55 ESSFwv

/03

LS

12

15

280

1175

Hw

M. ferruginea

Snags&CWD

Charcoal
Presence

*PS- pole/saplmg, YF- young forest, LS- low shrub, C- comferous, t= two-stoned, s- smgle-stoned

Table 5. 9. Ecological/Site Summary for the Lax Ansa Maatsa area.

Area

Plot
ID

Drainage

Soil
Texture

Humus
Form

Coarse
%
Frag. ( %) V.mem

East hills

.6.L9 moderate

silty loam

mormoder

40

20

some snags and CWO no charcoal

East hills

.6.L39 moderate

silty loam

mormoder

25

8

few snags some CWD

in H layer

West ridge .6.L17 moderate

silty loam

hemimor

15

8

few snags

in H layer

West ridge .6.L34 moderate

silty loam

mormoder

15

8

several snags and
CWD

in H layer

West ridge .6.L55 moderate

Loam

mormoder

40

5

CWD various sizes

in F layer

Table 5. 10. Soil/Huckleberry/Fire Summary for the Lax Ansa Maatsa area.

The vegetation on this site is largely characterized by a persistent ericaceous shrubfield
complex that is in the process of succeeding to a forest stand dominated by subalpine fir,
amabilis fir, mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertenesia [Bong.] Carr.) and western hemlock. Tree
distribution is generally patchy and is densest close to the edge of adjacent older stands, while

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

interior areas, particularly on exposed ridges, continue to maintain open shrubfield
characteristics.

Surrounding forests are typically old growth hemlock stands in age
classes eight and nine. These stands are primarily classified in the mesic
ICHmc1 /01a site series (Figure 5.54). Mature hemlock veterans in these
types appeared to be extremely old and were generally widely spaced,
often concentrated in small pockets, with mature and maturing subalpine
Figure 5. 54 Old
growth hemlock
in ICHmc1/01a

fir and western hemlock filling in the gaps. There was generally very little
understorey in undisturbed areas of these stands, however, false azalea
and oval-leaved blueberry grew vigorously in canopy gaps and areas of

younger, maturing forest.

Black huckleberry is present on all sites in the old berry
ground, and varies from five to thirty percent cover. It
generally persists as an understorey shrub beneath its
ericaceous associates: false azalea and oval-leaved blueberry
(Figure 5.55). Black huckleberry exhibited good vigour and
high cover values on the drier more exposed sites where it
occasionally dominates small areas. Black huckleberry was
only occasionally observed to fruit in this area and when fruit
was observed, only very low numbers of berries had been
Figure 5. 55 Black huckleberry
(red foliage -lower centre)
persisting below false azalea
(light foliage) at .6L7

observed. Oval-leaved blueberry however, generally bore
abundant

fruit

throughout

this

area.

Although

black

huckleberry was observed to be a diminutive, understorey
species throughout this area, it generally exhibited good vigour and did not appear to be
senescent or declining markedly.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

A more thorough discussion of the ecological characteristics and successional dynamics of
this area is facilitated by dividing the area into two distinct areas: 1) the gentle ridge west of the
two lakes, and 2) the hillsides east of the lakes (figure 5.53). Characteristics of these two areas
are outlined in the following sections.

5.5.2.1

Western Ridge

A broad, gently sloping ridge dominated the area west of the two lakes and stretched more
than two kilometres from its northern end above Pinenut Creek to its endpoint several hundred
metres southwest of the southernmost, teardrop-shaped lake (Figure 5.53). This area was
characterized by large submesic, sparsely treed areas across the broad ridgetop (Figure 5.57)
area that were classified as ESSFwv /03 (Figure 5.56). These relatively dry sites graded into
mesic associations on the eastern side of the ridge down toward the two lakes and at the lower,
southern end of the ridge.

Figure 5. 56 Relatively
open ESSFwv /03
shrubfield -west ridge
6. L48

Figure 5. 57 North end of the
western ridge containing plot
6.L55

Figure 5. 58 ESSF wv /02
pocket on rocky outcrop
near 6.L48

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

The higher, northern half of the ridgetop was interspersed with a few small rocky outcrops
which supported subxeric vegetation communities dominated by terrestrial lichens and are
classified as the Subalpine fir, Lodgepole pine - Cladonia (ESSFwv /02) site series (Figure
5.58). This site series is identified as a rare plant community (blue listed) in the Kispiox Forest
District. Haeussler (1998) postulates that the rarity of this fire adapted, pine-lichen site series is
attributable to the "wet, snowy climate and infrequent fire" that largely shape the vegetation
assemblages in the ESSFwv subzone.

5.5.2.2

Eastern Hills

The two large elliptical hills to the east of the small lakes were both oriented north to south.
The areas surveyed were primarily on the warm south and west aspects of these hills, as well
as on the ridgetop areas, and were largely mesic with some seepage zones and wet meadows
in toe slope areas. These sites were primarily classified as ICHmc1 based on vegetation
characteristics, particularly the abundance of amabilis fir. Warm aspects on the west and south
aspects of these hills likely account for the predominance of ICHmc1 vegetation assemblages at
these uncharacteristically high elevations.

Figure 5. 59 East hills east of
smaller lake - contains plot
6.L9

Figure 5. 60 ICHmc1/01a
heavy azalea and maturing
Abies at plot 6.L9

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of f ive Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Large portions of this area have succeeded to young coniferous stands (Figure 5.59),
which exhibit a closed canopy in a few places. Coniferous seedlings, saplings and poles have
established in all areas, although some portions have relatively low densities of coniferous
establishment and maintaining open shrubfield characteristics. Heavy growth of false azalea
(Figure 5.60) has excluded conifers on some sites, although clumps of tree regeneration within
these areas generally provide opportunities for additional coniferous establishment at their
margins. It is expected that black huckleberry will maintain a presence on this site even under
an increasingly closed canopy, but it will likely decline in vigour and abundance with decreased
light availability. It is anticipated that this decline in black huckleberry vigour and abundance
may increasingly become an impediment to the successful restoration of this area as a
productive huckleberry patch.

5.5.3

Cultural Context and Field Data

Gitxsan advisors Perry Sampson and Walter Wilson report that Lax Ansa Maatsa has been
used in the last fifty years as a berry picking ground (2000) 28 . During interviews conducted by
Richard Overstall and Neil Sterritt (1986) documenting berry picking and processing near
Kispiox in the 1920's, Gitxsan elders Percy Sterritt and the late Gertie Morrison recalled
camping at Lax Ansa Maatsa at the start of the huckleberry picking season with their
grandmother Sophia Johnson and her sister's family. They described this site as a bench north
of the Salmon River where they picked and dried the Sim maiy (black huckleberry) before
moving further up the valley to pick mii yehl or lowbush blueberry ( Vaccinium caespitosum) on
lower elevation sites. This area is also well known for its important moose habitat. In addition,
this area is part of a goat migration corridor between Caribou Mountain and Nine Mile Mountain
(Walter Wilson 29 , personal communication, 2001 ). It is within easy access of the traditional goat
and caribou hunting areas on Caribou Mountain. Caribou have been sighted in this area within
28

Perry Sampson reports guiding Lottie Muldoe and Gertie Morrison up to this area. Walter Wilson reports
that Lottie Muldoe picked berries in this area.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

the last 30 years and antlers are still found in the headwaters of Pinenut Creek (Walter Wilson,
personal communication, 2001 ).

Gitxsan people have also used this berry ground as a trapping base to access surrounding
old growth stands for trapping marten and other furbearers. A trapping cabin was reportedly
located between the two lakes and several dozen traps were apparently hung in a spruce tree at
this site (Walter Wilson, personal communication, 2001 ). This berry ground is also close to
several fishing stations on the Skeena, as well as an area traditionally used for netting spring
salmon on the Shegunia River (Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en Chiefs, 1987).

There was a great deal of physical cultural heritage evidence
documented within and at the margins of this berry ground. There are
many blazes on trees within the shrubfield and in adjacent wooded
areas, with some trees blazed quite high on the bole indicating winter
use of this area as well. Particularly high concentrations of blazes
were recorded in the old growth hemlock types west of the shrubfield
area. Many of these blazes were on old growth hemlock trees (Figure
5.61) and (the blazes) were estimated to be well over 100 years of
age. A very large old hemlock was discovered at .6.L45 blazed on all
Figure 5. 61 Large
blaze in old hemlock
stand

four sides, likely indicating a trail junction. The blazes on this particular
tree were approximately 50 em in length.

From the blaze patterns recorded on this site, it would appear that a number of trails exit
the shrubfield along its western side and coalesce into a trail running north-south inside the old
growth hemlock type. It also appeared as if some of these blaze patterns turned to the
southwest at the south end of the shrubfield and headed towards the small oval shaped lake
29

Walter Wilson is a caretaker for the house of Gutginuxw

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

and then likely down the ridge to the Skeena Valley bottom. This is similar to a route described
by Perry Sampson (personal communication, 2000) for accessing this berry ground. He reports
that the trail into this area passed by Collins Lake and ascended the ridge to the berry patch
area and that he had used this trail many years ago when he had accompanied the late Lottie
Muldoe and the late Elsie Morrison to this area on a berry-picking excursion. This route would
coincide with some of the blaze patterns observed in the old growth hemlock types on the
western margin of the berry patch area.

Trails within the shrubfield area seemed to follow the wetland complexes. A number of
blazes were found throughout these areas, and a trail appeared to follow the wetland north of
the larger lake towards Pinenut Creek and the berry ground at Stakaiyt (south and west flank of
Caribou Mountain). The Pinenut Creek Valley is extremely steep below this area and the best
crossing location to access the subalpine and alpine areas on Caribou Mountain would be at the
north end of the wetland complex north of the two lakes. In addition to the blaze patterns,
several sections of trailbed were located both within (Figure 5.62) and outside (5.63) of the
shrubfield area. Some of these were currently being used by wildlife but in many cases they
were not used, and were instead obscured in thick brush.

Figure 5. 62 Section of
trailbed within
shrubfield near .6.L7

Figure 5. 63 3-4
blazes- 81swamp complex
.6.L22

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..------------------------- -- Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

A campsite was located at the northwest corner of the larger lake.
This site was located on a trail which ran from the wetland area
(southwest of the lake), and skirted the west side of the lake, turning
east and running through the camp and into the wetland complex to the
north of the lake. At this point the blaze pattern petered out. The
campsite itself had evidence of fire pits, a number of chopped branches
and axe marks on trees. In addition, the remains of an old raft were
Figure 5. 64 Old
raft near camp
location at ..6. L 19

found at the shoreline (Figure 5.64).

To the west of the campsite, in a cool (east-facing), permesic opening at the edge of the
open shrubfield area (.6.L37), a series of three shallow, square depressions were found,
arranged in a line and spaced equidistant from one another (Figure 5.65). These depressions
measured approximately 50 centimetres square and were approximately 15 centimetres deep.
These were similar to the shallow pit depressions found on Stakaiyt (Caribou Mountain), and at
other berry patch sites in the area.

The purpose of these depressions is uncertain.
However, it is possible that these sites were used to
cache harvested berries, keeping them cool while the
pickers continued their work. It seems plausible that the
depressions were used to steady the large bentwood
boxes that were traditionally used by berry pickers,
keeping them upright and avoiding spillage. The cedar

Figure 5. 65 Shallow, square
depressions in permesic forest
edge area at ..6.L37

bentwood berry box recently discovered at an old berry
camp in the lower Harold Price drainage measured 43cmx42cm at the base (Rabnett, 1999),
which would fit in the depressions located in the berry patches. The location of these pits at the
edge of an open shrubfield area and above a known camp location supports this hypothesis. In

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

theory, berry pickers could fill one of the large bentwood boxes with berries and cache it
securely in a cool spot that they would pass enroute back to the berry camp at the end of the
day.

In summary, this is a named berry patch area that is still commonly known and referred to
by its Gitxsan name of "Lax Ansa Maatsa" by a number of Gitxsan elders. It is also known as an
important hunting ground, particularly for moose in the fall. The site is within easy access of the
alpine goat (and formerly caribou) hunting areas on Caribou Mountain. The location of a camp
at the two lakes, and the reported existence of a cabin between these two lakes and another
cabin 30 in older timber along the western boundary of this area, all indicate intensive use of this
area for multi-day hunting, trapping and gathering excursions. It is clear that this high elevation
plateau was an important habitat traditionally used to gather a number of upland resources. It is
also interesting to note, that despite the importance of these other resources, the name for this
site is most often referred to in reference to its importance as a huckleberry gathering area.

