OIL, ENVIRO MENT, ND IN E URITY : A CA E TUDY OF OIL PROD U TIO -REL TED ENVIRONMENTAL IN E URITY IN NIGER! IGER DELT REGION by Jud e B ., on o ni er ity f dengw u igeria 2000 PROJECT SUBMITT DIN PARTIAL FULFILM NT OF THE REQ IREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ART IN INTERNATIONAL STUDIE UNIVER ITY OF NORTHERN BRITI H COLUMBIA February 20 13 © Jud Udengwu, 2013 T il pr id n mi c b nefit t hu g il mpa m n th oil pr du tion can ha e multipl e ad er p pi ' li . Thi pr bl em appea r t be m In 1gen a il pr du ti on ha re ult d in (whi h I refe r to a au allink betw ; h w v r, n ir nm nt w hi ch in turn an affect untrie . re 111 il-pr du ing d n u n ir nmental damage and viol nt co nfli c t 'en ir nm e nta l in ec urit "). Why? In thi re ear h, I inve ti gat d th e n il pr du cti on and nvir nm ntal in ecurity in th Thom a Hom r- Di. n ' w 11 -kn wn n ir nmental mod el deri e from t curity m odel. 1ger elta u ing ata for u e w ith the tu al m at ri al and int r iew . M y findin g and ynth e is f r from the literature how that ad by th and il-pr du in g c untri ult nv1r nmenta l imp act , t geth er with regu latory failure igerian go ernment and expl o itati e practi e by oil comp ani e , 1 d to a decrea e in the upply of n atural r urce in the regi n (l and , crop , fo rest , fre hwater, fi shing wa ter and fish), which in turn led to con strained economi c produ ctivity that, in m e in tance , precipitated violent conflict in the N iger D elta. Corrupti on and lack of enfo rcem ent were predominant factor explaining the failure of intervention m ea ure de igned to prevent violent conflict. .. 11 b tra t ..................................................................................................................................... 11 Table f Li t f nt nt ..................................................................................................................... 111 igur ·························································································································· Li t fT abl ··························································································································· 0 Li t [ cr n n1n ...................................................... 00 00 00. 00 00 0 0 . 00 0 11 00 00 . . . . 00 . . . 00 . . . 00 • • • 0 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kn wledg JTI nt ................................................................................................................ v iii H PT R 1: INTR 1.1 TJ 00 . . . . . . 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 . . 00 . . . . . . 00 • 1 00 . . . . . 1 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooOOoooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ti n ......................................................................................................... 5 u g1 al ppr a h .. ............................................................................................ 7 1.4 M aj r inding and 1.5 Benefit f the R 1.6 hapt r HAPT R 2: 1 ynth i f R e ult fr m Literatur ... oo . . . . . oo . . . oo . . . . . oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo . . e rch .................................................................................................. . 9 i w .......................... IR M T L 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RI Y D IL PR Tl 10 ...................... l 2 2.1 Introdu cti on ........................... .. ...................................... ................................... .... .. .... .. . 12 2.2 The one pt of n vironmental e urity ...................... ............ ..................................... 12 2.3 Oil Produ ction ... ...................... ...... .. .. .. .. ......... ... .... ............................... .. .................... .. . 16 2.4 Literature on Oil Producti on and it nv iro nm entaJ and Human Impact .... 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.4.1 Impacts of Oil Production on the nv ironm nt ..................................................... 1 2.4.2 Impact of Oil Production-Related nv ironm ental Pr bl em on Human Live .... 22 2.4.3 R elation hip between Oil Production, nv ironmental Problem , and Conflict.. ... 24 umn1ary ...... .... ...... ... .................. .. .... .......... .... ....... .... ...... ... ....... ..... ............................. .. ..... 24 HAPT R 3 : IL PROD CTION IN NIG RIA .......... ... .......................... .......................... 26 3. 1 Introdu ction ................................................................................................................... 26 3.2 B ackground on Nigeria ...................................... ...... .... ................................................. 26 3.3 The Niger Delta ... ......... ... .... .. ................. .. .... .......... ......... ....... ..... ................ .. ................ 2 3.3 .1 G eography and co ystem ..................................................................... oo . . . . 00 . . . . . . 2 3 .3.2 The pe pl e .............................................................................................................. _ 3.4 il Pr du ction in the Niger D Ita ......................................... 3.4.1 Hi tory of 00...................................... il Production in the Ni ger Delta ....................................... 00................ 0 1 3.4 .2 h ilindu stryinNi g ria .. .. .... .... ........................................................................ 3 .4.3 iti n t th pp i I Indu try in theN iger 0 lta.... ........................ .... .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . Ill 4 H PT R 4: M T PPR H ......................................................... .... 6 4. 1 Intr du t1on ... .... ....... .. ...... ......... ............ ................... .. ....... .... ...... .... .. ..... .. ... ...... ..... ....... 6 4.2 H m r-Di n M d 1. .......... ....... ....... ........... ....... ... ......... ...... .. .... .... ........... .......... ... .. ... . 6 1 prn nt [ th 4.2. 1 ri gin and r th M d 1 ..................................................................................... 41 4.2.2 4.2. d 1 .................................................................. 40 th M d I ......................................................................................... 42 riti i m 4.2.4 H 1 appli d th m d 1........................................................................................ 4 f ata 11 cti on .......................................................................................... 45 4. .1 Primary ata ti n ......................................................................... ............... 45 4.3 M thod 4. .2 nd ar f 4.3. 4.4 Data n .................................................................................... 4 ata ata ur ..................................................................................... 50 tra ti n ..... .. ... .. ................................................................................................. 52 4.5 Limitati on t th M th d 1 gy .................................................................................... 53 4.6 u1nn1ary ................................................................................................. .. ................... 54 H PT R 5: IR M T L H M IMP F IL PR TJ IN RD LT ...................... ..... .............................. ,.................... ........................... .. .. 55 5.1 Introdu cti n ............................................... .... .. ............................................ .... .. ............ 55 5.2 En ironmental and Human Impa t of il Producti n in the Niger Delta ................... 55 5.2. 1 Environmental Imp act .......................................................................................... 58 5.2.2 Human Impacts: .. .... ................. .. .......... ... ................... .. .... .... ..... .. .... ........ .. ...... ...... . 6 5.2. 3 An wer to Re earch Qu e tion # 1 ........................................................................... 66 CHAPT R 6: OIL PRODU TIO -RELAT D VIR NM TH NIGER DELTA: A ALY I WITH H M R-DIX ' TAL IN RJTY IN M D ~ L. ... .. ..... .... ... .......... 67 6.1 Introdu cti on ................................................................................................................... 67 6.2 Oil Production and Environmental Insecurity in the Niger Delta: Cau al Link ......... 67 6.2. 1 Precur or Factors ... .... ..... ... ........... ........... .. .. ........ ..... ......... ... ........... .. .................... 6 6.2.2 nvironmenta1 Re ource carcity .. ........ .. ...... ... ................ .... .............. ................. 73 6.2.3 Social ffect ..... ................ ........... ...... ........... ........................................................ 77 6.2.4 Viol ent onflict ........... ... ............... ...... ..................... ............................................ . 6.2.5 An wer to R earch Qu tion #2 ......... .. .................... ....... ..... ..... ............ ..... .... ...... 7 igure 6.3 Preventing nvironmental Insecurity in th Ni ger Delta .................................. 90 6.3 .1 Mea ure to Prevent nvir nm ental In ecurity in theN ig r D Ita ................ ....... 90 6.3.2 W re the Mea ur u e ful. ...................................................................... .. ... I 00 nibl firF ailur 6. fth M ur ...... ........................... ................ 101 ..................... ..... .................... ....... .................... 10 6. hapt r 7: L ·· ··············· ························ ···· ········· ··· ········ ······························ ···· 105 7.1 ummary f the Re earch .................................................................... .... ................... 105 7.2 R rrune11dati 11 ...................... ....................................... .......................................... 106 7. ar hLimitati 11 ................................................................................................. 107 R 7.4 B nefit fth Re ear h ............................................................................................. 108 REF REN ............... .. .................................................................................................... 110 DIX : IT R I WM T Rl L ......................................................................... 126 APP v LI T OF FIGURE Figure .1 Map f ig ria .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Figur 4.1 Th Homer- i ' n M d 1 ............................................................... 4 Figur 6.1 Link betw en il Pr du ti n and n ir mn ntalln cmity in the tg r D lt .......................................................................................... 9 Table 4 .1 Li t of Int rv ie Tabl 4 .2 Doc um nt ....................................................................... .. 54 nal d ................ .. ................................................... 55 Table 5.1 E nviro nm ental and Hum an Impa t of Oil Pr du cti n in the N ig r De lta ....... 5 Tabl e 5.2 Numb r of Data Table 6.1 ige r e lta Pr urc ur that ld ntifi ed a iven lmpa t .............. . ............ 59 r Factor ..................................................... .... 71 Table 6.2 Importance of Precur or Factor . .. ..... .. . .. ......................................... 73 Table 6.3 Niger Delta EnviroDJTiental carcities .................................................. 76 Table 6.4 lmportance of nvironmental carcitie ............................................. 77 Table 6.5 Niger Delta Social Effects .............................................................. 78 Table 6.6 Importance of Social ffect ........ ... ... .. .. . ..... .... ................................ 83 Table 6.7 Niger Delta Niger D elta Violent Conflicts ........................................... 84 Table 6 .8 M ea ure to Prevent Enviromnental In ecurity from Oil Produ ction in th e Niger Delta ........ . .... .......... ... ...... ............ .................................... 103 VI LI ntr 1 Int !Ji g n 1 g n ur R qu ircd lmmun d fi ci n y Human Jmm un d fi i n HI I yndr m IY Ij JMTF J int Mi lltar L 1qu fi d M D Y uth M ngr atural a m nt [! r th Multinati nal MN M man ipati n f th il 1g r rp rati n em nt [i r the urvival [ the g ni Pe pi e DBD iger Delta Ba in D v I pm nt Auth rity DDB iger Delta De elopm nt B ard DVF iger Delta Volunteer Force GO NL G Non-go ernmental rgani za ti n Nig ri a Liqu efi ed Natural igeri a National Petroleum NN P DRA OMPAD UNDP UN P Ita a orporati on N ati nal Oil pill Detecti n and Re pon e Oil Mineral Producing Area Developm nt Commi 1on nit d Nati on D Uni t d Nati on elopm nt Programme nvir nm nt Pr gram .. 11 ACKN OWLED I wi h t re gnize th p op l [! r rno t, I would like t h mad thi r d thank m i[i , hinw r h pr ~ tp ible. ~ ir t and ~ r her l e and upp rt tlu· ugh ut m 1 ng pen d of thi tud . M wiD al ay cam t the tud y r there ear h urag d m t ke p d ing my be t and r ad ach chapter f a pr gr mg n m to how r. H r upp rt m tivat d m e t continu until th end wa r ach d. nd a pe ial ' thank · t my n, nt m , and my dau ght r, Daniell a, ~ r all wing m e t u e part f th ir fun time t wri t thi re earch r p Ji. Thank , too to my mom, dad and ibling : Y u wi ll n t ha ofthi re earch anym r a h tim e I call y u from t endure t rie r lat d t the writing anada. M y parent and ibling have alway en ow·aged m to be the be t I can, and to c ntinu t tri ve t make them proud. There wa a time when work to complete m y re earch pro~ ect overwhelm ed m e. I Jo t all hope of graduating with a Ma ter degree from the niver ity of orthem Briti h Colmnbia. One person encouraged and taught m e how to overcom e and mo ve on: m y supervi or, Dr. Ken Wilkening. Ken championed my succes , provided me with vast expanses of knowled ge, and above all left an open door for all of my qu estions. I am proud to be one of your students. To my conunittee m ember , Dr. Chri Opio and Dr. Karima Fred~ : I am deeply grateful to you for your contributions to my work. You redirected me toward a better way to achieve my research goals. Finally, special recognition goe to my interview participants. The time you pent to answer my int rview questi ns gav this r s arch meaning. I hope that when you ee the result, yo u will be proud of having made a contribution that will hop fully help bring po iti e change top op le' lives in the Niger D lta . Vlll 1.1 Overview il 1 i pha1ma nliallo t da ' indu trial i ili Lati n. ran p rtati n, el tri it , uti al , h m h ating, and m h ni al rati n f indu trial quipm ent, t m nti n nl ha pr id d n rm u pr ducing untri ;h w mi ben fit t human ci iliLati n, t r, it h al n ga ti il c mpani e , and t il - 1 af~ ct d the natural n ir nm nt and pe pi · li Th 1mpa f il n th natural nvir nm nt and p il pr ducti n and th two type : th word , impact a and hipping t iat d ith th fr nt end f th nd u er ) and impa t a e r lated t pl can r ughl y be di id ed int il c n umpti n. In other il u e pr cc (ex tracti n, refinem ent, cia ted with th e ba k end f th e proce (con umption by end u er ). My ~ cu in thi re earch project i n th front end of th e oil tory, what I will refer to a "o il production" . Oil production can lead to negative environmental impact uch a air pollution, water pollution land degradation, d forestati n, acid rain, and climate change ( 'Rourke and Connolly 2003; Woynillowicz, ever on-Baker and Raynold 2005). It canal o adver ely impact people due to, for in tance, the health effect of air pollution from ga flarin g and water pollution from oil pill (Jewett 1934; Argo 200 I; and onnoll y 2003), and the lo 'Rourke of li ve lih ood when land are appr priated ( ' R urke and onnolly 2003 ). In om ca s, th 1 p tein and elber 2003; nvironm ntal problem cau ed by oil production can The term " il" is generally u ed to refer to ub lan ce that maintain a li quid tate at room temp erature and do not mi x with water. Thi definition include vegetable il, oi l from wo d. fossil fue l petroleum. etc. In th1s research, I u e the term "o il " to refer only to petro leu m whi h include. conventional crude oi l ( ommonl a c mbination of crud e oil , natural ga., and water) , oil sand (c mmonl a combination of b1tumen, sand, cia . and wat r), and th ir end products. nflict in il-pr du ing c mmuniti 1 ad t reg t n f cuad r ( arbi ri and arr 2 balan iti 2002). H w d th p th natural en tr nment and p b tw ; [! r amp! , th maz n ni1i t in th 5; Wid n r 2 07 , and in uth rn udan ( witz r f th r lati n hip b tw en il, and n ga ti ar h pr j c t, l c amm th r lation hip pi e . In thi r n il pr du cti n, th e en tr nm nt, and p pi in t nn f the c nccpt f " n ir nm ntal ecurit " . Thi co ncept an b appli d n an 1 u d t addre communiti a! , fr m l al t gl ba l; h we er, g n rall y it th e link b twe n nv ironm ntal pr bl em and th e ecurity f indi idu al , , and tate ; in th er w rd , th e tat level and b I w. When it i u ed to addrc cwi ty f tat th e link betw een en ironm ntal i ue and the " national ecuri ty" ( ll enby 2000). When u ed t addre i sue and th e ecurity of indi vidu al and communiti th e c n ept ~ cu e n th link betw en en vironm ental , it fo u es on "hum an ecurity" (UNDP , 1994). M y focu in thi re earch proj ct i o n th e link b tween env ironm ental i ue and th e ecurity of individual and communi ti e at the local, ub-nati nall evel. Although th ere are numerou example of how oil produ ction can cau e environmental problem and adversely impact the ecurit y of individual and local communities in nation around the globe, there are al o local, national, and intern ati onal efforts which enhance their ecurity. Exampl e of international ecurity-enhancing effort include the Gl obal Ga Flaring R edu ction (GGFR) initiative, the MARPOL convention (to prevent marine oil spill ), th e International Re p n e and onvention on ooperation (I OPPR ), the lntemational il Polluti n Damag (I il Pollutio n Prepar dne , onv nti on on L PD) , and th e "Fund convention " (whi ch ivil Liability for tabli h d an intern ati nal fund -D r compen ati n in ca e of o il polluti n dam ag (lntemational Mmitime 2 me nati nal f.G rt t rganizati n 2011 ). th il pill Pr tat . . n ir run ental Pr t ti n g n ut ill an P) f Tran p Ji ati nal nti n ntainm nt and Pr gram ( il pill and udan. L onting n y Pl an al f fl rt ar ( f th g a id uzuki again t the nbrid g and K ton 2011 ; RD nvironm enta l erall , th r ar ca p p P cmm nt f rini da d and o iety; fl r m nit d rial anada 20 12), and th und ati n ( uzuki en ti nal lud 111 ) pr gram f th 2 11 ), th anada (Tran 1 ti ftc n rgamz d b th from "dit1 oir ' to .. cl aner" our e il pr du ti n-relat d e urit unterm a ure ( "ethi al il " amp aign by th 20 11 , and th nhanc bag , ng la, amp! , th anti- 11 ), the campaign anada ( re np eace anada ampa ign fo r anada to tran iti on f n rgy ( n ir nm ental efence 20 10) . in whi ch il pr ducti on-related enviro nm ental ecurity ha be n nhanced for individual and communi ti e , and there areca e in whi ch it ha decrea ed. In general, it eem that oil producti on-related environm ental in ecurity for individu al and communitie i mo t prominent in il -producing developing countri es . And in ome of these countrie - for exampl e Colombia, Ecuador, Sudan, and igeri a- oil production-related environm ental problem have re ulted in conflict. Why? In thi re earch proj ect, I tackle thi que tion for one oil -producing country 1g n a. N igeria tarted large- cale oil production in 1956 wh en crud e oil wa di cov red in commercial quantity in the outhea tem part of the country (lkelegbe 2005) . The di cov ry attracted many multinationa l oil corporation (MNOC ) from urop and America . By the mid-1970 , th re wer nin MN day (NNP in Nig ria , producing over two milli on barrel of oil per 201 0) . In 1976, Ni geri a e tabli hed the Mini try f P troleum Resource (MP ) and, in 1977, th 1g nan Nig ria' in th ati nal P tr 1 urn il indu try p tak n plac in n id rabl e il r e1 nl and prot ct 2010) . en th ugh larg - cal c untTy till ha P ), to r pr rp rati n timat d t b ig ria ince the 1950 th 11 2 billi n barr I , the l 01. larg in the world ( IA 20 11 ). Thi imp li e th at il pr du cti n can c ntinu e n a larg many d cade . To add t th ad an ta g f larg il d po it , igeria al t cale D r ha a typ of crud e oil that i in high demand n the gl bal mark t, a type kn wn a " onventionalli g ht crud e" p 2010). With hi gh d mand ~ r petroleum re 1g ria ' c m entional I ight rud in particular, and it urce in general , the country has deri ed en m1ou eco nomi c benefit from oil production. Annually, oil production contribut ige ria ' for ign exchange earnin g EP 2011; CIA 2012a) . In 2010 , igeria 's gro d m estic 387 .8 billion ( IA 2012a) . The sam e year, igeria eamed 196 and 80% ofbudgetary revenu e ( product (GDP) wa U 9 5% of billion from oil and ga export (Bala-Gbogbo 2011 ), which wa more than 50% of the GDP . However, in the mid t of the wealth, the country struggl e to take care of its population of 170 million. Seventy percent of the population lived below $ 1 per day in 2007 (CIA 2012b), total life expectancy (male and female) in Nigeria i 52 years (CIA 20 12b), and only 44% of children in Nigeria had acce s to secondary education as of 2010 (World Bank 2012b) . In addition, in 2008, Nigeria emitted more than 95,756 kilotonne of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere (World Bank 2012a), mo tly through oil production. In Nigeria, oil is primarily produced in the Niger De1ta.2 Oil produced here account for virtually all of the wealth from oil production in Nigeria (Ikelegbe 2005; UNEP 20 11 ). ~ 4 . . N1gena also posse ses off- hore oil reserves, and refine oi l in Kaduna, which i not in the Nig r Delta. 4 pit thi alth indi idu al in il -pr du ing c rru11uniti ignifi ant 1 ca l n ir nmental and human e urity h ll en g Th p iger D lta hi h i in th pl fr m ab ut 40 thnic gr up of ec lo al communiti Ita regi n face r lated t oil pr du ction. igeri a, i h m e t 0 milli n e .G r t , wa mp .G re t , rain[! re t , w tland , un-o und ed by wat r b und ari e . M any of th pe pl e th re li ve in urT und ed by amp and c reek . poor ba d on th ir inc m (Franci and pra te t d the en ir nm ental impact b ut 40% f the ntire p pul ati on i ard a ai 200 ), and the eco y tern are being de troyed by il pr du ction. In the earl y 19 0 , the of nine 1ger Ik 1 gb 200 ). Th regi n ha a naturall y b autiful s t t m - a ombinati n of m angr and dr land which ar uth m part f in th g 111 c mmunity in th e Niger el ta f il produ ct i n, w hi ch led to the ex tra-j udicial killing goni leader in 1995, including K en ar -Wi wa, an intem ati nall y known author and environmental acti vist. Hi executi on, in parti cul ar, tri ggered national and intern ati on al cond emnati on and lead to m any recomn1end ati ons to addre th e env irorun ntal and human problem . De pite thi , alma t two decade later, indi viduals and communi ti e in th e N iger Delta still experience environmental and human ecurity pro blem s due to oil produ cti on. In this re earch proj ect, I examine these continuing probl ems u ing an environm ental ecuri ty fram ework. 1.2 Research Questions (1) What are th e environm ental and human impacts of oil production in the Niger D elta ? Oil production is a complex process which involves multipl e intera tions with th natural environn1ent: seismic survey , construction of well , building of fl ow line and separation fa ciliti es, tran portation of crud e oil and refined products, separati on of ga and water from raw crud e, flaring of ga , and di sposa l ofw a te produ cts, to nam a fe, . The e 5 interac ti n may r ult in en ironm ntal curit pr bl In . il pr du cti n-r lat d nv ir nm nta 1and human pr bl m in th to identify th Ther wa a large lit ratur t draw up n t aid in thi pr c pr id d th e fi und ati n t an w r m y e (2) h fir t l pin m y re nd r Ita. earch qu e ti on . 