TRANSFORMATIVE LEADERSHIP AND LEARNING IN A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM FOR IMMIGRANT WOMEN by Amandeep Kaur Pandher M.Sc., Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (India), 2002 B.Ed., Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (India), 2003 M.A., Panjab University, Chandigarh (India), 2005 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF EDUCATION IN MULTIDISCIPLINARY LEADERSHIP UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA January, 2013 ©Amandeep Kaur Pandher, 2013 1+1 Library and Archives Canada Bibliotheque et Archives Canada Published Heritage Branch Direction du Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-94126-3 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-94126-3 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ exclusive license allowing Library and Archives Canada to reproduce, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, communicate to the public by telecommunication or on the Internet, loan, distrbute and sell theses worldwide, for commercial or non­ commercial purposes, in microform, paper, electronic and/or any other formats. L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou autres formats. The author retains copyright ownership and moral rights in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's permission. L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation. In compliance with the Canadian Privacy Act some supporting forms may have been removed from this thesis. Conform em ent a la loi canadienne sur la protection de la vie privee, quelques formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de cette these. W hile these forms may be included in the document page count, their removal does not represent any loss of content from the thesis. Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. Canada A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM ii Abstract In this collaborative action research study a researcher explored how a janitorial business curriculum and mentorship fostered transformative leadership and transformative learning in immigrant women. The purpose o f the study was to empower immigrant women to find employment and nurture their economic independence. The collaborative action inquiry led to an understanding o f how these immigrant women transformed in the process o f co-constructing a janitorial work skills curriculum. The findings describe how learning experiences, curriculum, and mentoring activities empowered these women and brought a deep change in their learning and self-leadership capacity. The author presents a new understanding that developing adult learning programs in collaboration with the adults can create real-life changes. In this instance, there were changes in the participants thought about themselves, which empowered them to make improvements to benefit themselves, their families, and society. A convincing link was found between transformative leadership and transformative learning. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM iii Acknowledgem ent Research presented in this thesis has been a very enriching experience for me. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Peter MacMillan for the opportunity to undertake my research project with his supervision. I thank immensely my supervisory committee members, Dr. Willow Brown for her patience, intellect and guidance during the project. Dr. Willow’s ever so encouraging and positive attitude was constantly present from the very first day. Her advice, especially in writing thesis and the support in number o f ways has been invaluable. Her stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me in all the time of research and improving my thesis. I am indebted to her for her help in improving my leadership capabilities and professionalism. I am thankful to Dr. Indrani Margolin for taking intense interest in this study. Her enthusiasm, passion for research and perfection inspired me throughout. Thanks also to all the staff at Geoffrey R. Weller library for their excellent assistance during this project. I am grateful to my friend, Ramandeep, for her help, support and friendship, which helped me in completing my project. I am also thankful to Pat Christie, coordinator, Employment Mentors Program, Abbotsford Community Services, BC for her valuable guidance, support and organizing funds for this project without which this study would not have been possible, is duly acknowledged. Finally, I am extremely indebted to my parents, husband Vishal, and daughter Seher for their infinite love and unequivocal support, which made me reach this far. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................x GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1: CREATING OPPORTUNITIES, TRANSFORMING LIVES..............1 1.1 The Problem .................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Purpose of the Study.......................................................................................................5 1.3 How I Identify with the Project..................................................................................... 6 1.4 Research Questions.........................................................................................................7 1.5 Overv iew o f the Study.....................................................................................................8 1.6 Significance o f the Study............................................................................................. 13 1.7 Delimitations o f the Study............................................................................................ 14 1.8 Limitations o f the Study............................................................................................... 15 1.9 Summ ary........................................................................................................................ 15 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................... 16 2.1 Transformational Leadership...................................................................................... 17 2.1.1 Criticism of Transformational Leadership T heory.........................................22 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 2.2 Transformative Leadership.........................................................................................24 2.2.1 2.3 v Criticism o f Transformative Leadership T heory............................................. 26 Transformative Learning............................................................................................. 27 2.3.1 Adult Education....................................................................................................31 2.3.2 Adult Learning......................................................................................................32 2.3.3 The Role o f an Adult Educator in Transformative Learning..........................36 2.3.4 The Role of Learner in Transformative Learning............................................ 38 2.3.5 Criticism o f Transformative Learning Theory..................................................40 2.4 Connection between Leadership and Learning........................................................ 41 2.4.1 2.5 The Change: Leadership and Learning..............................................................42 M entoring......................................................................................................................43 2.5.1 Mentoring and Transformational Change......................................................... 45 2.5.2 Benefits and Negative Consequences o f M entorship...................................... 46 2.6 Women’s Learning and Empowerment..................................................................... 47 2.7 Curriculum Development............................................................................................ 50 2.7.1 Curriculum C ontent............................................................................................. 52 2.7.2 Curriculum Materials and Processes.................................................................. 54 2.7.3 Curriculum Assessment.......................................................................................55 2.7.4 Role of Curriculum and Instruction in Transformative Learning.................. 57 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 2.8 vi Action R esearch............................................................................................................59 2.8.1 Role o f Participants and Researcher in AR.......................................................62 2.8.2 Participatory Action Research (PAR)............................................................... 64 2.8.3 Collaborative Action Research (C A R )............................................................. 66 2.8.4 PAR and CAR....................................................................................................... 69 2.8.5 Summary................................................................................................................71 CHAPTER 3: CAR RESEACH DESIGN....................................................................... 72 3.1 Research Design............................................................................................................76 3.2 Case Study Research.................................................................................................... 78 3.3 Rationale for Using C A R .............................................................................................79 3.4 Participants (Co-Researchers)..................................................................................... 81 3.4.1 Consent and Ethical Considerations.................................................................. 82 3.5 Research Site................................................................................................................. 83 3.6 Program Planning..........................................................................................................84 3.7 Curriculum D esign........................................................................................................87 3.7.1 Curriculum Implementation and Refinem ent................................................... 89 3.7.2 Data Analysis........................................................................................................ 93 3.7.3 Trustworthiness..................................................................................................... 94 3.8 Summ ary........................................................................................................................94 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM vii CHAPTER 4: THE CONFLUENCE Of LEARNING AND LEADERSHIP............ 96 4.1 Immigrant Women Who Attended the Training..................................................... 96 4.1.1 Anita.......................................................................................................................96 4.1.2 Jessie..................................................... 2............................................................. 98 4.1.3 K ulraj.....................................................................................................................98 4.1.4 Harleen...................................................................................................................99 4.1.5 Isha....................................................................................................................... 100 4.1.6 Ginny.................................................................................................................... 