5.5.4

Fire History
Documenting fire history in subalpine forests is often challenging due
to the lack of fire scar evidence and the intermittent nature of regeneration
of coniferous tree species at high elevations. One option that is available
to determine fire history in these areas is the use of tree (age) cohorts of
species that are known fire followers such as lodgepole pine. James Agee
(1993) has indicated that lodgepole pine is a suitable marker tree for fire

Figure 5. 66 Multiaged pine growing
together near

L:..L58

events in subalpine areas. However, in areas where lodgepole pine bear
non-serotinous cones and suitable microsites exist, lodgepole pine may
regenerate long after the last fire event, making it more difficult to identify

30

Delgamuukw maps indicate a cabin at the headwaters of a small creek draining west from the berry ground
plateau into Pinenut Creek (west of the southernmost of the two small lakes)

153

r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- . .
Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

distinct fire-initiated cohorts of pine with certainty. This may be the case within several of the
areas surveyed in this area (Figure 5.66). As a result, only the oldest, most abundant pine age
class is used as a marker of a past fire event. Fortunately, there was a great deal of additional
fire history evidence documented on this site which provides additional context that contributes
to our understanding of the nature of past fire events.

More than two dozen age samples were collected from mature trees (primarily lodgepole
pine) throughout the open shrubfield area, as well as in fire-skips and older forests at the
margins of this berry ground. Most of the samples used to date relatively recent fire events were
collected from lodgepole pine that were deemed to be the largest (and assumed to be the
oldest) in the area. This yielded a range of ages from 76 to 92 that did not appear to be grouped
in any particular manner, but instead formed a continuum, with no gaps greater than two years
between ages. Tande (1977) found that lodgepole pine establish from 1-20 years post-fire with
the average establishment at four years in forests near Jasper, Alberta. This drawn out pattern
of lodgepole pine establishment could account for the pattern of lodgepole pine ages observed
here. Samples from older stands yielded ages of 101, 184, 228 and 359, while younger trees
were aged 70 (two samples), 52, 46, 38.

There was relatively little fire scar evidence available on or around
this site. Most of the tree species which dominate this high elevation
area (Abies and Tsuga species) are typically fire avoiders (Agee, 1993),
and tend to either burn readily in fire events or succumb quickly to rot or
decay once damaged. The fire scar evidence that was collected
indicates a fire event approximately 90 years ago based primarily on
an increment borer sample of a subalpine fir veteran in a fire-skip area

Figure 5. 67 Fire
scarred Hw at .6L1
(scar-74+ yrs)

at .l::..L36. This fire scar lobe had 75 countable rings and was geometrically corrected, adding 15
years for a total age of 90 years. A second increment borer sample from fire scar lobe on a

154

Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

large hemlock veteran at .6.L 1 (Figure 5.67) yielded 74 countable rings and likely recorded a fire
in the same time period, although this sample was not corrected. The majority of the lodgepole
pine sampled likely originated from a fire in the period around 1910. The regeneration "pulse" in
age classes between 76 and 90 years, as seen in Figure 5.68, supports this hypothesis and
suggests that the fire event recorded at .6.L36 quite likely affected a large portion of this area as
trees in this age category were widely dispersed across the site.

..

8

"C

7

sCIS

6

c.
"'....
"'CIS

.."'
......

I • tree age samfies

I • fire scar samfies

5

(J

~

....

Q

....

.Q

c

z=

4

3
2
1

0

I II

II I

-... ...~ -... ; .., - -- ~...
-- 0

o:-

~

0
'C

~

~

o:-

~

~

0

on
~

;1;

~

0...,.
.....

.....

~

~

~

~

0
N

~

~

~

~

N

~

0

;:
...,.

~

0

~

CIC

t

~

~

CIC

~

.....

0

~

~

0

o:-

CIC

~
o:-

~

I

-~ ...~ ~ ~ - - t
0
'C
CIC

.....

0
on
CIC
CIC

0
...,.
CIC

.....

~

CIC
.....

.....

0
N
CIC

~

N
CIC

.....

0

;o

-

g

CIC

~

;o

~

I
0

~

o:-

'":'
...,.
~

o:.....

0
CIC

o:-

0

o:o:-

0
'C

o:.....

i...o:- .....o:- :i.....o:~
o:-

Year oftree initiation or fire scarring (5 year intervals)

Figure 5. 68 Tree age cohorts from trees sampled within Lax Ansa Maatsa.

Additional characteristics of the past fire regime can be inferred from the variation in stand
characteristics within this area. Initial air photo analysis revealed that the extensive north-south
ridge that lies west of the two little lakes (west ridge) is sparsely treed with smaller stems
relative to more densely treed areas to the south and east of the small lakes. This observation
was confirmed during field reconnaissance and sampling, and could not be immediately
associated with topographical or other site features. While the ridge was generally drier overall
than other areas surveyed, there were many large, ecologically equivalent areas in terms of
aspect, elevation, moisture and nutrient status on the more densely treed east hills. Despite the
similarities between site types, these areas were very different with respect to stand density and

155

. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - --- Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

age structure (based on observation). The more open stand on the west ridge generally
appeared to have a wider variety of regeneration age classes, whereas the more densely treed
sites on the east hills appeared to be more even-aged with the majority of the stems in the older
age class (76-90 years).

It is interesting to note that the oldest pines on both sites did not appear to differ
appreciably in age31 . Therefore, it is inferred that the young stands on both sites were likely
initiated by the same fire event, and that sites with similar ecological potential on these two site
types are following distinctly different successional pathways. This suggests that some other
factor is influencing stand development on these sites. It appears likely that this other factor is
related to the fire regime and could possibly be the intensity or frequency of past fire events.
Differences in one or both of these factors may have limited tree regeneration opportunities over
the past decades on the more sparsely treed west ridge.

It is postulated that the sparsely treed ridge west of the little lakes has experienced more
frequent fire disturbance than the area to the east and south of the lakes. As a result of this
more frequent or intense disturbance, available seed sources would be markedly reduced on
the west ridge and recolonization of this site would be increasingly dependent on the
establishment of seedlings from wind-dispersed seed. At the same time, shrub species which
sprout from surviving rhizomes following a fire would have an advantage, establishing ground
cover that would further limit opportunities for coniferous establishment. The stand
characteristics of this ridge appeared to reflect the influences of this type of disturbance and
regeneration pattern.

Additional information about the fire history of this site can be inferred from the distribution,
size and variability of woody debris that remains on the site in the form of downed logs and

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

standing snags. Generally speaking, snags and coarse woody debris were sparsely distributed
on this site, increasing in abundance in moister, depressional areas and on cool aspects. Again,
there were distinct differences between the ridge west of the lakes, and other young stands on
this site. Areas on the west ridge generally had a variety of size classes of snags and a
relatively low amount of coarse woody debris overall, relative to other young stands on the east
hills and areas south of the lakes.

Table 5.11 summarizes the snags and coarse woody debris present in a 0.01 hectare plot
established at .6L55. This total stump/snag count indicates a stand density of 600
stems/hectare for this site prior to the last fire, assuming that all trees were living at that time.
From the varying states of decay it appears as if the standing (solid) fire snags in the 25
centimetre (at 1.3 metres) size class were likely alive much more recently than the stumps with
trunks on the ground which were in advanced stages of decay (decay classes 4 and 5
[Anonymous, 1998]). Therefore, the pre-fire stand density estimate is likely conservative and
pre-fire stand density was likely closer to 200 stems per hectare.

Stem Diameter (em)

Standing Solid

15
25
50

Stump&CWD

1

2
3

Table 5. 11. Summary of Previous Stand Characteristics at D.L55.

In general, there was a sparse and patchy distribution of downed and standing fire snags
on this site. These snags varied in size (Figure 5.70), with the largest likely being several
hundred years old at the time of death. A moderate sized subalpine fir fire snag (31.5 em dbh) at
.6L 15 was aged at 188 years. In some cases, snags exhibited evidence of scarring from two fire
events (Figure 5.69 and Figure 5.71). It appears as if, prior to the last fire, large scattered living
31

Additional age samples are required in order to confirm age class distributions on this site.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies- Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

trees, including some fire veterans were sparsely distributed throughout many areas of this site.
This type of stand structure is indicative of a moderate intensity fire regime characterized by
"substantial numbers of residual trees in the larger age classes" and which will "often develop a
multiple-age structure" (Agee, 1998).

Further evidence that this area has experienced a moderate intensity fire regime in the past
can be inferred from the abundance of fire refugia and "skips" that are distributed in several
areas at the centre of the plateau. Topographic and site characteristics (i.e., moister site series)
have allowed these areas to avoid fire for longer periods than surrounding areas. However, fire
scars observed within these types indicate that fire did pass through some of them, but
apparently did not ladder into the crowns. This suggests that these stands must have had a
structure that was relatively fire resistant at the time of the last fire. The stand appears to have
been relatively open with few fine fuels accumulated, and relatively few low-reaching limbs on
trees. The large subalpine fir at .6L36 was aged 359 years, and was immediately adjacent to
the subalpine fir vet with the fire scar that dated a fire event at approximately 1910. This open,
fire-adapted stand structure was characteristic of many of the old growth hemlock stands that
surrounded this site. More recent in-fill of canopy gaps has created a much more densely
stocked and fire-prone stand structure than appears to have existed in the past.

Higher elevation forests such as this one, dominated by fire sensitive species, generally
experience high-intensity fire regimes with long return intervals, generally leaving a stand with
few residual stems and very large patch sizes (Agee, 1993; Agee, 1998). Therefore, this site
(particularly the west ridge) exhibits evidence that a moderate intensity fire regime influenced
stand characteristics prior to the last fire. Based on observations of the current stand and snag
characteristics, the most recent fire appears to have been of relatively high intensity, removing
most residual trees from the site outside of a few remnant refugia, largely concentrated in moist
areas.

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Chapter 5: Pieces of the Puzzle: Case Studies - Field Reconnaissance of Five Traditional Huckleberry Patches

Figure 5. 69 Scar
pattern on snag
indicates 2 fires

Figure 5. 70 Multiple size
structure of snags

Figure 5. 71 Char
pattern - burning of
previous scar

The fire history evidence from Lax Ansa Maatsa indicated that this berry ground has likely
experienced relatively frequent fires compared to surrounding high elevation forests. Current
open stand characteristics, particularly on the western ridge, are most readily accounted for by
the previous moderate intensity fire regime, and possibly the impact of the most recent (higher
intensity) fire event. One or both of these factors have had the effect of reducing coniferous
seedbanks in organic layers and favoring the early establishment of sprouting, rhizomatous
shrub species. Ingress of coniferous species appears to have occurred relatively slowly, and
interior areas remain relatively open. The fire scar evidence and the characteristics of snags
and coarse woody debris in this area further suggests the previous influence of a moderate
intensity fire regime. However, the best indication of the fire history of this site lies in the
successional dynamics that are now well underway and are reducing the cover and fruit
production of black huckleberry throughout. Lax Ansa Maatsa cannot remain a productive berry
patch without the intervention of fire at relatively short intervals to maintain the berry ground in
an early successional stage.

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5.5.5

Site Summary

Lax Ansa Maatsa is a named Gitxsan berry ground that is in the process of succeeding to a
subalpine fir dominated forest. Based on field reconnaissance, ecological sampling and fire
history analysis, it appears that the last major fire event on this site occurred at about 1910.
Since that time this site has been used by Gitxsan people as a huckleberry gathering area as
well as for hunting and trapping. In the post fire decades, coniferous regeneration and fire
sensitive shrub species have begun to dominate this site, relegating black huckleberry to
understorey status. In 2000 black huckleberry was not observed to bear fruit in any significant
quantity anywhere on this site. This formerly important traditional gathering area has been
rendered unproductive by the lack of fire disturbance over the past 50 years.

Long term traditional use of this area by Gitxsan people is documented in the oral tradition
and is confirmed by cultural heritage evidence available on and around this site. It is clear that
this upland berry ground was the centre of activities for gathering a variety of important
resources. It is also clear that the Gitxsan would have had to actively manage this area using
landscape burning in order to keep it productive as a huckleberry patch. Lax Ansa Maatsa is a
fascinating example of an upland cultural landscape that exemplifies the critical connection
between the people and the land

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CHAPTER 6: FRUIT LEATHER AND FIRE SNAGS: CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

6.1

Introduction

This summary chapter will revisit the four research questions which inspired and directed
this project. These questions are intended to provide insights into the systems of environmental
management employed by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. The primary goal is to understand
what types of sites were being managed for black huckleberry production, why these sites were
tended so carefully over long time periods and how they were managed. The research
questions are:

1. Is there a set of ecological and or topographical characteristics that is
commonly associated with traditional huckleberry sites?
2. Based on the ecological and fire history evidence collected , are there
commonalties in fire regime characteristics among the huckleberry sites
studied?
3. Have individual traditional huckleberry patches followed similar successional
pathways after the cessation of anthropogenic burning?
4. Based on the analysis of field data from the case studies, what can be
inferred about stewardship strategies and techniques used by the Gitxsan
and Wet'suwet'en to manage the huckleberry resource?