7 urity in rh r D elta ion? ft rid ntifying th en ir nme ntal wa to 1g r . Id ntifying the I ro bl m s H oH' and why ha. oil produ lion I ad to 17l'ironm '77 /al ins r arch wa curi ty pr bl m , th ne t tep f m y re pl ain how il produ cti on ha led t th cau allink betw en il pr du ction and th Althou gh m any tudi e h a pr bl m . In th r w rd , wh at are th e n ironm en tal insec uri ty in th e Fran cis and iger D elta? e amined the link between oil pro du cti on in the N iger and its env ironm ental and human imp ac t (D abb 1996; Ibean u 2000; 200 1; R o 2002; Ik legbe 2005; arch elta konta and D u gla DP 2006 ; T u chi and j ibunu 2007; W id en r, 2007; ard e ai 2008; D avis 2009; Amne ty Intern ation al 2009; H eng, Hipel, and Fang 2 009 ; Obi 201 0), they tend to focu s on env ironmental polluti on as th e onl y oil produ cti o nrelated ource of th e insecu rity and leave out other po ible ocio-political ources such a resource scarcity induced by popul ati on grow th and inequality between p eople wh o b en efi t from oil production and tho e wh o do n ot. I attempted to includ e a m ore compl ete ran ge of sources of environmental insecurity-enviromnental, social, politi cal, and economi c- than have previous sch olars. Characterizing and an alyzing the ource of th e o il productionrelated env irom11ental insecurity in the N iger D elta provid ed th e ba i fo r an wering my third research question. 6 (3) 11/hat m a ur hav b in th Ita and w hy ar th m a, ur , , ig r n tak n to pr v nt and addr , th nvzronm ntal ins nun (v not sue ·. (ul? p urity ((/ all , what a tor, xplain th ir failur ? h n t t p oi l pr du ti n n th fm r ar h a t id ntif mea ure taken t pr n 1r nment and p pl f th mea ure ha e fail d t all via te nv1r nmentaJ in n ironm ntal in curit in th 1ger ha b n littl ing the r u e in addr 1g r elta, and nt th impa l f plain why the e curity. In ther w rd , t und r tand why d. T he p lta ha ugg t that there f il pr duction-relat d proble1n . I catal gued the mea ure that ha e be n tak n t prevent the impact f il pr ducti n n the env ironment and pe pl e, and analyzed for fa tor that ac ount forth failure of th e e mea ure . 1.3 Methodological Approach I an wered the above thr e qu e tion u ing primary and secondary data. Data deri ved from e-mail interview with individuals who live or have li ved in th e iger Delta and document analysi . Document included peer-reviewed ources and textual materials from the "grey literature", including NGO publication s, inter-goven11nental organization report , goverrunent documents, and company reports. To frmne and conduct my analysi of the data, I applied an environm ntal security mod el developed by Thoma Homer-Dixon in the 1990s, the sam e period that environmental insecurity in the Niger D elta was becoming severe. The model was de igned to study enviromnental insecurity in developing countrie , and was u ed to help ex plain the relation hip between environmental scarcity and violent conflict. urpri ingly, th model ha never been applied to an oil pr duction case or to the Niger Delta. 7 Iu th in th m d I prim ril t dra' an a pr du ti n, n 1r nm ntal qu ti n 2) · nd t in p n ibl [! r th tg r 1.4 l\1ajor Finding and ynth M re ar h r R ar h th r n il Ita r gi n (an w ring [; ilurc [ th m a ur il pr du ti n-rclat d n 1r run ntal in c urit in th rcg1 n (a n addre • nfli t in ar it , and ti ga t au a1 link b t\ tak n to enng qu ti n ). i of R e ult fr m Literature al d th e [! ll wing: u ti n I : 11 7wt ar >th e em 'lronm ental and Iutman 1111J7C1 Cis o/01 l produ ·tion in Ita ? Th pnmar n ir nm cntal impa t ar : ( I ) land d gradation fr m il , pill , il a t , a id rain, and fr m de[! re tati n du t il perati n. ; (2) air p lluti n ca u d b p llutant fr m ga Oaring, rud oil refi ning, and il pill evap rati n, and by ac id rain; (3) fr hwa t r p llu ti n fr m c ntamin ation [ ri r and gr und water by pill , produced wa ter and , wa te fr m dredgin g; (4) marin e wa ter p 1luti n fr m contaminati on by i1 pill and produ d water· and (5) ·oth er' impact hi ch in clud heat from ga fl are and pipeline expl o ion , noi e from oi l pr ducti n equipm nt, li ght from ga fl aring and crud e oil refi ning, and de tructi on of wildlife. • l uman impact of th above environmental effect includ I health is ue of li velihood and uch a re piratory and ga tr inte tina! di ea e , kin in[! ti n , can cer, and HIV I A ID . Re earch Qu e tion 2: f-low and why has oil produ ·tion lead to m •i r onm ntal in ·ecuri(1' i n 7 th e N iger D elta region? • H re i the implifi cd au al chain re ea l d b m re ar h. ari et of oil pr du tion-r Ia ted " precur or factor " uch a N ige ri a' petroleum and land Ia\\ . , ploitati e practice b , and p lluti n 1 d t a "e n ir nm enta l r p in th land fr hwat r, fi hing car ity'' (i.e., a h r1age in th ari et il c mpam f" 1ger elta uppl of th e natural re ourc ) . hi in tun1 resulted in a ial ffe t " u h a pul i n and migrati on f 1 ca l pe pl e to urb n area and abroa d r du ced agricultural pr du ti n, un mpl ym cnt, po e11y, rentse king b ha iour uch a ki dnapp ing, and di loya lty to lo al and g vemment auth riti cia l effect wer Re earch . T he e u ffici ntly inten e t pr duce violent confli ct . ue ti on 3: TVhat m "a.·ure ha1 •e h "en tak n to prevent and address the em iron mental in ecurit_v in the iger Delta and w hy are the measures seemingly not ucce .ful. Sp qfi ally, what fa tor explain their failure? • A wide rang of mea ure hav be n taken to addre in ecurity in the and prevent the environm ental iger D elta at multipl e tage in th e above-expl ained ca u al chain . However, the mea ure were not fu ll y ucce fu l. The prim ary factors expl aining their collective failure are: con-upti on, lack of re ources, in adequ ate planning, lack of enforcem ent, lack of p m1icipation, and delay in approval of interventi on proj ects. 1.5 Benefit of th e Research There are tw o m ain benefits of thi s re earch , one theoretical and the other practical. At the theoretical level, my re earch contributes ( 1) to the literature on Hom er- Dixon· model, specifically adding a n ew case study to the coll ecti on of case to which the model ha been appli ed, and (2) to the literature on the negati ve environmental and human impacts of oil produ cti on, specifi call y addin g a new stud y on the N iger D elta. t the practical! vel, I hope that m y re earch will contribute to re olving the environmental crisi in th Niger Delta . I have p rson all y witne ed the environmental ins curity in the regio n. 9 1.6 haptcr O ve rview hapt r 2 pr id n n ir ru11 ntal rar hing th nt t [! r th rc arch- th r lati n hip n thi t pi . ~ r m th e lit ratur urit and il pr du ti 1ew it i appar nt that il pr du ti n an r , ult in n ir nm nt I in curity. I p ifi all li lih u [! d, nd th ir link t hapt r d nth imp a t rib th g pr id nfli ct in il -pr ducing th p ifi -p liti al tru ctur f ement aga in t th nt n 1r nm nt and hum an health an mmuniti s. t [! r th rc ea rch- d pr du cti n 111 1g ri a. 1 ig ri a and intr duce th rcgi n f , tud y (th e f il pr ducti on in th regi n nd th D lta). In additi n, th m f il pr du ti n n th il indu tr in th r gi n are di , cu 1ger n 1r nm ntal d. hapter 4 d cribe th m th d I g ad pt d [! r my rc ar h pr jcct. I di cu s th e f data c ll ecti n and analy i . Th H mer- i meth d rigin and d n m del i de crib d, including it lopm nt, it pr vi u appli ati n , and it deficiencie . rev iew flit ratur n the H m r-Dix n model re eal that the model ha not b n appli ed t tud y il production-related en ironm ental in ecurity, and ha n t b n appli ed t the iger D Ita ca . hapter 5 pre ent the environmental and hum an impact of oil producti on in th iger D Ita. lt provid e an an wer to the fir t re earch que tion- the typ and natur of il production-related impact . hapter 6 examin e oil producti n-related envirorun ntal in curit y in the 1g r Delta using the Homer-Dixon framework. Th rea on forth env1rorun ntal and human impact are pr vid ed in the fir t ection of the hapter whi h tra , ho r a ted nvirorunenta l pr blem and how th y ha th Nig r lta- pr iding an an wert my oil production ha re ulted in en ironm ental in, ecurit in nd re · ar h que, ti on. The second s ~ction 10 tak n t pre en addr pr nt mea ur g errun nt, il compani , i il re pon ibl fl r th failur f th mea ure m pr hapter 7 un1m an ze the re ult ig r Delta cri i re arch. It a] o id entifi n 1r run ntal in ty, and 1 ca l ti n pr top the th and d urity. M a ure tak n by mmuniti c wer id ntified, and fa t r nting en ir nm ntal nflict in the Jg r ide an an wert m third r . ar h qu e ti n. f th re arch, g r rec mm ndati n ribe th e alu e, b n fit s, and hortcoming and di u e ar a fl r futur re earch. I1 n h w to f my D OIL PROD TION 2.1 Introduction Th r lati n hip b t een oil produ ti n, th mpl and n m y. Thi nt nti u , n 1r run nt, and ecurit y i highl y p cia!I gi en the pr minen e f il in ur m d rn indu tri al hapt r intr du and all -imp rtant relati n hip . It i di v id d thi compl curity i di c u ed in e li on 2.2; iJ ncept f nvir nmental into thr n . Th pr ducti n m ecti n 2. ; and the tw t p1 ar br ught t geth r m ecti n 2.4, in which urity i reviewed. rom thi review it the lit rature n il produ cti n and nv ir nm ntal will bee m cl ar that il pr du ti n an 1 ad t 2.2 The Concept of E nvironm ntal n 1r nmental in ecurity. ec uri ty The term "environm enta l ec urity"' m erged fr m attempt to incorp orate th e environment into th ecurity age nd a. The fir t attempt date back to the 1970 . Environmental i u s gain d intem ational attention at th e wat r hed ni t d Nati on Conference on the Human Environment held in St ckhohn , weden in 1972 . De pite its prominence, the conference did not change the traditional conceptuali zation of security. The term environmental security w as fir t used in 1977 in a paper by Le ter Brown titl ed "Redefinin g Nati onal Security" (Brown 1977). In 1983, another scholar, Ri chard U llman, used the phrase in a similar article, " Redefinin g Security" ( llman 1983) . Both ch olar sought to rethink traditional security and broaden it to include a ran ge of non-m ilitary threats such as human-induced environmental change. However, their arti cles drew little cholarly or policy attention. In 1987, the W rid Cmnmi sion on nvironment and D evelopm ent (WC D) publi shed Our Common Future (WC D 1987), arguing that enviro nmental degradation was a threat to human ecurity. gain , the report did not attra t much att ntion . 12 h c n ld War in th lat 19 0 and arly 1 90 r nd fth ptualizati n f the c nc pt f urity. In 19 ' , J u hm an Math ew , in a (Mathew 19 9) argued for the inclu i n f n ir nm ntal, r d finiti n f in the n nv ir nn1ental urit in cau ing iol nt n a anadi an internati nal relati on pert, in 1990 began to influ need m any other cho lar and am in th ro le [ en ir nmental chang nOi t. H m r- i on· w rk i di u ed in detail in Barry Buzan ( 199 1) publi hed Peopl , Stat , and Fear: An A Studi urc , and d m graphi i sue urit . Math -ws· arti cle appeared t ha ch Jar . Thoma H omer-Di ult d in a maj r re- nda for in! •rnalional ecurity in th e Po t- old War Era, in whi ch th c n cept of ecurity wa broad n ed to includ e fi e ect r : p liti ca l, military, econ m1c, sector . In 1992, the enter for ecurity tudie and In titute, and the w1 Peace Found ati n hapter 4 . In 1991 , ~ r the fir t tim e ci tal, and environm ental onfli ct R e earch, the w i s Federal tabli shed th e Environm ent and onfli ct Proj ect (EN COP) which la ted until 1996. The proj ect resulted in the publi cati on of numerou occasional papers including " Wh at is an E nv ironm e nta l "Environmental Crisi : Regional onflict" (Libi ze w ki 1992), onflict and Ways of oo perati on" (Bachl er et a l. 1995). and " Water Di sputes in th e Jordan Basin Regions and the ir R o les in th e Re o luti on o f the Arab-Israeli Conflict" (Libi szewski 1995). The changing notion of ecurity was popul arized by Robert Kaplan (1994) in a famou s atiicle in the A tlantic M onthly titl ed " The om111 g Anarchy''. The above works and oth ers in the 1990s attracted policy attention in the United States, urope, and elsewhere. Former U Pre id ent eorge Bush in 199 1 in 1uded env ironmental is u es in th "National ecurity Strategy of the U nited ta tes" (Bu h 1991 ). In 1 1994, in r mark to th ati nal adem y f c ten a kn wl edg d th r lati n hip b forward b R bert K aplan and ecr tary f tate, W an-en Pr id nt Bill 1r nm ntal ch ang and i h rna H m r-Di n ( lint n 1 hri to ph r, pr mi edt mc rp rat for ign po li c ag nd a ( hri t ph r 199 ). th e 4 linton nflict a put and in 1996 , I in ton ' nvir nm ntal i u into e ample illu , trate, by the end f 1990 th r lati on hip between en ir runental and e urity i ue w r r c iving both acad m1 and p licy att nti n . In th e 2000 nited n trorun n tal i ue ntinu ed to rec iv mu ch att enti on . In 2000, ati n e ta bli hed th e Mill ru1jum D el pm ent oa l (MD ) (Mill ennium Pr j ct 2006). Thi proj ect i till on-go ing and ha been ad opted a part o f the developm ent strategy by notabl e in tituti on u ch a th W orld B ank (W orld B ank 20 12c) . In 2005, a UN Mill ennium Project T a k Force o n En ironm enta l usta in a bility publi hed " nvir nm ent and Human W ell-being: A Practical trategy" (M elni ck et al. 2005) . B etween 2000 and 20 12, the Environm ent Change and Securi ty Program (ECSP ), a project of the W oodrow Wil on International C enter for Scholar in W ashington , DC , had publi h ed rune volum e , fea turing more than 60 articles, special rep orts, and comm entari es on environmental security. All of these effmis toward s expanding the traditional noti on of security to includ e enviromnental problem s have not resulted in an agreed upon definiti on of env irorunenta l security; th e concept has b een given m any interpretati on . For ease of visu alizing th e e interpretations, I categorize them into two typ es: " nati onal en iro nm ental sec urit " that links the enviromnent to the security of th e tate, and " hum an enviroru11 ental ecurity" that link the environment and the ecurity of indi v idual and co mmunity. a h type i di cu below . 14 d ational Environm ntal S urity f tlu· at r D ar f thr at t Th t nn " e urit " can b d fin ed a th ab en bj ct f alu (W 1~ r 1952). Th tate i th obj t f alu ~ r nati nal n urity, and rtification, carcity of agticulturalland, de lin f marin fi herie , trat fre hwat r ca n, in thi n ironm ntal re ulting from th curit ph n z n depl ti n, and carcity f n id r, d threa t th e k t tate. n urc that the tat i pr tected fr m and th r nvir nmental pr blem . Michael defin d nati n al n ir nm e nta l e urity a the "ab nee f n n- 1 ati onal lent c nfli ct redcrick (1993, 76 1) nv ntional threat aga in t the en ironm ntal ub tratum e enti al to th w 11 -bein g of [a _tate's] popul ati nand to th e maintenance of it fun ti nal inte grity". More re . Allenby (2000) Myer (2002), and ntl y, thi definiti n ha been supp rted b y tal ley (2003 ). The above v iew has been criticized by som e cho lar . D ani el D eudn ey ( 1990) described the idea of linking environmental i ue to nati onal ecurity a " muddl ed thinkin g." Stephen Walt (1991, 2 13) argued that linking state ecurity and other is ue such as the environment " run s the ri k of expanding' ecurity tudi e ' excessively". Instead of linking the enviromnent and state security, Buzan, Waever, and Wilde ( 1995) suggested politicization of enviromnental probletns; in other words, makin g politi cal efforts to improve the quality of the environment without labelling environm ental probl ems as a ecurity i ue . Human Environmental Security Human enviromnental security links the enviro1m1ent and hum an security . Human security has been defined as " afety from such clu·onic tlu·eat as hunger, di ease and repression ... and protection from sudden and hurtful disn1ptions in the pattern of daily 15 liD -wh th er in h me , in j b impli r In mmuniti " ( curity f indi idu al and c mmuniti that th P l 9 4 , 2 ). Thi definiti n can b di turb d by mullipl fac t r , including io l nt confli c t. Th link b tw en the en ir runent and human e urity impli e that th aim fen 1r nm enta l curi ty. d f th human cat Brown ( 1977), llman (19 (2003), B arn tt (2007) and noti on f human M curity i t curity ~ curity-ba d appr ach t mpared to nati onal n ir nm ental ecurity in lud e D (19 7), Mathew (1 89), Khagram , ), W an uli (2007). lark, and Raa d nl ik th c ncept f nati o nal ecurity, th n the indi idu al an d c mmuni ty a the object of va lu e. u t ch Ja r do not ment io n '' n ur human ecurity, mmuni t ·· in th e ir definiti o n , but it i implicit th at environmental pr bl m that affect the ecurity of indi vidual w ill ai a ffec t th eir conm1uniti e becau e indi vidu al li ve in communiti e and deri ve their ecurity fro m th eir m emb r hip in them ( DP 1994, 3 1). My Working D efinition of Environmenta l Security In m y research, I adopt th e human env ironm ental security approach b ecause th e in ecurity b eing experien ced in the iger D elta i ub-nati onal, not nati onal, and i affecting only the security of individu al and communities in the region rather th an the ecurity of N igeria as a country. For thi s study, I created the fo llowing working definiti on of env irorunental security as it applies to sub -nationa l scale: Env ironmental security is the absence of en virorunentally-related threat to the welfa re and li ve of p eople, and to the viability of the communities in whi ch these p eopl e live. 2.3 Oil Produ ction il production con i ts of extraction, refin em ent, and tran portation of c1ude oil and refin ed il products. xtracti on, al o known as r 16 overy, i the proc b which oil i found and r m d fr m the earth ( PP 2 11 ; r ud m·ich and ar h for an il fi ld , th e ar a that contain t hn 1 g ie ar u d by ge 1 g i t t D nn f a liquid (refen d to a on il b n ath it. tri kland n .d .). It tart with a ari ty f t hniqu and ar h :G r il fi ld . Th e il in a fi ld ma y b in the nti n al crud o il r, more impl y, c n v ntion al oil) or in th fl 1m f a olid mi tur of and , la , ater, and bitum n (r fen d t a oil and ). fter an oil fi ld i 1 ca t d , drilling r minin g an c mm enc . T h m e thod of traction d p nd Drilling in n th e form f il th at i being tra ted and h w deep it i located. rin g h le into th earth w ith a rig (a drilling m achine) and in talling infra tru ctur to brin g th e il fr m th hovel and tru ck to r m o il cl arth t th urface · m ining in e t th e urface ( lve u ing large PP 20 l I , 6) . In igeri a, onl y th e drilling m thod i u ed becau e a ll o il i in liquid form ; hence, in th e remaind er of thi di cu ion, I will focu s only n proce e related to conventi on al oi l. Once drilling infra tru cture has been installed , co nventi on al crud e oil can be rem oved and piped to facilitie where th e oil is sep arated fro m ga and wa ter (BP 2 009 ; CAPP 20 11 ). It is then transported to refrn eri e wh ere it i proce ed into u eful produ cts. Transportati on of crud e oil to refrn eri es can b e done tlu·ou gh pipeline , m arine vessels, tank tru ck , or rail cars. In refin eries, the hundreds of hydro carbons contained in crud e oil are eparated into products throu gh a process known as fracti onal distill ati on . The fin al produ cts are then transpm1ed to end -u sers. For the purposes of m y re earch , I a sume that the final tage in wh at I refer to a th "oil production process" is tran port of refin ed petroleum produ cts to n d-u er . Thi is al so the first stage in what I refer to as the "oil co nsumpti on process''. M y r search doe not 17 il addr ue r lat d t il n umpti n, 1 th maJ r n umpti n. In th bi pher , and ar lt il pr du cti n, a mpared t [ n 1r run ntal in curit ur 2.4 Literature on Oil Production and it il pr du ti n h 1g r nv1ronm ntal an d Hum an Impa ct multipl impac t n the atmo. ph re, h dr . ph ere, lith ph r , and n human b mg that depend n th en ire n111 ntal r . ource c ntain d in th e · ph re ·. Th r 1. an e l ns1 b d fl it ra tu re n il pr du cli n and it impac t nth r alm . Rath r than att 1111 ling a c mpr h n iv re i nth literatur th at add re. , in all th ar a , I G cu d m r "' ie b ing ri n d in th 1mpa f il pr du ti n n th en vir nm ent, the impac t of th 1g r from oil pr du tion on human li of lh . ub . tanti allit rature the type. f impact ella. I gr up d th litera ture int three ca t g ri e : th e n ir nm ental pr bl e111 , and th r lati on hip between th hum an effect and internal confli ct. 2.4 .1 Impact of Oil Pr ducti n on the In thi n ir nment ection, I examin e oil producti n-relat d air polluti n, wa ter polluti on, land • pollution and degradati on, and other impac t that do not fa ll int any f the e catego ri . For each, the ource , pollutant a ociated with them, and their ef-D ct on thi! en ir nm ent are di cu ed. A ir p ollution Oil producti on can re ult in air polluti on. The oil indu try relea e 75 per en t of it total pollutant to th e air ( ' Rourke and onn oll y 200 , 603). il production-relat d air p lluti on occur fr m emi ion during drilling, r finin g, nd tran p01ia ti n. Multi] lc pollutant typ earb n di are emitted to the air during th e proce e , including benz ne, butane, id , carbon m no id e, 111 thane, naphtha len , nitrogen o ide., o.Lone, particulat matt r pr pan , tyr ne, ulphur di elber 200 gr nh u 'R urk and o nn oll 200 n ir nm ntal limate hang mmuniti e , it i al , l ng-t rm n iro nmcntal impa t . f n min lud ga e uch a carbon id , parti c ul at m att r uch a du t and , id e, and t lu n ( rg _00 1: p te in and onnolly 200 : Farina 201 0) . Hi gh c n kilom ter from to th emi ion whil pl and th ir 1 cal fp il pr du ti n-r lated · I c I' air p llutant m no id , naphtha! n , nitrog n rg 2 001 ; p t in an . In thi r ear h , I d n t c n id r, [i r in tan c curit gen rall c n id er d a gl bal larg - tyren , ulphur di 4; d in limate h an g . Th r a o n i be au ga e m can ind ed afD t th tt 1 id , and t lu n (J urc e lber 20 0 : t, prop an , ' R urke and ntrati n can be [i und up t ab ut on to three ( du 1994 ; monoxide, and unburned p articulate can be pr rg 200 l ). ulphur di ox id e, carb on ent wi thin fi t 15 km fr m produ cti n . site (Odu 1994). The e p llutant can then be inhaled or ab orb ed thro ugh th e kin (Arg 2001 ; American M edi cal ociation 2007). Water P ollution · Oil production can result in m arin and freshwa ter water pollution. ' Ro urk e and Connolly (2003 , 603) states that the oil industry relea es 24 p ercent of it total po llutants into marine and freshwater. Oil production-related water pollution occurs primaril y from o il spills, waste discharge, and the u se of water during oil production (Epstein and elb er 2003 ; O ' Ro urke and Conn o ll y 2003). Pollutant typ es includ e " produced water'', heavy m etals, and hydrocarbon (Latta 1963 ; pste in and Se iber 200 3; 0 ' Rourke and onn o ll y 2003 ). Produced water is water rel eased as waste. It is hi ghly hazardous wat r that is fmn1ed und erground with crud e oil and natural ga , and is extracted from the ground along with crud e oil and natural ga (Veil et al. 2004). Often th water i re- inj cted into oil well s u ing hi gh pressure equipment to fore more oil to the surfa ce, or if not u ed is di charg d into 19 urfa ate r ( R urke and ntain hi gh amount o nn 11 200 f hi rid and i 594 ; il t al. 20 4 ). Pr duced water alti er than marin at r (Latta 196 ; ir can be onn 11 200 ). Typi cal! , nl a m all qu antity [ th o il in a r w ith ut water inj cti n . W ater i whi h h lp . eli plac th erv ir and pu hit t ward th well. il pill into the cur on a regul ar a or coa tal fre hwa ter fr m hip , drill ing equ ipm ent, or pip lin ba i trac ted ir t increa e th e pre ure m mo nl inj c ted int a r il fr m the r ' Ro urk e a nd and ar m ainl y du t human rr r r equipm nt br akd wn r fa ilure. Th efD ct of th e ab il on the urfac of m arin e p llutant r fr n 1 a! m arine and fre hwa t r an be ignifi cant. hwater can 0 at fo r day or m onth s if not cleaned up , and can poi on and kill fi h (Pi att et al 1990; M e r a- trub et al 20 11 ; oil and produced w at r i ~ al o hannfu l to fi h ( p te in and pton 2 0011 ). M ercury in e lber 2003; ' Ro urk e and Conn lly 2003 ). B enzen , xyl ne, to lu ene, and eth yl benzene are " potentiall y toxic co mpound , whi ch can dama ge aquatic life, in c ludin g fi h spec ies (E pte in and e lber 2 003, 10). The e effects are experi enced in the N iger D elta where o il pill are the largest source of water pollution. Land Pollution and D egradation Oil production can result in land pollution and land degradation . Th e oil indu try re leases onl y one percent of it tota l po llutant to th e land (O ' Ro urke and Conn o ll y 2003, 603). L and pollution from oil production occurs m ainl y during onshore oil production and i often du e to oil spills and wa te disch arge on land (O ' Rourke and o nn o ll y 2003; Amne ty International 2009) . Land pollution can also occur a a result of offshore dri lling, when oil that pewed into the ocean i flu hed to land. Land pollution that i related to waste discharge occ urs mainly due the dumping of produ ced wa ter to th e land (O ' Ro urke and onnoll 2003). lt can also occur du e to dred ging by o il o mpani e (Amn sty International 2009). 