101 4.2 Question 1: Previous Experiences and Learning N eeds........................................101 4.3 Question 2: Learning from Materials, Method, and M entorship.........................106 4.3.1 4.4 Distinguishing Transformation from C hange................................................. 109 Question 3: Improving the Curriculum and D elivery........................................... 123 4.4.1 Participants’ Need-based Curriculum Im provem ent..................................... 123 4.4.2 Inclusion o f Extensive Work-related Content................................................. 124 4.4.3 Training Orientation........................................................................................... 124 4.4.4 Cleaning Tools and Equipment Information................................................... 126 4.4.5 The Language o f Instruction............................................................................. 126 4.4.6 The Job Opportunity - A M otivator................................................................. 127 4.5 Question 4: Leadership Lessons............................................................................... 128 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM viii 4.5.1 Empowerment Influences Leadership Effectiveness..................................... 131 4.5.2 Collaborative Action Research: An Opportunity to Learn............................132 4.5.3 Critical Thinking and Transform ation............................................................. 136 4.5.4 Knowledge Sharing: Spreading Empowerment..............................................138 4.5.5 Mentoring: A catalyst for learning and leading..............................................139 4.6 Question 5: Leadership Learning for TransformationalC hange.......................... 148 4.6.1 Transformational Leadership............................................................................ 148 4.6.2 Transformative Leadership................................................................................155 4.7 Question 6: The Role o f the Curriculum in Transformation..................................164 4.8 Summ ary......................................... ^......................................................................... 166 CHAPTERS: REFLECTIONS....................................................................................... 171 5.1 Reflective Practice......................................................................................................172 5.2 Implications for Practice........................................................................................... 177 5.3 Future Research Recommendations.........................................................................179 5.3.1 Recommendation 1 ............................................................................................. 180 5.3.2 Recommendation 2 .............................................................................................181 5.3.3 Recommendation 3 ............................................................................................. 181 5.3.4 Recommendation 4 .............................................................................................182 5.3.5 Summary.............................................................................................................. 182 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM ix REFERENCES................................................................................................................... 183 APPENDIX A: Program Application Form......................................................................... 216 APPENDIX B: Cover Letter...................................................................................................220 APPENDIX C: Participant Consent Form............................................................................222 APPENDIX D: Questionnaire................................................................................................ 226 APPENDIX E: Initial Interview Guide................................................................................. 233 APPENDIX F: Curriculum Evaluation Form.......................................................................236 APPENDIX G: Final Interview Guide.................................................................................. 241 APPENDIX H: Data Collection M atrix................................................................................ 243 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM x List of Figures Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework 9 Figure 2. Poutiatine’s nine fundamental principles o f transformational process. From “What is transformation? Nine principles toward and understanding o f the transformational process for transformational leadership”, by M. Poutiatine, (2009), Journal o f Transformative Education, 7(3), 189-208. 10 Figure 3 . Action Research Cycle. From “The action research planner, ” (3rd ed.) by S. Kemmis, & R. Mctaggart, 1988, Geelong: Deakin University Press. 90 Figure 4. Summary o f the transformational experiences o f the participants 152 Figure 5. The knowledge building framework for the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship program 159 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM xi Glossary Definitions o f terms important to this study are included here and in the text for the convenience of readers and to ensure that author and readers have a common understanding. A bbotsford Com m unity Services: Abbotsford Community Services is an interdependent, non-profit, multi-service, community based agency. The aim o f ACS is to plan for and provide direct social and community services, to raise and heighten awareness o f social concern and priorities within the community, and to create opportunities for community members to participate in serving, developing and strengthening their community through partnership with government, private organizations and individuals (ACS, 2012). community-based adu lt education: Community-based adult education, as used for the purposes of this study, is defined as an educational or training program delivered to adults outside of a post-secondary institution. critical reflection: Being able to challenge one’s long-held views and assumptions (Mezirow, 1990). curriculum content: Curriculum content is usually derived from objectives that form the basis for programme development and can be simply defined as the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to be learned (McKimm, 2007). A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM xii deep change: A process where an individual mindfully shifts from previous routine thought patterns. It involves embracing a new pattern opposed to staying with the old and familiar pattern (Mezirow, 1991). dialogue: Communication with an aim to deeply understand meaning and to reach understanding (Mezirow, 1991). empowerment: Empowerment “is the process of gaining mastery over one’s self and one’s environment in order to fulfill human needs” (Schwerin, 1995, p. 81). first/second o rd e r change: First-order change implies a logical extension o f past and current practices. Actions associated with a first-order change represent incremental improvements. First-order changes can be implemented with current knowledge and skills. Second-order change implies a fundamental or significant break with past and current practices. This type of change represents a dramatic difference in current practices. Second-order changes require new knowledge and skills for successful implementation (Educational Leadership that Works, 2007). fram e of reference/fram ew ork: The structures o f assumptions through which we understand our experiences (Mezirow, 1997). im m igrant: An immigrant, as used for the purposes o f this study, is defined as an individual who has migrated to Canada from another nation. In this study, the immigrants were from India. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM xiii leaders: Those individuals who have influence over followers to achieve mutual goals (Bass, 1990). The notion o f self-leadership is similar to empowerment and to Dixon’s (1993) concept o f leadership as building capacity. leadership developm ent: Leadership development involves building the capacity for groups o f people to learn their way out o f problems that could not have been predicted (Dixon, 1993). In this study, the term is also used to describe increasing one’s own capacity to take initiative to accomplish new goals or to accomplish existing goals in a new way - the development o f self-leadership. learning: The process o f renewing and transforming ways of viewing the world in order to guide future action (Mezirow, 1991). mentee: One who receives help, guidance, training, and support from somebody who has more experience or influence (Fit & Newton, 1981). m entor: One who teaches, coaches, advises, trains, directs, counsels, motivates, sponsors, refers, role models, guides, and leads another individual or individuals. m entorship: A process in which mentors share their craft knowledge and provide professional companionship, feedback, support, and assistance to mentees to leam new skills and refine their present skills (NTC Mentorship Program, n.d.). m entoring: Mentoring is a process for the reciprocal, informal transmission o f knowledge, social capital, and psycho-social support perceived by the recipient as relevant to work, career, or professional development; mentoring entails informal communication, usually face to face and over a sustained period of time, between a A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM xiv person who is perceived to have greater relevant knowledge, wisdom, or experience - the mentor - to a person who is perceived to have less (the protege) (Bozeman & Feeney, 2007, p. 731). non-form al education: Non-formal education is defined as “any organized, intentional and explicit effort to promote learning to enhance the quality o f life through non-school settings” (Heimlich, 1993, p. 2). settlem ent counselor: a person who facilitates and promotes adjustment o f immigrants to new settings through the provision o f various services, including individual assistance as well as group activities, and mobilizing relevant community resources (Tam, 2003). Settlement Workers in Schools (SWIS) programs in various parts of Canada provide settlement counselors or workers to assist children and youth enrolled in public schools with ongoing integration into Canadian society (Settlement W orkers in Schools, n.d.) training - Adult learning and training are often used interchangeably in programming literature and program titles. However, in adult learning literature, training appears to apply to vocational education, where the focus is on acquiring content knowledge and skills for employment. Adult learning (Mezirow, 1991) or adult development (Taylor, Marienau, & Fiddler, 2000) are terms that imply an accompanying change in beliefs also occurs, beyond content and skills acquisition. Further, training is authority-driven and learning and development reflect greater responsibility for the learners, such as when discussion o f how new knowledge challenges previous beliefs A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM xv prompts personal consideration. Training may not have a developmental or transformative intention, although many adults who seek formal learning to deal with external change do not realize that the process will lead to internal change (Taylor, Marienau, & Fiddler, 2000). transactional