6.2

Study Site Stratification

Generally speaking, the five traditional black huckleberry patches surveyed as part of this
research initiative, when assessed as a group, exhibit a great deal of variability with respect to
ecological and physiographic characteristics. At first glance, this finding seemed to run contrary
to the initial hypothesis that there should be a set of ecological and physiographic
characteristics which would define an ideal site type to which the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en
would direct their management efforts in order to maximize huckleberry production. While there
was no single site type that emerged as the "typical" or "ideal" black huckleberry patch, the

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study sites did display a relatively consistent profile with respect to soil moisture and nutrient
regime, being predominantly mesic to submesic with nutrient regimes tending to be poor to
medium. Despite the overall variability in physiographic and biogeoclimatic attributes, some
patterns did emerge, with more consistent trends in biophysical characteristics observed for
huckleberry patches grouped within particular biogeoclimatic units.

The patterns inherent in the data for these five sites are most apparent when categorized
by elevation. The elevation ranges (in brackets) are used to divide the sites into "high"
(>1000m), "medium" (700- 1000m) and "low" (<700m) elevation categories. These categories
are based in a very general way on the natural breaks between the sites and are defined only
for the purposes of discussion and comparison. The Stakaiyt area includes two ecologically
distinct berry patch areas at different elevations separated by a swath of old growth hemlock
forest which have been analysed separately. Biophysical site characteristics for the case study
areas are summarised in the following table (Table 6.1).

Elevation
Category

Site Name

Biogeoclimatic
Unit(s)

Elevation
Range (m.)

Aspect
(average)

SNMR*
(dominant)

Stand
Structure

First Nation

Low

8eket Degii
Ts'ooyiin

ICHmc2

440-635

NE

3-4 8-C

Decid./Conif.

Wet'suwet'en

Low

Lower
Harold Price

ICHmc2/mc1

495-1000

NE

3-4 8-C

Con if.

Wet'suwet'en

Mid

Sool Nii

S8Smc2/S8S
dk

600-1100

sw

3-4 8-C

Decid./Conif.

Wet'suwet'en

Mid

Stakaiyt
(mid-lower)

ICHmc2/mc1

600-1000

sw

3-4 c

Con if.

Gitxsan

High

Stakaiyt
(upper area)

ESSFwv!ICH
mc1

1000-1300

sw

3-5 8-C

Shrub/parkland

Gitxsan

High

Lax Ansa
Maatsa

ESSFwv/ICH
mc1

1000-1200

sw

3-4 8-C

Shrub/parkland

Gitxsan

*Soli Nutnent/M01sture Reg1me (see edatop1c gnd - appendiX #3)

Table 6. 1. Study Sites and Elevation Categories

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The following sections address the four research questions using these three elevation
classes as a basis for analysis.

6.3
~

Ecological Profile

Research Question #1 : Is there a set of ecological and or topographical characteristics that is
commonly associated with traditional huckleberry sites?

6.3.1

Valley Bottom (low elevation) Sites

Two of the case study sites (Beket Degii Ts'ooyiin and lower Harold Price) were classified
as "low'' elevation. While the Harold Price site certainly extends to higher elevations, the vast
majority of the sampling here was undertaken at elevations below 700 metres, as this is where
evidence of berry processing activities was discovered. It is assumed that this lower area of the
Harold Price site was also central to the huckleberry harvesting and management activities.
Both of these low elevation sites are located in Wet'suwet'en territory. In addition to these sites,
there are two other named, low elevation huckleberry sites in Wet'suwet'en territory near Beket
Degii Ts'ooyiin, they are Ooniin'aay and Decen Det'ekw (Figure 5.2). There were no low
elevation sites surveyed or identified within Gitxsan territory, although some that have been
reported include a site on the first bench above the Skeena River, just south of the Fiddler
Creek confluence (approximately 350 metres elevation), and an area on the south side of the
Skeena River near the Gitxsan village of Kitwanga (approximately 600 metres elevation) (Allen
Gottesfeld 32 , personal communication, 2001 ).

These low elevation sites (two case studies, and the other two sites - identified by
Wet'suwet'en elders) were all characterized by predominantly cool aspects (northeast to east),
moderate slopes and initial successional stages dominated by deciduous species. Comparing
the characteristics of these low elevation huckleberry patches to the black huckleberry habitat
suitability model (Burton et al. , 2000) these sites would be defined as having low potential based
32

Head Scientist: Gitxsan Watershed Authority

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Chapter 6: Fruit Leather and Fire Snags: Case Study Analysis

on five out of the seven predictive characteristics; elevation, aspect, leading species and
biogeoclimatic unit. The seeming incongruity of several traditionally managed huckleberry
patches on sites predicted to have low suitability for this species deserves further investigation.

Possible explanations for this seeming incongruity likely relate to the pursuit of gathering
and management efficiencies and convenience, as well as the ecological characteristics of
these sites. However, it is assumed that First Nations, in this case the Wet'suwet'en, would not
actively manage for huckleberry production in areas that were not potentially productive. From
an ecological perspective this site has soil moisture and nutrient status characteristics suitable
for productive black huckleberry growth. The influence of the cool aspects may in fact create
suitable climatic conditions for black huckleberry growth at low elevations by reducing the
occurrence and extent of limiting summer drought conditions. As these sites are now largely
treed, and have relatively low coverage of low vigour black huckleberry at present, it is difficult
to determine areas or levels of past huckleberry productivity. However, the abundant
huckleberry growth in the hydro cut of Beket Degii Ts'ooyiin (Figure 5.1 0), and in gaps on
Decen Det'ekw as well as in submesic gaps on the lower Harold Price site are all indications of
the potential productivity of these areas. Consideration of these black huckleberry patches
within the context of seasonal round activities, proximity to other resource gathering areas,
travel corridors, village sites and the suitability for berry processing will likely yield additional
insights into their use and maintenance.

6.3.2

Montane (mid-elevation) Sites

The two mid-elevation huckleberry patches were Sool Nii (Reiseter Ridge) and the lower
portion of Stakaiyt. Another mid-elevation traditional Wet'suwet'en berry ground, "Wetil Xoos",
was identified on the east side of the Bulkley River near Moricetown. Some of these sites
extend to higher elevations (i.e. Sool Nii), however, the classification as "mid-elevation", is

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based on the area in which intensive sampling was conducted, which was at middle elevations
(between 700-1000 metres).

All of these sites are located on warm , primarily southwest aspects. The two mid-elevation
case study sites are located on moderate to steep slopes. The lower area of Stakaiyt is now
densely forested with coniferous, hemlock dominated stands, while the Reiseter ridge site is
forested with a combination of deciduous, aspen dominated complexes in lower areas, and
relatively open young coniferous lodgepole pine dominated stands in upper areas.

Based on a comparison with the habitat suitability model for black huckleberry (Burton et
al. , 2000}, these sites (the two case study areas) would be considered transitional with respect
to habitat suitability. The location of these sites on warm aspects between 700-1000 metres and
varying between ICHmc2 and ICHmc1 , means that lower elevation sections would be
considered low suitability while higher elevation areas would be considered moderate suitability
or in the case of a south aspect, possibly high suitability. The traditional use and management
of these types of sites as huckleberry gathering areas is inferred from oral history accounts and
field examinations of two berry ground areas. The presence of significant areas of moderate
suitability huckleberry habitat, based on the predictive model, is currently the best available
evidence that huckleberry can even grow on lower Stakaiyt, as it was not in evidence under the
dense hemlock canopy. For other sites such as Sool Nii, this rating confirms observations of
vigorous huckleberry growth in upper areas of this site.

6.3.3

Subalpine Sites

The two subalpine sites surveyed during fieldwork (Stakaiyt [upper] and Lax Ansa Maatsa)
were classified in the high elevation category. Several other high elevation sites have been
identified (i.e. Fiddler Creek and Grouse Mountain) and these will be used to provide additional
context.

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The case study sites are located on high elevation subalpine plateau or bench sites,
characterized by gentle to moderate slopes, rolling topography and warm aspects. Similar site
characteristics have been observed on high elevation huckleberry patch sites at Fiddler Creek,
below Kitwanga in the lower Skeena River drainage, and at Grouse Mountain, near Quick
(between Smithers and Houston, BC). Despite similar topographic characteristics, these two
additional sites vary greatly with respect to continentality, being almost coastal (Fiddler Creek)
and strongly sub-boreal (Grouse Mountain) with respect to climate.

The physiographic profile of subalpine berry harvesting sites surveyed mirrors results of
studies in the Washington Cascades for Sahaptin and Chinookan speaking peoples of the lower
Columbia River. A study in that area found that traditional subalpine huckleberry sites were,
"generally flat to moderately sloping, including upland benches and areas adjacent to small
lakes, ponds or wet meadows" (Mack and McClure, in review). Similarly, for the Sto:lo of the
Fraser Valley, higher elevation huckleberry areas were described as parkland sites
characterized by rolling terrain, wet meadows, lakes and small ponds and accessible
huckleberry patches, "any of which may have been maintained by cultural burning" (Lepofsky et
al. , in press).

The vegetation of the two subalpine study sites was characterized by a persistent seral
shrub complex, dominated by a variety of ericaceous species with significant conifer ingress,
particularly in lower elevation areas. Similar observations were documented during fieldwork for
the Fiddler Creek site and observed during a reconnaissance trip to the Grouse Mountain site.

From an examination of the two subalpine case study areas, it is evident that: a) these
areas were both formerly productive for black huckleberry and b) there are no longer any
harvestable quantities of huckleberries being produced. Both sites straddle the ICHmc1 and

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ESSFwv transition at their lower extremes and extend into the ESSFwv to varying degrees.
Both sites are largely mesic with some wetter areas at higher elevations on Stakaiyt and
wetland complexes in depressional areas on Lax Ansa Maatsa. In general, both sites are now
largely occupied by ericaceous shrub complex with the fire sensitive false azalea being the
dominant shrub species in most areas. Coniferous ingress, largely Abies and Tsuga species, is
rapidly reducing the extent of open shrubfield area on both sites and is reducing the vigour and
productivity of black huckleberry.

Both of these high elevation huckleberry patches still contain significant components of
relatively open shrub complex where black huckleberry exhibits good vigour and substantial
cover. These sites fit within the profile of sites predicted to be moderate huckleberry habitat
(Burton et al., 2000). The location of these early seral vegetation types largely corresponds with
the only two higher elevation bench/plateau areas on the warm aspects of Caribou Mountain,
other areas of the mountain are much more steeply sloping and are mostly forested with mature
and old growth, Tsuga dominated stands.

6.3.4

Summary

Based on analysis of ecological data collected from the five case study sites (Stakaiyt
divided into two sections and analysed separately), and contextual information from seven
additional traditional huckleberry patch sites, it is apparent that these black huckleberry patches,
taken as a group, do not fit a single ecological or physiographic profile. However, looking at
particular aspects of these huckleberry patches reveals some commonalties between sites.

All sites surveyed were similar with respect to soil nutrient regime (poor- medium sites).
Most sites surveyed were predominantly mesic to submesic, a characteristic which was most
pronounced in the lower and mid-elevation sites. Higher elevation sites began to show wider
variability with respect to environmental variables and a broader ecological niche for black

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huckleberry with strong growth being observed across a relatively broad moisture gradient.
However, on the whole, sites observed to support relatively abundant and vigorous huckleberry
growth did fit the profile of mesic to submesic moisture status and poor to medium nutrient
status.

Overall, the aspect of the black huckleberry patches studied was clustered around two
ranges; southwest and northeast. Initially this appeared to indicate that there was no pattern or
influence of aspect on site selection for traditional huckleberry harvest and management.
However, after further consideration it became apparent that the low elevation huckleberry sites
were predominantly on cool aspects ranging from north to east. In total there were four low
elevation sites observed, all on cool aspects. This finding may be related to the environmental
requirement of black huckleberry to grow in areas that do not experience summer moisture
deficits (Haeussler et al., 1990).