20 B au th maJ r ur f land p lluti n ar p llutant are hydr carb n and p llutant ab e ecti n n w at r p lluti n, the quality f th il pill and wa te di charg , th pnmary ntained in pr du ced w at r. ub tance ar t noted in th ic and ther fore an damage the oil. il pr du cti n-r lat d land degradati n can re ult fr m p llutant dumped n land urface and from r ad con tru cti n, drii!ing of h 1 in tall pipe that will be u d t fl r different tagc remo e il from the earth to th urfac , and n tru cti n f faciliti il produ cti on (O'R urke a nd nn o ll y 200 : p te in and , lber 2003) . Th m aj or impact ar ero ion and oil qu alit redu ctio n ( mne ty Intern ati onal 2009~ f ien and John 20 10). Defore tation i anoth er promin ent land -r !at d imp act. Defore tati on is the remova l of a fore tor tanding tree from an area of land and conv rtin g th e land to a non-forest u e (O ' Rouke and onn o ll y 2003; F 2008) . During il productio n, d fo restati on m ainl y occur as a re ult of cutting of trees by the o il indu try fo r constru cting road , for building faciliti es for oil drilling and refmin g, and for laying pipeline (Ep tein and Seiber 2003; O ' Ro urke and Conn o ll y 2003). Deforestati on fro m o il production occurs in the N iger D elta, and it is a major issue in the region, as are land degr adation and land polluti on in general. Oth er Impa cts There are numerous other impacts of oil production beside those de cribed abo e. Oil drilling, refming, and transportation can generate heat and noise, for exampl e. Heat i produced in the oil refining proces (Argo 2001 ; O ' Ro urke and onn o ll y 2003, 603) . Heat from oil production can damage soil and vegetation within 10 to J50 meters around th flare site (Farina 2010, 23 ). N oi e is generated from drilling equipment, oil tra n port rs, and refin ery m achinery (O ' Ro urke and onno ll y 2003; Farin a 201 0) . Th se impacts are most 21 a ute in pia wh re int n il d in th elta r gion f tg na . 1g r 2.4.2 Impac t of Th many wa il Pr du cti n-R lated n tr nmcntal i1npa t .I (2) ad 1 pment erlap with J al c mmuniti n ir nm ntal Probl em f il pr du ti n an ad er , for ample n Human Li ly af[i ct human live Jn n id er tw ca t g ri e of impact : ( 1) ad er e lln pa n human hea lth and on pe pi e' li e lih ood. 1-Iwn an ]-]; a lth il pr du ti n can b d trimental t health . Hea lth impact includ e re piratory di ea e (e.g., a thn1a and br nchiti ), an r (e .g., leuk mi a an mi a, pancreas cancer, thyroid cancer, and lun g cancer), heart pro bl em , ga tro inte tin a! infl ammati n, birth defect , neurolo gical disord er , irritation that can afD ct the eyes and mu cou m embrane , and th e skin irritation and kin di ea e (Argo 200 1; p tein and Iber 2003; ' Ro urke and Connolly 2003 ). The e h ea lth problem are contracted in vari ou way - by inhaling air, drinking water, eating foo d, and having direct c ntact with contaminated item s. For exampl e, inhaling air that contains toluene, a potent central n ervous system toxic in crud e oil , ca n lead to n eurological disord er (Argo 2001 ). Inhaling air contaminated w ith particulates can cau e respiratory diseases like astluna and broncruti , and lung cancer (Choudhury, Gordi an, and Morris 1997; Argo 2001 ; Epstein and Seiber 2003). A ir contaminated w ith benzene or naphthalene from refin eri es or fl ared ga e , at any concentTation can cau e anemia and leukemia (Argo 2001 ). Drinking wa ter contaminated by oil pollutants can cau e gastrointes tinal probl em (Epstein and in birth defect ( ' Ro urke and elber 2003). ating fi h that ha m rcury can result onnoll y 2003 ). And dire t contac t with objects ontaining benzene can cause skin , nose, and eye irritati ns (A rg 200 1). 22 Th ad er producti n it h alth impact (J ew tt 19 4 · mor wid P pr ad b n w rking in wh li m di tanc awa y. It ha b n argu d that th impact tl y afD ct th e workin g in produ ti n it than tho out id r, the fTe t around th ite can b and th ar mor Jik 1 to dir f il pr du ti n can afD t p r 200 ). H au f the large numb r o f p n c mmuni ti f th m pi th at m ay b affe ted . Lh elih ood il pr du cti n an al occur. I will di u b d trim ntal t li lih d. Th ere ar many way thi can th thr e mo t c mm n way r levant to th iger Delta : impact to fi herie , to cr p fa rmin g land , and t D re t . Fi herie can b imp acted a a re ult of wa ter p lluti n fr m il pill and w a te di charge. not d ea rli er, pollutant from oil pill and wa te di charge can kjll fi h, depleting the fi h tock, and thu cau e unempl oyment fo r fi sher . For exampl e, Me reaStrub et al. (20 11) and Upton (20 11 ) noted that crude oil p llutants from the Gulf of M ex ico oil pill in April 2010 killed fi h tock polluted fi hing area , and lead to suspension of commercial fi shing and unemployment in the fi shing indu try in the region . Impact to crop fanning can be cau ed by the seizure of land for oil producti on and by discharge of pollutants to farm lands (Amnesty International 2009; Bruno, Herz, and Moore 2011 ). Land seizure for oil earching and for infrastructure con tru cti on can re ult in redu ction in the quantity of land available to farm ers . If the land is forested, then sub equ ent deforestation can expose the land to erosion and make it non-u eful for farming. Pollu tant transported to farm land can reduce the fertility of the soil leading to low agri cul tura l production and unemploym ent for farmer (Anme ty Internati nal 2009; rimo gunj e et al 201 0). The impacts to farm land ca n not only affect farm ers' li velihood bu t al o food scar it in oil-produ cing communiti es. 2 du t oil pr du ction can ccur m anou wa c mmuniti and . In mo t a lb er 200 ; it i d [i re tati n cau mne t Intern ati nal 2009 ). m il-pr ducing d by il p rati n (Ro 2002; . . p tein au replanting durin g il peration , the numb r f tree a ail abJ e [i r harve ting i redu ced. Thi can r du mpl ym nt and incom e pportuniti e in the for t indu try and affe t peopl e who ar d p nd nt n the indu try . 2.4 .3 R ela ti on hip b tw en Fr m the di iJ Pr du ti n, n 1ronm ntal Pr bl cm , and u wn f th e li teratur ab onflict e, it i cl ar that oil pr du ti on can lea d to en ir nm ntal impa t that, in me ca an lea d to impact li velihood . Th literature i al cl ar that, in om ca e , th e n human hea lth and impac t ca n lead to c nfli ct. Two type of conflict can em erg du e to th e en ironm ntal and health and li velihood effect · of oil production : non-violent and violent conflict (D abb 1996 ; Le Billion 2009). No nviolent conflicts in oil-producing conununitie ca n m anifest in th e form o f di agreem ents, peaceful prate t , and court case . An exampl e is the confli ct between th e oil industry and the forest indu stry in A lberta, Canada (Ross 2002). V iolent conflict can manife t through ar on, kidnapping, hostage taking, and anned confrontation . Exampl e are the violent confli ct that can be found in E cuador, Southern Sudan, and the Niger D elta region of N igeri a (D abbs 1996; Switzer 2002; Ikelegbe 200 5; UNDP 2006; Tuschl and Ejibunu) . Summary The literature on oil production and human security reveals that o il can adver ely affect the enviromnent and people's li velihood and that it can in orn e case lead to vio lent conflict in oil-producing communities. In other word s, it shows that il production can re ult in env irorunental insecurity. In the next chapter, I begin my an alys is of how oi l producti n 24 l nt c nfli t, in th ha r ult d in n 1r nm ental in e urit , and 1g na . 25 1g r elta r gi n of 3.1 Introduction 1gena 1 an pmg ountr , th 1o lh larg il -pr du ing d in th w rld ( c untry t r in en it ti gatin g the r lati n hip b JZ t il -pr du ing c untry and glob al imp rt ance, it i a criti cal een il pro du cti n and n ir nm ntal impact . In additi n, it o il pr du ti n-relat d en ir nm ntal pr bl cm ar internal not tran ig ri a and it il pr du cti n . I fir t ig ri a and then intr du ce th elta regi n , boundar . In thi chapt r, ba kgr und i pr d crib th g f -p liti al tru ctur including it pe pl , g th e oil indu try, and m graphy and m ent aga in t th id d n te m il pr du ti n hi t ry, pr ent tru c ture o f il indu try . 3.2 Background on N igeria N igeria con i t o f territ ori e that wer am algam at d into one politi cal entity b y Britain during it coloni zation of reat igeria , whi ch la ted betw een 1807 and 1960 (Alapiki 2005 ; Davi 2 009) . B efore colonization, the t rritory that i now known a igeria consisted of smaller territori e occupied by differ ent ethni c group s and separately admini stered by local kings. In northern N igeri a, there were Islamic emirates, empire , and caliphate that were predominantly populated b y the H ausa, Fulani , Tiv, and Nupe ethni c groups, and were rul ed by emirs (Geary 1965). In the we t, there were kingdom that were m o tl y inhabited b y the Yoruba and E do etlu1ic group , and w ere rul ed by " Oba " (Geary 1965). In the ea t, there w ere nations that w ere predominantl y occupi ed by th e Igbo, Ibibi o, Efik, Urhobo, It kiri, Isoko Etch e, Anan g, O goni, Isoko, D e lta - ros , and Ij aw etlmic group , w ho w r ru led by loca l chi efs and " Obo ngs" (G eary 1965; UNDP 2006) . 26 t fir t, the riti h g f al rul r . ln l ntra t d th mpan a t 111 tenit n t mana g th t rrit mmcnt admini t riti h thr ugh th n mpan , th R al ). h ,2 1g r d th t rrit n c ugl , , 20 I; a tran [! rred t th [! rm th Prot riti h g \ f t rat uth ern rat of ig ria in l 14 t rth ern [! rm nt in I 111111 0 and 111 rg d ig ri a ( av i. , 20 ith th w , t 111 t rrit n ). Th n rth 111 area wa admini t ith th e Prot ct rate f ig ri a, but V\ a. m rg d . I ) ( a i, , 2 09) . ig ri a ( 1gur hat i kn wn t da Figure . I : Ma p of uth ern •g na 4 CHAD NIGER o Zmde Sokoto /__ - ._ I Katsina ~ K Zamfara l./ rts'" 1 .-J - ~·_/ • Kano f~ l 7 r J L f ) ..,-- ..r=- ~a~gun L.;::p· ~ 1Porto Novo J - '?. .._ , •i... ~ j". Ondo Lagos ~ I Yobe I 1'- Nassa,r_aw~ - Kbgi ') - . r. r. ? l: U€1 ,J 2 'Ebonyi . ,. Ab ia'-Cross. .0 Be n1,rt Ct y Delta :_r C 3 r\ River r' ' lmo ! 0 ' Port ' ! 4 I r/ ~ Y'. CHAD J f/ ," ,J Jf/. f·-,_ ( \_) / , \...rl.X'~damaw~g.arm Benue Edo /' I Taraba l r-j r_/ :Y.'' -' 1· -·, ..... ,...- v1~1d '-..lgun J' r Gombe - ..... ' l ~ lbadart r Osunr kiti J' -0 1 - - ) Borno ._r'-( ,-. Plateau~ AbtJja 1 _ Bauchi ,_r.,..J ' " , l ·'- '-- . ,( Kaduna N Jger r .._r-J ~~ .J I ( Kwara ' ~ ~ 0 , r- a0 o aduna J r"- BENIN Jigawa • =,..,tu·a FCT = ~· ""lltr<~ :i~ ~~~·~u!'Q'., ? CA 1 ROO\J 'r Harco Jrt Old I ur e: Wikipcdi a (2006) 27 liO ;!l}{l ~rn fter gaining ind pendence fr m untry int D ur admini trati the di W reat tern and Mid - ritain in 1960 p liti al ten i n re ult d in r gi n in 196 - th in I 75, 2 1 tate in 19 7, 0 tat and th F deral apital T rrit ry (F T in I F T rely on .D derall co l] ct d r Franci and 6 in 1991 , and finally t day' enue for their admini tration (Tu ch1 and jibunu 2007; P 20 11 ). producti n (lkelegbe 2005 · 6 tate Japiki 2005, 5 -6 1). The 6 tate and th e r 0° o [ ~ d rally c JJ arda ai 200 ). a ten1, a th n furth r di id d int 12 tat t m r gi n ( lapiki , 2005). It in 1967 19 tat rth rn, il in t d re enu e i derived from oil igeria i primarily pr duced in nine of the 36 state . The e nine tate are in the regi n kn wn a the iger elta. 3.3 T he Niger D elta 3.3.1 Geography and Eco y tern The iger Delta c n i t of the tate of bia, kwa-Ib m , Bayel a, ro s-River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo, and River (Figure 3.1 ). Geographically, it is located in the outhern part ofNigeria. It hare boundarie with Cameroun on the east, the Atlantic Ocean on the west and south, and other Nigerian states on the north. The region has a land area of approximately 112, II 0 square kilometers, which is about 12% of Nigeria' land area (Davi 2009, 40) . About 32.1% of the area is wetlands; the rest is dryland (Ibeanu 2000). The wetlands include marshland, creeks, lagoons, and tributaries of the Niger River before it empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The entire Niger Delta region i made up oftlu·ee vegetation zones : beach ridg , a]t water, and freshwater ( P 20 l I , 32). The beach rid ge zone is a combinati n of tidal flats and sandy ridges . It con ists of mangrove tree on the tidal plain and wamp tree , palm trees, and hrubs on the andy ridges . The saltwater zone i mainl y vegetated by red 28 mangr . Th fr hwater z n i the ar a ar und th rain[! re t tre palm tree , raffia palm , hrub num r u including of animal in th 1ger iger Ri er; it i c liana , [! n1 , f1 ating gra el ta. h r ar er 90 sp c1 fri an l phant hipp p tamu , chimpanzc , le pard, ered by , and re d of wildliD fri can buffal , yell w- back duik r, m na m nkey, red-capp d m nk y, dwa rf antelope, royal pyth n, green turtl e, and white-tail d m ng fj h ( lli n and (Bl n h and Dend 20 7) . Ther are al about 25 0 pecie of kadi 2009). 3.3.2 The p op! The iger D lta ha a p pulati n of J .2 milli on (D a i 2009 ; PCN 201 2).3 Th e population con i t primarily o f indi ge ne and immi grant . Indi gene are nati v from the 40 different ethnic group in the who are iger D elta (Tu chl and j ibunu 200 7; Davi 2009). Immi grants are people from different parts of N igeria and other countrie who cam e into the region mainl y du e to th e oil producti on. The fi ve major ethnic groups in the N iger Delta are th e Ijaw, Edo, Delta-Cro , Y muba, and Igbo (UNDP 2006) . The Ijaws are m ade up of numerou cl ans, each w ith linguistic and cultural distinctivene s. Thi s group occupies vi1tu a!ly the whole of Bayel a State and is also found in River , Akwa Thorn, Delta , Edo , and Ondo states. The Edo are made up of minor linguistic groups such as the Isoko and Urhobo of Delta tate, the Edo of Edo State, the Engenni and Api e-Atissa ofBa yelsa tate, and the Degema of River The Delta-Cross comprises mainl y of the goni , Ogba, 1 tate. bua, Odu aL and Obolo/ Andoni in Thi fi gure is from th e most recent ce nsu . in 2006 . Ni geria has had two acceptab le en. uses stnce 1970. The first was in 199 1 and the seco nd was in 2006 . In the 199 1 census, th Ni ger Delta had a popul ation of a I most 22 milli on (Uy igue and Agho 2007, 6) . hu s, between 199 1 and 2006, the popu lation has grown by about 50°o. 29 tat and th Ibibi , r n , and lb en of known int rnati nally becau by h 11 P tr 1 u1n lgb fi ar tw e ompan ( P fth large t ethni c gr up in d ni , gb m a, goni i th be t ) in lh arl y 1990 . Th e Y orub a and th e ige ri a; how v r, they ar th m all iger D elta. T h eY ru ba ethni c group compri It kiri of D elta tate and th Tlaje and Ikal Ikw rr , tal . Th th y led p pul ar pr te t again t n 1r run nlal degradati n 1 pmg m aJ r thni gr up in th kwa lb m gba and f nd kpeye in Ri er l of the m ainl y th tat . T he main Jg b group ar th e late and the kuwani in D elta tate. Before il pr du ti n b ga n in th r gi n, there wa c n idera bl e int raction am ong thni c gr up , p ciall y thr ugh trade ( mainly fi her , e ch an ged fi h fo r cro p wi th the P 2006) . Fo r ample, the Ijaw , wh are rh bo , who ar m ainl y fa nn er . T he e trad e relation have b en di rupt d r di to rt ed by oil pr duction. Al o, m any indi gene have migrated out ide the r gion , ome within igeria and oth ers to foreign countri . In contra t, m any non-indigen e immigrant have arrived in the reg ion drawn by the oppo rtuniti e offered by oil production. For example, there are m any immigra nt in the N iger Delta citi es of Port H arcourt, W ani, C alabar, and A aba. B ecau se of the co t of li ving in th ese citi e , m any of these 1nigrants have m oved to rural communities that were ori ginally inh abited by indi gene . About 40% of the total populati on (indigene and immigrant) in the Niger D elta are poor and dep end on the local enviro nmental resources such a fis h, fa m1 land, and fore t fo r th eir livelihood (Fran cis and Sard asa i 200 8; Amnesty Internati onal 2009) . 3.4 Oil Production in the N iger Delta The N iger D elta acco unts fo r the maj ority of oil producti on in Nigeria, and i al o where m ost o iJ refining in the country occurs- three o ut f N ige ri a' fo ur refinerie ar 30 1 cat d h re. Th nly pia whi hi Kaduna wh re il i refin d . Ther .4. 1 Hi t ry of 1g r il Produ ti ninth lta in d il ig r elta (and in 1 ni aJ Petr leum ( pi rati n in th e 1ger follow d by th B P, which tart d 193 , h II th n kn own a 2009; NNP ig ri ) in th early 1900 . It tmicd P igcrian Bitumen P) c mpan y. NB , a orp ration erm an company, lta in 190 ( teyn 2009; pl rati n in 1908 (Ibeanu 2000; hell D' rc y, b ga n 201 Oa) . In 195 5, M bil region ( teyn 2009; ed in il pr du tion i elta pi rati n [! r il b two D r ign c mpani e , th e B ) and the Briti h commen 1g r only n r fin ry in Kaduna . il pr ducti n b ga n in th e ith the ut id th arching for oil in th e P 20 1Oa) . It wa NP 201 Oa) . In iger D lta ( teyn il C rp rati n a l o co mm enced il expl oration in th e 20 10a). De pite decade of searching, oil was not di covered in commercial quanti ti e until 1956 when Shell di covered oil in a town called Oloibiri in Bayelsa tate (lbeanu 2000; Ikelegbe 2005; Steyn 2009; NNPC 2010a). The di scovery moved oil production in th e region to the drilling tage. How ever, oil drilled at the tim e wa not refin ed in the region or in Nigeria as there was no refinery in Nigeria. The first refmery wa compl eted in 1965 , in Eleme, a town near Port Harco UJ1, River State (Metz 1991 ). Thus, betw een 1956 and 1965 , oil production was limited to exploration, drilling, and shipment. The first hipment of oi l from the Niger Delta was in 1958 (NNP 201 Oa). At this time, oil produ ction in the region was about 5100 banel s per day (NNPC 2010a) . While oil production was low at thi s beginning ta ge, there wer efforts by the govenunent t increase production. Betw een 1960 and 1965 additional oi l compani granted expl ration ri ghts on hore and of[ hore (NNP 31 20 1Oa). were on quently, more oil mpan1 il m d int the 1g r Ita- mpan in 1965 ( in 1961, P 20 I Oa) . p ban 1 per da b l 70 r fin r , at a 10 ). In 196 m (Metz 1 gi1 in I il produ ti n r e t the g rnment 2 and Philip rt milli n mpl t d it fir t il 0 barr 1 p r da we re r fin d th re ( d gbind e ut 2009) . Thi lf and , 00 banel. p r da b th tim th . ec nd and third mpl ted in the r fincri 1g r Ita in 19 and 19 9, re. pccti ely ( d gbinde 2009 . ntil 199 , il c pi rati n in th m ff h r pr du ti n 1n ar a le go e1111n nt e pand ed m ter ( P f( h 1g r Ita than 20 a larg ly limit d t p (N P n h re, with 20 I Ob ). In 1993, th re pr du ti n by granting e pi rati n l i n e. up t 2500 201 Ob ). Thi b n fited the iJ mpanie beca u e seri u c nil ict had tarted in th earl y 1990 whi h limit d n h r oil pr du cti n from ri ing ab ve 2.2 milli on ba1Tel (Ind ex Mundi 20lla ). It 'v\a n·t until 2004 th at n h r oil producti on r e to 2.5 milli n banel per da y ( P 201 Oa) . Although the fi gure occa ionall y drop when oil producti n i di rupted by viol ent co nfli ct, it ha remained approximately 2.5 milli n ban e! per day betw een 2004 and 2011 (Ind ex Mundi 2011 a), and i foreca ted to increa e to 2. 6 milli n banels per day in 201 2 (Alike and kafor 201 2). Ga pr ducti n i increasing in the ig r Delta al ng with oil pr ducti on. of December 2010, N ige ria ' ga re er e were e timated to be 1 6.9 trilli on cubi c :fl t, all of which are beli eved to be in the Niger Delta (BP 2011 , 20). ven though ga production 111 the region tarted at the sam time a crud e oil produ ction tarted, it was n' t unt il 1998 that it \\a , pr duced in uffi cient comm er ial quantity toe port. Be fore 199 , majo ri ty of the natural ga re v red al ng with crud e oil wa Oared. Th 2 igeri a Lique fi d Na tu ra l as ( L J) a mpan r and i [! rm d in 1 wn d b th p h 11 , T tal and ur t pr duce liqu fi ed natural ga ( 111 the ni Int rnati nal. It ha b n han1 tabli hm nt [ Th ga pr du ti n l ati nal Petr 1 um 1g n I in 200 1 (tw mg igeri a' va t natural ga ) and natural ga liquid ( , ga pr du ti n in th ar after L rp rati n 1g r ) [! r Ita ha in rea ed. tarted perati n ) wa 15.6 billi n cubi meter (lnd e Mundi 20 II b), ab ut 1.5 illi n stand ard cubic feet p r day. t a re nt ige1ia n n w paper article, thi ro cc rdin g b m r than 70% over the year t an a erage of[! ur billi n tand ard cubi c [! t p r day in 20 II ( like and How p rt . ka[i r 20 12 . r, du t ]a k of infra tructu re D r utiJizati n f th e natural ga , ab ut 80% f the total ga produced i fl ared, 12% i re- injected int th ground to enhance il r c very, and % i uti li z d in h m 3.4.2 The and indu tri e (J hn 20 II ). il Indu try in . . 1gen a The oil indu try i oft en di id d into three co mponent : up tr am, mid tream, and down tream ector . The up tream ector con i t of oil expl orati on, drilling, and recovery; the mid tream ector con i ts of gathering, taring, and tran porting of oil and ga to refineri e ; and the downstream sector con i ts of refining and di tributing oil products. 11 stream are found in the Niger Delta. For ease of di scu ion, it is common to fold mid tr am activities into the upstream and/or downstream component . 1 will [! ll ow thi practic and di scuss the upstream and down tream component in th N iger Delta. In the N iger Delta, the up trea m ec tor i dominat d by a partn er hip b twe n NNP and the major multinational oil compani e in the N iger Delta whi ch include hell, Mobil, hevron, If, Agip, otal, onoil , and Te aco (NNP 20 I Oc). to a the" xpl rati on and Producti on ( ~ hcsc ompani ar rcfl rr d P)" co mpanie (N NP 20 I Oc) . Mo, tare multinati nal il rp rati n . ith man tem " ( "a c nc mpant biddin g r und C r il an d ga " Pr du ti n harin g Th d hil e theM ntra t " ( P n e ·~ r th e mana g 111 nt f th e n tream ect r in th 1g r Ita c er tori n t a d ig ria . The g mm nt ha am n p ly n m the refin rie ( P Petrol urn Product Mark ting na1r and pi rati n P und er 2 I Oc) . nd -u r . Thi manag P b in g th " pcrate in 1 artn er hip with hipment f il t P untri ), v ith th i " r p n ibl th , th y p rat under pmg th r d il refining, ga pr e ing, and d a the up trea m cct r m perati n in th e down tream ector. The 20 1Od), and an thcr g vcmment- wned c m any, th e mp any (P M ), a ub idi ary of P , i r pon ibl c il r the tran portation f crud e oil t the refi n rie and the tran p rtati n of petr leum pr du cts t depot located in va ri ou part f igeria (Bi obaku 200 ). The onl y a pect of the down tr am ector that is not oJely controll ed by the govenunent i ga pr c proces ing in th iger Delta i und er the Liquefied mg. a atural Ga (LNG) Proj ect. The LN Project i operated jointly by NNPC and few a MN C . ince ga producti on tart d in the Niger Delta in the 1950s, there have been un ucce ful attempt to liberalize it down tream sector (Biobaku 2008) . 