leadership: Utilizing behaviors that influence others performance and effort by means o f a transaction such as with money, praise, or other rewards (Rosenbach & Sashkin, 2007). transform ational leadership: Bums (1978) characterized transformational leadership as a dynamic relationship o f mutual stimulation that enhances follower values, attitudes, and motivations toward higher levels and transforms followers into leaders transform ative leadership: A form o f leadership that is rooted in a vision o f social justice, equity, and action for emancipation (Bader, Horman & Claire Lapointe, 2010 ). transform ative learning: Transformative learning is defined as “the development of revised assumptions, premises, ways of interpreting experience, or perspectives on the world by means o f critical self-reflection” (Cranton, 1994, p.xii). CHAPTER 1: CREATING OPPORTUNITIES, TRANSFORMING LIVES For immigrants, finding employment is a key aspect o f establishing a new life in Canada. The employability o f non-English-speaking immigrant women who have low levels o f education is critical for their economic development and integration into Canadian society. For these immigrant women, employment offers the means to become self-supporting, confident, and to gain self-esteem. In some parts of the world women’s self-employment has emerged as an important element o f poverty reduction. In Canada, the number of women entrepreneurs increased 208 per cent between 1981 and 2001, compared with a 38 per cent increase for men (Statistics Canada, 2003). However, only 17 per cent of self-employed women earn more than 17,000 Canadian dollars, as compared to 42 per cent o f self-employed men (Statistics Canada, 2003). There is a need to give more attention to support women’s employment needs in the context o f their overall development: Thus, how to help immigrant women prepare for employment presents a unique and important challenge in community-based, adult education. Different non-profit organizations may contribute to effective programs for selfemployment of women and women’s entrepreneurship. In BC there are a growing number of programs that have been developed to assist women to obtain employment. In 2001, nearly 36 per cent o f the self-employed in BC were women, one o f the highest rates in the country and above the national average {BC Government Supportfo r Women, 2008). In February 2008, there were 26,600 more women working in BC than in February, 2007. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 2 Women’s employability needs should be taken into account to assist their economic development. Women’s empowerment and economic development will contribute to the empowerment and economic development o f the community and country as a whole (Cheston & Kuhn, n.d.). However, immigrant women may need unique educational opportunities to prepare them for entrepreneurship in Canada and to overcome personal, social, or cultural barriers to empowerment. These barriers may include economic dependency, social isolation, linguistic ability, insufficient information, anxiety about immigration status, cultural expectations or pressures, lack o f support from their family or community, and racism or fear o f racism (Justice Institute o f British Columbia, 2007). In this study, I worked with Abbotsford Community Services (ACS). ACS is an interdependent, non-profit, multi-service, community based agency registered in 1969. The aim o f ACS is to plan for and provide direct social and community services, to raise and heighten awareness of social concern and priorities within the community, and to create opportunities for community members to participate in serving, developing and strengthening their community through partnership with government, private organizations and individuals (ACS, 2012). I worked with ACS to develop a janitorial business curriculum and implement it reflectively with immigrant women through collaborative action research. The immigrant women’s experience contributed to revisions to the curriculum. This field tested employment skills curriculum may be of value to other community development agencies. Further, the documented account o f the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 3 learning and leadership process may inform other community educators, program planners, and policy makers. This study confirmed that developing and implementing programs reflectively, with a vision for the empowerment o f immigrant women, can be thought o f as an act to “open up new possibilities for transformation and change” (Astin & Astin, 2000, p. v) in community education. The type o f learning and leadership that is required is transformative in that it is designed to result in meaningful changes “for social betterment, for enhancing equity, and for a thorough reshaping of knowledge and belief structures” (Shields, 2010, p. 566). Transformational leadership and transformative learning, linked together in an interdependent relationship, provide a theoretical framework for this case study in community leadership that has emerged from a collaborative action research study with the goal o f empowering immigrant women through development and delivery o f an employment skills curriculum. 1.1 The Problem The Abbotsford Community Services (ACS) strives to be an agency that fosters community well-being and social justice through positive action and leadership (ACS, 2012). The Employment Mentors ’ Program is one o f the many programs at ACS that help immigrants with finding employment. The Employment M entor Program’s main objective is “building connections for employment” both from prospective professional mentors in the Abbotsford business community, and for newcomers to Canada, specifically, the Abbotsford area (ACS, 2012). The purpose o f this program is to empower professional newcomers to Canada through connections with professionally A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4 experienced Canadians. The valuable work experience and cultural knowledge o f Canadians helps to improve the chances o f employment, in their chosen field, for newcomer professionals. The Immigrant W omen’s Cleaning and Work Skills Program, a pilot program, evolved as a result of persistent efforts o f the Employment Mentors’ Program coordinator, a teacher from English Language and Services for Adults (ELSA) Program and an Immigrant Settlement Counsellor who had a vision to work for the marginalized immigrant women. Identifying the needs o f these immigrant women, different programs came together for the benefit o f a common cause by developing group mentorship projects that could help marginalized immigrant women to develop skills like self­ esteem, cleaning, childminding and cooking to become self-reliant using these skills and make a stronger community. The convergence of needs, thoughts, and skills sowed the seed for the first pilot project called Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Project with the emphasis on learning janitorial skills. Learning childminding and cooking skills are the next milestones o f this project. The Employment Mentors program coordinator took the initiative to run this project under her guidance. The Employment Mentors program serves immigrants with professional backgrounds. However, this project was unique in terms o f serving unemployed, non-English-speaking, immigrant women with low levels o f education. The training was developed with the following objectives: 1. Training immigrant women to obtain employment and build their self-confidence to adjust in the community. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 2. 5 Breaking isolation and alienation o f women by providing life skills such as well­ being, self-esteem, and independence. 3. Empowering women to find employment and nurture their economic independence using knowledge, skills and practices learned in the training. These objectives were set by the group o f four members: Employment M entors’ Program coordinator, the teacher from ELSA Program and the Immigrant Settlement Counsellor, and me as an instructor and mentor for this project. 1.2 Purpose o f the Study Canada is a country inhabited by immigrants. Immigrants from non-English speaking countries face hardships in becoming employed, particularly women who have lower levels o f education. Research on developing curriculum to build the non-English speaking immigrant women’s knowledge and skills in the house cleaning and janitorial profession is virtually non-existent. In this study, I have addressed this knowledge gap by developing such a curriculum for Abbotsford Community Services (ACS) in Abbotsford, BC, implementing the program as a pilot, assessing the outcomes, and reporting the results as an academic case study. In collaboration with participants, two trainers (community kitchen supervisor and professional cleaner), a program coordinator, and a settlement counsellor, I designed, field-tested, and refined this curriculum using the cycles of action and reflection characteristic o f collaborative action research. This thesis documents and makes meaning o f that process. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 1.3 6 How I Identify with the Project As an Indian-born immigrant m yself as well as an educator in Canada, this study provided an opportunity for me to combine my roles as researcher, teacher, mentor, and leader. My Indian heritage was a benefit in working with this particular population. Although I had more educational and economic benefits than the immigrant women who participated in this study, as an immigrant I could understand how uprooting and settling in a new country can lead to alienation and isolation that is, for a time, beyond our control. An important part of our common background was my ability to converse with them in their own language and to translate training sessions as required. Both language and cultural background may have given me insider status with participants, so that they were more trusting o f me and willing to share their personal challenges as well as their successes. My education in Educational Leadership, Home Economics, and Food and Nutrition and as well as my experience with teaching and facilitation provided me a foundation of knowledge and skills that I applied to the Immigrant W omen’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship Program at ACS. My approach to curriculum development emphasized a belief in educating the learners as whole persons intellectually, socially, physically and psychologically so that they would be prepared to take an active role in learning and co-construct (with the instructor) meaningful learning experiences. Through my graduate course work I became fascinated with participatory action research, especially for community development, and I completed a preliminary literature review on transformational leadership, transformative leadership and transformative A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 7 learning, and collaborative action research (CAR) informed by participatory action research (PAR). PAR is recommended when working with participants towards capacity building and/or community development (Koch, Mann, Kralik & Van Loon, 2005). However, in this study, the immigrant women were not involved in the initial planning process of the curriculum. Therefore, this study was informed by PAR but was more collaborative than participative in that I worked with the immigrant women to revise and refine a program that would meet better the needs o f future students. As learners, my participants contributed feedback; they were co-researchers for revising and refining the program except for direct participation in the initial design o f program. The participants’ ideas, communicated in the questionnaire and initial interviews, were given focus as the curriculum was refined. 