Middle elevation sites, Sool Nii and the lower area of Stakaiyt are both on predominantly
southwest aspects. No other middle elevation sites were identified although it is expected that
many more exist. Some sites, which cover large elevation ranges such as the lower Harold
Price site, include areas that would be considered middle elevation as well, although these
higher areas of this site were not surveyed in this research initiative. Middle elevation sites were
generally heavily treed, often in coniferous species, a factor which makes recognition of these
huckleberry patches difficult without the aid of additional anecdotal information and confirmatory
cultural heritage and fire history evidence.

The two subalpine case study sites had aspects that ranged from south to west, with the
predominant aspect being southwest. In addition, the subalpine Grouse Mountain site is a
plateau with southwest aspect, and Fiddler Creek site is an upland plateau with aspects ranging
from southeast to southwest. The topography of these subalpine huckleberry sites exhibits a

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clear trend toward upland plateau areas with warm aspects as was observed on Stakaiyt and
Lax Ansa Maatsa.

The traditional huckleberry sites studied also varied from a topographical perspective but fit
a profile within the three elevation categories. Middle and lower elevation sites were primarily
situated on moderate to steeply sloping sites with relatively even topography while higher
elevation sites were typically found on rolling upland plateaus which are often associated with
wetlands, ponds and small lakes.

6.4
~

Overall Fire History

Research Question #2: Based on the ecological and fire history evidence collected, are there
commonalties in fire regime characteristics among the huckleberry sites studied?

All traditional huckleberry grounds exhibited evidence of relatively frequent fire activity in
the past 150-200 years relative to benchmark values estimated for natural fire regimes in the
study area. Most fire activity on these sites pre-dated systematic fire recording in the region.
Therefore, the opportunity to date fire events was largely dependent on the availability and
preservation of fire scar evidence, and identification of cohort ages of fire-following tree species.
A variety of additional features provided further indications of the characteristics of fire regimes,
which have influenced these sites in the past.

6.4.1

Valley Bottom (low elevation) Sites

Both the Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin a lower Harold Price berry patches had mean fire return
intervals of approximately 50 years. The lower Harold Price site had one particularly short interfire interval of just thirteen years. It is likely that the fire scar record did not capture all of the fire
activity on either site and that as identified in other research , fuel conditions and fire behaviour
were key determinants of the degree to which the fire scar record reflected actual fire
occurrence (McBride and Lewis, 1984).

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Chapter 6: Fruit Leather and Fire Snags: Case Study Analysis

For this study, the individual fire return interval of thirteen years documented for the lower
Harold Price site is expected to be more representative of the type of return interval required to
promote black huckleberry productivity than other estimated return intervals (several in the fifty
year range) for these low elevation huckleberry patches. Otherwise, rapid succession by a
number of deciduous and coniferous species, as observed on these sites now, would have
rendered them unproductive in the past by outcompeting black huckleberry.

6.4.2

Montane (mid elevation) Sites

The lower area of Stakaiyt experienced a mean fire return interval of thirty nine years
based on fire scar evidence from one small group of remnant cedar veterans. The other middle
elevation site at Sool Nii, did not yield a great deal of remnant fire scar evidence prior to the
most recent fire event. However, based on cohort ages it appears that this site has experienced
three fire events in a period of 150 years for an estimated mean return interval of seventy five
years for this site. It should be noted that field reconnaissance effort on these two mid-elevation
sites was light relative to the higher and lower elevation berry ground areas. As a result, it is
very likely that additional fire scar evidence exists on these sites but was not recorded during
field sampling. Again, as for the lower elevation sites, the mean fire return interval estimates
based on fire scar and cohort age evidence appear to be too long to maintain productive black
huckleberry harvesting opportunities on these sites. Again, it is probable that additional fires
occurred in interceding years and did not result in persistent scar evidence or that this evidence
was not encountered during the course of the fieldwork.

6.4.3

Subalpine Sites

The fire history for these areas indicates that both study sites have experienced fairly high
intensity fire events in the last eighty to ninety years. This is indicated by domination of a single
age class on both sites, with a few older veterans left from previous fires. It appears that a fire

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passed over much of Lax Ansa Maatsa around 1910, and that a fire passed over a large part of
the southwest flank of Caribou Mountain around 1920. There is a possibility that the fire history
for these areas is related because while these two areas are separated by Pinenut Creek, which
provides some topographic separation, the most recent fires in both areas burned close to this
creek. Additional fire history data (including accurate fire scar samples) are needed to further
investigate this hypothesis.

Some oral history evidence about traditional burning of huckleberry patches suggests that
rotational burning of huckleberry patches may have been practiced in some berry patches or
larger berry gathering areas. If used, this technique would have ensured that some portion of
each berry ground was maintained in a constant state of productivity. In addition, this approach
would have likely assisted with fire control by creating additional firebreaks. This type of a
pattern would create substantial difficulties for the reconstruction of fire history for these sites as
a whole. It is possible that some degree of rotational burning was practiced on one or both of
the subalpine berry grounds studied here. Many additional age samples, and most importantly
fire scar samples, would be needed in order to describe fire history at this fine scale.

An area within the upper portion of the Stakaiyt berry ground appeared to have burned
relatively recently (around 1959), although no record of a fire in this location is recorded in fire
records kept by the Prince Rupert Forest Region 33 . If a fire had occurred here, it is expected that
it would have been documented, as this hillside is readily visible from well-traveled valley bottom
areas north of Hazelton. However, the paucity of early records of fire events in the area
suggests that early fire records were not comprehensive. Additional sampling would required in
this particular area to develop a more definitive disturbance history.

33

Fire records for the Prince Rupert Forest Region begin in 1950

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Chapter 6: Fruit Leather and Fire Snags: Case Study Analysis

Lower elevation stands (below the Stakaiyt berry ground) have experienced frequent fire
events. Fire scar evidence indicated that fire traveled between upper and lower elevation stands
through older, fire resistant timber types. Substantial fire-skip areas remain within Lax Ansa
Maatsa. These fire-skips exhibited evidence that fire passed through some areas, suggesting
that these stands likely had characteristics which protected the normally fire sensitive species
(i.e. subalpine fir) from burning. Snag characteristics from both sites suggested that prior to the
most recent fire, there were a variety of age and size classes of remnant trees in a very open
stand configuration. Some of these snags exhibited evidence of two fire scars. These snag
characteristics suggested the past influence of a moderate intensity fire regime characterized by
relatively frequent fire events, compared to the natural fire regime in subalpine forests which are
often characterized by stand replacing events (Agee, 1993).

When trying to unravel the fire history of upland ericaceous shrubfield complexes, it is
important to consider the patterns of wildfire in these vegetation communities. Firstly,
ericaceous species are known to be somewhat fire resistant and difficult to burn under all but
the most extreme fire weather (Minore, 1997; Agee, 1993; Miller, 1977). In addition, Abies
species, such as those that dominate this site, are known to be highly flammable due to their
thin, resinous bark and their habit of retaining lower combustible limbs that reach to the ground
(Arno, 1977; Smith and Fischer, 1997). Fires have been known to jump from one clump of
subalpine fir to another (Agee, 1993), and this species may therefore be a major vector of fire
spread in these subalpine shrubfield communities. The fire resistance of the ericaceous shrub
complex means that to ignite and carry a fire in these vegetation complexes it is likely necessary
to have high fire hazard (low fuel moisture), and some amount of coniferous ingress of
flammable species such as subalpine fire.

The fire history evidence for these two subalpine berry patches is insufficient to draw
strong conclusions about the fire regime prior to the most recent fire event. However, the

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assembled evidence suggests that the fire regime was both more frequent and less intense than
would be expected under natural conditions for these forests. This evidence is consistent with
oral history evidence, which indicates that black huckleberry patches such as these, were
managed through a regime of regular landscape burns.

6.5
~

The Nature of Successional Pathways

Research Question #3: Have individual traditional huckleberry patches followed similar successional
pathways after the cessation of anthropogenic burning?

6.5.1

Low elevation sites

The low elevation berry patch study areas are variable with respect to current vegetation
assemblages, the Beket Degii Ts'ooyiin site is predominantly a deciduous complex at present,
whereas the lower Harold Price berry patch area is presently characterized by a largely
coniferous (hemlock dominated) stand. However, deciduous remnants visible in the lower
Harold Price indicate that this site had an initial stand composition that included a larger
component of fire-following , deciduous species. Of particular interest in this context, is what
current vegetation assemblages can tell us about past fire regimes on these sites. As has been
noted previously, a lack of coniferous regeneration in hardwood dominated stands in the
Skeena and Bulkley valleys is likely due to the influence of frequent fire in the past (Williams et
al. , 2000). Based on field reconnaissance and observation it would appear that the
predominantly deciduous litter on these sites contributes to the development of deep, relatively
rich moder humus forms, which are not conducive to seedling establishment by species such as
lodgepole pine which prefer a mineral seedbed for germination and early growth (Anonymous,
1990a). Also, annual leaf litter appears to be a barrier to seedling establishment for other
coniferous species, restricting germinant establishment and survival even for species adapted to
rich organic substrates, and low light conditions. In addition, this deciduous organic layer is not
ideal for a species such as black huckleberry which grows best on a slightly acidic substrate
(Minore and Dubraisch, 1978; Smith, 1974) and prefers a mor humus form (Haeussler et al. ,

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1990). Therefore, it would appear that deciduous complexes create conditions, which are not
only resistant to conifer invasion but are generally unsuitable for black huckleberry
establishment and growth. This theory is validated to some extent by the results of field
sampling, which found low levels of black huckleberry cover in these deciduous complexes. In
contrast, lodgepole pine dominated stands, with similar light levels but more acidic soils, and
shallower, poorer mor humus forms, generally had at least moderate levels of black huckleberry
cover.

In the lower Harold Price drainage, the existence of a dense coniferous stand (hemlock
dominated), in a former traditional berry ground, which has evidently experienced relatively
frequent fire, is incongruous. The contrast between successional pathways on the two low
elevation huckleberry patches is particularly apparent when one considers the similarities
between the Harold Price patch and the Bek'et Degii Ts'ooyiin site with respect to aspect,
biogeoclimatic classification, slope and soil nutrient and moisture status. The only apparent
biophysical difference between the two sites is the abundant hemlock seed source available in
the vicinity of the lower Harold Price site. As noted earlier this seed source and the cool north
aspect may have provided conditions suitable for dense hemlock establishment, despite initial
deciduous stand components.
Of note, is a successional similarity among the two low elevation huckleberry patches. On
both sites, drier, poorer areas such as those with coarse textured soils, areas of shallow soils
and ridge crest areas tended to lodgepole pine regeneration. In addition, both areas had
scattered pine throughout western hemlock-leading coniferous stands and the deciduous
complexes.

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6.5.2

Middle elevation sites

Similar to the lower elevation huckleberry patches, the middle elevation berry patch areas
on Stakaiyt and Sool Nii exhibited variable successional development and markedly different
current stand characteristics.

In a pattern similar to that observed on Beket Degii Ts'ooyiin, the site at Sool Nii was
characterized by dense deciduous (aspen dominated) complexes, particularly in lower areas,
giving way to lodgepole pine dominated stands on upper, drier, poorer sites with coarse textured
soils. The deciduous complexes here typically had little or no coniferous ingress, even seventy
five years after the most recent fire event. The negative influence of deciduous litter and
associated deep rich humus on conifer seedling establishment was observed. The mid-elevation
huckleberry patch area at Stakaiyt is densely treed with hemlock to the exclusion of any
understorey including black huckleberry. A few persistent deciduous remnants attest to the
potential for this site to have developed as a deciduous complex. Evidently, an abundant
hemlock seed source was available from mature hemlock stands, which are adjacent to this site
in the upper areas, with the lower margin of this berry patch bordering on a mature mixed cedarhemlock stand.

Once again the dense western hemlock stand seems to have established despite very
strong evidence for multiple fire events at relatively short intervals, in this case a 39 year mean
return interval. The compelling indications from oral history indicating that this site was
traditionally managed for black huckleberry, raises the likelihood that fire here was more
frequent than these data indicate. However, this site is on a warmer west aspect and does not
reflect ideal conditions for hemlock establishment according to silvical definitions (Anonymous,
1990a). It therefore appears that hemlock seed source may be a major determinant of postdisturbance stand characteristics in these ICH forest types even with frequent fire events and
some initial establishment of early seral deciduous species.