3.4.3 Opposition to the Oil Indu try in the Niger Delta ince the early 1990s, the oil industry in the Niger Delta has exp rienced trong local oppo ition. nviromnental i su are at th heart of th oppo iti on. Pri or to the beginning of oil production, there were no signifi cant environm ental probl em in the region . ven in the 1960s, 1970 , and 1980 when il producti n beca me full pera ti ona l, documented ca e. of environmental problem were carce. H wever, in the earl y 1990, , the Mo cment for the 4 urvi al f th g ni P ople (M n irorun ntal probl m in the (M P 1992), M goni corrununity t lta. In a d cum nt r J a d t the pre P argu d that the imp a t rnment f ig ri a addre fo il produ ti n w re at the tim pro ecut d, and hung om pi ( konta and f the M P leader drew wid ver , and th m. ventually, om n1ember of the k t the tre t in P rt Harcourt, Ri which led to the d ath f [! ur p th M 1g r P outlin d maj or envir nm ntal pr bl em that w re faced by the g ni c 1nmuniti . M in i t d that th g the att nti n f th w rld to the P) fir t dr P lea der . r tat in pril 1994 to prote t, ugla 200 1). The goverrunent arrested, n ted by Obi (2 00 l ), the hanging of pread nati nal and intem ati nal c nd emnation and Jed to the fonnati n of m re local oppo iti on mo ement including the Ijaw Youth Movement for the Emancipati on of the ongress, th e iger Delta Pe pi e, and theN iger Delta Peopl e Volunteer Force. Reduction of environmental degradation wa not the onl y i sue; local control f oil resources was another (W att 2004). The youth movement have repeatedl y pointed to enviromnental pollution in their publications a the fundam ental reason for their agitations (MOSOP 1992; IYC 1998). By the mid-2 000s, there were at least 10 locally-based opposition groups (Ikelgbe 2005). Also, local and international environmentalist and human rights groups stmied to investigate and document the environmental probl en1s in the Niger Delta in the late 1990s. Currently, there are many studi es and reports on the environmental problems in the Niger Delta. I will draw on these, in addition to interviews, to exan1ine the relationship betw een oil producti on and environmental insecurity in th e N iger Delta. In the next chapter, I will discuss the methodological approach I used for the tu dy. 5 H 4.1 Introduction Th m th d r arch qu gi al ppr ti n ar pr h u d in nted in thi hap t r. m th d and te hniqu e appli d in a re m th d d m n trat (Man tran p ar n It and B rg 2 05) . It a! tr ngth and the limitati n 19 9) . T m ta ge ll ting and anal zing data t an wer my gical appr a h di cu m eth i n f r ea r h techniqu ar h pr ject. f the pr id e gr und [! r r e alu ati on, highlighting th e yle 1 97; (Ba ter and f d ata anal y i w r p rfonned for my r d th e tra ti n f rei ant data fr m interview t r C th re arch pr ce in, and c ntribute. t th ng r pr th ail ey, White, and Pain arch pr j ct. Th fir t tag t and ec nd ary ourc larg part n ariable in Thoma Hom er-Dix n' m odel (ex plained bel w). Th ba ed in econd tage in ol ed application of th m del to analyze the xtracted data and an wer th re ea r h qu e tion . B ecau e m y data coll ection and ex tracti n are ba ed n H m er- Di xo n' m de l. I will fir t explain th m odel. Thi will be followed by di cus ion of m eth od and t chniqu e of data collection and ex tracti on , and their limitati ons. 4.2 Hom er-Dixon M od el I applied the environm ental ecurity framework developed by T h m a Ho mer-Di on (herein referred to as the H om er-D ixon model) to tud y environmental in ecurity in the 1ger D elta. In particular, I applied the model to draw ca u allinks betw een oi l prod ucti nand the enviroru11ental in ecurity in iger Delta region (an wering r ea rch que ti o n 2), and to exa mine fa ctors re pon ibl e forth failure of mea ur to addr th e oil production-r Ia ted env ironm ental in ecurity in th region (an wering re earch que ti on ). I ha thre mam r a on D r ch ar and i therefi re ubj t t ing thi m d 1. ar a ir t, it ha be n th re [! r over 20 nab! larg b dy of cholar hip . appli ed to anal ze man hi t n c ca tudi n 1r nmental c nfli t in th lta. f n ir run ntal hird , it lend it nd it ha be n nili ct but not to tudy th lf t being appli ed to a ituati n il pr du ti n r ult t nfli t ( .g ., th e Th H m er-Di n mod 1 wa d eloped in th 1990s, around th 1ger elta region) . arne p eri d th e n 1r run ntal in urit in th wa d pl ain th relati on hip b twe n en ir nm ntal carcity and violent conflict. igned t ig r Delta a becoming inten e. Th m del (Figure 4 .1), A fir t fonnul at d, it focu ed o n three ind ep end ent ari abl e : ( 1) en virorun ental change, (2) population gr wth, and ( ) unequ al r de cribed the e ariable a th ur access (H omer-Dixon, 1991 ). Ho mer-Di xon ource of environm ental carcity. He call ed envirorun ntal . change a uppl y-indu ed ource of envirorunental carcity beca u environmental chan ge can directly alter the quantity or qu ality of ava il abl e natural re ource and, by o do ing, limit their upply (Homer-Dixon 1999, 15 ). 37 - c:.=J ".)- : : ::> .:: ,.--.. -T - M Q) :.J "C 0 :J :: ~ ' c: 0' 0' 0' "--' 0 ·>< c --+-- 0 ~ ;.< s.. 0I I Q) !..... E Q) ,..... 0 c = 0 ~U OIIIP I.DlUJ J~I!!S · PU O 'XlS Q) .c: E-o :r: Q) u !..... ::::s 0 C/) -:J 5 ,., ' ~ c.. ~ .r 00 M n 1r runental chang , p pulation gr wth, and un qual r the cau al pr (Homer- i laid ut by H m r- i n 1994; 199 ). The n can urce a ce , ace rding to parately or jointl y cau e cia] ffec t m lud e u h e from a r g1 n, on train d econ m1 c pr du cti ity elite r ntgm ntati n,· and wea k nmg f tat in" tituti n (H m r- i cial efD ct nt a migrati n, e puJ ton king beha i ur,4 s cial n 1999, 1 4) . Th ese ocial effe t , in turn, an 1 ad t the final tag of th cau a! pr ce , conOict. H mer-Dixon p tulat d thr relati cat g ri e f c nflict: impl e pn ation confli ct (H m rnfli ct i not in ar ity c nilict , group id ntity confli ct , and n 199 1; 1994, 1 -23 ; 1999, 137- 142) . itabl , though . According to H m r-Dix n, a oci ty can intervene to prevent environmenta l carcity from leadin g to vi lent confli ct (H m er-Di xo n 1994; 1999). There are three tage . occur early. The purpo f uch interventi on (Hom er-Dixo n 1999 , 107) . The first stage i to miti gate the negative effect of env ironm ental change, population gro wth, and/or unequ al re ource acces . Th e second stage whi ch occur in the middle of the proce i to prevent environm ental scarcity from re ulting in adverse ocial effects. The third stage occurs towa rds the end of the process and is to prevent confli ct from em erging. Homer-Dixo n contend that the second stage interventi on is the m ost crucial, and if it is to be achi eved, a society mu st be able to supply enough ingenuity at the ri ght pl ace and the right time (Homer-Dixon 1999, 107- 108 ). He defin ed in ge nuity as " id ea appli ed to solve practical techni ca l and soc ial probl ems" (Homer-Dixon 1999, 108) . 4 Rent-seeki ng is a behav iour th at is usuall y found among the so ial/po liti cal elites. Rent - ee ker att empt to enrich themse lves, usuall y by ocia l or po liti cal ma ni pul ation, wi th ut crea ting economi c va lu e. In oth er words, they try to appropri ate to th emselves a larger share of a fi xed amount ofw alth ra ther than create new wea lth . 5 ocial egmentati on is a co ncept that is used to describe divi sion s among social groups such as ethni c, reli giou , and lingui ti c group. (Homer-Dixo n 1999, 96). 9 4.2. 1 rigin and De I pm nt of th M d 1 Th ma Hom r-Di n intr du d hi m d 1 in a 1991 arti le titled " n the hr h ld : n ir nmental hange a u th arti 1 , h drew a cau I link betw een n 1r nm ental chang xpiain th r lati n hip , h id ntifi d e warmmg, trat n typ onfl ict" (H m r- f cia ! probl m (d crea typ 1 on 1991 ) . In and vi 1 nt c nfli c t. To : "gr enh o u e iti n , d [i re tati n , d gradation of eru e and p II uti n f wa t r uppli n 1991 , 9). H argu d th at th produc D ur typ ut fen vir nm ntal chan g ph ri c ozone d pi ti n , a id lep agri ultural land. (Homer-Di f , and d pi ti o n o f fi h t ck" f envir nm ental change are likely to d fo d pr du ti n , di rupti o n fin titution , poor econ mi c perfonn ance, and popul ati n di pl acement) whi ch in tum ca n re ult in v iol ent conflict. Howe er, he did not pro id e any empirical ev id ence for th e m d I' va lidity. By 1994, Homer-Dixon and hi coll eague had tested the model. R e ult were pub I i hed in a 1994 article titl ed " nvi ro nm ental from carcitie and Vi olent Co nflict: vidence ases" (Homer-Dixon 1994). In addition , the m odel was m odifi ed. In the n ew model, he substituted the concept of environmental change with the concept of environmental scarcity and argued th at environmental scarcity can re uit in violent confli ct. Homer-Dixon called the new model ''a co mbin ed mode l" because he postulated that the co mbin ed effect of the three sources of environmental scarcity- environm ental change, popul ati on growth and unequal resource access-can cause different social effect that in turn could lead to violent confli ct (Homer-Dixon 1994, 3 1). In a fu1ih er publication, the combined mod el was elaborated (Homer-Di on 1999). More detail wa includ ed as to how environmental carci ty em rg andre ult in different social effect and different type of v iolent co nfli ct. Alco, there was an add d tage of intervention . Previ u ly, two stage f int rvention had b 40 n id ntifi d. This as 111 ' reas d to thr tage (H m r-Di n 1999 1 4) . H m r- n argu d that th int I ention- which h uld ccur b fi re en ir nm ntal cond tag of ial ar ity cau f~ ct - i th e mo t cru cial. In 200 l , H m er- i o n e amined the ca pacity f c untri countri t uppl in genuity t a onclud d that de , particul arl y developing rt n ir nmental c nflict (H m r- ixon 2 001 ). H loping untri ar pointed ut that de el p d untri are n t c mpl tely immun from Jack of t chni cal in g nuit . ub tanti all y di ad antag d in thi contex t, but ai o !though H om er-Di x n ha n t mad furth er ha ng cial and t the m del, he ha continu ed to defend it in a recent publi ati on (H mer-Dixon 2009) . 4 .2.2 Appli cation of the M del Between the tim e the m del wa intr du ced in 199 1 and wh n it wa la t m odifi ed in 1999, Homer-Dixon and hi co ll eague (the Toronto Group) appli ed th e model to at lea t 11 ca e studie , as follow s: 1. South Africa (Percival and Hom er-Dixon 1995a), which foc u ed on env irorun ental scarcity and violent conflict w ithin black communities in outh Afri ca; 2. Rwanda (Percival and H om er-Dixon 1995b ), which focused on how the lack of access to land, environmental degr adation , and population gro wth contributed to the 1994 genocide in Rwand a; 3. Gaza (Kelly and Homer-Dixon 1995), whi ch fo cu ed on carcity of water re our e in Gaza and how it resulted in ten ion between Pale tini an s and Israe li ; 4. Pakistan (Gi zewski and Hom er-Dixon , 1996), whi h focused o n how r ourcc carcity, hi gh populati n growth, and unequ al re o urc acce intera ted with the character of the Paki tani state to re ult in vari ou c nfli cts wi thin Paki tan; and 41 5. hiapa , M (Howard and Hom r-Di JC p pulation in r a whi h in turn Th oth r i ca hiapa re ulted in ntribut d t tudi negal!M auritania, and Th re w n, 1996), whi ch~ cu ed n h w ar ity f agri ulturalland and mi gration cial trifi . were n H aiti, P ru , Philippin , Banglade h/lndia , 1 al ad r/H ndura (M al ne 199 ). 6 em t h a e be n fi w appli ca ti on o f th Hom er- i on mod el inc 2000. tall y (200 ) appli d m aj r ari abl re ult in int rnati onal mod el in anal yz in g f the m h w environmental scarcity can nflict gen rall y. Zhi gu Li (20 11 ) under c r d th e importance of th e hin a' int rn ati onal v. ater re o urc confli t ith it ne ighb ur . 4.2. 3 Criti i m of the M odel The Hom r-Di on mod el ha been prai ed and criti cized. on m ethodological i sue ommon critici ms focu uch a u e of in gle-ca e tudi e in te ting the m odel and la ck of a control group (Gleditsch 1998; Gleditsch and Urdal 2002). In repl y to the m ethod ological criticism , Homer-Di xo n and hi co ll eague ar g ~ e d for a di tincti on betwee n "cau sa l e ffect" and " cau sal mechani sm'· (Schw artz, Deligianni s and Homer-Dixon 2000; Homer-Dixon 2009) . They clarified that experimental and qu a i-experimental m ethod uch a multivari ate quantitative studi es provide indi cations about causal effect, i.e. changes in th e value of th e dependent variables; whereas, single-ca e tud y m ethod and expl oratory ca e stud y de ign shed light on causal m echanism s, i.e. the process produ cing cau al effect . Th e model ha also been criticized for employing too many variabl es, and for mis ing om e critica l variabl es, e.g. political and economic vari abl e that contribute to enviroru11 ental onfl ict (Gl editsch 1998 ; Gl edit ch and Urd al 2002). 6 Malone (1996) al o ment io ned the first five case studies ( outh Africa, Rwanda. Gaza. Pak1stan, and however, he did not prov id e any detai ls abo ut them . 42 lm1pas); 4 .2 .4 How I applied them del My bj cti ecti n i t e plain h w I applied th Homer- ix n mod 1. For in thi my fir t que ti n ("What ar th m 'ironmental and human impa ts of oil production in th r D Ita . ") I ex tra c t d fr m th e lit ratur a li t fen ir nmental and human impact ( di u d in impact di c u hapt r ). or thi I did n t need t D II w th e m d I. I m erely id ntifi ed the d in th e litera tur . For m y th r two r a a guid . The D 11 wing [i ur earch qu tions, I did u e th model erarching ariable in the H m er- ixon mo del g uid d m y open- nd d interview , eco nd ary d ata o il cti n, and dir ct d c ntent ana ly is that were u ed to an wer m ec nd r ea r h que tion ("How and why has oil produ lion I ad to environm ental in. ecuritv in th ig r D elta r ion") : 1 . precur or to en ironmen tal carci ty 2. ource of e nv ironmental carc ity 3. ocial effects of envirorunental carcity, and 4 . conflict related to environmental carcity. Subcategories are as follows: • precursors to envirorunental carcity physical factors ideational factors • sources of environmental scarcity suppl y- induced resource carcity demand-induced resource scarcity stru ctural reso urce scarcity • ocial effect of environm e ntal ca rcity 4 pul io n1igrati n n train d lit rent- n m1c pr ducti ity king ial egm ntati n ak n d in ti tu ti n , • nfli t r lat d t n ir run ntal carcit imple car it nfli t gr up id ntity nflict r lati e deprivation nfli ct. R levant data were e tra t d fr m int rview text and econdary ource ba ed n their "manife t and !at nt" m aning (Babbie 2004: uun 2005, l 00; 1-1 ieh and hannon 2005) and coded into the e cat gorie and ubcateg ries . Once coded, it wa pos ible form to provide an answer to Question #2. I conducted "causal proce of the Homer-Dixon model. The proce tracing" using the framework i u ed to analyze how the ategorie /variable are related to each other. In the last tage of my application of the model , I extracted data on the nature of intervention (govenunent, oil indu try, civil society, and local communities) to prevent oil production-related envirorunental insecurity in the Niger Delta region (HomerDixon 1999, 134), and determined how they were related to failure of the mea ure . Thi final stage provided an answer to Question #3 ("What mea ures have been taken to prevent and address the environmental insecurity in the Niger Delta and \t'hy are the mea ures seemingly no/ successful? '[J ec(fica l~v. whatfactors explain th Trfailure?"). 44 4.3 Method of Data oll ection Thi r ear h i a qu alitati f data c 11 cti n. I h m th d quantitati r arch qu alitati ingl - a tud y c mbining primary and c ndary a qu alitativ re ear h appr a h in part b cau , unlike re earch gi a re archer the pp rtunity to unc v r m re fact a b ut peopl e· e pen nee . B th primary and cond ary ur e [data an be u d in a qualitati e ingle-ca e tud y rc arch (Yin 19 4 ; 200 ), e pec iall y t in ve ti ga te a c ntemp rar probl m . ingl -ca e tud y i co mm nly u ed t all w there earcher to fo cu on th h li ti c itu ati on fa pecific of th 1 ampl in ord r to eek a d p r und r tanding ue . MultipJ method of data coll ction can be u ed to inve ti ga te a pro bl em (Schoenberger 199 1· Yin 2003; Babbi 2004 ). Different m ethod bring out different information, andre ult can be complem entary ( choenberger 199 1; B abbie 2004 ). For example secondary data ource uch a academi c j ournal article , book , poli cy docum ent , offi cial publi cations, demographi c tatistics, new letters, press r elea es, etc. can be u ed in conjunction with information obtained through primary source like interv i ws to d velop a comprehensive understand ing of a compl ex proces . 4 .3. 1 Primary D ata Co ll ecti on Primary data fo r this re earch were coll ected throu gh e-m ail interview . The u e of em ail interviews as a research tool is relati vely new; it date to the advent of th Internet in th e 1990s (Hunt 2007) . Since then, its use has teaclily grown (M ehta and iva clas 1995) . In fact, there have been " moves toward u in g e-m ail as a t ol, largely in the fom1 of quantitative instruments such a electro ni c qu estionnaires and aJ o, to a le 45 r t nt, [i n the fon11 of] qualilati rnelh d u h a el tr nic inl r 1ew and I tr n1 ~ u gr up " ( ed r 2002) . Th u 11 f -mail a a m th d f data ti n ~ r qu alitati e r , ea r h can be ma imiz d if ad qu at m th d I gi al and te hni c I c n id rati n ar und ertak n (M h 2006; Hunt 2 en the r 7 . r ampl e, hi! -mai l can n. ure imm di ate e chang arch r and the parti cipant , th r , archer hould en. ur th at the nal in ~ rm ati n are n t parti fin[! 1111ati n mp ro mi ed. h r ea rcher hould be awa re th at n when th y ar ti II n eded (Thatch I ~95 ), and that th e participant may n t r p nd if th re i no acce t Intern et r imil ar techn I gie (Kat ri -mail an b 1990) r if th parti cip ant i rl aded with e-mail (Berg and llin I 95). If th e maj r chall nge ar taken int con id erati n, u ing e-mail interview. a a re ear h t ol can of:D r man dvantage . It et up a m r d m rati c meth d of btaining information whi ch conventi nal r earch meth d I gie do not ffer (Meh 2006) . A argued by Bo hi er. "e-mail appear to provid e a cont xt for the kind of non-coerciv and anti -hi erarchical dialogue that Haben11 a ... claim ed on titute an ' id ea l peech itu ati n '. free of internal or ex ternal coercion, and chara teri zed by equ ality of opportunity and rec iprocity in roles a um ed by parti cipant "( Bo hi er 1990. 5 1). -mail intervi w o erco me ome of the traditional bi a e of conventional int rview ing techniqu e ( pend er 1996) . For example, gend er, age, race, e , etc. do not n ce aril y appl y when co mmun i ating electroni call y throu gh e- mail. A a re earch too l, e- mail intervi wmg o t 1 in time and money to admini ter, require no additi onal tran cripti on, and o f~ r con eni en to the parti cipant a they ca n top, . av , and continu e later (M eho 2006; Hunt ~007) . In addition, e-mail intervi wmg 1 not constrained by geographi a! loca ti on or tim e-lon "; the need for 46 pr imit b tw int 1 1e n th int 1 an be u d .G r rand int 1 1ew e 1 n tan i u (F t r 19 4) . -mail larg numb er [p articipant a w 11 a .G r a mall numb er [ participant . h parti ipant 111m r t hni ue . Purp ar h w r ted u ing puq1 i e amp ling targe t a parti ul ar g r up chara t ri ti c (Bl a k 1 ). he t chniqu e can be the b fp and nowball amJ ling pl ba d n p ecifi c t pti n when a de ired p pul ati n for a tud 1 rare r er di f fi cult t 1 ca te and recruit ( abbi e 2004). I too k th e lea d in eating th fir t parti c ip ant and th e fi r t pa rti cipant help d to id entify th r p tenti al pru1i ipant wh meet th e crit eri a .G r in lu i n in th e tud y. Thi appr a h i ca ll ed a " nowball " a pproach Patt n 1990 ; Bl ack 199 ; Trochim and Donn e ll y 200 l ). R e earch Sampl Si::. and Sa mplin 7 Techn ique At th b ginning of m y re ea rch, I wa hoping to e- m ail interview everal doz n individual . I identifi ed 20 pm1ic ipants from fi ve group : ( 1) form er and cun-ent res id nt o f the Niger D elta, (2 ) m emb r of the civil society environn1 entali t gr up that work in th e N iger D elta, (3) taffmember in th e oil indu try, (4) academi c staff w ho have tudi ed th e probl em previou ly, and (5) govenunent offi c ials w ho from th eir work exp eri ence are familiar with the env iroru11ental insecmity in th e N iger D elta and the m easur taken to addre s them . I conta ct all of the e peo pl e, but was un able to obtain interview w ith m ost of th em . While m any who declined stated they were afraid to di cus the N iger Delta i ues, others refu ed given a rea on for declining m y int rview r qu e t. In th e end , I wa ab le to obtain onl y six peopl e for the interv iew . M y diffi culti e in o btaining interview w ell illu strate th e ensitive natu re o f th situati o n in th N ig r D e lta. 47 R ar h lnt rvi ._,, Pro My r pa11i ip ant n ar h r a pr dur e1 d ppr id d nt 1 tt r ( pp al fr m the R i th the pr j . I requ -m ail or ign th c n ent lett r, ar h _, thi t infl nn ati n hee t, an int rv t w r qu ted th at ea h pa11i cipant ith r an it, and nd itt m . I und r t nfid nti ality ~ Int rmati n h th c ncem befl r th e tart of th e int rview . con nt ta d tha t p arti c ipant n ern ab ut It t letter, and a nd written con could ha t t addre . a h ard at k teps a ~ c ntain ed in th Proj e t p n recetvlllg a nt 1 tt r/ -m ail , l e- m ail ed m re ea rch qu e ti nnaire t th e parti c ipant and requ e ted that th parti ipant g thr ugh th qu e ti n befl r th e fl nn al interview . lnt rvi w Qu lion. Th inter ie qu e ti n ( pp ndi x D ) wer d igned to btain qu alitati v informati n that i c n id r d releva nt in an w rin g th e resea rch qu e ti on . I u ed o pennd ed que tion . A lthou gh op en-end ed qu e ti on can be ch all en ging to analyze becau re pon e are not nece arily comp atibl e or consist nt am on g p arti cipant , th y provid th pace and time to reveal potenti all y ri ch data (M cGuirk and O 'Neill 2005) . A noted by choenb erger ( 1991 ) and Babbie (2004 ), re pond ent can u e th e ir ow n wo rd to empha ize elem ents which are m ost important to th em . A mu ch a po sible, I tri ed to av id the u e f techni cal terms. Qu e ti on were designed to be very clear to th e parti cip ant . Interviewing For th e ake of conveni ence, som e parti cipant (fo ur out o f th e i ) requ e t d that they re p nd to a ll th interv iew qu e ti o ns at one and end th em back to the researcher in a ing le e-m ail. Beca u e the requ est ca n re ult in grea ter chan e of mi interp reta ti n, I n tifi ed th em th at th ere may be ' pro be ' or G Ilow-up qu tio n " to elabora te and clarif parti c ipant ' re p n e o r to hel p e li c it additi ona l inform ati on and dep th from informants"" 48 a need D r [! llow-up qu (M ho 2006, 1290). Ind ti n a m rep n w re bri f and un lab rat d . Pr bing can b a pr blem during -mail int rvi w b cau ph all pre ent. important piec que ti n , en if th er u ere t ld t e pe t th em." ndin g G ll ow- up qu me arch r port. er, th ere were "'are of thi chal I nge, I remind d th ti n that their[! edb a k to th e D llow-up qu e ti n ful in pr ducing quality re recei ing a cop y f my r que tion ; how nee " ma y r ult in mi m g of data e p c iall g1 n that not all pa11icipants re pond to follow-up parti ipant when will b n t d b M ho (2006, 1~ 90), th e ab th e intervi ewee are n t arch and that they wi ll have th e opportunity o f 11 the fi ur p articipant re ponded t th foil w-up me area w hi ch th ey declined to elab rate further. Probing wa a little ea ier during interview with the other two participant . They cho e to ha ve a 'tvv·o-way' e-m ai l chat interview . E-mail chat can be tediou because th e re earcher and there p ond ent are required to respond in a timely manner to each other. However, it provide opportunity for the re earcher to instantl y ask follow-up qu esti n . Beside , the respondent can also eek immediate c larifications on qu estions that may eem unclear. The researcher canal o provide a qui ck un1ma1-y of the conversa tion. With each of these two participants, the two-way e-1nail chat interviewing la sted approximately two hour . 4 .3 .2 Secondary Data Collection I was originally hoping to rely primari ly on primary interview data for my re earch and suppl em ent and cono borate it with second ary so urce . When thi proved impo sible, I enhanced my u se of the secondary literature and thi b cam e the m ain source of data . I und ertook an exten ive sea rch of literature on oil , environment, and the Nig r Delta. I co ndu cted library and Internet arches, attempting to gath er as complete a 49 lie tion of lit ratur n th impa t foil pr du ction in th Nig r Jta a p ibl . Fr m thi , I weeded ut n n-original mat rial ; i .. , material that m er ly rep at d what wa in th r the mo t pati I u ed peer-re i b ok but a l e. F r d our e whi h included a ad mi joumal a1ii 1 and the "g re ., literalur , 'G r e ampl rganizati n rep tis and g vernment publi ati n . ummary f 4 .3. ata I reli d on 41 ource wer urc ur e f data t an w r my thre re arch que tion . ix of th e -m ail inter iew (Tab l 4 .1) and 5 were publi cly ava il abl document (Tabl 4 .2). Tab le 4.1: L i t of Interview (o rdered by date of interv iew) Description of Interviewees Date of Interview tate April 17 2012 1 Int rviewee # 5 Are ident of Uyo in Akwa Ibom 2 Interviewee #3 A Canadian immigrant from O goni , Ri ver State Ap1il21,2012 3 Interviewee # 1 A student/farmer from Odioma, Bayel a State April23, 20 12 4 Interviewee #4 An employee of an engineering firm in May 7, 20 12 Wani, Delta State 5 Interviewee #6 A Canadian i1runigrant from Edo State M ay 12, 20 12 6 Interview ee #2 A resident ofElem e, River State M ay l5 ,2012 Table 4.2: Documents Analyzed (in alphabetic order by author) Author 1 Achi , Cele tine Title of Document Document Type Hydrocarbo n Exp loi tation , ~ nvironmental Degraclati nand Poverty : The Niger Delta Experi ence Conference Paper 50 Y ear of Publication 2003 ko, Rhuk Temll pe 2 Aluk ,M . .0 . 4 5 6 7 mnesty International Babatunde. bo. ede Ebu ht. O.A.T .. l.B . btbo. P.O. hek v. olo, K.l. tgL mund. dokt . and l.C. Okoro Ekwer . Ktngsley do 8 Eregha, P. B. and I. R. Irughe 9 Essien. 