1.4 Research Questions The study documents the experiences o f the immigrant women in the process of their collaboration in refining a curriculum for immigrant women in order to build their capacity to obtain employment as a housecleaner or janitor. My overarching question was: How can a janitorial business curriculum and mentorship foster transformative learning and leadership in immigrant women? The following six research questions are extensions of this main question: 1. What were the immigrant w om en’s previous experiences and needs fo r learning cleaning skills? 2. What learning occurred as a result o f the curriculum materials, method, and mentorship? A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 8 3. How can the janitorial business curriculum and its delivery be improved? 4. What leadership lessons can be drawn from this study? 5. How is this study useful fo r a teacher/educator/mentor to recognize and manage transactional, transformational and transformative leaderships? 6. What role did the program/curriculum play in the development o f transformative leadership and transformative learning fo r the immigrant participants? 1.5 Overview of the Study This research has been guided by the theories of transformational leadership, transformative leadership and transformative learning that I have integrated to form the conceptual framework of the study. These theories share a common concept o f transforming or changing something (Shields, 2010). I applied these theories in the design of the study, anticipating how they might be related to empowerment and transformation for immigrant women as they collaborated to refine an employment skills curriculum. I returned to these theories in my analysis, for their power to help me interpret the development that I had observed. Figure 1 presents an overview of the study as a conceptual framework. The most important variables for preparing the conceptual framework are leadership theories, transformative learning theory, mentoring, women’s empowerment, and curriculum development. My exploration o f the literature began with identifying the focus of leadership and learning theories (Bass, 1985, 1998; Bums, 1978; Cranton, 1994, 1996, Mezirow, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997; Shields, 2010). Because o f the commonality o f a transforming or changing concept in these theories, I was drawn to the literature on the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 9 connection between leadership and learning (Bellas, 2004; Brown & Posner, 2001; Carter, 2010; Elkins, 2003; Madsen, 2010). Poutiatine’s (2009) nine fundamental principles o f transformation helped me to clarify my understanding o f transformation and the transformational process (see Figure 2). Literature on adult learning (Cranton, 1994; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005; Mezirow, 1997) and mentoring (English, 2000; Mandell & Herman, 2009) assisted me as I considered my role as an adult educator and mentor in the community education. The emphasis on factors that contributed to women’s empowerment prompted me to further reading in this area (M ajoor & Manders, 2009; Poonwassie & Poonwassie, 2001; Prins, Toso, & Schaffit, 2009). Leadership Theories: Transactional Leadership Transformational Leadership Outcomes: Transformative Leadership Curriculum Improvement Curriculum Collaborative Transformative Learning Development Occurrence o f Learning Action Research Learning & Leadership - Connection Mentoring Women Empowerment Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 10 1. Transformation is not synonym ous with change 2. Transformation requires assent to change 3. Transformation always requires second-order change 4. Transformation always involves all aspects o f an individual’s or organization’s life 5. Transformational change is irreversible 6. Transformational change involves a letting go o f the myth o f control 7. Transformational change always involves som e aspect o f risk, fear, and loss 8. Transformational change always involves a broadening o f the scope o f worldview 9. Transformation is always a m ovement towards a greater integrity o f identity— a m ovem ent toward wholeness Figure 2: Poutiatine’s nine fundamental principles o f transformational process. From “What is transformation? Nine principles toward and understanding o f the transformational process for transformational leadership”, by M. Poutiatine, (2009), Journal o f Transformative Education, 7(3), 189-20. I used a collaborative action research approach to develop curriculum modules for this study. This method is appropriate to this theoretical framework because it not only focused on the practices o f skills but also on the capacity o f immigrant women themselves to address their experiences systematically and collaboratively by engaging them in the transformative process of change (Hills & Mullett, 2005). This approach was A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 11 part of my effort to empower the participants and to encourage them to take action (Jones & Stanley, 2010). The process o f curriculum development involved four stages: planning, designing, implementing, and refining. The program planning involved a needs assessment process, and a deep exploration of and a deep exploration o f the studies relevant to cleaning projects (Alamgir & Yu, 2008; Arif, Delclos, Whitehead, Tortolero, & Lee, 2003; Arif, Hughes, & Delclos, 2008; Bell et al., 2008; Bongers, Kremer & Ter Laak, 2002; Davis, 2000). The curriculum design involved a systematic process for creating curriculum modules built upon strong theoretical foundations o f women’s empowerment, health and safety, roles and responsibilities in cleaning work, and preparation for finding jobs and starting one’s own cleaning business. I also worked in collaboration with two trainers. The first trainer was the supervisor o f the community kitchen at Abbotsford Community Services. The second trainer was a professional cleaner who had contracts to clean city hall, the health unit, a recreational center, homes, and industries. The role o f these trainers was to provide hands on experience to immigrant women in real work situations. However, I led the theoretical sessions of the program and provided knowledge and information on positive self-esteem, cleaning, health and safety concepts. During practicum sessions, I gave the brief description of the theory and how the practical work related to theory. I also worked as a translator for Punjabi to English translation and vice versa for the trainer who was the supervisor of the community kitchen because her first language was English. We (trainers and I as a teacher/educator) consulted each other to devise activities in relating theory and A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 12 practice. For curriculum implementation, I led the immigrant women participants through the cyclical process of action and reflection, in which new personal theory was developed directly from the action (Sung-Chan & Yuen-Tsang’s, 2008). Short cycles o f reflection during each session o f training resulted in curriculum refinement. In surveying the literature, I was able to identify how curriculum and mentorship had potential to foster transformative learning and leadership in adult learners. The literature noted positive connections between transformative learning and leadership as well as between curriculum and transformative learning and leadership. I focused the study on this confluence o f relationships: As I added my prior knowledge o f teaching and mentoring, I tried some of the research informed strategies and collected data to assess transformational changes in immigrant women. This approach allowed me to assess my own capacity as a transformative teacher/educator/researcher. I collected data from five information sources: a questionnaire, interviews, reflexive journals, group work and discussions, and evaluation forms. The results are presented using a case study format. A case study method is particularly suited to the research questions, which require detailed understanding o f transformational leadership and transformative learning within the context o f collaborative action research based training o f non-English speaking immigrant women. I chose a hybrid approach to thematic analysis and incorporated both the data-driven inductive approach o f Boyatzis (1998) and the deductive codes approach outlined by Crabtree and Miller (1999). To derive findings, I devised coding scheme from the conceptual framework and research questions as well as naturally emerging codes. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 1.6 13 Significance of the Study My knowledge and skills base in teaching, learning, and facilitation combined with the theoretical framework o f transformative learning gave me the ability to develop a cleaning agency curriculum that covers a wide range o f topics pertinent to immigrant women’s development. The resulting curriculum is based on current research, theory, and practice. Findings from this study can be used by settlement workers and educators to improve the existing curricula or develop new curricula of cleaning and work skills for immigrant women programs. The study may also provide a guide for devising materials, processes, and strategies for other work skills curricula, and to foster transformative leadership, transformative learning, and work skills for immigrants. The study may also contribute to the empirical research on transformative learning theory and transformative leadership theory, in that it provides a specific illustration o f how transformative learning and transformative leadership evolved to empower this group o f participants. In addition, other adult educators may find value in my process, based on Poutiatine (2009) nine characteristics of transformative learning, o f distinguishing between personal change and genuine transformation. I was inspired to conduct this study to understand how experiences induced learning or change for participants and how this change related to transformational leadership. Although there is a wealth o f literature on transformational leadership and transformative learning, in this study I have presented an explicit connection between transformational leadership and transformative learning in a unique setting o f cleaning company training. I also explored aspects related to curriculum development o f a cleaning agency curriculum based on janitorial knowledge and business skills. In this A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 14 way, this study has made a unique contribution to community-based adult education literature, to address an area that has been virtually non-existent. As a teacher, adult educator and mentor, I have appreciated this opportunity to inform and improve my practice with adult learners through the process o f collaborative learning. As a researcher, I benefitted from this experience in training immigrant women, documenting their prior experiences and observing their training experiences, and then composing the case study report (Stake, 2008). The knowledge I constructed through this research and training with experiential and contextual accounts may assist readers in the process o f constructing their own knowledge. I believe that the results o f this study point to the need for “social betterment, for enhancing equity, and for a thorough reshaping o f knowledge and belief structures” (Shields, 2010, p. 566) by developing such community programs specifically for the immigrants. 