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Perhaps the only successional trend we can identify for these mid-elevation berry patch
sites is that they are variable with respect to successional development following the cessation
of a relatively frequent fire regime. This may be due to variation in the characteristics of the
former fire regime, factors like the intensity of the last burn and the post-fire conditions for
seedling establishment or the available seed source. It is most likely a combination of these and
other factors that determines the successional pathway.

6.5.3

High elevation sites

A persistent seral shrub complex comprising primarily ericaceous species dominated both
of the high elevation berry patches surveyed. Several of these species, chiefly false azalea and
oval-leaved blueberry are noted to be fire sensitive (Haeussler et at., 1990), which is a further
indication of the need for fire maintenance on these traditional huckleberry grounds and the
extended fire free period which they have experienced. These persistent shrubfield communities
reflect the harsh subalpine environment, characterized by a short growing season, cold
temperatures and late lying snow. These factors all mitigate against conifer establishment,
allowing rhizomatous shrub species to dominate the site following disturbance. The relatively
frequent fire regime which influenced these sites in the past has likely had a very significant
impact on coniferous growth, through destruction of soil seedbanks, killing juvenile trees and
seedlings prior to seed production, all of which limit opportunities for succession to coniferous
stands. It is important to note that surrounding areas of Caribou Mountain support dense
coniferous stands, even on the rocky alpine scree slopes, which indicates that these
huckleberry patches would also be forested in the absence of relatively frequent disturbance.

While ericaceous shrub complex was the dominant vegetation community on these sites,
conifer ingress was also well advanced, and had reached crown closure in a few areas. Crown
closure was particularly evident near the lower elevation margins of these sites and on the

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steeper warm aspects at lower elevations such as the eastern hills at Lax Ansa Maatsa. Other
research has indicated the influence of a warming climate which can accelerate conifer ingress
into subalpine meadows (Agee, 1993), and this may be a factor influencing the rate of conifer
establishment and growth into these traditional subalpine berry grounds as well.

Black huckleberry continues to form a significant component of the shrub complex on these
subalpine sites, exhibiting broader ecological amplitude here than was observed in lower
elevation areas. The most pronounced aspect of this increased ecological amplitude is that
black huckleberry increasingly occurs across a wider moisture gradient which includes
subhygric sites in the ESSFwv areas of Stakaiyt. As noted earlier, this observation reflects the
high degree of adaptation of this species to the harsh subalpine environment.

A key factor in these high elevation sites is the potential interaction between topography
and successional processes. On Lax Ansa Maatsa it was observed that two areas on either side
of the two lakes contrast. They are situated at similar elevations, but had markedly different
stand characteristics. The broad western ridge was relatively sparsely treed with a variety of age
classes, and the steeper eastern hills with warmer aspects had a much denser, more uniform
cover of coniferous species. It was also observed that these areas varied with respect to
biogeoclimatic classification, the eastern hills being classified as ICHmc1 and the broad ridge
classified as ESSFwv based on plant indicator species. The broad ridge has vegetation
assemblages reflective of harsher environmental influences, likely including cooler temperatures
and later lying snow than the east hills.

While I have postulated that differences in coniferous establishment and past and present
stand characteristics may be due to more frequent fire on the west ridge, and the higher
prevalence of submesic site types, it appears likely that topography has also had an influence.
The harsher environmental conditions on the ridge are factors that act to discourage coniferous

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ingress and establishment, favouring the persistence of a seral, ericaceous shrub complex in
this area. From the perspective of a First Nations group trying to maintain a huckleberry patch,
this would present a much more favourable opportunity for maintaining productivity, theoretically
requiring less frequent management.

6.6
};>

Traditional Berry Patch Management Strategies

Research Question #4: Based on the analysis of field data from the case studies what can be inferred
about stewardship strategies and techniques used by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en to manage the
huckleberry resource

In order to improve our understanding of traditional huckleberry management by the
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en, and the ecological and fire history characteristics of the berry
patches themselves, it is instructive to consider the resource stewardship strategies and
techniques, which are reported to have been used, or appear to have been employed.

6.6 .1

Stewardship Strategies

6.6.1.1

Reasons for Burning

First Nations have identified a number of reasons for active management of black
huckleberry (and other Vaccinium species) through the application of prescribed fire:

•

Greater berry patch productivity (number of berries).

•

Increased berry sweetness.

•

Larger berry size.

•

Reduction of pests which infest huckleberry patches.
These reasons must have been compelling incentives for active management for a people

reliant on the huckleberry resource as a key component of their subsistence diet and as a
valued trade good, particularly when one considers the difficulties reported from prescribed
burning trials in ericaceous shrub communities.

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As noted earlier, black huckleberry was highly prized as a dietary staple and trade good by
First Nations groups throughout its geographical range, many of whom managed this species
using landscape burning. As we know that managing this ericaceous vegetation community with
fire is a difficult undertaking (Minore, 1997; Miller, 1977). the vast scale of this traditional
management is a strong indication of the great importance of the black huckleberry crop and the
apparent effectiveness of First Nations landscape burning activities for promoting abundant
yields of fruit. Elsewhere in British Columbia prescribed burning of Vaccinium shrubfields was
practiced on individual sites for well over one thousand years (Lepofsky et al., in press). The
long-term use of established black huckleberry patches further underlines the importance of this
system of environmental management.

6.6.1.2

Rotational Burning

As noted previously, some descriptions of berry management suggest that rotational
burning may have been practiced in order to maintain berry patches or particular berry areas in
a state of more or less consta_
nt production. There would have been a strong incentive to do
this, particularly in cases of productive, reliable, or conveniently located berry patches, which
were important for use on an annual basis. The following excerpt from the late Martha Brown's
(former Chief Xhliimlaxha) commission evidence, used earlier in this thesis, is repeated again
here, and suggests that the rotational burning strategy may have been used in some areas.

Q: Did you burn part of your territory so that the berries would grow there?
A: That's what they used to do in the old days. Whenever there's not a good
crop of berries on one side of the river grandfather used to burn and it's the same
on the other side of the river. If there's a poor crop they will burn and just move
over, to and fro.

De/gamuukw et a/ vs. the Queen
Commission Evidence of Martha Brown
Volume 1, Text 2

This pattern would help to explain an apparent contradiction between reported
management practices and the ecological characteristics of Vaccinium membranaceum. Some

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oral history accounts indicate that the Gitxsan burned black huckleberry patches at intervals of
approximately four years (Gottesfeld, 1994), and several references in Delgamuukw testimony
indicates that inter-burn intervals varied, with reports ranging from two to seven years between
burn treatments. Ecological research indicates that huckleberry does not recover to full
productivity until seven or more years post-burn (Minore, 1997), the actual time interval likely
being a function of environmental variables and burn intensity. At higher elevations, and
particularly in subalpine parkland areas, the burn frequency required to maintain huckleberry
productivity may have been relatively long as late-lying snow and short growing seasons
maintain seral shrubfields for relatively long periods in these areas. Therefore, the burning
interval reported in several oral history accounts appears too short to promote maximum
productivity of individual black huckleberry patches. However, if only a portion of a patch or an
area is burned at any one time, this frequent burning regime makes imminent sense. In fact, it
provides a great deal more management flexibility allowing for prolonged periods where
conditions are not suitable to burn off huckleberry patches and to take advantage of suitable
burning conditions when they occur.

The example of burn rotations (figure 6.1) illustrates the advantages of using the rotational
burning strategy to maintain constant production within a huckleberry patch. The advantages of
employing a strategy of more frequent maintenance burns is evident when one contrasts high
elevation patch "A" where 50% of the area is maintained in productive status and high elevation
patch "8" where 67% of the area is maintained in productive status as a result of a more
frequent burning regime.

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High Elevation A

(50% productivity maintained)

High Elevation B

(67% productivity maintained)

"B" = date of burn,

Low Elevation

(80% productivity maintained)

"P" = period of productivity for black hucldebeny

Figure 6.1 Rotational burning schematic

The greater flexibility (more burning opportunities) afforded in low elevation sites is
illustrated in the low elevation rotational burning example, however, frequent burning was likely
a necessity in these low elevation patches to counteract relatively rapid succession by
herbaceous and woody competitors. The influence of burn intensity on the recovery time for
black huckleberry productivity is an important factor which may have favoured the use of more
frequent burning. Higher frequency would theoretically have resulted in lower intensity burns
(due to lower fuel loading) and correspondingly, a relatively rapid recovery to black huckleberry
productivity.

An additional factor influencing disturbance pattern on these sites is that burns in the
ericaceous shrub complex are often spotty and even in cases where entire patches were
burned, only certain areas (likely the ones with greatest fuel accumulations) would burn at any
one time. This would create a mosaic of productive and unproductive huckleberry areas
throughout a patch. This factor may also have encouraged additional burning activity within a
given patch at relatively short intervals in order to bring "fire skip" areas within the patch into
production.

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Therefore, while there is little conclusive evidence that rotational burning was practiced, it
is a strategy that is consistent with burning intervals reported by Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en
advisors and the ecological characteristics and burn response of black huckleberry.

6.6.1.3

Variable Site Types

It is evident from the elevational and topographic variability in traditional huckleberry sites
included in this research that a huckleberry management strategy used by the Gitxsan and
Wet'suwet'en involved managing a wide range of site types varying in elevation and aspect.
This strategy would mitigate against the influence of unfavorable weather events and potential
variability in pollination success. As Haeussler ( 1987) notes, " Stochastic weather events such
as late frosts or hail have a huge impact on year to year productivity (of black huckleberry)
'

because they can destroy reproductive buds, flowers or fruit".

Another advantage of managing a range of sites with variable biophysical attributes and
climatic influences, is the potential to extend the huckleberry harvest over a longer time period,
and increase the total potential harvest. In addition, for the Wet'suwet'en and Gitxsan, managing
low elevation huckleberry patches would provide opportunities to harvest huckleberries in close
proximity to summer fishing sites without disrupting the salmon harvest.

Management of low and middle elevation huckleberry sites has not, to my knowledge, been
reported elsewhere in the literature for other First Nations groups. This could be a function of a
wider range of habitat suitability for black huckleberry in cooler, northern ecosystems. A plant
indicator guide

for

southeastern

Washington

and

western

Oregon

lists

Vaccinium

membranaceum as a species of "cool sites at middle to high elevations" (Halverson, 1986)

whereas in northern BC its distribution is described as, "valley bottoms to high elevations"
(MacKinnon et al. , 1992). Therefore the wider range of site types traditionally managed for black
huckleberry in northwestern BC could well be a function of a broader elevation range suitable

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for huckleberry growth in this region. Managing multi-elevation sites would obviously be quite
advantageous extending the harvest season and mitigating against stochastic events which
could cause crop failure in some patches.

6.6.2

Techniques

While the motivation for traditional burning of black huckleberry patches is clear and the
necessity of such management is amply supported by ecological research , the techniques
employed are more difficult to discern. Of interest are the aspects of burning activities such as
frequency of burn, stand condition, time of year, weather, ignition points and burn patterns.

6.6.2.1

Frequency

First Nations advisors have provided a great deal of information regarding frequency of
burning, however, the frequencies reported vary considerably. As noted previously, burn
frequencies of anywhere from two to seven years have been reported by Gitxsan and
Wet'suwet'en elders. The following quote form Art Mathews Jr. indicates the importance of fruit
quality indicators as determinants of huckleberry patch burning regimes:

These were the women that do the actual job and they know the very taste they
want and the texture, and as soon as they begin to lose the taste, they would
then tell the men that it is time to re-burn the area.
Art Mathews Jr.
Delgamuukw et a/. vs. the Queen
Transcript volume 73 p. p.4719

Several factors would have contributed to the determination of burn frequency, these
include:
1. Availability of good burning weather.
2. Berry taste (sweetness).
3. Berry texture
4. Berry size.
5. Berry productivity.

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6. Availability of other productive areas.
7. Fuel accumulations and moisture content.

There were surely other factors that contributed to decisions about burning, and each site
had different characteristics so that burn opportunities would vary across aspect and elevation
depending on weather patterns. Managing a wide range of site types would provide increased
opportunities for meeting the specific requirements needed for successful prescribed burning of
one or more huckleberry patches in any given year.

With respect to burn frequency it is likely that different sites operated on different burn
rotations due to variable successional trends and the resultant impact on black huckleberry
productivity (i.e. lower elevation huckleberry patches would likely require more frequent burning
and would likely afford more frequent burning opportunities than higher elevation huckleberry
patches). In addition, year-to-year weather would restrict burning opportunities on some sites to
those years with suitable weather. The reference in the 1934 forest service report that "late falls"
were associated with fires in the vicinity of Indian berry pickers attests to the importance of
weather as a determinant of fire frequency. It is likely that, the seeming contradictions in reports
of burn frequency for management of the huckleberry resource actually represent an acceptable
range for management of a variety of habitat types with different successional trends and burn
opportunities, as well as the influence of environmental management strategies such as
rotational burning.