0 . E .. and John. I. 10 Davi , Stephen 11 14 Franci . Paul and Shonali Sardesai Government of Nigeria Government of Ntgeria Ibeanu, Okechukwu 15 Idemudia, Uwafiokun and Uwem . Ite 16 Ikelegbe, Augustine 17 IYC 18 Jike, V . T. 19 Mmom , P.C. and G. 0. hukuwu-Okeah 20 MOSOP 12 13 Sub tantt e l nJu ttce: Oil-related Regulattons and ~ n tr nmental InJustice tn Ntgena Su tatnable De' elopment, ~ nvtr nmental Degradatt nand the ~ ntrenchment ofPovetiy 1n the Ntger Delta ofNtgena Ntgcna: Petrol u;,, P llution and Po\erty tn the Ntger Delta Em tronmental Conntct and the Pollltc" of II tn the 11-Beanng Areas of Nigeria ·s Ntger Delta Remedtatton f Crude Otl on tam 1nated . oil by nhanced atural tten uau on Techntque Sustatnable Development of Oil and a Ill the tger Delta: Legal and Polttlcallssue" Oil Induced Em•tronmental Degradation 1n the 1gena s 1g rDelta : The Mult1plter Effect'> Impact of Crude-Oil Spillage PollutiOn and hemtcal Remedtatton on Agncultural 011 Propert1e. and Crop Growth The Potenltal for Peace and Reconc1liat1on Ill the N1ger Delta Niger Delta Soc1al and Conflict Analysts Law of the Federatton of Nigeria .. Constitution ofthe Federal Republic of Nigeria Oiling the Conflict : Environmental Conflict 1n the Niger Delta, Nigeria Demystifying the Niger Delta Conflict : Toward an Integrated Explanation The Economy of Conflict in the Oilrich Ntger Delta Region of Nigeria The Kaiama Declaration Environmental Degradation, Social Disequilibrium. and the Dilemma of ustainable Development 111 the Niger-Delta ofNigena Impact of Oil Dnlling Operatt ns on Forest Resources in Obagi , Niger Delta Nigena. Ogon1 Bill of Rtghts 51 Con G renee Paper J urnal rttcle 2010 2004 2009 Rep rt rttcl 2010 Journal Arttcle 2005 Re"earch Paper 2010 Journal Arttcle 2009 Journal Article 2010 Journal Article 2009 Report 2008 Government law 1990 Government law 1999 Journal Article 2000 Journal At1tcle 2006 Journal Article 2005 A Declaration of Rights Journal Article 1998 2004 Journal 2011 Journal t1Icl A D claratton or Rights 1991 21 Obi, C ril 22 Obi, Cyril 23 Obi Cyril 24 Ojie, Andrew Eke and hri tian Ewhrudjakpor Okonta, Ike and Oronto Douglas Omofonmwan, am on Imasogie and Lucky Osaretin Odia Omotola, Shola 25 26 27 28 Opukri, C. 0 . and Ibaba amuel Ibaba 29 Orimoogunje, O.O.I. A. Ayanlade, T.A. Akinkuolie and A.U. Odiong Osuoka, Asume and Peter Roderick 30 Oil , nvironmental Conflict and ational ecurity in igeria: Ramification of the c logy- ecurity Ne u for ubRegi onal Peace Nigeria's Niger Delta: nder. tanding the omple Dn vers fViolent il-related Conflict Oil ExtractJOn, Dt possession, Re i tance, and onflict in igeria' Oil-Rtch Niger Delta Ethnic Diver. ity and Publt c Policte tn tgena Where ulture. Fea. t: Shell, Hum an Rtghts and Oil tn the Niger Delta Oil Exploitation and Conflict in the tger-Delta Region ofNigeria The Ne t Gulf? Oil Politics, Environmental Apocalypse and Ri sing Tension in the Niger Delta Oil Indu ced Environmental Degradation and Internal Population Displacement in the igeria's tger Delta Perception on Effect of Ga Flaring on the Environment Gas Flaring in Nigeria: A Human Rights, Environmental and Economic Monstrosity Gas Flaring Occasional Paper 1997 Journal Artie] 2009 Journal rt1cle 20 10 Journal Article 2009 Book 2001 Journal Article 2009 Occasional Paper 2006 Journal Article 2008 Journal Article 2010 Report 2005 Company Publi catio n Re earch Paper 2011 31 Shell 32 Nigeria's Niger Delta Crisis : Root Cause ofPeaceles ness 33 Tuschl, Ronald H. and Hassan Tai Ejibunu UNDP Niger Delta Human Development Report Report 2006 34 UNEP Report 2011 35 Uyigue, Etiosa and Matthew Agho Environmental Asses ment of Ogoniland Coping with Climate Change and Environmental Degra dation in the Niger Delta of Southern Nigeria Research Paper 2007 2007 4.4 Data Extraction Once I had collected all of my materials, I applied content analy i to xtract relevant data . Content analysis i a popular technique oft n u ed in ocial scienc to analyz te t in 52 qualitati re ar h tudi c nt nt of a t ( arly 199 ). The t a c ding y t m t amine the t and th e ir patt rn and relation hip (Krippend rff 19 0; H i h and hann n 200 ). h r (W b r l 90) . nt nt anal an hniqu u ult [ i. i appr pri at ~ r tudi i tin g the rcti ca l fram hann n 2 0 ). Th th r rk t in v 111 wh ar h r t id ntify patt rn e prim ary bj ecti e i t u e ti ga te a ph n m n n (H iu - ang H ieh and 1 ed in m y dir arah t d c ntent analy i were (fo ll owin g H i h and hann n 2005, 12 1- 12 2) : t p l: T u e th ari abl e in m y analyt ica l fram ew rk a initi al c din g ca teg ri es (in m y ca e, t u e th va ri abl e in th H om er-Di n m d 1- ee th e " h w J appli d th m de l" ec ti n above); tep 2 : T o de el p perati nal d finiti on f each category u in g th e re ea rch theoreti cal approach (the e were alread y provided by Ho mer- Di x n · wo rk ); tep 3: T o read the tran cript /tex t , hi ghli ghting part th at are related to th e categori e (in m y ca e, to read and hi ghli ght doc ument and e- m ail tex ts); and Step 4 : T o code all hi ghlighted part by putting th em into pecific ca t gori e (in my case, to put the hi ghli ghted portio ns into the H om er-Dixon categori es) . In the end, I coded data from the 35 docum ent and six interview . Each wa cod d on a ep arate sheet (see Appendix B for sample of m y coding heet ). 4.5 Limitation s to th e Methodology R esearch limitatio n are cond iti on that restri ct th e cope f th re earc h method. and may affec t th e outcom e o f the stud y and cann ot be co ntro lled by th e res arc her (Baron n.d. ). The maj or limitati n of my re arch w re ( J) lac k o f funding to tra cl toN igeria to collect 5 prim ary data and (2) inability t recruit a full t f int rview pm1icipant fron1 all targ t gr up . t th beginning f m y tudies, I hoped th at travel funding cou ld be cur d· ' howev r thi wa n t th ca e. Thu , I wa n t abl to onduct face-t -face intervi w m 1gen a or t ob erve and take pi tu re f th 1mp a f il pr du cti n. M y fall-back was to e-mail interview . In additi n m y in abilit tor cruit parti cipant from th e target gr up wa becau m o t indi idual , un[i J1unately, were relu ctant t be interviewed. 4.6 Summary Th Homer-Dix n mod 1 eek to e plain the cau al pr ce insecurity and ha b een appli ed to many ca e of nvironm ntal tudie of environmental in ecuri ty, h wever not to a ca e tud y in N igeria nor of oil produ ti on. Thus, it eems that my re earch is the first application of the model in N igeri a and the first appli cati on to oil produ ction. My qualitative single ca e tud y draws on open-ended e-mail interview and reliable second ary ources. These sources were analyzed u ing content analy is guid ed by Homer-Di xon ' fram ework. Results of his research are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. 54 5.1 Introduction In thi hapt r, I J re nt an an r t m fir t re ar h qu m zronm nta l and human impa ·t. of oil produ lion in th "-' and anal ed data fr m pnm ar and nd ar ti n : ' TYhat ar th ~ ig ,,. D >//a ?" I ur e w ith ut r fer nc t th H m er- Di on m d I. M int nti n wa t fi r t tabli h a portrait f th e ad er human impa t 1g r f il pr du cti n in th tra t d, c d d, cn v1r nm ental and elta ind ep nd ent f th e H m er- 1x n ), 1 appl th e H m r- 1x n m d l utili zing the fram w rk. In th n t chapt r ( haptcr data gathered t an er the fir t re ea rch qu ti n . 5.2 Env ironm ental and Hum an Imp act of Oil Produ cti on in th e N iger D elta Data n the en ironm ntal and hum an impac t f il] rodu cti on in th e w ere xtracted from th 41 data ource (T abl e 4.1 and 4.2) and iger D elta rgani zed into catego ri e . F r thi , I did not need to rely on the H om er-Dixon m odel. M y obj cti ve wa to fir t pre ent in a general format the environmental and hum an imp act of oil p rodu cti on in th e D elta . A explain d in 1ger hapter 4, content analy i was used fo r d ata ex tracti on and categorization. Thi m eans that I read through th e 41 ource , xtract d infonn ati o n on oil production-related adver e impact fro m th em , and then cla ifi ed th informati on. B a ed on m y definiti on of environmental security given in hapter 2, I cla sifi ed the data into two overarching categ ri e - env ironm enta l impact and human impa t . Whil orne o f th data Amne ty Intern ati onal (2009), (2011 urce di cussed th e impact in general t nn , other regha and Im ghe (2009), UNDP (2006) , and grouped env ironm ntal impa ts into ca tego ri . o ll ec ti ve l , th e N P categori ~. were, for env ironmental impa t , air, wa t r, land , anim al , and pl ant ; , nd , for human impa ' tS, 55 h alth work, and ial. implifying thi to a d gr I cla ified the data int th fl llowing fi e n ir nmental impact at g ri e - air p lluti n, wat r polluti n (m arin and fr hwater) , land degradation and ' th r '- and th human imp a t int th fl ll wing tw human im1 act f the cat g n e are a fl 11 w at g ri - h alth and li eliho d. The definiti n • Air imp a t means contaminati n f the atm • W at r impa t m an contanlinati n f m arine an or fre hwater aqu atic sys t m s. • Land degradati n m ean c ntamination f the oil , r ph ere. i n d fo re tat ion and r Iat d land probl m . • ' ther' includ e impact not includ ing in the air, wa ter, and land ubcategori e uch a impact on animal and plant not directly d p nd ed on by human (wildlife), and impact · • uch a heat, noi e, and light. Human health impact m ean effect that re ult in any fo rm of human ickness or injury, and lo s of life. • Livelihood impact m eans effect s th at interrupt peo pl e's occupati on and I iv in g, whi ch could be to an individual, group , or community. A smmnary of coded data is shown in Table 5 .1. 56 Table 5.1 ~ nvJr nvironmental and Human Impact of Oil Production in the Niger Delta nm ntal Impa L Il uman Impacts Water 1r anne ntam111atJ n fr m :pill<, dunng ffshor dnll1ng fre<;hwater c ntam1nat1 n from <,pill<, that 1 arn d 1nto nver<, and ground v. ater a1r pollutJ n from refinen . c ntamJnatJon fr m wa<;te v. ater a1r pollution from crude oil . pill contam1 nat1on of manne fi . h by oil , pilL and wa t water eli charge a1r p llut1 n from ga. nanng ac1d rain from ga naring and refinenes Land ther Il ealth 1 eld1 od contam1 nat Jon fr 111 II <>pill<, on land heat fr 111 nares and fr 111 fire<; duet p1pel1ne explo'>J n'i 1es1 1ratory dJ'iea<;e<; fr 111 1nhal111g contaminated air threat to l1 vellhood due to destruct1 n f crops contamJnatJon from v. a<;te water dJ'i harge mto nver<, and groundwater contam1 natJ on fr 111 v. a<.,te water and v. aste from dredg1ng d1 charged on land 'iound n J<;e pollut1 n from pr duct1on actJvJtJe'i gastral nte<;tJ nal d 1-;ea<,e<; fr 111 dnnk111g water ontammated by OJI and to IC wa<>lc threat to l1 el1 h cl due to killing of !i<;h and harm to hab1tat contammat1on of fre<,hwater fi <;h by oil sp1ll and wa<;te water d1. charge s d acJdJficatJon from ac 1cl ra 111 from gas nanng and refinenes light pollution from ga<; nanng and refinenes <;kJn Infection<; fr m contact With contammatcd a1 r I w food pr duct1on <;oil infertility due to oil ' pill and wa. te dJ<;charge 1mpacts on wlldl1fe due to direct klll1ng or to hab1tat de. truct1on c nstJtutJonal dJ'ieases, for example cancer unemploymen t malaria and ID from the poor q ual1 t of l1 fe caused by the effects of o1l product1 n 111COI11C IO<;<; Im•., of II fe from fires, pollution, ct · PO\ Cl1)- defore<;tati n due to construct I n by oil compan1es, fires from p1pel1ne explo<;Jons, and oil sp ill s on forested land sod lOS JOn due to the de forestall on 57 Ill ft rid ntif ing and Ia if ing th ad r e impac t , I a e ed th ir ignifi can e r ri t . I d t nnin d thi fr m tat m nt in th ur th a t m nti n d, r T abl e 5.2 d t a nd b q uantifying the numb r of r inferr d a gi en impact (Ta b! 5.2) umb er of Data ourc E nvironm e ntai/ H um an Imp ac t that Id entify a ive n Impact umb r of ource that Id entifi ed an Imp act Land 32 lf 27 re hwa t r 23 M arin e 6 Other 6 Li elih od 3 Health 21 Fr m th ab e da ta tabl e , it i c l ar that o il pr du c ti n re ulted in nega ti ve impac t on the envirorunent and people in th eN ig r D elta. I judged the s ignifi cance/ everity o f th e ad ver e impa t to be rou ghl y a fo llow , from m o t evere to lea t ever : land , air, fre hwater, m arine, and o ther fo r the envirorunent; and li velihood and health for hum an . Statement of everity in tex t con elated with th e numb er in T able 5.2 . ach catego ry i di cu ssed in ord er of severity. 5 .2 . 1 E nvirorunental Impact Land Impa cts Land -relat d impacts ee m to b th e m o t e ere in theN iger D elta . to tal of ~ ou t of the 41 data ource (on book, four r port , on oc a ional pap r, I journal artie! , two dec laration of ri ght doc um ent , thr rc ear h pap ers, two co nfer nc paper., and ~ i, inte rvi ew ) m nti ned land imp act . The principl impact o f o il produ ctio n o n th e land. in 5 il in~ rtility. D b re tati n wa c mmonly n t d. n area ~ r e ampl pr du ti n w a ar a ar und th gom ' that witn ed ignifi cant d for tati n fr m il mmunit : ar und g nil and ha b n ry badl y a f~ cted by Wh n the pipeline fl r carrying pro du ct from B do tati n wa laid , [I r ampl , it wa partl y r uted thr ugh e . ri ght f way 30 m tr wid wa cut and wa b erved during P tud to b till lear of egetati on. The edge of th e ri ght of w ay app ar t ha e b n dr dged, aiJ ing n ating il to pr ad over the oil along th ntire ri ght f way, gradu all y d tr yin g th f1i nging m angrove and P, 20 ll, 156- 15 ) contaminating [th ] land ." ( Information from other condary data ources indi ca te that defore tation f land occun·ed du e to oil drilling operati on , fire from pipeline expl o ion , oil pill and pol1uti on. F r example, Er gha and Irughe (2 009, 164) m enti ned th at "a lot of land degradati on and defore tation w ere cau ed by il induced fi re and pollution.' ' lt wa al o observed that deforestation resulted in oil erosion . Mmom and huku -Okeah (2 0 1 1), wh tudi ed the Obagi community in Ri vers State, reported that 57.8% of the parti cipants who respond ed to their questionnaire confirmed that oil drilling operations led to deforestation, and 14.8% stated that the deforestation increased oil erosion. Another land impact i oil infertility. Oil spills, oil waste di scharge, and acid rain due to gas emi sions contributed to reduction in oil fertility in the N iger Delta (E ien and Jolm 20 10; Orin1oogunj e et al. 201 0). Orimoogunje et a l. (201 0, 188) stated that ac id rain from ga flarin g in the ige r Delta "acidifi e th e o il. th ereby causin g so il fertility lo sand damag in g crop " . A ir Impa cts A total of 27 out of the 4 1 data so urce ( fi e reports, one occa io nal paper, one company publication, two research papers, one co nfl renee paper, 17 journa l ar1i 1 , and . i 59 int 1 iew ) m ntion d th 1 cal impact n air quality foil pr du cti n. The primary pollutant ar ulphur and nitr g n Th two primary our Rod ri k (2005), fth id , hydr carb n , parti ulat matt r, and acid rain . p llutant ar ga Oaring and il r fin ri e . rimoo gunj e et al. (20 10), and h 11 (20 11) hi ghli ght d th impact of ga u ka and R derick (20 5, 24) menti n d th at 'flarin g mit a flaring. F r xampl , cocktail f to ic ub tan e ." ne of my int rviewee , wh i a r id nt f wh re two of th four refin rie in 1gena ar polluti n fr m refin r : " particulat matter around th e r fin eri u ka and and are cani d t l m e, a town ated, expl ained the visible impact of ntained in m ke from rcfinerie fill the air th r iciniti , including hi ghly pop ul ated areas" (lntervi w e # 6) . Acid rain, which wa mo tl y linked to gas flaring, wa reported to have corrod ed hou e roofs. B ide flaring and large- cale refining, oth er ources of oil production-related atmo ph ric pollution in theN iger D Ita include drilling, evaporation from oil spill , and "arti anal refineries'' (ill ega l loca l refineri e ). According to one report, "while the footprint of individu al arti anal refining operati ons is loca lized, the cumulative impact exerts a significant e nv ironmental stress ... The main problem are ... spread of pollution beyond the refi nery area" (UNEP 20 1 J, J04). Wat er Impa cts: Freshwater A total of 23 out of the 41 data sources (one book, four reports, nine journal m1icle , two research papers, one conference paper, and six interviews) infened that oil production polluted Niger Delta freshwater . Freshwater polluti on was blam ed by mo ton oil spill from onshore drilling, and by som e, on di scharge of waste. In th eca e of fre hwater pollution from onshore oil spill s, it wa speci fi call y noted in some r p011 that oil ha pi li ed many time from drilling equipm ent and pipclin s into canal , from wh re it i carried into riv r and 60 und ergr und pr du d at r ( at r and DP 2006, 1ru1 t Intern ati nal 2 009) . a t fr m dr d ging, wer hJ rin m r ur , b nz n , and pl a nt ( atta 19 1n il wa t , p a rti cul arly aid t b dump d int ri v r a re 31Tied to und ergr und wa ter. a t r i hi gh! h azard u and c ntain t 7 r anal fr m n ted in m y lit ra ture r vi w, produ ced ub tan u h a ery hi gh am unt o f t lu n e, a nd ethyl benzene, w hi c h ca n kill ea anim a l ' R urk a nd nn ll y 200 ). In additi n t killing fi h, th p lluta nt have nta min ated d rinkin g \ at r. tated b ur w at r we ll hi h c ntai n wa ter that peopl e u n inte rviewee, " il i ~ und in fo r d rinki ng and o ther d m e ti purpo e ''( Inte r i v, e # 2) . Wat r Impact,: Marin e A to ta l of onl y ix ut f th e 4 1 data urc (o ne b ok , ne report, onere earch p ap er, and three journa l arti cle ) noted that oil produ cti on po llut d m arin wat r in th e 1ge r D elta . Th y explained th at m arin e po llution re ulted from p ill during offshore drilling and from di charge of oil wa te into the ea by il comp ani e . pill du ring off hore drilling appear to b e a m aj or ource of o il lick . For exampl e, Ib anu (2000) and E P 20 11 ) no ted that slicks coat the water surface, po i oning and ca u ing death of sea pl ant and anim al . In theca e of oil wa te di ch arge into the ea, one o urce qu o ted a eni or offi cial fro m th e R iver ta te Mini try of ~ n v iro nm e nt a ay in g th at " efflu e nt a nd waste fro m the o il indu stry whi ch should be trea ted are dump ed into the ea and they find their way into th e su rfac water of th e De lta'' (A111J1e ty Internati onal (2009, 17) . In a fu rther ex pl a nati o n, th e re port de c rib ed the waste to be pr du ced wa ter. Non e o f m y data o urce m enti ned in tance in whi ch ea 7 While there is no recent fi gure on oil spil ls 111 the N1gcr Della, the most cunent estim ate IS th at more than 6,800 spi ll s were recorded between 1976 and 200 1, with a loss of app ro x1matel 3 milli on barrels of oil (U OP 2006 , 76) . No docum ent di stingui shed betwee n the amount splll eclm th e marin e env1ro nm ent and the amount that spill ed on fres hwater or land. 61 anima l and 1 Iant er affl ted by th e di ch arge f pr du ed inferr d fr m th t ic n atur at r. H w ever, f the wa t th at it w a lik Jy th at it di h arg int th t d ea pl ant and anim al . When a k d a b ut th im1 ac t ad r el affl and il w a t di h arg n the Nig r tated th at " thi i ha rd t kn b ca u m ea f off: h r drilling Ita l ca l marin habitat, one [m y int r iewee pe pl in the regi n d n t o ft n g int the ea II r fi hing, but one ntrat o n fi hin g in th e ri\ er " (Inter icw e # 4) . T he tatem ent ugge t th at th 1 cal p o pl e ar m r c ncem d ab ut th e imp a t f il produ cti on on fr hwa ter than th impact on m a1i ne. th r Em •ironmental Impacts e nd ary ur e m ntioned th er type f environm ental impact (thr e r port and three j ournal arti le ). T he m ain impact related t hea t, ound, and li ght and to impact on th e bi osphere, particul arly wildli fe (pl ant and animal n t dir ctly utili zed by human for liv ing) . Few documents foc u ed on wi ldli fe . It was generall y noted th at oil pill and defore tati on de troyed w ildlife habitat and wo r ened th e pli ght of end angered p ecie . G as fl aring wa recognized to h ave cau ed heat and li ght polluti on , in additi on to de troying w ildlife. A stated in one of the report : F lare ca use .. . e levated temperatu re . T he heat ki II vegetati on, up pre e the growth and fl owering of som e pl ants ... Pl an ts, anim a ls and hum an in the v icinity of the ga Dare are perpetua ll y expo ed to ligh t with no re pite at ni ght. Thi is harsh for nocturnal anim als. T he light from fl are m ay al o b affecting the end angered m arine turtl es in th e ar a. Turtl es' ne tin g pattern are influ enced by li ght on th eir approac h to beache , w here th ey lay th ir egg . (UN DP 2006, 79) R ega rding noise, Amn e ty Intern atio na l (2009 , 2 1) stat d : " n 25 Jun e 200 I rc id ent of gbodo in Ri vers tate h ard a loud no i e, w hi ch o und d like an c pl o ion . The sound came from a pipe lin e, wh ic h had ruptu red." Wh ile pipe line c plos io ns are one or the soUI· -e 62 fn i p lluti n in th tg r Ita, th r di turbing urc includ ound from drilling, n th e li elih d im1 act f lh refining, and tran p rtati n ehicl e . 5.2.2 Human Impa ct : LiP lih ood Imp acts Th re app ar d t b mu h mpha i probl m au d by iJ pr du cti n in the inD IT d th at oil pr du ti on in th pr du ti on, unempJ oym nt, I carcity of fi h and crop . ig r nvironmentaJ elta. T hirty-eight f ut th e 41 data iger Delta re ulted in li velihood i ue urce uch a low food f incom , an I p verty. T he e impact ar directl y re lated to cc rding t 1 ec nd ary data urce and all ix intervi ewee , oil producti n-related p lluti n re ulted in po i oning and d ath of fi sh pecies in the N iger Delta. Fo r e ampl e, mn ty Int rn ati o na l (2009, 7) tated th at: " n 28 A ugu t 2008, a fault in the Tran -Ni g r pip line re ulted in a igni fica nt oil pill int B odo C reek in gonil and . The oil poured into the swamp and creek fo r weeks, covering the area in a thi ck sli ck of oil and killin g the fi sh that peo ple depend on for foo d and fo r th e ir li ve lih ood." T welve of the secondary data sources and fo ur of the interv iewees reported that oil produ cti on has had impacts on crop s in the N iger Delta. Essien and John (20 10), for exampl e, documented contamination from crud e oil in so il and crop sampl es fro m a fa nnin Qua vill age in Obolo East local government area . T he stud y showed that crops were d stroyed by oil pill . Oromoogunj e et al. (20 10, 190) urrunari zed the outcom e of a tud y on the impact of ga flaring on farm crops in Mkpanak, Akwa Ibom State: " the results indi cate th at in Mkpa nak, the effects of the chan ges in temperature on cro ps included tu nt d grow th ~ plants and such other effect such as w ithered yo un g rop ". 