1.7 Delimitations of the Study Creswell (1994) emphasized that the description o f boundaries is necessary for defining the scope of a study. Firstly, this study focused on one small group o f nonEnglish speaking immigrant women in Abbotsford (BC), over a period o f October 2, 2009 to December 19, 2009, as they articulated their needs and experiences in becoming empowered to obtain employment using janitorial skills. Secondly, this study was meant to be exploratory in nature because the overarching research question explored how cleaning company training and mentorship might foster learning and leadership in immigrant women. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 15 1.8 Limitations of the Study 1. The data are context specific and not generalizable to other settings. However, the information and processes may be useful, with reflective adaptation, in other settings. 2. In addition, the number o f participants was small, and they were from the same cultural background, although they came to the study with a variety o f experience. The benefits of this qualitative research design are that it provides a richly detailed case study of this particular group o f women and their responses. However, the method is limited in that similar results may not be achieved with other groups collaborating on a work skills curriculum, without adjustments for participants and context. 1.9 Summary This chapter introduces a case study designed to explore how a janitorial business curriculum and mentorship can foster transformative leadership and transformative learning in immigrant women. An overview o f the theoretical framework, literature review, and method for the study has been presented, featuring transformational change and its relationship to curriculum and mentoring, collaborative action research approach designed to integrate research and experience in reflective practice. The remainder o f the thesis includes Chapter 2, a literature review used to inform the study; Chapter 3, a description of the research design with site, participants and procedures; Chapter 4, data analysis; and Chapter 5, reflection. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 16 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides the background knowledge for exploring how and why the janitorial business curriculum and mentorship was designed to foster transformative learning and leadership in immigrant women. To develop the conceptual framework for this study and articulate the principles that underpin my practice as an adult educator, I explored transformational leadership, transformative leadership, and transformative learning. I also explored the role of leader and learner in transformation and some connections between leadership and learning. Further, I focused on adult learning and the roles o f adult educators and learners in transformative learning. Because curriculum development is one o f the basic elements for this training, there is a brief review o f literature on curriculum development. Finally, the chapter ends with a discussion o f action research methods that supported my decision to adopt a collaborative action research approach. This survey of literature informed me o f the knowledge and skills required to be a competent transformational leader, guided my relationships with the learners to promote transformative learning, and made me aware o f materials and a process needed for the development o f an effective curriculum. The role o f critical reflection (Cranton, 1992; Cranton &Carusetta, 2004; Fethesrton & Kelly, 2007; Grabove, 1997; Gray, 2006; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Mezirow, 1997; Taylor, 2000) was most informative and promising. I drew from this literature an understanding o f the effectiveness o f transformational leadership and transformative learning in promoting valuable change in the frame o f reference of individuals (Cranton, 1994, 1996; Mezirow, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997). Through my review of curriculum development as a mechanism o f change A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 17 (Cohen, 2003; Katz, 2008; Riding, Fowell, & Levy, 1995; Smith, 2000; Synder, 2008), I became aware that this study o f the development and collaborative implementation of cleaning agency curriculum for immigrant women would be a unique contribution to the literature. 2.1 Transformational Leadership Bums (1978) first introduced the concept o f transformational leadership in his study o f political leadership. He defined leadership as developing on a continuum from transactional to transformational leadership. These two models are differentiated by the type o f exchange that occurs between the leader and the follower. “Exchanges can be economic, political or psychological in nature” (Bums, 1978, p. 19). Bums identified transactional leaders as appealing to follower’s self-interests, and transformational leaders as appealing to follower’s higher levels of conscience and desires for greater purpose (Yukl, 2006). Transactional leaders work with others with the objective of exchanging things of value. For example, a transactional leader may reward a hard­ working teacher with an increase in budget allowance. On the other hand, “The transforming leader looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person o f the follower” (Bums, 1978, p. 4). According to Bums (1978), “Transformational leadership is more complex and potent than transactional leadership” (p. 4). Bums noted that in the transformational leadership leaders and followers elevate each other to higher levels o f motivation and morality. The primary role of the transformational leaders is to create self-awareness in followers regarding their needs and values. They link performance to vision, helping A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 18 followers to see a bigger picture and attain their goals. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) asserted that “self-awareness means having a deep understanding o f one’s emotions, as well as one’s strengths and limitations and one’s values and motives” (p. 40). Bums (1978) hypothesized that transformational leadership is relational, collective, and purposeful (p. 18). Bums further asserted that leadership is not power but a careful, creative, and generative interplay between the needs of the followers and leaders to “raise the level o f human conduct and ethical aspiration of both the leader and led, and thus it has a transforming effect on both” (Bums, 1978, p.20). Bums emphasized this effect as moral and ethical and became the first theorist to infuse moral and ethical dimension into leadership theory. Bums (1978) insisted that leader-follower relationships promote mutual growth or self-actualization by meeting wants and needs through shared values. Thus, the process o f transformational leadership includes a change to benefit both the relationship as well as the resources of those involved. Bums described leadership as a process o f moral undertaking and a response to human wants as they are expressed in human values. Bums (2003) further concluded that to understand leadership and change, human needs and social change need to be examined. He also proposed that “transforming leadership begins on people’s terms, driven by their wants and needs, and must culminate in expanding opportunities for happiness” (p. 230). He believed that the principle task o f global leadership should be to respond to world poverty. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 19 According to Bums (1978), there are many varied predictors and correlates o f transformational leadership, such as the likelihood that transformational leaders will be outgoing, extraverted, sociable, confident, positive, optimistic, emotionally balanced, innovative, and that they will have high self-esteem and be risk takers. Bums also supported the idea that leaders are neither bom nor made. Leaders evolve through the interplay of their motivation, values, and goals. Bass (1985), a disciple o f Bums whose focus was business leadership, described a model in which both transactional and transformational behaviours were important and supported that these behaviours often occurred simultaneously. Bums (1978) and Bass (1985) differ in that Bum s’ view included transformational and transactional leadership as two different concepts opposing each other. Bass discussed his view o f effective leadership as the existence of both transformational and transactional leadership behaviours with more focus on the “exchange or transaction” among leaders, colleagues and followers (Bass, 1985, 1998; Bass & Riggio, 2006). Bass (1985) initially omitted the inclusion of a moral dimension in his leadership theory but in his later work (Bass, 1999) he agreed with Bums that a transformational leader should be morally uplifting. Bass (Bass & Riggio, 2006) proposed four components of leadership practice with potential to transform followers. These components are- Idealized influence (II), Inspirational motivation (IM), Intellectual stimulation (IS), and Individualized consideration (IC). Leaders with idealized influence are admired, respected, and trusted by followers and display high standards o f moral and ethical conduct. Leaders with inspirational motivation communicate optimism for goals and inspire enthusiasm to achieve them with a shared vision. Those who practice intellectual stimulation catalyze A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 20 others to be innovative and creative in addressing problems and finding solutions. Individualized consideration is personalized attention on the part of the leader, coach, or mentor to the needs o f the followers. According to Bass and Steidlmeier (1999), basic components o f transformational and transactional leadership are moral and personal development, ongoing learning, education, and training. These elements are predominantly applicable to transformational leadership when the emphasis o f the leader shifts from authoritarian to coach and mentor, with learning vital to the relationship. Bennis and Nanus (1997) established that transformational leaders hone their skills and knowledge by recognising the importance o f change and uncertain events. They emphasized that leaders viewed mistakes as windows o f opportunity for learning and development purposes (Yukl, 1998). They made four generalizations about transformational leadership that focused on the change process. According to their first generalization, in transformational leadership a symbiotic relationship exists between leaders and followers, making it a collective process. Secondly, transformational leadership empowers employees to satisfy their needs, making it a causative process. Thirdly, in transformational leadership, leaders create social infrastructure that supports their workforce, making it a morally purposeful and elevating process. Fourthly, transformational leadership is a process o f consciousness and self-actualization (Bennis & Nanus, 1997). Bass and Riggio (2006) proposed the fu ll range o f leadership model, which included several components o f transactional leadership. According to this model, transactional leadership involves contingent reinforcement. Followers are motivated by A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 21 the leaders' promises, praise, and reward or they are corrected by negative feedback, reproof, threats, or disciplinary actions (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). In contingent rewarding