6.6.2.2

Timing

The historical excerpt cited previously describing the occurrence of fires in areas
frequented by Indian berry pickers, on a hot windy day in the late summer of 1934, is of
particular interest when considering the timing of burn treatments. This detail draws a strong
connection between upland berry picking activities by Native people in the area, a dry fall and

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numerous fires located in close proximity to the Indian berry pickers. Operating under the
assumption that these were berry patch burns, the weather report for the day the fires were
observed (August 24th) provides an interesting suggestion of the conditions that may have been
necessary to ignite, and successfully burn upland black huckleberry patches. This excerpt also
corresponds with oral history accounts of Gitxsan elders that berry patch burning was generally
conducted in late August or early September (Gottesfeld, 1994a).

The following quote is from the late Pat Namox, the former Chief Wah'tah'kwets
(Wintergreen Consultants, 1998):
Hear good weather and bad weather through a whistle in the ear (one ear is
good weather, the other is bad weather). They would hear the bad weather
coming and while it was very hot, they would send the boys out to set fire for 1 or
2 days. Then the rains would come and put the fire out. They did not want to burn
all the land, just some for berry production (huckleberries) and for the wildlife.

Research on huckleberry management by the Sto:lo indicates that fall burning was
practiced in high elevation huckleberry patches in the central and upper Fraser Valley as well
and burns were initiated, "when the leaves were on the ground", as these were cited as an
important fuel source for carrying the fire (Lepofsky et al., in press).

In contrast, research conducted amongst the Spokan of eastern Washington (Ross, 1999)
indicates that spring burning was the preferred method for huckleberry management as it
minimized damage to underground rhizomes, but that, often due to late springs in montane and
subalpine areas this was not possible and fall burning was generally more common.

6.6.2.3

Intensity

The fire weather reported in the 1934 forest service excerpt would facilitate high intensity
burns in most fuel types. Sto:lo reports for black huckleberry management indicate that, "you
pretty well had to burn all the trees down, it's got to be a very hot fire", however, elders also
report that bushes can be harvested soon after a burn suggesting that the roots of blueberry

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bushes are not burned and that aboveground vegetation is able to resprout quickly and regain
productive status (Lepofsky et al. , in press). As these variable reports indicate, it is difficult to
determine the intensity of traditional burning for huckleberry management from oral history
alone. However, from the accumulated knowledge about the fire-resistant nature of Vaccinium
shrubfields and references to hot fires from elders it appears that these burns may have been
fairly intense. However, as a Sto:lo elder has indicated too much heat would "burn the patch
out" and timing the burn just prior to rain was critical (Lepofsky et al., in press}, a comment
echoed by Pat Namox, a Wet'suwet'en elder (quotation cited earlier in this thesis). One point of
interest is that burning of larger fuels has been cited as a factor resulting in significant below
ground heating that can kill buried Vaccinium rhizomes (Miller, 1977). The maintained
huckleberry patches I surveyed, exhibited very little evidence that large woody fuels were
present in the past. The scarcity of large fuels may limit soil heating and associated rhizome
damage, even in more severe fire weather, and even under the influence of a hot surface fire.

6.7

Research Summary

Black huckleberry was the most important plant resource within the subsistence, trade and
cultural lives of the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en. It's ecological niche as an early to mid-seral
species with specific environmental requirements makes it the quintessential patchy resource.
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en dependence on black huckleberry necessitated environmental
management to ensure reliable harvests of in predictable locations that were coincident with
other critical floral and faunal resources harvested in the late summer and early fall portions of
the seasonal subsistence round. The Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en actively manipulated a number
of important resources using a variety of environmental management strategies and techniques.
The example of landscape burning to promote the growth and productivity of black huckleberry
is one of the most accessible opportunities to understand the scope and influence of this

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environmental management and the nature of the ecological knowledge which informed these
practices.

Consideration of the ecological, cultural and fire history characteristics of these five
traditional black huckleberry patches within the context of historical references and ethnographic
research, reveals a pattern of traditional use by Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en people of valley
bottom, montane and subalpine, early seral habitats in the late summer and early fall.
Huckleberry harvesting was a central activity within this seasonal pattern, but was incorporated
with the gathering and hunting of a variety of other resources whose temporal and spatial
patterns of availability overlapped with that of black huckleberry.

It is apparent from the currently unproductive status of all five of the former berry patches
surveyed during this project that in order to maintain these areas in a productive early seral
state there is a requirement for active management using landscape burning. While the stand
structure and fire history analyses does not unequivocally illustrate a pattern of anthropogenic
management, the evidence that has been presented strongly suggests that the fire events on
these sites have been much more frequent than would be expected under natural conditions
with only natural ignition sources. The ecological, cultural heritage and fire history field data
collected reflects and reinforces the traditional ecological knowledge about landscape burning of
huckleberry patches that has been documented for the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en over many
years.

Managment of the huckleberry resource was certainly a challenge given the large number
of variables involved, and the fire resistant nature of huckleberry shrubfields. However, the
incentive for an active human stewardship role was clear: huckleberries were a staple of diet,
trade and the culture. So for the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en, the words of the late Martha Brown
(Gitxsan Chief Xhliimlaxha) must have once rung true amongst those who carried the

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responsibility for management of the berry patches, "when you can't see your footsteps
amongst the berries", it was time to burn.

6.8

Research Applications

There is a great deal of additional research required to develop a more comprehensive
understanding of past landscape burning of these black huckleberry patches, and the
management of many other berry gathering areas once used by Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en
people. This project and related research initiatives will contribute to new opportunities to
integrate traditional ecological knowledge into contemporary resource management approaches
and an increased recognition of the sophisticated environmental management regimes
developed and employed by First Nations people. Specific contributions and applications
include:

1. Redefinition of the concept of natural disturbance regimes to include past
anthropogenic burning.
2. Increased recognition of berry patch areas as cultural landscapes with
associated archaeological resources.
3. Improved understanding of the scope and practice of landscape burning as an
environmental management tool employed by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en.
4. Contributions to huckleberry suitability modeling and a framework for managing
black huckleberries as a non-timber forest product.
5. New multidisciplinary techniques for fire history research which acknowledge and
investigate the potential anthropogenic contributions to past fire activity.
From a methodological standpoint, it is hoped that other researchers or First Nations
groups will be able to use the approach developed in this study to facilitate reconstruction of
landscape burning regimes and investigations of the associated ecological legacies. Projects
such as this will bridge the gap between traditional ecological knowledge and contemporary
resource management practices.

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6.8.2

Anthropogenic Burning and "Natural Disturbance" Regimes

Resource managers are increasingly utilizing the characteristics of natural disturbance
regimes as models upon which to structure current resource management strategies at the
landscape and stand levels (Delong, 1998; Delong and Kessler, 2000; Anonymous, 1995;
Camp et al., 1997; Cissel et al., 1999). Unfortunately past anthropogenic disturbance is rarely
recognized as a component of natural disturbance processe and pattern and is therefore not
incorporated into management approaches. Despite the importance of these anthropogenic
disturbance regimes for the maintenance of adaptive plant communities, there is relatively little
information detailing the spatial characteristics of the anthropogenic burning patterns or the
impacts of these landscape burning regimes on vegetation characteristics or soil properties.
This relative lack of information belies the ecological importance of anthropogenic fire regimes
which have had a significant impact on the flora and fauna of many ecosystems throughout
North America and elsewhere (Stewart, 1954; Lewis, 1983; Lewis and Ferguson, 1988).

This research will be a useful tool for landscape ecologists, helping them to better
understand the impacts of this traditional anthropogenic disturbance regime on ecological
characteristics, forest succession and disturbance history in the coast-interior transition zone of
British Columbia. Given the scope and time depth of these activities, it is clearly important that
the impacts of aboriginal landscape burning activities on the characteristics of past "natural" fire
regimes be given due consideration in the development of benchmarks and associated resource
management strategies.

Understanding the role of anthropogenic disturbance regime in shaping ecosystems such
as berry patches will be critically important for future management, particularly where it is
deemed desirable to maintain or restore these ecosystems and to conserve their unique
attributes and functional role in the landscape. In the future, a more comprehensive and detailed
methodology for investigating natural disturbance patterns, one that more fully includes and

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accounts for the influence of past environmental management by aboriginal groups, will provide
a much stronger, and more reliable framework upon which to manage and conserve
ecosystems.

6.8.3

Huckleberry Patches as Cultural Landscapes

These traditional berry patch areas require recognition as cultural landscapes shaped by
an elaborate and effective system of aborignal environmental management. Wet'suwet'en and
Gitxsan traditional berry grounds contain, and are surrounded by, a great deal of remnant
physical evidence of traditional use, and are associated with significant archaeological
resources. In the case of black huckleberry management it has been demonstrated that in some
areas these activities are of considerable time depth (Lepofsky et al., in press). The cultural
heritage features associated with huckleberry harvesting and related activities are best identified
and protected through the recognition of the cultural landscapes with which they are associated.

Interpretive tools based on ecosystem attributes such as predominance of early seral or
fire dependent vegetation communities may be used to broaden the scope and improve the
effectiveness of predictive archaeological models (e.g. Goodchild, 2000). In addition, identifying
the physiographic and ecological characteristics of traditional harvesting sites, and their relation
to other cultural and traditional use features (this thesis), is critical to recognizing and protecting
the anthropogenic landscapes and archaeological features associated with past environmental
management of black huckleberry and other plant species.

6.8.4

Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en Environmental Management

Validation of past environmental management activities will both support and reinforce
Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en cultures. This will provide new opportunities for traditional

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environmental management to be used in a contemporary context to reestablish traditional
activities and to address contemporary resource management challenges.
It is apparent from this research, that the environmental management strategies and
techniques used by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en cannot be separated from the subsistence
objectives or the underlying cultural and spiritual belief systems which guided these activities.
Therefore, in order to understand landscape burning, it is important to think in this broader
context. Taken together, the techniques, the overall subsistence strategy, and the underlying
cultural and spiritual belief systems comprise traditional ecological knowledge, which informs
environmental management. The management of the black huckleberry resource by the Gitxsan
and Wet'suwet'en exemplifies this holistic approach.

6.8.5

Contemporary Huckleberry Management

This research is also important from an integrated resource management perspective, as
black huckleberry and other berry species are increasingly being recognized as economically
important forest botanicals. One of the major challenges for resource managers is to integrate
the production of economically important plant species into forest management planning and
operations. In order to achieve this goal, effective strategies and techniques need to be
developed to promote sustainable productivity of these non-timber forest products. At present,
the integration of these species is difficult to achieve due to the lack of proven management
models for promoting abundant and sustainable populations which are economically viable.
Much is to be learned from the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en and other First Nations groups
throughout BC and elsewhere who practiced effective long-term environmental management to
promote sustainable, abundant harvests of black huckleberry and many other species with
economic potential.

There are several opportunities for exploration and integration of First Nations
environmental management strategies and techniques into the management of forest non-

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timber forest products. Management of black huckleberry resource through the application of
landscape burning treatments of suitable sites is a real opportunity to integrate traditional
knowledge with contemporary resource management. In First Nations communities, this type of
initiative could assist with validation and preservation of traditional knowledge while also
providing opportunities for economic development and cultural renewal.

6.8.6

Multidisciplinary Fire History Research Methods

The key to successfully designing a research framework which will allow researchers to
make inferences about the role that anthropogenic burning may have played in defining the
characteristics of a fire regime is to have an understanding of the cultural underpinnings of
traditional use of fire by groups in the area. In particular, it is critical to describe the subsistence
strategies and if possible the techniques which were employed. This requires knowledge of the
autecology and disturbance responses of the target species or plant community. In addition it is
important to consider the settlement and land use patterns of the First Nations group in
question, including factors such as the degree of sedentarism, seasonal round, migration
patterns and population levels. Information about past environmental conditions and dynamics
such as shifts in regional climate patterns may provide additional insights into utilization of fire to
both shape and maintain economically productive vegetation communities.

One of the most significant challenges faced by researchers investigating the
characteristics of anthropogenic burning regimes is recognition and documentation of evidence
of the low and moderate severity burns that often characterized these activities. The
environmental management strategies being pursued were often intended to increase the
frequency and decrease the intensity of fire disturbance in selected habitats to maintain various
early and sometimes mid-seral vegetation communities and associated fauna. The techniques
used were intended to maximize productivity by limiting burn intensity to a level that would

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stimulate new growth of selected species, discourage competing species and allow the target
plant species or community to regain productive status as quickly as possible.