6 otched [ si ] ording t many data term f th li lihood impact urc fanner and fi h r ar the mo t affec ted group in f il producti n. mn ty Int n1ational (2009 29) n t d that 'o il p lluti n not on! dam age fi h tock , but al oth r w rd , it af[i ct d fi bing a ti iti e . The D partment f i h 1i e in P rt H ar 2009, 29). f fi bin g equipm nt". In urc furth r tat d that ' a ordin g t th e urt dam ag to equipment, uch a n t fi her , ft n m ea ns an end t th ir liv lih a ailabilit damag f artisanal d a fi hen11 n, ince b th th co t and la ck f me equipm ent m an th at it cann t be r pl aced" ( mn ty Jnt rn ati onal P (20 I . I 4 7) tated th at: ·· i v n th e ocio-eco nomi c tatu of goniland , and sunound d a it i by ex ten ive cr k , fi hing hould be an integral p art of the communit ' Ji ve lih od . Whil e fi bin g wa ind eed once a prim e acti v ity, it wa evid ent from local cmnmunity £ edb ack and fi eld ob erva ti on th at it ha e enti all y ceased in area po lluted by o il , es peciall y w here phy ica l impac t ar ev id ent. " Opulai and Ib aba (2 00 , 185) stated that oil production encourages land fragmentati o n, and " those affected move on to th e littl e farmland that are left . Th e fragmentati on th at fo ll ow lead to over u e of fa rml and s ... [whi ch] undermines th e produ cti v ity of fannland on w hi ch th e inh abitant thri ve." Eregh a and lru ghe (2009, 166) add ed th at ''m ost ofth e fa rm ers and fi hennen are thrown into confusion of jobles ness [sic]. '' The livelihood imp acts also affected other p eople in the cmnmuniti e . As noted by Amnesty International (2 009, 32-34), the environmental problem s in the N iger D elta vio lat d the ri ght to food, to w ork, and to emn a good tand ard of living fo r the ntire Niger Delta people. UNDP (2006 , 9) state th at: " T he Ni ger D elta is a region suffe rin g fro m administrati ve neglect, crumbli ng social infra tru c turc and ervice, , hi gh un mployment, oc ial depri va ti on, abj ec t poverty, fi lth and squ a lor, and end emi c co nfli ct." 64 Human H alth lmpa t, Ac rding to 14 of the ec ndary data of il produ ti n in th pr du ti n ha ad 1gcr urce , there w ere numerou h ealth impact lta. M an y p iger r el a m t d th ir h alth . n f my elta b li ev that oil cond ary data our e tated : " 75 .6o/o f ur r p nd nt agre d th at [ iI pr du cti n-relat d] nvironmental degradation and it after-effect h a 60). ne of m y intervi w they u pected to b d to the imp veri l11n nt f th e hea lth of peo pl e" Aluko 2004 , a! tated : " many pco pl in my v ill age co mpl a in ed o f di s a e au ed b ga fl arin g" (lnte r iev.ee # 3) . I cat g riz d th e health impa t int direct and indirect. Direct h alth impact include re piratory di ea e , ga tr inte tin a] infecti on , kin infection, cancer, and hearin g problem s. Indirect health impac t th at are mentioned are m alari a and HIV I AID . Respiratory di ea e , which includ e a thma andre piratory di order , were noted to be ca u ed by inh aling polluted air. Ga trointe tinal infecti ons were rep orted to be cau sed by drinking contamin ated water Skin infection was said to b e cau sed by contact w ith polluted air or bathing with contaminated water. H earing probl em were attributed to noise by oil pro du cti on equipment. Cancer wa m entioned but there were no deta ils a to type or how it was contrac ted . M alari a was repotied to be spread by mo quitoes that bred in still waters in aband oned oil produ cti on sites. HIV I AIDS was rep011ed to b e du e to pove1iy associated w ith oil produ cti on. UNDP (2006) noted that the env iromnental probl em s fro m o il producti on created poverty w hich led to class division, and th en to th e spread of HIVIA ID . M en w ith o il wealth w r encouraged " to take ad vantage of th e ir eco no mi c bu oya ncy by engagin g in ex ua l interco urse w ith many g irl s, often witho ut protecti on" (UN DP 2006, 99 ). 65 Th r w r conun nt m orne of th and d ath . oil indu m r ample, n ab ut il produ ti n-relat d fire burn regha and Iru gh (200 , 164- 165) tat d that ' [ ic] a numb r of d fire outbreak ha o cuJT din th e cto ber 17 199 i urc 1ger- Ita.' ' The hu ge Je fire that OCCUlT d ample; "[ ic] th un:fi rtun ate thing wa that thi fir incid ent did n t onl y de tr yed fann land r natura l ec logy but al o kill d m ore than 1,000 peopl e f th e c mmunit " (Eregha and Iru ghe 200 , 165) . 5.2 .3 An w r to R e arch ue ti on # 1 I have now provided an an wer to m y fi r t re earch que ti n- ' What are th e em ironm ntal and huma n impact of oil produ ction in the Niger D elta?" T abl e 5.1 ummari ze the typ e f envir nmental and human impacts , and Table 5.2 UITIJ11 arizes the severity of the e impac ts. The primary environmental impacts, in ord er of everity, are land , air, fre hwater, marine, and 'other' impacts. The prim ary human impact , in ord er of severity, are livelihood and health impacts. Thi informati on puts m e in a position to now examine oil production-related envirorun ental insecurity in the Niger D elta u ing the H om erDixon model. 66 6.1 Introduction In thi qu ti n . In m urity in th hapt r, I appl n mod 1 t an w r m y rem aining two re earch th H m er- i ti n .2, I tra e th cau allink between oil prod ucti n and environmental tger elta. Thi pro id an a n wert m y ec nd r ar h qu "]-low and 1-l'hy did oil produ lion r suit in em •ironm ental in. urity in th e ecti n 6. , I d th e impact of o il produ ction on th cribe m a ur tak n t pre n 1ro run nt and p eople in th e tger nt and addre i ti n- r D Ita". In clta, d m n tra t that th ey hav fail ed, and th n id nti fy fa ctor th at are re pon ibl e t r th eir failure. Thi provid e an an wer to m y Ia t re earch qu e ti on: "What mea ure hav heen tak n to prevent/addres. th e environmental in ecurity in th e iger D elta and why are the measures seem in ly not s u cces.~ful ? Sp ec~fically, what fa tors explain the .failu re?" 6.2 Oil Production and E nvironm ental In securi ty in the N iger D elta: Ca usal L inks In Chapter 5, the primary environmental and human impacts of oil producti on in th e N iger D elta were id entified . In thi section, I relate the impact to th e variables in the Hom erDixon model. Thus, in this section I use th e primary data in Chapter 5 and other relevant data to prov id e understanding of the oil producti on-related env ironmental insecurity in the Niger D elta based on th e fram ewo rk contained in the Hom er-Dixon m odel. T he H omer-Di on model is constructed accordin g to the fo llowing logic : ""' nvironmental in ecurity start w ith precursor fa ctors (physical and idea ti onal), which crea te env iromn ntal reso urce scarc ity (suppl y- induced, demand -induced, and/or stru ctural) ; this car ity in tu rn ca n I ad to o ia l effect (expul sion , migrati on, con trained c nomi c produ cti it y, elite r nt- e king, , ocial egm entation, and w eakened instituti ons) that an, in th e wo r t a e , ca n lead to vio lent 67 onfli t ( impl car ity, gr up id ntity n 1r nm ntal in r relativ d pri ati n ori nted) . In other word , ial e f~ t and v i lent c nfli t ) i a produ t f urity (mani[i (1) prior and nte tu al factor and (2) n ir nm entaJ re ur e carc ity. J follow this 1 gica l fl w t di u the link b tv e n il pr du tion and en ironmental in e urity in th Niger Delta in thi chapt r. Thu , precur carcity, then 6.2. 1 Precur r fac t r ar di cu ed fi r t, then en vir nmental re cial ffi t , and finall y vi urce nee. r Fact r cc rding to th H mer-Di xon m del, 1 r cur or fac tor are fund am ental contributi n that ki ck- tart en ironm ntal in ec urity (Hom er-Dixon 1999) . Th er e are two type of precur or fac tor , phy ica l and id eational. Phy ical precur or factor are vari abl e uch a geography the n atural re ources in a region, the total human popul ati on that i dependent on the r e ource , technology avail abl e to the population, and th e degradati on caused by the u e of the technologie (H om er-Dixon 1999, 49). Ideational precur or factors are variables that are products of human mind , fo r exampl e instituti ons, social relati ons, preferences, and beliefs (Homer-Dixon 1999, 49) . Ca tegori es of precur or factors were inductively determined from the literature (Ta bl e 6.1), and then slotted into the physical and ideational categories . 68 Table 6.1 iger Delta Precur or Factor Precur or Factor Phys ical Ideational n and fi·agility f the natural re ource in th e ig r delta: fl re t , r p , and fi h typ and relat d il c mpam The primary ph y i al precur r fac t r relat d to o il produ cti on are : (l ) adver e enviromn ental impac t , (2) th e fragility of natural re ource , (3) p pul ati on growth, and ( 4) type of teclmol gy being u ed by o il compani e . T he primary id ea ti onal precursor factor are (1 ) Ni ge ri a ' p etroleum and land laws, (2) regu latory failures and related expl oitative practi ces by oil comp ani e , and (3) o il industry' indi ffer nee to 1 cal preferences. Each is discu ed b elow . A dver e Environmental Impacts The " adverse environmental impacts" prec ur or factor ha bee n discussed at length in Chapter 5, and summatized in T able 5.1. These impac ts are precur or factors in that they 'come before' ac tu a l soc ia l effect . In other word , enviroiiD1 ntal po lluti on and degradation are cau e of envirol1J11ental re ource carcity and ocial effl cts. Di cu ion of th impact will not be rep eated here. The reader is refen ed to Chapt r 5. Fragile Natural Resources Data from fi ve ut o f 4 J of my r ea rch so urce indi at that land , fore t , crop. , fr shw ater, fi shing water, and fi h in the N iger 0 lta are frag il in that the are su 'eptibl to 69 di turbanc . J b anu (_000 , 20), [I r e ampl e, mad e th i tat m nt : " third of thi area [th ig r D Ita land] ab ut 12,000 quar kil m ter , i fragile m angr v [I re t, pr babl y the larg t m angr lo to the urfac and i u uall y dama ge ( e [I r tin th ew rid ." imil arl , gr und wat r [! r fre h drinking wa t r li P 2006; tracted fr m 1 ca l' ll ; thi s m ean it i susceptibl to mne ty lnten1ati nal 200 ; Mm m and hu kwu- k ah 2011 ; UN P 2011) . P opulation roH ·th Th H om r-Di n m del p it th at the popul ati on con uming natural re o urce in a re 0 IOn an be a fac tor in cr atin g en 1ronm ntal carcity (H mer- ixon 199 1, 85; 1994; 1999). He tates th at both "popul ati on gr wth and change 111 con umpti on b hav iour ca n ... cau e greate r [re o urce] car ity b boo tin g d mand " (Homer-Di xon 1999, 15); they can create ''a dec rea e in th e ize of the to ta l re ource ' pi e"' (Homer-Dixon 1999 , 15) . In th N iger Delta, there wa m assive increase in populati on from 2 1. 5 million in 1991 to 3 1 .2 million in 2006 (NPC 20 12; Davie 2009) . A total of four out of 41 of th e data ource inferred that the popul ation growth was a precur or factor to the environm ental insecurity in the N iger Delta. Types of Technology The type of technology being used by oi l companie in th Niger D elta is also a factor. Seventeen of m y data sources repo1i th at m any oil compani e do not use the mo t advanced technologies. For exampl e, rather th an u e arbon Ca pture and torage (C ) technology or ground fl are sy tems (that enclose the fl are), th e o ld rand tradi tional method of openly fl arin g into the enviro ru11ent i u ed (0 u ka and Roderi ck 2005; pukri and lbaba 200 8; Orimoogunj e et al 20 I 0). T here are a l o r po rt th at " ru ty, ob o lete, and poo rl y 70 maintain d" pipe lin num r u ar being u ed in the il pill (Ibea nu 2000 ; ig r D Ita , whi h ha c ruptur d andre ult din pukri and Ibaba 200 ). P fr o / um and Land Law. Ther ar indi ati n fr m mn 1g ria la id the D und ati n fi r th u ed in detail in tat th at " th c n mi c Zone o f ur 1g n an xclu 1ve rnment o f th F d rati on and h all be e t in th e ati ona l A embl y" ( ve rnm ent o f th fi d ral governm ent gr at power in c ntro lling N iger D elta . In additi on, the Land control of the tion 44( ) n ti tuti n, 1g ri a or in, und er r up n th e teni t rial wa ter and th e managed in uch mann er a rn a be pre crib d by th oil re ourc law in and c ntr 1 fa ll min raJ , m ineral il and natural ga m, 1g n a ha ll N igeri a 1999, 25) . Thi giv that land and petr leum law in n 1r nm ntal in e urit in the N iger cti n 6 . .1. In th 1999 ntir pr pert und r r up n any land in f my data e ct dec lare th at all land w ithin a tate i und er th e overn r fth e tate. The companie , and it i lawful fo r th e overnor ca n tran fer th e ri ght to indi vidu al or ove rn or " to revoke a ri ght of occu pancy for ov rridin g pub! ic intere t' (Law of the Federati on of ige ri a 1990a. La nd e Act, ec ti on 28( I )~ Anme ty Internati onal 2009, 24 ). Pro vi ions in th e P etroleum Act empower th e F d eral Government of N igeri a to grant acce and u e right in re lati on to land fo r the purpo e of oil pro pecting and mining to comp ani es. O nce a comp an y ha been g iven a perm it, li cence or lease, the tate governm ent h a to give access to the land . T h co mmuni ti es ar compensated acco rdin g to a fi rmul a th at primaril y as e va lue ha ed on " urface '-good . " lost. The e are building , crop , eco nomi c tree and ace s to fi hing gr und . T he compen ati on calcul ati ns do not con id er the long tem1 implica ti on of lo critica llivelih of a 'e ~ to d resource . Accordin g to n report, th e e law gave the oil companic, 71 unr tri t d a t land , wat r, and [! r t , ~ r th purpo f panding il pr ducti n t lnternati nal 2009 , 24). ( nn R ulat01y F Jilur and ExploitaliPe Pra ti · s hv c e pl itati rdin g t 21 pra ti f m d ata and mad il urce , regulat ry I haver n ir nm ntal in ecurit y p ibl in th ecti n . . . F r e ample, r gulat r failure a r di u . ed further in (2009, 41) tate th at " th il c mp ani e . parti ularl y "'ith ut appreciable ompam s ult d in iger D Jta . The e mnesty International pe ratcd ~ r r 30 year ntr I or n ir nm enta l reg ul ati n t guid e th ir activiti ."N igeria, he lL ha lik orne th er oil-pr du ing c untri e , ha law t co ntr 1 env ironm ntal degradati n; h w er, they are p rl y impl ment d becau e agencie th at impl em ent th em are not adequat ly fund d r ar corrupt ( DP 2006, P 20 11 ). The e law are di cu ed in ecti n 6 .3. Oil Companie · · lnd(fference to Local Preferences in out of my 41 data source stated that o il compani e were indifferent to local preference . According to most of m y interviewee , theN iger Delta peopl e would prefer that corporate headquarters of oil compani e that operate in th Niger D lta be lo ated within the region, and that local people be given th e opportunity to pa11icipate in deci ion related to o il production in the Niger D elta (Interviewee # 1, 2, 5, and 6). two of my secondary data so urces (M P 1991 ; lY headquarters are invariably outside Niger Delta . imilar opini on w re tated in 1998). However, oil co mp any ne interv iew e tated that by taying outside the region, the mana gement of the oil co mpani doe n t hav a co mpl ete en e of th e impact of their dec i ion /operation on the environment and peop l in theN ig r Delta (Intervi ew ee #5 ). 72 umma1y: Pr cur or Fa tor Fr m th ab t th di cu n of pr cur or fa tor , it i obvi u that th er are multipl e ta g D r the n 1r run ntal cat·city witn r lati e 1mp fact r di pl ay d in Tabl e 6.2. d in the ig r D elta . Th l arl y, nvironm ntal p lluti n and degrad ati n i the d minant fact r, [! 11 w d by r gul at ry failur , typ of techn log , ig ria' Ia go ernin g il pr du cti n, o il c mpani e ' indifference t local pr fer n e and beli ef: , fragility f natural r urce , p ciall y forest , crop and fi h, and populati n mer a e. Table 6.2 Importance of Precur or Factor Factor N umb er of Data ources that Id entifi ed a Factor ad er e en irorunental impact 40 regulatory fa ilur and xpl oitative practi ce 21 type of technology 17 land and petrol eum laws 9 o il compani es ' indifference to loca l preferences 8 fra gility of natural re ources 5 population growth 3 6.2 .2 Environmental R esources carcity A ccording to the H om er-Dixon model, th e e precur or factor ca n I ad to envirorunental resource scarcity in the N iger Delta . A co rdin g to data fro m 17 of th e secondary sources and four of th e intervi ew ee , ix typ es of natural resources- agricultural land , crop s, forests, fresh drinking wa ter, fi hing wa ters, and fi h- we re affect d. How a h of th ese resource becam e ' carce' i e pl ained b low u ing Hom er- Di on model. 7 ccordinu 0 t the H merthr m tag ha be n et by th pr ur r fact r , there are n m del, n e th hani m by which n ir run ntal r d mand-indu d, and tru ctural. au ed by ad lin in the uppl y fthe re natural re ur cau ed b an mer a and tructural carcit Di a h rtag urc uppl y-indu ur m ar : upply-ind u d, ar ity i a h rta g [natural r urce ur e· demand-induced carcity i a h rta g m p pul ati n r a hi gh r d mand C r th r [natural re n 1999, 1 ). The en 1ronrn ntal carciti from m data d can b urce ca u d by rei [ urce; cial in quality (H m r- ant to il pr ducti n in th e iger Delta ar di pi a ed in Table 6.2. a h i di u ed. Ta bl e 6.3 N ige r D elta E nvironm ental ca rciti e E nvironm enta l S carci ty uppl y- indu ced carcity fland D em and -indu ced S tru ctural ca r ity of l a nd ,~ ret, fresh drinking wa ter, fi hin g water , fi h, and crop du e to increa e in popul ation carcity of land, for t ' crop , fre h drinking wat r, fi hing waters, and fish du e to eizure of i1 field by the oil indu try carcity of forest carcity of fre h drinking water scarcity of fi hing water carcity of fish and crops Supply-induced Re ource Scarcity A total of J 9 out of the 41 data ource ugge t there wa . uppl -indu cd s ar it of environm ntai res urces. In other word , there wa a de rca. e in total suppl of the c environmental re ource due to the prccur or fa tor such as air, water, and land pollution . In 74 th 1ger fi hing in th t tal upply f agricultural land , rop , fore t , fr hwat r, at r and fi h, wa pen n d. r n ted that " dim nt intr due d int th wat r gom mmunitie w r 1 t t the pe pl in th il m pam tger il pill a r ult f dr dging and oth r ua village and 1 bagi and i mi c ur ey , pipelin in tallati n, and mne, ty Jnternati nal (2009, 26) tated that th e " maj rity of Ita d not ha E ien and J hn (20 10) pre en ted e idenc pill in ty Int rnati nal (2009, 19) P (20 11) r p ried that ~ re t in huk u- keah (20 11) and n tructi n b mn d fi h habitat ,"and b implic ti n, limit d the a ai lability f fi h. de tr Mm m and amp] , cl an water'· becau e f iI production . a c [agri cultural land and r p dama g d by il of the ere ourc to th village. Demand-indue d R source Scarcity total of even out f th e 41 data urc inferred that th re wa al o demand- induced carcity of agricultural land , fore t , crop , fre h drinking wat r, fi hing water , and fi h in the iger Delta, primarily becau e of oil production-relat d increa in both the urban and rural population of the Niger Delta. The population of the Niger Delta wa 22 million in 1991 (Uyigue and Agho 2007, 6) and ro e to 31.2 milli n in 2006 (Davi 2009, 41 ). UNDP (2006, 85) attributed the increase to movement of people into the region du to th e benefi t of oil production: "The Nig r Delta region, und erstandabl y, ha attra ted a grea t number of migrants from other part of the country. They come s eking opportunitie from oil production." Urban population increa ed, and thi in tum led to mi gration to rural ar a and scarcity of natural resource . or exampl e, .I ike (2004, 694) noted that overcrowding in citi led orne p pl e to move rural co mmuniti e , thcr by in rcasin g the population in the rural 75 ar a and in r a ing th d mand ~ r agricultural land , fr h drinking water fi lung wat r, fore t r ur , fi h and crop in the rural ommuni ti . DP (2006 5) stated : lth ugh man mi grant nd up in th ci ti e , a large pr p01ii n al goe into th rural area . me fill th ga p 1 ft by the mo em nt of 1 cal pe pl into the citi . Th y beco m fann r , fi her , hunter , harve t r f fu el wo d and ther n n-timber :fi re t pr du ct , quarT op rat r and arti an in ther trad e . he rural m igrant increa e th pr ure on land and rural r ourc , ho e r. They are n t inter ted in i ue of re urce con erva tion and en ironmental pr t ti n, ince their main moti ve i to max imize profit. ne of my inter iewe who li ed in Rum ko l (a rural community nea r th city f P01i Harco urt) tat d th at " th ere V\ r en ugh land and drinkin g water in th e co mmunity, but w ith th migration of p opl e from citi e lik Port Harco urt and W arri , the co mmunity ha been e periencin g carc ity of agri cultu ra l land and dr inkin g water" (1nterviewee # 1). Stru tural S arcity A total of 11 out of the 41 data ource ugge ted th ere wa structural scarcity. Structural carcity occurred in two ways: fir t, through resource capture, and second , through ecological marginali zation . Re ource capture occurred becau e the movement of the oil companies into the N iger Delta introduced a new class of peopl e, " the o il c ia s''. Th rewa already a ' non-oil class' which consists of th e local people. The oil indu stry, upported by government laws, seized land s, fo re ts, and fishing water adjoining oil fie lds in the N iger Delta. Thi s re ulted, fo r example, in lack of access to these resource fo r local peopl e and carcity of crops and fi sh that are produ ced from them . When the loca l p opl e were faced with this scarcity, they migrated to other pl ace . One of my interviewees mentioned that some moved to citi es wjthin th region such as Port Harcomi, W arri, ket, U o, Calaba r, and Asaba (Intervi ew ee# 4 ). T here, in the cities, th y contributed to incr ase in the number of people demanding land for housing and fresh dri nking wa ter. In other word , they cr at d an 76 ol gical marginalization type of tructural wh liv b nu in Warri elta tat arci ty. F r e ampl e, ne of th intervi we t f the agri ulturalland in th city ha [ ic] tated that " m d fi r th c n tru ti n f r id ential h u e , 1 artly becau e of migration from rural communiti ar und the city' (Inter ar fa ed with an' e # 4). Thi ugg t th at farm er who liv in Wani g ical marg inali zati n" t pe of tru ctural ca rcit f farm land . Summary: Environm ntal carcity Fr m th abo e di cu i n f n ir nm ntal carci ty, it i c l ar th at all three type id entifi d by H m r-Dix n appl y in the in Table 6.4 . uppl y- indu ed iger D elta. Their relati v importa nce is di played em by far the m o t imp rtant, fi Jl ow d by tru ctural and d mand-induced . Table 6.4 Importance of Environmental carcities Factor Number of Data Sources that Identified a Factor upply-induced resource scarcity 19 Structural carci ty re ource carcity 11 Demand -induced resource scarcity 7 6 .2.3 Social Effects According to the H om er-Dixon model, environm ental carcity can lead to soc ial effects. The social effects id entifi ed by Homer-Dixon are expul ion, mi gratio n, reduced economi c productiv ity, elite rent- eeking, ocial segmentati on, and weakened in titution (Homer-Dixon 1999, 134) . The e social effect are relat d to the human impact of oil production previou ly di scus d in hapter 5, with th mod el did not include a health variable in hi c ption that the Homer-Di, on o ial effi ct catego ri za tion, 77 hich i, a d ficiency in hi mod el. Expu l i n, migrati n, reduced c n mi produ tivity, elite rentking o ial T hirty of th that th gm entation , and w akened in titution ar indica tion of p co ndary data nvironmental carciti ur r livelihood . and all i inter iewee mad e c mment that ugg t di cu ed in th prev iou e tion 1 d t s cia l efD ct (Table 6.5) . ach i di c u ed. T abl e 6. 5 N ioer D elta ocial Effect ocial Effect Expul ion M ig ration people were internally di placed migrati n of mostl y young p ople to urban citi and abroad onstrain ed economi c acti vity E lite R enteekin g ocial egmentation and wea kened In stitution s ri e of yo uth mo vem ents r du ction in fi hing oil bunkering reduction in farming kidnapping and ransom intracom.m unity di vi ion reduction in forestry corruption ethni c divi ions groupm gs again t the oil indu try and goven1ment 7 'Oth e r' S ocial Effects Hea lth Probl em s pe pi e affl icted with ailment uch as ca ncer, kin infection , a thma, HIV/AIDS Expul ion!Mioration f m data ial urc f il pr du ti n in th e id entifi d e pul i n and mi grati n a 1g r Ita. h y ccu1Tcd du e t en 1r nm ntal car it ampl e, ha ing 1 t mu h land t oil p rati n . .. . Man aband n their traditi nal and m et th r pur uit , u uall in th e citi e " . T hey al li elih di u interv i P (2006, 4- from ga fl arin g ite and refin eri e following qu t ) tat d that " I a! pe pie c mplain bitterl y ab ut m ne [the ommunit ha e left becau e fum sand hea t ere makin g th em ick" (Jnt rvi ewee # 2) . The illu trate th rcl ati n hip bctw en li velih c llap e flo al ec nomie , indu upati n ed du to the health and fr m il pr ducti n-related p lluti n and d gradati n. e tat d th at " man) peo pl m m f th n d pr bl em and migrati on: "th d by oil pill ag , ga fl aring, and th er acti viti of th e oil indu try had di placed many fr m their occupati on , without providing viabl e alternati ve " ( pukri and Ibaba 2008, 174); " Rath er th an it ... at the primordi al h me front, there i a tend ency for yo unger per on to mi grate in earch of gr ener pa ture far away in the urban metropolitan center "(Jike 2004, 693) ; "Tho e who mi grate to urban center are those whose job pro pects are dim in th e vill age" (Jike 2004. 693) . On e of my intervi wee stated that the"[ ic] majority of the people migrated to Port Harcourt, Wan-i, ket, alabar, Uyo, Asaba, and Benin. orne migrated to farer citi e~ like Lago. and Ahuja, while others travelled abroad in search of qu ality li fe" (Interviewee # 2). NDP (2 006, 139) noted that "a signifi cant number of peopl e from the Delta work a mi gra nt cocoa fam1er in ameroon [a neighbouring c untry to Nige ri a], whil e oth er wo rk a arti an and yc li t " . onstrain ed Economic Productivity According to comment in 8 of my data source , oil prod uction led to constrained ec n mic pr ducti vity in th N igcr Delta. on trai n d con mi c prod u ti vi t occutT d 79 be au f carcity f fann land , fi hing wat r crops, and [j h tock . For Int rnational 2009 , 0) noted that "a ignificant problem~ r the ri ght tg r elta i th failur to addre agricultural producti ity fr m th lon g-tenn impa t il p lluti n." n o il." on train d ty f farmer in th P (20 11 , 180) n t d, with r b rvati n that it ha e n il ~ rtility and low go niland. that "whil e fi hin g wa ind eed o nce a prim ac ti vi t . it c n1munit fi dba k and field ample pec t t a e id ent fr m I ca l ntiall y cea ed in ar a polluted by ig r D lta i al o illu trated by th e link n mi c pr ducti ity in the b tw en un mployment and poverty whi h r ult d from lack of adequ ate ompen ati n aft r pollution dama ge. Fore ample. re pondent luk o (2004. 