behaviour, leaders either make assignments or they may consult with followers about what needs to be done in exchange for promised or actual rewards and the desired allocation o f resources. In active management-by-exception, leaders monitor followers’ performances and if there are any mistakes they correct them. In passive management-byexception, “the leader takes no action until complaints are received” (Bass & Riggio 2006, p. 8). Laissez-faire leaders avoid leading. Sashkin and Sashkin (2003) developed a transformational leadership model called “leadership that matters” (p. 8). They first explored the concept of transformational leadership and drew important concepts from the work o f a number o f social scientists: transformational leadership behaviors, transformational leaders’ personal characteristics, and culture. Sashkin and Shaskin synthesized these ideas to identify four behaviour categories, which include communications leadership as well as credible, caring, and creative leadership. Communications leadership is active listening and accurate feedback. It involves focusing attention o f followers on key issues to ensure clarity, giving attention to the thoughts and feelings o f followers, and being skilled to make abstract ideas clear. Credible leadership is based on developing trusting relationships by aligning actions and words that are consistent over time. Thus, consistency over time and between words and actions produces trust in followers. Caring leadership involves respect and concern for others, valuing others’ gifts and talents, stating value for differences; and respecting others’ feelings and judgements. Creative leadership involves developing opportunities for success for followers. It focuses on encouraging and A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 22 empowering followers to accept appropriate challenges and creating an environment that will support achievement. It also involves developing confidence by viewing experiences, and especially failures, as learning opportunities. Kouzes and Posner (1995) established five key practices of leaders: challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way, and encouraging the heart. Kouzes and Posner (2011) emphasized that before leaders can lead others they have to lead themselves and believe that they can have a positive impact on others. 2.1.1 Criticism of Transformational Leadership Theory Yukl (1999) and Northouse (2010) have strongly criticized the transformational leadership theories on the basis o f conceptual weaknesses that reduce their capacity to explain effective leadership. The concept o f transformational leadership lacks clarity because it is an amalgamation o f wide range o f transformational behaviours and activities. Yukl also pointed to the overlap between individualized consideration and inspirational behaviour. Tracy and Hinkin (1998) suggested that the dimensions o f Four I’s (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualistic consideration) are not clearly delimited. Further, Tejeda, Sandura and Pillai (2001) strongly argued that in some versions o f the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), the four factors (Four I’s) o f transformational leadership are not separate factors because they highly correlated with each other. Beyer (1999) and Yukl (1999) also criticized the confusion created by the model in imprecise dealing with the concepts such as charismatic, visionary, and A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 23 transformational leadership. Bryman (1992) pointed out that transformational and charismatic leadership are often used synonymously. Bums also argued that understanding area of charisma and follower worship is one o f the major problems in leadership studies (Bailey & Axelrod, 2001). Northouse (2010) remarked that transformational leadership may be dangerous if charismatic individuals use coercive power to lead people to evil ends. The ethics o f transformational leadership was questioned in a number o f studies (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Snyder’s (as cited in Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999) criticism was that transformational leadership lends itself to amoral puffery because it makes use o f impression management. Specifically, McKendall (as cited in Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999) argued that transformational leadership is in opposition to organizational learning and development involving shared leadership, equality, consensus, and participative decision-making. Other criticisms include the comment that transformational leadership encourages followers to ignore their own best interests. It manipulates followers along a path on which they lose more than they gain; and lacks the checks and balances o f democratic discourse and power distribution (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Cautions about the moral component o f transformational leadership have been offered. Bums (1978) emphasized that the morality o f transformational leaders is critical and that transformational leadership depends on moral maturity but self-important, immature behaviours relate to pseudotransformational leadership (Bass, 1999). According to Barling, Christie, and Turner (2008) transformational leaders are expressive and often communicate through metaphors and motivating language. However, pseudotransformational leaders can develop this ability and can deceive people, hiding A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 24 their self-indulgence with deformed judgment. Thus, both transformational and pseudotransformational leaders can influence and inspire followers but pseudotransformational leader’s self-interest and quest for power is potentially harmful to followers (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Yukl (2006) claimed that the practice o f pseudotransformational leadership would be an abuse o f power. 2.2 Transformative Leadership Foster (1986), the first person known to have proposed the idea o f transformative educational leadership, proposed that leadership “must be critically educative; it can not only look at the conditions in which we live, but it must also decide how to change them” (p. 185). According to Foster good leadership requires careful and consistent attention to the needs of the community in which one serves and understanding both the conditions in which we live and how to change those (Shields, 2009). Bennis (1986) defined the transformative power o f leadership as “the ability o f the leader to reach the souls o f others in a fashion which raises human consciousness, builds meanings, and inspires human intent that is the source o f power” (p. 70). Bates (1995) added that transformative leaders as those who work to reshape and focus corporate culture, carrying workers along with the vision (p. 11). Quantz, Rogers, and Dantley (1991) proposed a similar concept that a “transformative leader must introduce the mechanisms necessary for various groups to begin conversations around issues o f emancipation and domination” (p. 112). Shields (2010) referenced Bums (1978) in defining the development o f transformative leadership theory. According to Shields, transformative leadership theory A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 25 developed in ways that are consistent with Bum s’ understanding of social change and purposeful moral leadership, o f leaders who “build advocacy and conflict into the planning process in response to pluralistic sets of values” (Bums, 1978, p. 420). Sergiovanni (1990) also referenced Bums and mentioned that “transformative leadership is first concerned with higher-order psychological needs for esteem, autonomy, and selfactualization and, then, with moral questions o f goodness, righteousness, duty, and obligation” (p. 23). Weiner (2003) associated transformative leadership with power and authority that begins with questions of justice, democracy, and the dialectic between individual accountability and social responsibility (p. 89). According to Weiner, transformative leaders must be willing to take risks, form strategic alliances, to learn and unlearn their power, and reach beyond a “fear o f authority” toward a concrete vision o f the work in which oppression, violence, and brutality are transformed by a commitment to equality, liberty, and democratic struggle (p. 102). Astin and Astin (2000) linked transformative leadership with societal change. They proposed that valued ends o f leadership should be to enhance equity, social justice, and the quality o f life; to expand access and opportunity; to encourage respect for difference and diversity; to strengthen democracy, civic life, and civic responsibility; and to promote cultural enrichment, creative expression, intellectual honesty, the advancement of knowledge, and personal freedom coupled with responsibility (p. 11). Shields (2010) conducted a preliminary study in which the leadership o f two educational leaders was examined using a framework with the following themes: balancing critique and promise; effecting deep and equitable change; creating new A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 26 knowledge frameworks; acknowledging power and privilege; emphasizing both private and public good; focusing on liberation, democracy, equity, and justice; and demonstrating moral courage and activism. Shields found that leadership for equity, deep democracy, and social justice were the best fit elements for transformative leadership. Shields (2010) referenced Brown (2004) who developed a combined framework o f adult learning theory, transformative learning theory, and critical social theory with three main components: the need to address issues o f power and privilege; dialogue aimed at disequilibrium that result in meaningful change, and a call to activism. Shields emphasized the need to begin with critical reflection and analysis and to move through enlightened understanding to action. According to Shields (2010), “action to redress wrongs and to ensure that all members o f the organization are provided with as level a playing field as possible— not only with respect to access, but also with regard to academic, social, and civic outcomes” (p. 572). Thus, transformative educational leaders should create learning contexts or communities in which social, political, and cultural capital is enhanced by providing equity o f opportunity for students who are or will become contributing members o f society. 2.2.1 Criticism o f Transformative Leadership Theory Because every theory has its critics as well as its advocates, transformative leadership theory is criticised on the grounds that is it is too idealistic, too demanding, and to place too much responsibility on the shoulders of educators and educational leaders for redressing global ills (Shields, 2010). Shields summed up the criticism held by critics A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 27 some argue that a focus on power, equity, and social justice can only occur at the expense o f intellectual development and accountability. These arguments are countered by those who posit that addressing issues o f equity is the only way to transform education to achieve the success o f all students—a goal that, although elusive, is at the heart of most current educational leadership theories, (p. 572). 