As a result, the challenge for fire history researchers looking at aboriginal landscape
burning is to identify and characterize a fire regime, which operated at much finer scales both
temporally and spatially than many fire regimes which originate only from non-anthropogenic
ignition sources. The fire history evidence associated with these fire regimes is much more
difficult to detect and interpret than evidence associated with larger, coarser grained standinitiating fire events.

After review and consideration of the literature, the general conclusion reached is that
studies across a wide range of disciplines that incorporate or focus on fire history must evaluate
the influence of both anthropogenic and natural ignition sources. To the extent possible, these
studies should characterize the relative contributions of both of these influences to the observed
fire regime, and consider the dynamic between anthropogenic and natural fire disturbance in the
ecological region(s) of interest.

6.9

Conclusion

The broad nature of investigations into First Nations landscape burning invokes linkages to
many disciplines including ethnobotany, plant physiology, fire ecology, and successional
dynamics. The multi-disciplinary nature of this subject area is necessitated by the inability of any
single discipline to decipher the influences of past human-environment interactions on
ecosystems. Pieces of these puzzles come from a variety of seemingly disparate sources which
once carefully assembled may provide a detailed knowledge of past landscape burning regimes
and the associated impacts on plant communities.

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The traditional knowledge evident in the environmental management of black huckleberry
by the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en is interlaced within the cultural matrix which directed their
interactions with the land. This concept is embodied in the Wet'suwet'en concept of "Yintah"
meaning "all things connected to the land" including the people themselves. The broad
encompassing nature of this approach to resource stewardship is perhaps its greatest strength
and a positive keynote for the development of future approaches to environmental
management.

194

LITERATURE CITED
Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests. Island Press. Washington, DC.
Agee, J.K. 1998. The landscape ecology of western forest fire regimes. Northwest Science,
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204

Appendix 1: Huckleberry Patch Reconnaissance Data

Map GPS 10
10

RR2 RR29C1

Ecological Information
Bek'et
ICHmc2/01-/03 some
deciduous atches

RR4 RR29C2

ICHmc2/01-/03 some
deciduous patches
ICHmc2/02, exposed edge of
rid e
ICHmc2 /01 b clearcut area on
rid e

RR5 RR29E2

ICHmc2 /Epdm, leading birch,
colluvium

RR6 RR29C3

ICHmc2 /01 mature PI,
abundant V. mem

RR3 RR29CM
RR1

RR29E1

Fire History Information

PI CMTs in the area
large concentreation of
CMTs over 1 ha

some scarring of PI on ridge
cam site area nearb
crest
approximate location of scarred PI stump, 145 yrs,
trail
scar at 22 rs
charcoal in humus layer
Pl118, 123 yrs, some fire
sna s
PI- largest in stand (66 yrs)no core

RR7 RRAGE1
RR8 RRSMP1
RR9 RRSMP2
RR10 RRKNL 1
RR11 RRSNG1

ICHmc2 /Atcv, NE aspect,
AT/E /Ct

mesic, rich slo

RR13 RRT2

/55, old Hw atch

RR17 RRTR2

RR 19 RRTR4

ermesic site

RR20 RRTR5

oun coniferous

RR21 RRTR6

0 . hor.

RR22 RRTR7
RR23 RRTR8
RR24 RRTR9

fine char in humus, spruce
74+ yrs

well defined trailbed on
contour
old fire scar at base of Hw vet
well defined trailbed on
contour

ICHmc2 /01 b -/02 - rocky
rid eto
ICHmc2/01b
81 poles under PI - lots of V.

RR18 RRTR3

charrin on old CWD

well defined trailbed on
contour

RR14 RRT3
RR15 CMTRR1
RR16 RRTRL 1

Pine CMT (61 year old
tree

ICHmc2/55 (Oplo horr.) rich
humus
rock knoll on /55 slo e

RR12 RRT1

fire scarred PI, fire lobe is 121
rs

trailbed, old CMTs and
blazes
well defined trailbed

blazed trail and CMTs
blazed trail interrupted
b owerline
unblazed trail below
owerline
picked up well def.
e mesic + trailbed - no blazes

ICH mc2 /53 - rich site some
broad ridgetop (ICH mc2 /51)
PI & At

vigorous V. mem in cut with
birch sapl.

lost defined trailbed
blazed trail, CMTs
blazed trail
blazed trail runs into
hydro cut

a e class 5-6
ethan RRTR2

little fire evidence
Pl136 rs
No
ICH mc2 /01 b-/02, rocky
GPS RR28CR1 rid eta
ICHmc2 /02, exposed edge of
RR27 RR28C2 rid e

no fire scars, Pl130 rs

Pl130 yrs, smaller PI nearby
is 126 rs
No
GPS RR28C5
No
GPS RR28C6

ICH mc2 /01 b

100m N of C4, Pl146 rs

RR30 RR28C8

ICH mc2 /01 b, Pine/moss
type change to ICH mc2 /52/01 a

large Hw 106 yrs, large Sx 109
yrs

RR31 RR28C9

ICH mc2 /52-/01 a, abundant
Acer Ia.

RR34 RR05E1
RR35 RR05C3
RR36 RR05E2

type change to /Atpw-/01a
ocket
ICH mc2 /o1a Hw/PI
timber type change /01a to
/Atpw
ICH mc2 /At w, little V. mem
ICH mc2 /At w

RR37 RR05E3

timber type edge to young
Hw/Cw stand

RR32 RR05C1
RR33 RR05C2

No
GPS RR05C4
RR38 RR05P1
RR39 RR05C5
RR40 RR05C7
RR41 RR05E5
RR42 RR05C8

RR44 RR10C2

some CMTs in area (in
/01a)

/01a-/03 -fairly rich some Op.
hor.
ICHmc2 /At w - birch leadin
ICHmc2 /At w - birch leadin
ICH mc2 /Atpw - large Hw in
hollow

Hw (core RR05C6), 101 yrs

transition /Atpw- /01a (close to CMTs and kindling trees f. scar PI vet, age 107 yrs lobe
rid e
PI
58 rs

RR45 RR10C3

/52, 53 20m S- /01a 15m N
ICH mc2 /01a -/03 mature
Hw/Sx/PI

RR47 RR10C4

/01a-/03- trans. Old Hw to
oun er PI

RR49 RR10C6

ICH mc2 /01a near type
change (555m)

20-40yr old hunting
stand

RR50 RR10C7

ICH mc2/01a out of dense
Cw.Hw
e

PI, 121 yrs, char in humus (no
GPSID

RR52 RR10C8

ICH mc2/53, At/PI, little re en

PI, 137 yrs, very sparse conif
re en

RR51 RR10E1

change from /01 a .(Hw/PI) /53 At/E

RR53 RR10E2

edge of old /01 a(Hw) and old
/54
e

type (fire?) bdry low branches
7-8 old PI CMTs in /01a on Hw
ed e of old burn
large PI, 71 yrs, few snags or
re en

RR54 RR10C9
RR55 RR 1OE4

edge of type /53 to /01a(dense
Hw/Cw

HW/Cw appear quite young on
ed e

RR56 R10C10

/01a-/03- dense Hw/Cw (no
GPS ID)

largest PI (28cm), 65 yrs, f.
scar in std.

RR57 RR10E5

no PI, looks youger than last
/53
e

RR59 R10C11

PI, 73 rs

RR60 RR10E6

trans from /53 to /01b(rocky
and stee

PI and lots of V. mem. Some
Jun. com.

RR61 R10C12

ICH mc2 /01 b PI on ridgetop
537m

PI, 71 rs
PI, 211 rs

RR58 RR10P2

ICHmc2/53-/54 (523m)

Lower Harold Price
mining trails and
prospectors cabin
nearb

Ep (birch), 68 yrs

dense small diameter Hw no
old stum s
large Sx 107 yrs, fire scarred
Cw

HP1

HPJNE1

ICHmc2/01-/01b Hw/moss

HP2

HP8C1

ICH mc2/03-/04

HP3

HP8C2

ICHmc2/01 trans to /03 toe of
slo e

scarred Cw- scar lobe is 104

HP4
HP5
HP6
HP7

HP8C3
HP8C4
HP8C5
HP8C6

ICHmc2 /01 shallow draw near
toe
ICHmc2/01b Hw/moss
ICHmc2/01b Hw/moss
ICHmc2/01b Hw/moss

double scarred Cw (12-13
ear return interval
Hw 106 years
Hw 107 years
Pl110 yrs

HP8
HP9

HP8C7
HP8E1

ICHmc2 /03-/04 old Hw bdry
with /01
ICHmc2/03

Hw 323+ rs
no evidence of fire

HP10 HPC1

ICH mc2/05, fluvial terrace
near HP Ck.

f. scar to grnd, 3 scars 1550 rs a art

HP11 HPTR1

ICHmc2/01a Hw/Cw moss

No
GPS HPC2
HP13 HPC3

ICH mc2/01a *no GPS (50m S fully barked Cw pole
of HPP1
12m axe marks
ICH mc2/01a, 2nd terrace

trailbed connects to
HPC, Cw CMT
Sx, 129 yrs - sparse old
stum s
Sx, 131+, f. scar chip

old and newer blazes
across draw

Sx, 128 yrs, 3 old Hw at edge
of draw

HP14 HPC4

ICH mc2 /03, 1st terrace

HP15 HPB1

ICH mc2 /01 old Hw age class double sided blaze
9
south and west

Hw blaze is 85

HP16 HPC5

ICHmc2 /01old Hw age class 9 HW food trees and
no GPS
ossible cache it

Hw cambium strip lobe (89+
rs

ICHmc2 /01 old Hw age class
9
lar e Hw food trees

Hw cambium strip (98 years
a o

ICH mc2 /01 b, dry pine/moss

PI 100 yrs, very few old
stum s/sna s

HP17 HPC6
HP18 HPC7
HP19 HPC8

e

PI 94 yrs, very few old
stum s/CWO

HP20 HPP2
HP21 HPBR1

ICHmc2 /01

berry camp - racks and some old stumps and CWO
boxes (at ck.)
near creek

HP22 HPBR2

ICHmc2 /01

second berry camp with
racks and box

HP24 HPP3

ICH mc2 /01 Sx/Hw

trailbed NW of berry
cam s

HP12 HPP1

ICH mc2 /01 high CF, no Vac. several Cw poles, fully
Mem.
barked

few fire scarred Cw vets right
to river

ICH mc2 /01 b, dry pine/moss

well defined trailbed

no old stumps, little large
CWO

trailbed NW of berry
cams

no old stumps, little large
CWO

HP25 HPT1

e

No
GPS HPT2

ICH mc2 /01 Sx/Hw

HP26 HPCBT1

recent clearcut patch - mesic submesic

HP27 HPC10

ICHmc2 /01 Hw/Cw/PI

HP28 HPCMT1

ICHmc2 /01

HP29 HPCMT2
HP30 HPCMT3

ICHmc2 /01 old Hw/moss
ICHmc2 /05 Cw/Hw

HP31 HPBZ1

old Hw/Cw

e

old blaze 2 more 1OOm
north

No
GPS HPCMT4

old Hw/Cw

e

Hw food tree, trailbed
runs N-S

good spot for controlled burn
trial

lar e Hw food tree

Cw snag 171 yrs, scar lobe 12
yrs
large Hw (age cl. 9) little fire
si n
large Hw (age cl. 9) little fire

HP32 HPCMT5
HP33 HPAGE1

old Hw/Cw

double blaze 2nd blaze
30m a 320de

HP34 HPAGE2

ICHmc2 /05 Cw/Hw

*ages are approx- poor fire skip Hw 153 yrs, Sx 138
cores
yrs, 81 scar

HP35 HPAGE6

ICHmc2 /01 b PI, lots of small
Vac. mem.

HP36 HPT1
HP37 HPAGE7

ICHmc2 /01
ICHmc2 /05

PI, 101 rs
trailbed running across
slope on cntr
PI, 109 yrs

HP38 HPAGE8
HP39 HPAGE9

ICHmc2 /01 (moist/rich) PI,
little V. mem.