67) menti oned: "80 .2% of our tat d th at when oil pill age occur in their communiti es re ultin g in unimaginabl e lo e (farmland , crop , fi hin g ite an d equipm ent), the oi l co mpanie do not u ually co mpensate them adequately." ixty-~ ur p ercent stated that they became poor a a result of the lo ses lack of compensation, an d un empl oyment (AJuko 2004 , 67). Rent-Seeking D ata from 12 of m y ources su ggest that oil production-related envi romnental scarcity in the Niger D elta caused rent- eeking behaviour . People who reli ed on crop farming , fishing, and forestry abandoned their occupations for common typ es of rent-seeking behaviours such as "o il bunkering" (in Nigeria, oil bunkering i a te1m u ed to refer to stealing of crud e oil or p etrol eum product ) and holding hosta ge for ran om. A natural re ources b ecam e scarce, oil bunkerin g and oiJ-relat d corrupt practi ce provided a lu rative alte1native to ecure incom e. UN DP (2006, 85) stated that "m any youth, , ev n tho e till r siding in rural areas, are more interest d in rent- eekin g from o il operation in the fonn of tandby m ney [money they have not worked for] or oi l bunk ring, hostage-taking and sa botage foil pip lines." ln tead of siphoning oi l from pill for per 0 nal us . the stole it from pip lin and t kp pl ho tag for ran om. In add ition, mo re powerful individuals tran D IT d il tra ted illegally nt boat from wher they took it to tank rs for shipment to other countri .F r ample, a ig rian Hou e of R pr entative prob in Nov mber 2004 un ov r d an illegal r l a e by naval fficer of the MT .Afri an Pride, a hip that had be n caught bunk ring and which had been t w d to a na aJ ba e (UNDP 2006, 125). Social Se m ntation and Weaken d Jnshtutions Ten of my data ourc nvironmental not d that cia! egm ntation occuned b cau e arcitie r ult d in p verty and cia tated that " there are th e rich oil cla and the p difference . One of my int rviewee r non-o i I cia '' (Interviewee# 6). The ri ch oil class comprises the oil compani es, their staff, and contractor . Th e poor non-oil clas compri es the 'other '. who do not participate in the oil indu try, particularly the local Niger Delta people. Obi (20 10) and Davi (2009) id entified prominent m embers of the econd group as including the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni Peopl e (MOSOP), the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), the Ijaw Youth Congre s (IYC), the Niger Delta Volunteer Force (NDFV), and the Egbesu. Information and publications on some of the groups' we bsites show that they are opposed to the oil industry because of the environmental and human impacts of oil production. For example, the IYC stated: That the unabating damage done to our fragile natural environn1ent and to the health of our peopl e is due in the main to uncontrolled exploration and exploitation of crude oil and natural gas which has led to numerou oil spillage , uncontroll ed gas fl aring, the opening up of our for ts to Jogg rs, indi scriminate canali sation, floodin g, land ubsid nee, coastal ero ion, earth tremor etc ... We, therefore, demand that all o il companies stop all exploration and exploitation activities in the Ij aw ar a. (IYC 199 ) Th above tatem ent shows ther was clear social egm ntation between the oil indust1 and th e Ijaw community. n di 1 yalt t traditi n al and g Ita i that th g IIT p cti ig r D elta. emm nt auth riti e1nm nt and f th dam ag m ig r D lta c mmuniti and the il indu try ha 1 d t . Th b li f am ng many in th m traditi ona l auth riti e upp rt il 1ger mpan1 e , il pr du cti n ha don t the env ir nm ent and p opl in th e uth r fu ed to lend all egiance t th g 1nm nt and traditi nal rul er in th r gi n . F r e ampl e. Jik 0004. II ) tated th a t " nowh re ha traditi nal auth rity b en eclip d a in th 1ge r- lder a th e e pit me o f c Ita. uit e blunt! , th e typi ca l a l fa ilure in th e b id t harn e R j cting g vemm nt auth rity, the IY e urce o f th e area ." demand ed " the imm edi ate w ithdrawa l fr m Ijawland of a ll military force [w ho were ent by th e compani e from i lence th re 1ger- elta y uth igeri an govemm nt to protec t th e o il r (IY 199 ). Oth er Social Effect : H ealth Problem : A total of 14 out of my 41 data ource noted th at num ero u health probl em s occun d from the adv er e environmental effec t of o il produ cti on in th e Niger D elta. Th health probl em have been disc u sed in ection 5 .2 .2 and w ill not be repea ted . Summary: Social Effect Four main type of social effect , fo ll owing H om er-Di on catego ri za ti on cheme, were identifi ed: expul ion/mi grati on, constra ined economi producti vity, ren t- eking, and ocial segm entati on and weakened in tituti on. An other type of ocial effec t- h alt h probl em s- not included in the Hom er-Dixon model wa also identifi ed ( ee Their relati ve imp rtance is di spl ayed in Ta bl e 6 .6 . seem by far the m hap ter 5) . onst rai ned eco nomic p rodu ctivit t important ffect, fo ll owed b hea lth pro bl m , ren t-seeking, socia l segmentati n and weaken d in titut ion, and e pu L io n/ migra ti o n. 2 Table 6.6 Importance of ocial Factor ffect N umber of Data that 14 12 eking 10 6 6.2.4 I nt nfli cc rdin g t the Hom rndary data Tw ntyproduction led to i lent combination f the n m del, ocial effect ca n lead to vi lent c nfli ct. urce and all ix intervi we nflict in the 1ge r commented that oil elta. The confli ct re ulted from n or a cial effects di cu ed above, and that the violent confli ct ha v led to further ocia1 effect . or exampl e, one of my interviewee Nigeria to Canada because of the violence in the tated th at he mi grated fr m ige r Delta (Interviewee # 3 ). The violent confli ct in the N iger D elta can be categorized, u ing Hom er- ixo n' gro up . into impl e cm·city viol ent conflict , group id entity violent conflict , and relati ve deprivation vi lent conflict . Ex amples of the violent conflicts are shown in Tabl e 6.4. orn e exampl e appear in more than one ca tegory. ach type i di cu sed. Ta ble 6.7 N i er D elta Viol ent ( rd r d by dat f onflict nfli t) R elati ve Depri vation onflicts ( 1994) El m - kirika land di spute (200 1 - pr nt) amp Conflict betw n and igena ecurity fore (2004 - 2005) bduction of hevron and Texaco taff (July 2003) The ongoing onflict between MEND and igeria ' s ecurity force (2006- pre ent) and igena e urity force (2004 - 2005) The ongoing conflict betw en ME D and Nig ria's secu rity force (2006 - pre ent) Simple Scarcity Cm?flicts imple scarcity violent confli ct occurred between individual , group , and communities, and b tween Ni ge r Delta groups and Nigeria' conflict wa due to nvironm ntal carcity. or " individual and gro up ~ ught ecurity f( r c . fhi ~ type of ample, on of m int ~, icw e vcr thing like th e remaining portion 4 tated that r oil-pollut d lantL and water" (Inter i w e # 6) . ji and rh bo-I h kiri c nflicl during which th ught t c ntr 1 th r thni gr up inv lv d in the violent conflict t f the land and cr ek. that w re not d grad d by oil production. k nta and Dou g!a (200 1) and forth whrudjakp r (2009) n ted that there wa the Ijaw- ut i al of th bi (20 10) de crib d th c nfli ct betwe nth Movem ent g ni Pc ple (M P) , ljaw Youth P ople Volunt r For e ( PV ), Movem ent forth (M iger D elta igilante D) and V), on th ongr (IY ), iger D Ita mancipation of th Niger D elta ne hand , and Joint Mihtary Ta k orce (JMT ), n the ther hand, a attempt t c ntrol the depl eting land , water , and fore t in the oil-rich Nig r D Ita. imple carcity vio len t confli ct were al du e to ome of the ocial effects of en ironmental re ource carciti e that wer di cu ed in ection 6.2.3. F r exampl , the Ogoni p o pl e in th e iger D elta once ex pre s d their gri evance as follow The once beautiful Ogoni country ide is no more a source of fresh air and green vegetation . Ali one ee and feel around i death. D eath is everywhere in Ogoni . Ogoni languages are dyin g; goni culture is dying; O goni peopl e, Ogoni animal , O goni fi shes are dying becau e of 33 year of hazard us enviroru11ental pollution and resulting food scarcity. In spite of an alanning den ity of population, American and Briti h oil companies greedil y encroa ch on more and more O goni land, depriv ing the peasant of their only mean of livelihood. Mining rents and royalties for O goni oil are eized by th e Federal Government of Nigeria which offers th e O goni peopl e N THING in return. Ogoni is being killed so that Nigetia can li ve. (MOSOP 1991 , 3) Group Identity Cm~flicts Group id entity violent confli ct aro e du e to the large- cale mov ment of peopl from oil-polluted areas to the c iti e (expulsion and migration) . The movement result d in different ethnic and cultural group comin g to live together und r tressful circum tanc uch a overcrowding, scarcity of land for hou ing and agricultur , and sho11age of fresh drinkin g water, which r suited in ho tiJity and violence toward each oth er. For interv iewee m entioned the leme- kirika land disput whi h h 85 ample, one of m aid e empJifi d ethni , h tilit . During thi typ int ci - ultural i u nili t a an D r th ample, f di put , there i the t nd n lik thnic id ntit pr t ji and R lativ epri1 •ation ughtt ec ur urce ( .g. land , wat r, and [! re t ), m~fli ·ts and carcit y f environm e nta l re rty. ita! re n c ure and reinforc it cultural id ntity. R lati e d pri ati n and po ing th Jjaw- rhobo-1 hekiri whrudjakp r (2009) inferr d that alth ugh a maj r rea thni gr up in c nili ct wa t a h tlmi c gr up al ti n . for each of th group to digr c uned beca u e environmental d gradati n urce led to low econ mic pr du cti it y, un mploym e nt, c rdin g t Homer- ixon ( 1991, 105), r lati v depri va tion i a ituation "when peopl e perceive a Vv id e n ing ga p bet we n th e le ve l of sa ti fa cti o n th ey have a chi v d (oft n d fined in eco no mic te rm ) a nd th e lev I th ey believe th ey d depri vati n ordinarily ex i t in th wor e in the r e." Although relati ve ig r D elta a it d e in th er pa11 of N igeri a, it wa iger D elta becau e of inequality between th e oil indu try and th e Niger D Ita local people . According to o ne interview e, the oil indu try i perceived to be very ri ch whereas the local iger D elta people are beli eved t b ge nera ll y poo r (Interviewee # 6). The inequality deprived the local p eople in the Niger D elta the opp011unity to acce land , fi hing water, and fore ts. It widened the gap b tween th e local Niger D elta peopl e and the o il industry, cau ed di sloya lty to loca l and gov mment autho riti es a. no ted ea rli er, and then resulted in vio lent conflic ts between the il indu try and th e iger D e lta people . From the explanation in orne of th e econd ary o urce , e ampl e of relati e depri at ion violent co nfli ct in the Niger D elta are th e inva ion of ua lboe T rminal by lbeno and Aqua ouths in April 2000 that result d in the eizure of three oi l es e l , the o cupation or hell Ri gs at Tunu and puku lli th at resulting in the kidnapping and ho. tagc-taking or 165 starr b militant yo uth. or th gbemn, ga labiri, nnd gbic hi nma 'Ommunities in Sa elsa ' tate 6 betw n Jul and y uth f tua ugu t 2000, ga in uth in Jul 200 M izure o f th bruary 2001 , abducti n f th g m ri i , the hi ch ta11ed in 2006 . wa b au h 11 Hou ing konta and il pr du cti n depri d th DP h reek r nand e ac r belli n, an I th taff by amp by gb ma ng i ng in urgen by ug la (200 I) inferred that M g ni p pl th ir main cupati n, fi bing and fannin g. 6.2 .5 An wer t R ear h u ti n # 2 "H ow and \l 'hy did oil production result in environmental insecurity in th e Niger D Ita ?" Ba ed n th e analy i in thi chapter, 1 am n w in a p an wer. iti on t pr vid a gen ral ymboli ally, we ca n p rtray Hom er- i o n' cau al frame'v\ ork a : precur or fact r -+ nv ironmental scarci ty -+ ocial effects -+ vi lent co nfli ct. From my analy i , it i obvi u that many, many enviro nm ental and ocia l factors and proces e r lated to il produ cti on are respon ible for the environm ental insecurity (violent conflict) in the iger D elta . Thi co mplex ca u al relation hip i illu ·trated in igure 6. 1. It, how ever, ca n be implifi ed by looking at tho e ca u al elem ent that seem to be th e mo t important, where '· impo rtant" is defi ned a being identifi ed by rou ghl y 50% or m ore f m y 41 ource (roughly 20 or m ore). With this cri terion, the most important precur or fa adverse env ironm enta l impact (40/41) and regulat ry failure and e ploitative pra tice (21/41). The e fa ctor 'ca u ed ' suppl y-induced re ource cm·ci ty ( 19/41 ), the d minant environmental carcity; i.e., a decrease in total uppl y of en vir nm ntal resource . This in turn ' caused' co n tra in ed ec nomic productivit ( 8/41 ), th e dominant ocial effect, ''hich in turn ' ca u ed ' violent co nfli ct. Thu , Figur 6. 1 can be ' implified to : 87 n ironmental impa t ) indu e d r urc con trained e (r gul at ry failur and xpl itati e pra ti ce ) ca rc ity (land crop , [! r n mi produ cti ity t fr -+ supply- hwater, fi hin g wat r and fi h) -+ i lent c nflict. -+ Figure 6.1: Causal Links between Oil Production and Environmental Insecurity in the Niger Delta Precursor factors DIVISIOnS Fragile natural resources, N tgena' s petroleum and ..,. land laws, regulatory failure, explot tative practtces, immtgratton of oil workers, type of technology, difficult preferences by local people, and otltndustry ' s Atr pol Iutton . water pollution, land pollution and degradatton, and "'-._ deforestation Increased tn populatton of Ntger Delta Emergence of " oil and non -oil classes" Scarctty of ~ land, forest ,. resources, fresh water, ., fishtng water, crops, and fish stocks -, Expulston and mtgration of local people to urban areas and abroad ~ Reduct\on in farmtng, forestry , and fishtng (and unemployment ~ and poverty assoctated wtth them), and rent seeking behavtors (oil bunkenng, ktdnapptng, and corrupt ton) Genests of Scarctty Soctal Effects 89 between the oil tndustry (supported by the government and some local authonttes) and the Ntger Delta people, and dtsloyalty to local and government authonttes Several vtolent confltcts Violent Confltct Fi gure 6.3 Pr ventin g nvironm entalln ecuri ty in th e N iger D elta w tha t 1 ha e p int d at n 1r nm ntal in e urit in th thi m curit ha re m p tg r n t u ibJ link b t ee n il pr d u ti n-induc d and clta, 1 tum t a n d d. T hi aminati n f hy effort t cti n an w r. m y third r ea rch qu e tion : " J11hat m 'a. ur . hm•e h >en taken to pre1 •ent and address the ' nvironmenta/ ins ·urity in th " 1 er ella and H'hy are th ' measur 'Sse ' 177117 r(r not .\·uccessful? p ' 'ifi ·ally, H'lwt factors xplaintheir failure?" 1 fir tid ntif th mea ur c iet , and 1g r by g vernm ent, th Ita c mmunitie , a nd th n di c u iJ indu try, c i iJ their failure and th e rea n [I r th e failure . 6 .. 1 M a ure to Pr ent n tr nm ental In - urity in th iger D Ita bout half f m y data o urce ( 17 ut of 41, r 41 %) identifi d m ea ure ta ken to pre nt en viromn enta l in ecUiit y from o il pro du ti n in th e iger D elta. I categ ri zed th e mea ure a t whether, according t the H m er-Di xo n mode l, th ey were fir t tag , eco nd tage, r third ta ge interventi on . Fir t tag int rvention are m ea ure to pr e nt th e precur or fa c tors from crea ting env ironm ntal carcity; econd tage int rvention are m ea ure to prevent env ir mn ental sca rc ity fr m re ulting in ocia l e ffect ; and third , tage intervention are m ea ure to prevent vio lent c nOi ct from ari ing du to th e ocia l effect (Homer-Dix n 1999, 107) . The H omer-Dixon ca tegoriza ti n c h m eem trai ghtfi rward; how ve r, it was not alway, n mea, ure 111 one a y to c lea nl y pia e a gi categ ry r an th e r. In m any ca e , a measure directly or indir c tl imp! and fit in more than one ta g . De pite thi , fo r imp1icity , ake, I , I ' ted th stage that , eem 'd to lit be. t. In addition, th e mea ure d not represent a co mp1 't' li st of a ll measure, taken t) < ddress the 90 n 1r run ntal in curity in the my data urce . Fir, f lnt n ntion. fa In[! nnati n 1ger difi d fr m my data tag interv nti n . h data al urc that ar m t pr mm nt a c rding t ugge t that many m a ure ar fir t ugg t that: ( I ) maj ri ty [the e m a ure were taken by g rrunent, (2) [i w w r tak n b th and Jg r Delta • Ita, nl th il indu try, and ( ) none were tak n by civil mmuniti e . ir t tag m a ur by the g v n1m ent includ e: e tabli hment f the Depa rtm nt f Petr leum Re urce ( PR) and th e ederal p ), n ir runental Pr tecti n Agency ( • intr ducti n fen ir nmental impact a e ment in the oil indu try, and • nactment of th Mineral R gulation , ciety il ( a[i ty) Regulation , Petr leum Act and il P lluti on Act, A ociated Ga Re- inj ecti n Act, il inNaviga ble Water Act and it Regulation , il Pipelin Act, and Environmental Guid line and tandard for the Petrol eum lndu try in 1gena. Each i briefly introduced below . DPR wa e tabli hed in 1976 (NNPC 20 1Oa) and is re ponsi bl e for impl ementing all the legi slation related to th e oil indu stry. F PA was e tabli h d in 1998 (U DP, 2006, 17, Amne ty International 2009, 41 ). In addition to ov r e ing th implementation of all envirorunentallaws in Nigeria, F PA upports DPR to enforc n ironmental regulation in the oil indu stry. nvironmental impact a e ment in Nig ria i. gui ded by the n ironm ntal Impact A es ment Decree 86 of 1992 . It i. genera lly directed toward ~ regulating th impa ~ t of indu tri alization on the environment. In the oil indu, try, it i. con, idercd to l c ver imp rtant in controlling the impa ts of oil production on the en ironm nt. omc t)11 ', or )il 91 pr du tion-r lated indu trial pl an pn r n id rati n f their impact Th Min ral 1 pm nt, r a tiviti d cann t b ex cut d without n the envir nment. il ( afety R egul ati n w re e tabli hed in 1962, an updat of previo u law dating ba k t 1925 . Am ng other thing , th r gulati on poll uti n that m ay re ult from th m . F r e k to pr vent explo ion and amp! , e ti on (d) of the law tate that oil co m pant ho uld " pro id e adequ ate fire-fi ghting equipm ent ... at very well being drill ed or w rk d r bl ock tati n pump tati n r in tall ati on handlin g crud e il , natural ga or petrol urn produ ct.' ' Th Petroleum t wa e tabli hed in 1969 . It give owner hip f oil re ourc sin N ige1ia t th fed raJ governm ent and mand at s that the governm ent can transfer ri ght to these re ource to individual and compani es for development. It also give DPR th power to make regulation to prevent pollution and injury fro m oil xpl orati on and development. Environm ental protection regu lation related to thi s act are th e Petroleum (Drilling & Production) Regulati on of 1969, last amended in 1996; and the Petroleum R efinin g R egulation of 1974, last am ended in 1996. A total of fo ur out of the six data source that m entioned these two regulation described the Petroleum (Drilling & Produ ction) Regulations as the most important because it appli es to m any environmental is u sin the N iger Delta. It covers oil pills, oil wa te di charge, and defore tation, fo r exampl e. The Petroleum (Drilling & Produ ction) Regulati ons require the lessee or li censee to take all practical steps to prevent enviro nmental da mage ( kwere 20 10, 9) . nlike th Petrol eum (Drilling & Producti on) Regu lati o ns, the Petro leum Refining Regul ation i nanower, fo cusing on constructi on requirement for oil torage to mi nimize damage fr m I aka g 92 Th il P lluti n ct ( P ) wa e tabli hed in 1990. It provide guidance to the g venunent and the il indu try on oil pill pre nti n , mitigation, clean-up, and liability. Th ent il pill , en ure that ufficient financial ct creat d a r ourc p r mpr h en i e chem e t pr ar mad a ailabl [i roil pill cl an up in the a e of a pill, and t compen ate r 1 af~ cted by th e pill. The n ad facilitie wn r d el p indi vi lu al re pon e tabli hm nt of a national re pon The il in avigabl W ater P mandat plan . Furthenn re it mandate the y tem and th developm ent f rea ontingency Plan ct wa e tabli h d in 1968 . It ha two objective . It eek to implem nt th term of the Intemati nal of the that tanker and inland oil nventi n for the Prevention of Pollution a by Oil and t m ak pr vi ion for uch prevention in th e navi ga bl e water of Nigeria. Following nactm nt, the Oil in Navigable W ater Regul ations wa also enacted in 1968 . The e regulation require equipping hip to prevent pollution by oil, keeping oil discharge and tran fer records, taking precautions when loading and di charging oil, and preventing oil bunkering. The Associated Gas Re-injection Act was enacted in 1979 . According to O suoka and Roderick (2005, 4) , the Act declares gas fla ring "illegal" in Nigeria . Sections 1 and 2 of the Act require all companies producing oil and gas in Nigeria to submit " detailed plan for implementation of gas re-inj ection ." ection 3 provides for topping of all gas flaring . It states that " no company engaged in the production of oil or gas shall after 1 January, 1984 flare gas produced in association with o il w itho ut the permi ion in wri tin g of the Mini ter." The Oil Pipelines Acts was promul ga ted in 1956 . Although it focuses on granting licences for the purpo e of oil pipeline operation , it al o addre sed nvironm ntal impact of such op rations. or exampl e, Section 3 (c) of th e 9 ct stat that "th Mini ~ ter ma b r gulati n pre crib ... m a ur w rk r f public utility in, er and und r any land and the pr v ntion of p lluti n f any land ater". En ir nm ental ( G in re pect of public afi ty, th avoidance of int rfi r nee with uid line and tandards for th e Petroleum Indu try in Ni geria PIN ) w r c mJ il d by DPR in 1991 p i fi call y for the petr 1 um indu stry. A majority f th e urce that m entioned thi Jaw d crib ed it a a comprehensive working d cum nt with nou con id erati n ~ r protecti n f the Niger D elta nvironment. For e ample, Amne t lnt rn ati onal (2009, 41) empha ized that thi law has "over 300 pag s'' which "co er th handling fvva te . includin g wa tewater and drillin g wa te, o il pillage, and dealin g with efOuent .'' Second Stage Intervention. Information from m y data source ugge t that most of the second stage intervention were taken by the oil industry, and a few by goverrunent and Niger D elta conununitie . This appears to be unacceptabl e to some environm entali sts. For example, Amnesty International (2009, 65) stated that "the goverrun ~nt ofNigeria ha placed substantial responsibility for remedying human ri ghts harn1s [the human impact of envirorunental degradation by oil production] in the hands of a non-state actor- the v ry same non-state actor that is respon ibl e for much of the harm done to people' hum an right in the first place.'' This statem ent suggest that although the government has taken some re ponsibility for preventing the ocial effects of oil producti on, it leave most of the respon ibility to the oi l industry. My research did not reveal any m asures by the ci il ociet that could fit into the econd stage interventi n , a de cribed in the Homer-Di on model. Second sta ge measures by the oil indu try include cond ucting en ironmental , u1 ey , reportin g on environmental pollution, and cleani ng up and rem diation of polluted ar a . A 94 ig r D lta n ir nm ntal P tr I Arrm D "' ) initiat d by the oil indu try, pecifically hell mpany ( PD ), wa c mpleted in 1997 (UNDP 2006 and t Int rnati nal 2009). Thi mea ure \\a p opl in th In urvey n iti it ig r D elta ab ut th nega ti v impact fthe il c mpan1 e and the Fed ra l tat d that prior to th e manage th n ' in re pon to the per i tent complaint of foil production and the p rc iv d ve rnm ent" ( DP 2006, 92). PD - , " th re [were] n t enou gh fact avai lable to decide how best to d [! r re ource de el pm ent and u tain the ec - y tern f th e delta" (Amne ty Int rnati nal 2009, 6 ). Thu the co mp any believed " th ere [wa J a need to know m re about populati on growth, migration, fanning, deforestation, oil degradation, oil activitie , r ad buildin g and oth er fact r and how th e e have affected ea h other'' and the people in the Nig r D lta (Amn sty International 2009, 63) . According to Amnesty International (2009, 63 ), ND " looked at a wide range of en iro nm enta l iss ues and impact , including health ." The intenti on of the o il co mpani es that conducted th e urvey wa that "th result will be mad e available to the public and w ill help the federal and state govermn ent , indu stry and communities to better plan [oil] development and minimize the impact " (Amnesty International 2009, 63 ). However. "desp ite the grea t need for such informati on and the cost of producin g it, the ... study ha never been released (UNDP 2006, 92; Arrmesty International 2009, 63 ). Reporting enviromnental damage by the oil industry appeared in many of the data ources that identifi ed m easures taken by the oi l indu try to prevent the impact of oil production. Inf01mation from the source suggests that oi l spills are the only n ironmental probl em oi l compani es have been reporting. E en with thi limited r lc, there eem, to b problems. As stated in one of my data so urce : 95 il pill figure ary c n id rably depending on urc s, and figur ar c nt t d. nly P r p rt publicly fr m y ar t year, n th number f pill in it operati n . Betw n 19 9 and 1 94 th mpany r p rt d an a erag f 221 pill per y ar in olving . m 7, 50 barrel of il per year. Th epartm nt f P etr 1 um Re urce ( PR) ha r port d that 4, 5 il pill incident wer r rd ed b tw e n 1976 and 1996, with a I [ 1.8 milli n banel foil t the en ir run nt. Th e data are ba ed mainly n what c mpanie rep rt t th PR. ccordin g to P, more than 6, 00 pill were r rd ed bet n 1976 and 200 1, with a lo f appr ximat ly milli n barrel f oil. B th I ca l and intem ati nal envir nm ental xpert c laim that th tem D r reporting f il pill in th iger elta ha bee n c mpletely dy functi nal D r d ad , and that th e figure pr v id ed by th e c mpani e and rep rt d b DPR d n t reflect th e full cal of oil pillage. (Amne ty International 2009, I 5) Th main aim f r p rting en ir nm ntal dama ge from oil pr du ction i t mm1m1 ze ocial fD ct . Wh erea it i th e job of the governm ent throu gh th e National D tection and R e pon e Agency ( il pill DRA) t co-o rdinate clean-up and remediation of area d graded by oil producti on, it i th respon ibility of the il co mpan y that cau ed th e damage to c lean-up and re tore the area to th eir o ri g inal po iti on. "C lea n-up foil pollution in the Niger Delta i frequently both low and inadequate, leaving peopl e to co pe with th e ongoing impacts of the pollution n their live lih oods and health " (An1nesty lnten1ational (2009, 19) . The only other ignificant econd tage measure by government wa th e establi hment ofNOSDRA in 2006 . Amnesty International (2009, 16) tate that N " has tried to identify all ites needing remediation in the Nig r Delta. s of DRA pril 200 the agency had identified appro im ate ly 2,000 s ite ."A a part or coordinati o n or lean-up and rem diation , N SDRA is ue ce1iificate to show th at a ' itc where oi l pill o properly rem ediatcd . A tated in one of my data ourccs, ''N DR urrcd has b en i re, ponsiblc for ceiiifi ca tion f rem ediation , and ... certification that a sit has be ~n rem -diated proper! 