2.3 Transformative Learning Transformative learning is defined as “the development of revised assumptions, premises, ways of interpreting experience, or perspectives on the world by means o f critical self-reflection” (Cranton, 1994, p. 12). According to Cranton, learning occurs when an individual goes through “a process of reconciling newly communicated ideas with the assumptions of prior learning” (p.27). Reflective learning involves assessing or reassessing assumptions and “reflective learning becomes transformative when assumptions or premises are found to be distorting, inauthentic, or otherwise invalid” (Mezirow, 1991, p. 6). Transformative learning induces change in the learner through learning experiences that shape the learner and produce a significant impact, or paradigm shift, which affects the learner's subsequent experiences (Clark, 1993). Similarly, Merriam and Caffarella (1999) suggested that learning can consist of a change in one of our beliefs or attitudes [a meaning scheme] or it can be a change in our entire perspective. A change in perspective is personally emancipating in that one is freed from previously held beliefs, attitudes, values and feelings that have constricted or distorted one’s life. (p. 320) A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 28 The roots o f transformative learning theory are embedded in the work of Habermas (as cited in Cranton, 1994): communicative competence theory, primarily the concepts of instrumental, practical and emancipator knowledge (Cranton, 1994). Cranton described the progression o f Mezirow’s work from Habermas and Freire. M ezirow’s concept of personal transformation led to the “outline of adult development and a derivative concept o f adult education . . (Mezirow, 1978, p. 153). His critical theory o f adult learning and education, and critical theory o f self-directed learning are based on Habermas’s work. His work which is based on the concept o f conscientization, the process of developing a critical awareness o f one’s social reality through reflection and action is influenced by Freire’s work. Mezirow's theory o f transformative learning is characterized by three common themes: experience, critical reflection, and rational discourse. Mezirow described critical reflection as a unique characteristic o f adult learning, and saw it as the vehicle by which adults question the validity of their views (Cooper, n.d.). “The validation o f what and how a learner understands is embedded in communication— critical discourse— when learners are encouraged to challenge, defend, and explain their beliefs; to assess evidence and reasons for these beliefs; and to judge arguments” (Grabove, 1997, p. 91). According to transformative theory, learners must engage in critical reflection to change meaning schemes and perspectives. Mezirow described a meaning scheme as a cluster of feelings, specific beliefs, attitudes, and value judgments in the life o f an adult that define his or her life. Meaning perspectives (habits o f mind) consist o f broad, generalized, orienting predispositions (Mezirow, 1996). These meaning schemes and a meaning perspective constitute a frame o f reference. Mezirow presented three types o f A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 29 reflection and their roles in transforming meaning schemes and perspectives: content reflection, process reflection, and premise reflection. Content reflection involves thinking about what was done in the past and can be defined as transformation o f a meaning scheme. Process reflection involves consideration o f the causes of actions and factors that are uncovered. This form of reflection might also transform meaning schemes (Kitchenham, 2008). In premise reflection, a person sees the big picture o f what is operating within his or her value system that can transform a meaning perspective rather than a meaning scheme (Kitchenham, 2008). As described by Mezirow, transformative learning occurs when individuals change their frames o f reference (Cranton, 1994, 1996; Mezirow, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997) by critically reflecting on their assumptions and beliefs and consciously making and implementing plans. The transformative learners enter a frame o f reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self-reflective, and integrative of experience. The frame o f reference helps adults to understand their experiences, and to shape and delimit the expectations, perceptions, cognition, and feelings that further lead them to take an action. These frames o f reference depend on the way one has grown up, the culture in which one lives, and past learning experiences (Cranton, 1994). Mezirow (1997) defined discourse as a dialogue to assess reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points o f view. According to Giles and Alderson (2008), dialogue is an openended and energetic exchange between a teacher and student. Mezirow (1997) emphasized that we learn together by analyzing the related experiences o f others to arrive A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 30 at a common understanding with new evidence or arguments. “Discourse allows us to test the validity of our beliefs and interpretations” (p. 165). Taylor (2000) studied the interrelationship o f critical reflection and affective learning in the classroom. Taylor mentioned how his study was consistent with the Neuman’s study on fostering transformative learning, which proposed that the learners' emotions and feelings help them to reflect critically and deeply. Neuman, as cited by Taylor found six key findings about the relationship of affective learning and the fostering o f critical reflection in transformative learning in the classroom. First, the critical reflective capacity (critical reflection and critical self-reflection) requires "acquiring the ability to recognize, acknowledge and process feelings and emotions as integral aspects of learning from experience" (p. 460). Second, the role o f affect demonstrated both evocative and provocative characteristics. Evocatively means exploring one's feelings in depth, involving greater self-awareness and the initiation o f changes in meaning structures. Provocatively means feelings were often the trigger for reflective learning. Third, affect played a diverse role when learning from experience, such that "when current affect was incorporated into reflective processing, it often produced clues and insights for directing reflection's focus toward the more fundamental or assumptive basis underlying meaning structures and perspectives" (p. 462). Fourth, the processing o f feelings and emotions related to experience was both therapeutic and enabling. Fifth, the outcome of affective learning resulted in a "greater appreciation for differences, tolerance for ambiguity, and feelings o f courage, self-trust and inner strength" (p. 463). Sixth, episodes o f critical self-reflection can involve intensive A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 31 emotional experiences related to grieving the loss o f old meaning perspectives and acquiring new ones. Cranton (1992) argued that transformative learning theory is “beyond andragogy” (p. 17), to the point that the educator acts as “empathetic provocateur” (p. 17). It also means acting as a role model for critical reflection and also as a committed co-learner (Gray, 2006). Cranton and Carusetta (2004) devised a unique scheme to analyze transformative learning in a way that “conceptualizes authenticity” (p. 278). Their model outlined five categories o f authenticity: se lf other, relationship, context, and critical reflection. Allee (1997) argued that the transformative learning process produces remarkable and far-reaching changes in individuals. According to Tosey and Mathison (2003), transformative learning is capable o f “reaching a kind o f renewed, deeper awareness, a reconfiguring and reintegrating world view” (p. 1). Newman (1994) asserted that within transformative learning the concept of reflection aims to achieve a form o f metareflection where we not only see the world and ourselves more clearly, we see ourselves seeing the world (Gray, 2006). Thus, critical reflection, awareness o f frames of reference, and participation in discourse are the important elements o f defining learning needs, setting educational objectives, designing materials and methods, and evaluating learners’ growth (Mezirow, 1997). 2.3.1 Adult Education According to Freire’s (1970) concept o f conscientization: A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 32 Education should not simply encourage people into an accommodation with the world, particularly one that is oppressive or disempowering. Instead, education should encourage a form o f critical literacy, or the capacity to understand and question the ideas, assumptions, and discourses that inform individual and collective experiences, the common sense o f society (Fetherston & Kelly, 2007). Mezirow (1997) generalized that adult learners’ idea o f obtaining education is to become autonomous, responsible thinkers with short term objectives o f attaining specific competencies. However, it is important for the adult educator to understand both the short term and long term needs o f the learners. 2.3.2 Adult Learning Adult learning is a process o f acquisition and application of information, which results in change in behaviour, a gain of knowledge or skills, as well as the restructuring and reconstruction o f prior knowledge. Malcolm Knowles (1989) proposed that adult learners are intrinsically motivated to learn. This self-directedness emerges into effective learning behaviours if they are given the right environment and support to learn. Knowles proposed six assumptions about adult learning (Knowles et al., 2005). These are: the need to know, the learners ’ self-concept, the role o f the learners ’ experiences, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation. Knowles (1980) defined andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults learn” (p. 43), and contrasted it with pedagogical models o f teaching and learning for children. Knowles believed that the basic concern o f people with a pedagogical orientation is content but an andragogical orientation is more about process. Knowles et A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 33 al., (2005) mentioned eight elements o f andragogical process. These are: preparing the learners to learn; considering the physical and psychological climate setting; and involving the learners in planning fo r their learning; diagnosing their own needs fo r learning; formulating their own learning objectives; designing learning plans; carrying out their learning plans', and evaluating their own learning outcomes. There is a common consensus among adult learning theorists that the experiences that adults have gained during their lives can have both a positive and negative effect (Huddleston & Unwin, 2002). The positive effect is that past experience can help adults to contextualize as well as conceptualize new information. The negative effect o f past experience can be learning hindrance by reminding adults o f their past failures. The theory of experiential learning is based on the fact that adults learn in different ways and that each adult has a unique set o f experiences. Therefore, they approach learning with something in their mind. John Dewey (1938), a major figure in educational history, also emphasized learning experiences. However, his emphasis was on the quality of experiences. He proposed that it is important “to discriminate between experiences that are worthwhile educationally and those that are not” (Dewey, 1938, p. 33). He described two important principles: the principle o f continuity and the principle o f interaction. According to principle o f continuity, a valuable experience that we have in the present has a connection with the past as well as significance for future