PI, 85+ rs
PI, 96 rs

HP40 HPAG10

re en

HP41 HPCMT6

ICHmc2/01 PI/Hw stand with
Hw under
S8Sdk /Atcv -/Atpw open
At/Salix
S8Sdk/At w

RE30C1
RE30C2
RE30C3

RE4

RE30E1

S8Sdk /Atcv, large Ct - very
rich

RES
RE6

RE30C4
RE30E2

S8Smc2 /03, PI ocket
S8Smc2 /05, o en 81

RE11 RSAMP1
RE12 RCOR4

PI CMT harvested 50
years ago

Sool Nil

RE1
RE2
RE3

RE7 RCOR1
RE9 RPLOT1
RE10 RCOR3

Pl112 yrs

ICHmc2/01 dense Hw/Sx

Pl70 yrs

fire scarred PI

cottonwood are fire scarred
fire snag 89 yrs, living PI 84
rs

S8S dk /03 hillside - common
uni er

S8S dk /Atki, P. pen., sask,
S8Sdk /Atki

RE13 RCOR5

S8S dk /Atss At, S. albus, R.
ar, R. aci

RE14 RSAMP2

S8S dk /Atss , J . comm, V.
mem

o en At no conifer re en

S8S mc2 /01 logged area PI
V.mem

braodcast burn - lots of V.
mem
edge of younger PI type Pl181
rs

RE19 RSAMP5

S8S mc2 /05 Pl/81, dense 81
ole/sa lin
S8S mc2 /01 young Pl/81
stand

RE20 RE1581
RE22 RE15P1

S8S mc2 /01 young Pl/81
stand
S8S mc2/01c PI/Hw

RE21 RE1582

S8S mc2/01

RE23 RE15E1

S8S mc2/01c PI/Hw same as
RE15P1

RE24 RE15E2
RE25 RE15P2

S8S mc2 /01 Pl/81 V. mem.
Persists
sbs /Atss -/Atcv leading At

RE15 RSAMP3
RE16 RCOR6
RE17 RSAMP4
RE18 RCOR7

2 blazed 81 on ridge SW-NE

young PI, some old fire snags
and CWO

blaze on PI (30 yrs old

stron V. mem in o en
Pl187 yrs fire scarred 8150 m
east

CR1

SIDCT1

S8Sdk /Atpw - open At/PI no
GPS
Staka
ICHmc1 /01 , dense Hw/moss

CR1

SIDCT1

ICHmc1 /01 , open large
Hw/moss

RE26 RE15 C1

CR3 SEC01

ICHmc1 , old Hw to age class
617, V. mem
ICHmc1 /01 , azalea shows
andV. mem

CR4 SCMP1
CR5 SPLT1

ICHmc1/01old 81
ICHmc1a /01a, 8a leadin

CR39 SCOR6

ICHmci /01

CR7 S2COR1
CR8 S2COR2

ICHmc2/01 dense Cw/moss
ICHmc2 /01 dense Cw/moss

CR9 S2COR3a

ICHmc2 /01 PI/Hw - dense,
oun

CR2 SIDCT2

large PI vet 212 yrs grown
over f. scar
well blazed trail
well blazed trail

Hw 21.4cm dbh

blaze is 70+yrs, 2
messa e trees nearb
Pl329
old campsite - stove,
tins, messa e tree
old blazes on trail

fire skip area b/n younger
es
first recent burn - open
shrubfield - PI 62 rs

bark stripped Cwstri ed in 1844

fire scarred Cw vets in area
draw
PI 129 rs, no vets on rid e
small PIS1 rs

small gully, fire skip 1OOm S of
CR10 S2COR3b S2COR3

PI (35cm dbh) 134 yrs, Pl139
rs

CR11 S2CK1b
CR12 S2CK1

ICHmc2/01 old Hw/moss

wedge- fires in 1873, 1929,
1950
old Hw 223 rs

CR12 S2CK1

ICHmc2 /01 near S2CK1

CR13 S2PL 1

ICHmc2/01

e

CR14 S2COR9 ICHmc2/01 dense Hw stand
CR15 S2COR10 ICHmc1/01dense Hw stand

Cw fire lobe core 97 yrs
(estimate)
dense Hw, charcoal in humus
Ia er
Pl142 yrs (with scar), PISS

CR17 SD38Z1

old blaze on trail 119yrs,
a e class 9 Hw
ICHmc1/01 old Hw alon trail 1881

CR18 SD3AC1

ICHmc1 /01 type change into
1st "burn"

Open shrubfield scattered fire
sna s

CR21 SDEC01
CR22 SD3CR1

more V. mem, dense and
vi orous in man areas
ICHmc1/0, V. mem. 25-40%

PI (35cm dbh) 7S yrs

CR23 SD3EC2
CR24 SD3CK1

permesic seepage slope,
dense E il an .
small creek

few fire sna s in this area

CR25 SD3CR3

permesic,major creek, base of
scree slope

81 in older strip at top of slope
226 yrs

CR19 SIDPL1
CR20 SD3AC2

81 in other upper slope type 67
rs
Pl62 yrs

CR26 SD3CR4
CR27 SD3CR5

ESSFwv /01 dense 81
ESSFwv /01 , dense azalea

CR28 SD3 CH1

ESSFwv /02-/03 strip along "J" possible cache pit
Creek
3ftX2.5ftX9in dee

CR29 SD4CR1

ICHmc2/01 Hw/Cw moss

CR30 SD4CR2

ICHmc2 /01 old Hw/moss

CR31 SD4PL 1
CR32 SD4EC1

ESSF wv /05- dense V. mem
ESSFwv /01 dense azalea

CR33 SD4CR3

type change to dense 8a,
some /05

CR34 SD4EC2

type change to drier type
coarse soils

CR35 SD4EC3

type boundary to wetter /05/07 com lex

CR36 SD4EC4

abundant small streams,
leatherleaf sax.

CR37 SD4PL2

ESSFwv /05-/07

CR38 SD4TR1

ESSFwv /01

e
open shrubfield- few
sna s/CWD

possible cache pit site PI 36 rs
s uare, shallow
well defined trailbed
approaching ck.
Lax Ansa Maatsa
* 30 N of SCN1

Hw vet 74+years (age of f.
scar lobe

L1

SCN1

L2
L4

C8LZ1
C8LAZ2

L5

C8LZ3

ICH mc1/01

blaze on 81 (68 yrs)
1932, trailbed

L6

CEC01

ICH mc1/01

west facing blazes N.
side of creek

L7
L8
L9

CEC02
CCR2
CPLOT1

ICHmc1 /01 open shrubfield &
81 oles
ICH mc2/01
ICHmc

several charred snags lots of
V. mem
Pl87+ y_rs

L10

C2EC01

ICHmc1 /01 Hw/moss - young
81/azalea

edge of type b/n age class 6
and 4 rna

L11
L12

C2EC02
C2COR1

ESSF wv /01 oldHw/azalea
ESSF wv /01 81/azalea

81

L13
L14

C2COR2
C2COR3

L15
L15

C2COR4
C2COR4

ICHmc1 /01 open 81 and
shrubfield

ESSF wv /01 - dense azalea,
V. mem
ESSF wv /01
ESSF wv /01
ESSF wv /01

blaze onl 81 {dead}
blaze on small 81

edge of old Hw type, little fire
si n

fire snag (8131 .5 em dbh) 183

L15
L15
L16

C2COR4
C2COR4
C2COR8

ESSFwv /01
ESSFwv /01
ESSF wv /01 , S. facin knoll

L17
L58

C2PLT1
CLUNCH

ESSF wv /01

L18

C2BLZ1

L19
L20

C2RFCM
C2BLZ

ESSF wv /01

L21

C2BZ3

ESSFwv /01

L22
L57

C2BLZ4

old blazes in meadow
com lex

L23

CBZ5

old blaze

L24
L25
L26

C2BZ6
C2BZ7

ICH mc1a /01 , old Hw
ICH mc1a /01

e

C2WTR1

ICH mc1 a /01, old Hw

e

L27
L28

CBZ10
LK30C1

ICHmc1a /01, old Hw
ESSFwv /01 azaleaN. mem.

L29
L30

SWAMP1 bo
LK30C2

L31

LK30C3

L32

LK30C4

L33

LK30C6

ESSFwv /01

PI (largest, several smaller
ones , 82 rs

L34

LK30P1

ESSFwv /03, azalea, V. mem,
atch re en

Pl75 yrs, some CWD, several
fire sna s

L35

LK30E1

ESSFwv /02 on rocky outcrop com lex

L36

LK30C7

ESSFwv /01

L36

LK30C7

ESSFwv /01

L56

LK30C8

ESSF wv /03-/01 , /01 bela,
o en shrub com lex

L37

LK30CP

ESSFwv /05 pocket above
alder swale

kindling tree on fire
sna
blaze on Bl snag
several in draw
old campsite on trail and
raft at lake
double blaze on old Bl
blaze on ld Bl snag
{blazed 3X}

little fire si n
blaze in old Hw
e
well defined trailbed
large single blaze on old
Hw
PI

hototie, old Bl
old trail and scattered
blazes nearb

blaze on small Bl (70yrs

rs

old Bl in fire ski

snags in diff. size classes, PI
76 rs
3 small, shallow, square edge of open shrubfield/dense
cache pits
trees

ESSFwv /07and /08 types
alon creek
ICHmc1a /01a
ICHmc1a /01a
ICHmc1 a /01 a, dense Bl oles
ICHmc1 a /01 a

L38
L39
L40
L41
L42

LK30E2
LK30P2
LK30C9
LK30E3
LK30C10

old Bl and Ba in creek draw
Sx 78 rs
Pl83 y_rs
lot2
PI {35cm dbh} 71 y_rs

L43

NW end of series of phototie
2LCTRL 1 bo s

blaze on old Bl nearb

L44

2LBLZ1

ICH mc1 /o1 Hw/moss lots of
oun er Bl

several old blazes in
area 100+ rs

L45

2LBLZ2

ICHmc1 /01 , old Hw in age
class 9 atch

large 4 way blaze
blazes over 100 rs

L46

2LEC1

ICHmc1/01 on slope few
~ r
draws

L47

2LCOR1

ICHmc1a /01a, lots of Ba in
stand

L48
L49

2LCOR2
21COR3

phototie bog small submesic
"island"
ICHmc1a /01a BalBI

L50

2LCOR4

L51

2LEC2

ICHmc1a /01a Ba leadin

large&small snags in area (2x
scar sna

L52

2LEC3

ESSFwv /03, azalea, V. mem,
atch re en

scattered snags in 25-30 em
dbh ran e

L53

2LEC4

ESSFwv /03 heavy azalea,
stron V. mem.

some large PI, mostlysmaller
Hw, Bl, Ba

L54

2LEC5

ESSFwv /03-/02 change to
drier
e

L55

2LPLT1

ESSFwv /03 - open young
stand Eco lot 5

L56
L57
L58

C2COR1
LK30C8
CLUNCH

ICHmc1/01a o en shrubfield

L59

CBZ11

ICHmc1 /01 a old Hw

old single blaze on
hemlock

L60

CBZ12

ICHmc1 /01 a old Hw

very old blaze on Hw others nearby_

timber type change open
shrub-old Hw
65 rs

some fire sna s and CWD

ICHmc1a /01a- edge of young
e

Appendix 2: Tree Species Codes

Tree Species Codes
Species Code
Act
At
Ba
Bl
Cw
Ep
Hm
Hw

PI

Sx

Latin Name
Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa
Populus tremuloides
Abies amabilis
Abies lasiocarpa
Thuja plicata
Betula papyrifera
Tsuga mertensiana
Tsuga heterophylla
Pinus contorta var. latifolia
Picea glauca x engelmannii

Common Name
black cottonwood
trembling aspen
amabilis fir
subalpine fir
western redcedar
paper birch
mountain hemlock
western hemlock
lodgepole pine
hybrid white spruce

Appendix 3: Edatopic Grid

Soil Nutrient Regime

very

Relative

poor

poor
8

A

I

very xeric 0

xeric

medium

rich

c

D

l

very
rich
E
I

--H----+------+---I

I

,

I

I

I

I

-------j------i--------,-----+-----1

'
I
I

subxeric 2

'

I
I

I

I

I

I

i
I
I
I
l
-------i-------1----------+---------r - - - '
I

I
I
I
I
!
----------~-------r------t--------- --mesic 4
~
II
Il
!
I
!

submesic 3

.......
0

1

--------r-------r------r--------r--I
!

subhygric 5

00

hygric 6

!

1

!

!

!

!

Il
Il
I
I
-------+-----+--------+---------+----1

1

I

I

I

I

il

I
l

il

:1
I
I

Ii

:I
i
I

:I
I
!

r------ ----~------ ------ -----

subhydric 7

:
!