1s 6 ba d on ientift it a r m diated ' ( mne t Internationa l 2009, 69) . iden e .... In appr Wherea Nig r c nd ta g inter lta communiti nti n imately n year they [th agency] ce1iifi d 390 rna ha e tak n m a ur the nl y ne that i d cum nt d in m y data rep Iiing foil pill . Wh n a k d abo ut m ea ur m inter i V\ that can qualify as tak n by urce i th ig r Delta c mmuniti e , one of tat d that "a ll o ur communiti e ca n do i to report environmental pollution, pat1i c ularly il pill , t auth riti e . The c mmuniti e cann t cl an-up or do anything oth r than 1 tting th appropriate authoritie know about a pi II o that th ey can dea l with it" (Interview e # 2). mn e t Intern at ional (2009, 29) reported that '' ome fi shing communitie on the coa tline have repo1ied oi l slick which appear to com e from off: hore operations, but there do not appear to be any data availabl e on the e spill s." Third Stage Intervention All parties-government the oil indu try, civil society, and N iger Delta communities-have taken third ta ge m easure to prevent viol ence. The m easures di cu ed in thi section apply to the other sta ges; however, I h ave categorized them a third tage interventions becau e they are measures (or packages of measures) take in respon e to violence in the Niger D elta. The two m ajor third stage mea ures taken by gove1mn nt are ( 1) the establishment of development organizations and (2) increasing the revenue allocati n to the Niger Delta region. Development orga niza ti on include the Willink ' ommi ion of Inquiry, Niger D elta Development Board (NDDB), Niger Delta Ba in Development A uthority (NDBDA), Oil Mineral Producing and Niger D elta Development instanc , MPAD - reas Developm nt ommis ion (NDD ). ommi sion (OMP D ll have . imilar mandat . For wa e tabli hed to usc federally a ll ocated revenue "for the rehabi litation and development of th [oil] mineral producing ar as and for tackling 97 ), I g i al pr blem ' ( P 2006, 12); and DD wa t up t achi l111C 1 pm nt, ph i al infra tru tur , human an d c mmunity n d and d human and in tituti nal d In term f 1 pm nt ( mafonn1wa and ' p r~ rm a nc e, maG nm wa and p 2006, 12- 1 ) . dia 200 , 27; dia (2009, 27) tated : It i on record that ince th em 2000, iger Delta e e lopmen t ommi .. i n ( ) ha . cxp ndcd abou t two trillion naira x to help ameliorate the pi igh t of the . uffering peopl of th region . Thi i done through con truction of r ad and bridge cia . r m blo k , health centre , water borehole, elc trification, pro\ i ion of free health care ' CI icc. and so on . Inc rea e in r nue that i all ca t d fr m th e federa l govetnm nt t Niger D Ita wa id ntifi ed in fi e f m y data pr tate in th e urce a a trategy gov rnment de ign ed to nt vi 1 nee . Accordi ng t on e of the our e , [ h oil-] pr clueing tate w re all ocated 1.5 percent up to 1992 when the all ocation wa doubl ed to 3 p rce nt. nder the 1999 con tituti n, the deri va tion formula for il producing state wa rai d to 13 percent, the lev l at which it c urre ntl y remain ... . Ac ordin g to gove rnment tati ti c , in 2007 th tota l n t amo unt allocated by the federal governm ent to the 36 tate wa almo t 12 billion . 45 percent of thi went t th e nine sta te of th e Niger De lta (33 perc ent went to the core Delta tates of A.kwa Ibom , Bayelsa, Delta and Riv rs tate) thi include their 13 percent derivation . (Francis and arde ai 200 , 29) While orne of my data o urces presented information that tend to sugge t that the revenu e increa es were laudable, others argued that the increa e were a "cur e " . A tated in on of the source , rev enue increa e to Niger D elta pro vid "j umbo a ll oca ti o n "that c uld "b tt r the lot of the ordinary peop le" ifu ed to create jobs and pro ide infras tru cture (Tu hi · jibunu 2007, 17). ln co ntradicti on, ano th er data o urce stated that : ''derivation that would have advanc d th eir ca u became a low as 3% und er th e currently tand at J 3% und r the 1999 8 on titution . 'Na ira ' is Nigeri a' nati onal curre ncy. 98 cneral am hi s rcprc bacha regime and nt a d imen. ion of the curse foil" ( m t Ia 2006, 9). Th ab addre e tatem nt impli f il producti n . th Third ta g m a ure by th il indu try includ e paym e nt of c mpen ation t p th f 26 ut f th urc e in~ rr d that wh n en ir nm ntal degra dation o c un·ed in the ig r D Ita, wh pr p rty and li i i n f infra tru ctur . w r affected were entitl ed to c mpen ation from the mpany that were re p n ibl [I r the d grad ati n . th pi e t tal affect d by p lluti n and d gradati nand pr 41 data that th all cati n 1 n ten ugh t pe pl ha cc rdin g to P (2006, 92) , orne f mpl ain d " to 1 udl y ab ut th e env ir nm ntal and ocia l c hallen ge th ey faced .'' Thu , "[oil] companie adopted th practice f pa in g aggrieved local people wh ne r com pia int aro e" ( DP , 2006. 92). The P etrol eum Act and th e P etrol eum (Drilling and Produ cti n) R egu lati n tate that paym ent hould b e nego tiated be tw een property own r and an il com pany re p n ibl e for degradation. Franci and Sarde ai (200 , 12) mentioned that "communitie in o il -producin g area ... had previou ly been accu tom d to negotiating directl y with o il companies". "Traditional chi eftaincy (community leader ) ha been u ed to gain control over co mpen ation pay men ts from o il companie "(Franci and Sarde ai 2008, xi). How ever, som e data ource co nfirmed that orne indi v idual and cmmnunitie employ the service of inte1media ri e , especiall y lawyer . Th y beli e e that such intermediari es can get better deals from oil companie for damage don by oil operations. There ar pr blem with th e payment of co mpensa ti on . The e include is. uc , uc h a lack of transparency, deciding whet her environmenta l probl Ill w re due to an a ·tor ab ta ge by co mmunity members or due to operationa l error. from oi l compames, late paym ent, inadequate payment (es pe ·ially for negotiations and , ettlcments com~ lcted without 99 tn ing a la (200 72) tat d that G r n g r fu t pa c mp n ati n r, ind elta a r r c urt), nd di riminati n again t w men. tak h ldcr in th d rea ffair n, ' the g d di u fthe tge r mne ty Int rnati na l rnmen t and il ompa ni e c nti nu t the i ue with gra f th elta. " ut fth e 41 data e amp l , " ba gi a an il and ga pr du in g ommunity ha deriv d indi idual b n fiL uch a pr me ommu nal and hukwu- keah 20 11 , 406) . me data argued that il c mpant e ha c not d n en ugh; th ey rec mm end that oil hould pr id e better infra tructure in th Third tag mea ure by ci il 111 urce . F r f I ctri it , pip b rn water, r ad , health r medi ca l r tee and du ca ti nal facilitic "(Mm m and urc e tigati n . Tw f my data 1ger urce ( tger mpa111 elta a part f th eir ocial r p n ibility. ty gr ups primaril y relate to adv cacy and uoka and Rod eri ck 2005 and Amne ty International 2009) are report of inve ti gati n by civil ociety group int effect of oil producti n in the iger Delta . uch rep011 maker c mmendation n h w to addre ocial effect of oil pr duct ion and top further co nfli ct . For example, (2009) mad e 12 rec mmendations to th e F deral the mne ty International v rnment of igeria , eight to th oi l companies operating in the Niger Delta, and five to tate in the Nig r Delta r gio n on how to addre the oil producti n-related con fli ct in the Niger Delta. n maJor recomm ndati n i. that the ederal G vemment ofNigeria hould "en ure a robust, indep nd ent and coordinated over ight of the oi l indu. try" ( mn e t Internati ona l _009, 8_) . 6.3.2 Were the Mea ure ucc ssful? he fa ct that nega ti ve . ocia l cfTccts and iolcnt conOi ' t continu 'S in th indi ca t that t a degree the mcasur 'S ha c not b '11 'lTcctivc 100 tgcr elta or 'Xamplc, \ iolcnt '<.milt ' l ha b n in the new recently ( g n y Rep rt r 2012 · arm d c nfrontati n b tw e n M and ig ria ' ar 20 12). ecurity .G rc ne conflict i the that were ent by the Nig rian g mm nt t protect il facilitie in the iger D Ita ; a econd i th vi 1 nt c nf1ict betw n v ra ce kirik a and many failure and defi pr wu nc1e , m c mmuniti me f which ha e been n ted in the di cu sian in the tion . I c nclude that, a a whole, the m ea ur indu try, and to land . Analysi revea led by the governm nt, the oil tg r Delta loca l c mmunitie have failed to liminate viol nt confli ct. 6.3 .3 Fact r Re p n ibl e for Failure of the Measures M y re ar h revealed num erou factor that were re pon ible for the failure of the mea ure , u ch a corru pti on, lack of financial resource , inad qu ate planning, lack of enforcement, and lack of takeholder patiicipation. OITUpti on appear to be the most erious impediment a it wa cited in 15 out of the 17 data ource that commented on m ea ure to prevent and addre s enviromnental in ecurit y in the officials of tate governm ents in the iger D elta. The sources id entified iger Delta as being corrupt. For exam pl e, Tuschl and Ejibunu (2007), Franci and Sardesai (2008), and Obi (20 10) mentioned that four tate Governors in the Niger Delta were prosecuted for embezzlem ent of publi c funds. There were also indi cations from my data sources that federal agencies th at wer e tablished to prevent and address the environm ental and human impacts of oi l produ ction in the Niger Delta were also corrupt. Three of m y data sources mentioned N DDB , NDBDA, OMP DE , and NDDC , and add ed that lack of funding and poor planning a som e of the factor th at led to the failure of m ea ures to prevent enviromn ental insecurit y in the Niger Delta ( motola 2006; Francis and Sardesa i 2008; Amnc ty International 2009) . Franci and l 0I ardesai ( .... 00 , ii tatedthat " hileth c rrupti n p mn g ha t Int m ati nal (2 00 , 5 confli t and und r-de ind pend nc g he ld back by e mm e nt tger t up th Ita B a in rea e n t d that "ove r the d cade the f in tituti n and initiati e t addre I pm nt f th e il Minera l Produ ing of th iti e r u It , it pr g r r-fundin g and inad equ ate plannin g." ernm nt h a e tabli h d a rang includ ed the ho n p iger D Ita regi n. ig r the poverty, early a 19 1, th e p t- elta Devel pm ent B ard . ub s qu ent b di e pment e el pm nt tge nan uth ority ( o mmi BD ), ion ( MP D t up in 1976, and th e ), et up in 1992. ach b di e wa pl ag ued by a m yri ad of pr bl em , from a lack o f re o urce , ca pacity and legitim acy, to m e ntion ed in fi 1ruption and mi ma nagem ent. " Lack o f fundin g and poor pl annin g wa a! o th e r o urce . noth e r data urce ta ted th at " m any of th e developm ent initiati e that have b een e tabli hed have b een m arred by co rrupti on and bad pl anning, leav ing behind a trail of h alf- fini hed or non-fun cti o nin g proj ec t "(A mn e ty Intern ati o nal 2009, 13 ). ''For xampl e, at O g bodo, w here a m as ive oil pill occuJTed in 2001 , clea n-up of th e s ite wa de laye d fo r mo nth and e\·en th e n was in adequ ate ... Eig ht m nth aft er the pill , no proper clean-up had b een compl eted" (Amn e ty Internati onal 2009, 19). Lack of enforcem ent of m easure i identifi ed in 11 of th e da ta ourc . M a ny m ea ure to add res the impact of oi l produ ction in the N iger Delta "e nd ed up ei th er not being implem ented o r, at be t, be ing largely unimpl em ented'. (UN DP (2006, 11 ). Lack of enforcem ent w as a! o du e to n n-pat1ic ipa tio n and de lay in approva l of in t rvention projects. Acco rdin g t NDP (2006 , II ), mea ure " lacked s en ti a! ivil oci ety and grass -root inputs or parti c ipati on ." hell (20 11, I ) state that "i n 2000 the PD join t venture (J ) b gan an ong ing multi year program to install equipme nt to ·aptur' gas from it ' fa c thttC,'. 102 Thi program ha b n d lay d bye ent out id e P fr m rnm nt- wn d m aj rity h areh ld r f th JV) ; s curity concern P (the go whi ch m ant it wa n t afe D r taff t w rk in larg part tim ; and d lay in P ontract appr ontro l, uch as fundin g shortfall [the delta for long p eri od of al pr ce e " . In uilllnary, fa tor re p n ible D r th fai lure f mea ure t prev nt envirorun ntal in ecurity fr m oil produ ction in the c n-upti on , lack [ re and delay in appr urc iger D e lta are, in ord er of esti1nated importance, , inadequ ate pl anning, lack f enforcem ent, lack of participati on , al of int rv nti n project . 6.3 .4 An wer to R e earch ue ti on # 3 ·· 1¥hat ar th m a ure taken to prevent and addre s the environm enta l insecurity in the iger D elta and why are th e measure eeming~v not succes .fi t! ? Specifica l~v. what fac tor are re ponsible.for the failure o.fth mea ures?" N um erous mea ure have been tak en and numerou rea ons account fo r their coll ec ti ve fai lure. T he m ea ure are summarized in T able 6.8. Table 6.8: Measures to Prevent Environmental Insecurity from Oil Production in th e Niger Delta First Stage Interventions Second Stage Intervention Third tage Interventions Establishment of DPR and FEPA E nvirorunental Surveys E tabli shm nt of developm nt organization Introdu cti on of env ironmental impact assessm ent R eporting environmental pollution Increasing th e re enu e allocation to the Ni ger Delta nactm ent of th e Min eral il ( afety) Regul ati ons, Petroleum A ct and Regul ation , il Polluti on Act, Oil in Naviga bl e W aters Act and its leanin g up and r media tion of pollut d areas paym ent of co mpensa ti on 10 Petr leum lndu try in 1g na Provi ion of infrastructur oli citing of int rnationa l upport The primary fa ctor expl airung th e coll ecti ve failure of the m ea ure are: corruption, lack of re ource , inadequ ate pl anning, lack of enforcem ent, lack of parti cipation , and dela y in appro val of interventi on proj ect . 104 7.1 ummary of th e R e ea rch In m r ar h pr ject, l in tiga t d il pr du cti n-r lat d en ir nm ental in curity ig r D lta u ing ec nd ar data and data fr m e-mail int rv1 ew in th m 5d u edt um nt . H m r- ix int rview were on, framew rk [! r e plaining n 1r nm ntal in ecurit wa u ed a the fram w rk t guid e an wering my re arch qu ti n . With re p ct t th e fir t re arch qu ti n- Whal are the environm ental and human impact of oil produ ·tion in the th iger Delta?- the en ironm ntal effect of oil pr ducti on in ig r D Ita in rder f e erity ar (Ta bl e 5.1): 1) land poll uti n and d gra dati n 2) air polluti on 3) fr hwater polluti on 4) marine wa t r pollution, and 5) 'oth er' impact . The effect on humans are (Ta ble 5.1): 1) livelihood impact , and 2) health impact . With re pect to the econd re ·earch que. ti on- Ho11· and why has oil production lead to environmental insecurity to individuals and communitie.\· in th e iger Delta region'!-a detail ed an w r wa present d in igurc 6.1, and a . impl ifi da n wcr i (w h r th , mbol -+ can be read "caused"): (adver e nviro nm ntal impa ts) (regulatory fa ilur ' nnd C ploi tativc pro ' ti 'CS ) -+ 10 u p ly-indue d re ur ar ity (land , cr p , II r t , fre hwat r, fi hing wat r and fi h) c n trained e n m1 pr du ti it -+ i lent c nfli t. With r p ct t th e third r arch qu pr v nt/addr .. th • 7 nvironm ntal in ecurity in th emin ~v not . ucc . ..ful? ha ti n- 1¥hat m asur -+ have he 11 tak 11 to r D Ita and why ar th e measur s jJ cifica l~v. what fa ·tors e. plain th , (ailur ?- many m a ure be n take (Table 6. ). The e m ea ure were relatively n t ucce fu l beca u e th y w re maJT db ITupti n, lack f re urce , in ad qu at plalUling lack f enfl rcem nt, in ecurity, lack f parti ci pati on , and delay . 7.2 Recomm end ation There ar numerou re mmend ati on ne could make in rega rd s to the environmental in ecurity from o il produ ction in the Niger D elta beca u e of th e breadth of th e pr blem a ociated with the in curity. However, ba eel on Table 6.2 (importance f precur or factor ), I have identified the m o t imp rtant cau es of the enviro nmental in ecurity to be adver e nviro nm ental impacts of oil production. Ba eel o n thi , I mak the following three recomm endations: 1. The goverrunent, the oi l indu try, civi l soci ty, and the Niger Delta p opl e hould focus their effort on reducing environmental pollution and degradation from oi l producti on in the Niger Delta. 2. A shown in ecti on 6.3 .1, there are measure already in pla e to reclu the environm ntal impact of oi l produ tion in theN iger Delta . Howev r, corruption c m s to b th e bi ggest imp diment to their ucces. lui implementation . The national government need to strength n it anti-corruption laws . 106 crnment and th and tran par n il ind u try h uld b en ure mul ti- takeh Jd r participati n in the impl em ntati n f mea ure t pr d gradati n fr m iJ pr du ti n in the ~ und t 9· ca c 111 rk in n ir omental g a t rn erman y and th nt n ir nm nta l iger D lta. Parti ipat ry appr a h ha been eman e. ing th ']71" ol. tripp wer pl ant ca e v..a/d publi inv lvement 10 in Montana 'Wi g and Frit ch (2009 , 205) ~ und that "parti cipati on ofn n- tate actor lead to m re c I gica ll rati onal de i i n ... and ut m mpli ance with deci i n and thu better and impa t in c I gi al tcm1 than t p-down mode of g v rnan c ." In ummary I beli e th at becau e en ironm ental p lluti on and degradati n i the ro t cau e of the envirorun ental in ecurity in the 1g r eJta th at th y can b t be addre ed through con-upt-fr e implementati on of regu lati on and multi - tak hold er participati on in local and regional d ci i n-making. 7. 3 Research Limitation s The major limitati on to the research wer my inability to acce to more docum nt and interview more peopl e. Both are the re ult of n t being abl e t travel to conduct research. A I mentioned in Chapter 4, my inability to travel to ig ri a to 1g ria wa du to lack of fundin g. Becau e of lack of fun ding, 1 wa limited to document mainly available electroni cally, and to peopl e I could interview through e-mail. I am c rtain there ar l cal p ople in the N iger Delta who do not have acce, to e-mail or telephon , and who wou ld 9 In the p reewald case, loca l actot s from forestry, fi shery, agn culture, and toun sm opposed mea-.ure.. , co nce rntng land use a nd water manage ment wht ch the percen ed the governm ent was u~tn g to dti \ e a ren'nue increase (N wtg and Fntsc h 2009 , 205). 10 he olstnp power plant case g t ve~ ev td cnce of hov. a Natt ve men ca n tnbe opposed the mode rn tzatton of a nearby power pl an t on health ground s (N cwt g and rntsc h 2009 , 201). 107 ha d t parti c i1 at e in thi in public librari and arc hi tud y if 1 had m t th m p r m na lly. A l , th reared um nt igeria th at are not el c tr ni ally av ai labl . 7.4 Benefit of th e Re ea rch Thi r ar h h n 1r nm ntal in urity. made the r ti a] c ntributi n to the b d y [lit rature n ir t, it ha add d a a e tud y t th link b t\ e n il pr du ti n and nv ir nm nta l in e urit y. tud t th c 11 ti on f ca e to w hi ch H mer- Di n ' mode l p ro d t be a va lu abl e t p int . Fir t, th m de l did n t p r etc. w re m e o ll e ti n o f tudi e n th e nd , it ha add ed a new ca e n · mod I ha b e n a pp lied . Ho mer- 1; h wever, J di cov red everal fl aws o r weak ide any m ea n of d tenninin g w hi ch fac tor , proce e , t important in creating env ir om enta l in e urity. Thi i w hat led me t d v I p a impl m eth od- to co unt th e numb r of docum ent that id entifi d a facto r, proce , etc. to determine their impo rtance. T hi I u d in conj un cti o n w ith tatements in th e docum e nt . Thi proved to be a rea o nabl e t chniqu e fo r di ting ui hing the re lati ve importa nce am ong multip le va riabl e . econd , to m y urpri se, th e model had no mo th m ean of inc luding h ealth impacts in the list of oc ial effects of environm ental probl e m . l rea li zed th a t it Ia ked a m ean of inco rporating im p acts that di rectl y affect d an indivi du al w itho ut being m d ia ted by a "soc ia l ef fec t" . T hird, t he mode l prov ide no mean ~ r determini ng th fai lu re of m ea ure to prevent e nvironmenta l insecurity. I per onall y b ene fitted from thi re earch. ln 20 10, when I wa ad m itted to the Depm1m nt o f Inte m ati onal tu di , l chose to re earc h the in. ecuri ty in the N igcr Delta wa parti cul a rly interes ted in th topic because I lived in the Nig r clta . D 'Spit' thi . , f dtd n t have a very clea r und er. tanding or why oi l production could be su -h a major sour 'Cor in ecurity. hro ug h th is research, I ha e acquir d a wealth of know! 'dge about th' 108 r lati n hip . Parti cul arl y I h a e learned why il production led to evere viol nt conflict . I ha m ad recomm ndation ba ed n thi k.n w I dg . It is m y hope that uch re mrun end ati on m ay h elp t nd the cunent cri i in the N iger D elta. The r c rrunendation can also be u eful to orne producti n-r lat d n ir nm enta l in frican countri es that are curit y th at imil ar to the l 09 peri encing oil iger Delta' . REFERE lnte!Jig n e Re ar h. n.d. " Wh at on n d t kn ow t und er tand th N igeri an rud iI rad ." e ed pril 11 ,20 12. http ://ww .chiJJingt n il. igeri an rud iltrad .pdf. elc tin e. _o pi itati n, n ir nm ntal Degradati n and P verty: h ig r Ita , peri n ." o n ~re n e aper. edM a 12,2 01 2. http ://ww .ucd.i /dip d /th me02/thcme02 07 .P hi, g nc Rep rter. 20 12. "M D Re um Bomb in g, ow P unch, F bru ar 6,20 12. c ed Jul y29,20 12. http :// dili .n new I urce/20 12/ fe b/ I 20.html. ttac k on M , A JL. 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