experience. The principle of interaction means that a valuable experience is influenced by interaction between individuals and their environment. It means educators can organize curriculum in such a way that learning activities draw out students’ past experiences. Thus, the learning outcomes of past and present experiences, together with individuals’ interaction A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 34 with the place, methods, and processes o f curriculum, can have an effect on future growth experiences. In an intensive survey regarding the characterization o f experiential and nonexperiential learning, Illeris (2007) concluded that in experiential learning, processes and outcomes must be part of the processes o f continuity and interaction. The learning process must, at least to some extent, be learner controlled and involve the learner’s self; there must be some correspondence o f the learning environment to real environments. Additionally, the learning should be free from distraction and have some degree o f selfdirection, it should be student-centered, leading to some kind o f liberation or emancipation of the learner. Gagne (1965) emphasized the importance o f providing a model for terminal performance of the learner. The learner should be informed about the general nature o f the performance to be acquired through oral or printed communication. In an instructional situation, such guidance is presumed to increase the efficiency o f learning. The instructions from the learner’s environment having the function o f “hinting” and “suggesting” is presumed to increase the efficiency of learning by reducing the occurrence o f irrelevant “hypotheses” (Knowles et al., 2005, p. 82). Gagne (1965) also pointed out that discussion is one o f the ways o f transferring learned concepts and principles to new situation. Verbal problem solving questions can initiate the discussion process and videos can be used to pose a situation for discussion. In a case study to understand how non-formal adult educators make meaning o f their practice, Taylor (2006) concluded that non-formal educators should develop a critical awareness of specific contextual factors, such as the audience, teaching in a A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 35 public setting, learner needs, temporal limits, and institutional guidelines and expectations, and how they influence the non-formal educational experience. Taylor (2006) further indicated that the development of critical awareness o f personal conceptions o f teaching and the various contextual forces allowed non-formal educators to have greater control over their practice. Lave and Wenger (as cited in Taylor, 2006) proposed the concept o f communities o f practice. Their study found the following: Communities o f practice includes a unique combination of three fundamental elements: a domain of knowledge, which defines a set of issues, a community o f people who care about this domain and the shared practice that they are developing to be effective in their domain, (p. 15). They also emphasized that adult learning is as much a collective as an individual activity. Taylor emphasized this idea related to a social theory of learning, in which learning is an aspect o f participation in socially situated practices and “knowledge is seen as always incomplete, evolving, and contextually shaped and influenced” (p. 303). There is a greater emphasis on collaboration among students and among students and teachers and the instructor acts more as a guide or a coach (Johnson, as cited in Taylor). In addition, it is the social, political, economic, and cultural capacity o f any community o f practice and the nature of the connections and communication between members that determine how much learning occurs. Thus, there is a growing body o f studies that focuses on the specific needs o f adult learners and their learning processes. Adults’ involvement in the learning experiences A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 36 follows the assumptions o f andragogy and transformation. Collaboration with instructors can lead to more learning retention and the application o f new knowledge to the students’ work and daily lives. 2.3.3 The Role of an Adult Educator in Transformative Learning Cranton’s (1994) study found that “education leads to change— changes in the amount o f knowledge people have, changes in skills and competencies, changes in the way we communicate and understand each other, changes in our sense o f self, and changes in our social world” (p. 160). It is the responsibility o f the adult educator to identify each learner’s objectives and goal, and help individuals to achieve their objectives and become autonomous and socially responsible thinkers (Mezirow, 1997). Learners need practice in recognizing frames of reference and assistance to participate effectively in discourse. Mezirow (2000) identified ten ideal conditions of discourse which he also called ideal conditions of adult learning and o f education. These include how well the educator can create a situation in which participants: have fu ll information; are free fro m coercion; have equal opportunity to assume the various roles o f discourse (to advance beliefs, challenge, defend, explain, assess evidence, and judge arguments); become critically reflective o f assumptions; are empathic and open to other perspectives; are willing to listen and to search fo r common ground or a synthesis o f different points o f view; and can make a tentative best judgm ent to guide action (Mezirow, 1997). The adult educator also plays the role of facilitator in promoting transformative learning, which includes developing students’ respect for each other and responsibility for helping each other A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 37 learn, welcoming diversity, fostering peer collaboration, and providing equal opportunity for participation. Facilitators also work as co-learners by progressively transferring their leadership to the group as it becomes more self-directive (Mezirow, 1997). Brown (2005) also made similar observations for improving the likelihood o f transformative learning. According to Brown (2005), teachers must be “active facilitators and co-leamers who go beyond simply meeting the expressed needs o f the learner by questioning the learner’s expectations, beliefs, and actions” (p. 23). Taylor (1998) asserted that the role o f the adult educator in cultivating trust and facilitating the development of sensitive relationships among learners’ is essential to the nurturing of transformative learning. Taylor’s concept was further supported by Sefa Dei. Sefa Dei (2002) suggested that people continually form their connections with others. Therefore, adult educators need to provide a learning environment where learners can develop warm and equitable relationships and support each other. Safe Dei emphasized that by promoting interactions, sharing experiences and ideas, and developing a caring environment, learners are more likely to cultivate trust and support for each other. Loughlin (1993) discussed the instructor’s role in creating a community ofknow ers individuals who are "united in a shared experience o f trying to make meaning o f their life experience" (p. 320-321). It is also important on the part of the educator to foster critical reflection. In the course of learning content or attaining new skills, adult learners should also develop an understanding o f assumptions o f their own as well as those o f others (Grabove, 1997). Mezirow (1991) emphasized that educators are accountable to ensure that learners learn to negotiate their own values, meanings, and purposes (rather than to uncritically act on A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 38 those of others). “We do not make transformative changes as long as w hat we learn fits comfortably in existing frames o f reference" (Mezirow, 1997, p. 7). If learners are helped to transform their frame o f reference, they can fully understand the experience. Fetherston and Kelly (2007) studied the role o f disruption in learning and the importance o f critical reflection. They emphasized that to understand transformative critical reflection is to acknowledge that Practitioners themselves have the knowledge, skills, and—crucially— the disposition to engage in a form o f praxis consistent with a transformative ethos... while organizing, engaging, participating, and communicating in peace building/CR [Conflict Resolution] work, often in very demanding and complex situations, (p. 264) According to Pierce (1986), disturbing events in the participants' lives have a significant effect on perspective transformation. Johnson and Johnson (1999), in their study of the transformative learning potential o f pedagogy, also found clusters o f learning experience that support transformative learning theory, particularly the role o f disruption in learning and the importance o f critical reflection. They asserted that effective cooperation in learning groups leads to effective interpersonal relationships and psychological health in students who make greater efforts to achieve learning. 2.3.4 The Role of Learner in Transformative Learning According to Mezirow (1997), the learner should be helped to transform his or her frame o f reference to fully understand the experience. For meaningful learning, the learner should integrate new information into an already well-developed symbolic frame A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 39 of reference, which he defined as an active process involving thoughts, feelings, and dispositions. According to Taylor (1998), participants play an important role in creating the learning environment because they share the responsibility for constructing and creating the conditions under which transformative learning can occur. Scott (2007) emphasized that transformative learning occurs when individuals reflect critically upon their environment and learning. Reflection plays a key role through which individuals can transform their thinking and view o f the world. Scott (2007) also pointed to an important aspect o f adult learning called transfer o f learning. Caffarella (as cited in Scott) defined transfer o f learning as “the effective application by program participants o f what they learned as a result o f attending an education or training program” (p. 204). Scott, in his study o f teaching a course to undergraduates, found a “natural barrier” o f “little match between the learning environment and the application context” (p. 35). According to Phillips, Jones and Schmidt (2000), learning does not transfer to the job in 90 percent o f cases. Caffarella (as cited in Scott, 2007) suggested a number of enhancers and barriers effecting transfer of learning (p. 212). She compared these barriers and enhancers at a number o f levels, including: program participants, program design and execution, program content, changes required to apply learning, organizational context, and community or societal forces. Planning for transfer o f learning at all levels o f programming is a crucial step in the leadership development process (Scott, 2007). A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 2.3.5 40 Criticism of Transformative Learning Theory Transformative learning theory has undergone modifications and incorporated new constructs as they have been debated and tested (Kitchenham, 2008). There are many experiential studies that support Mezirow's argument that critical reflection is primary to transformative learning. Many other studies have "concluded that critical reflection is granted too much importance in a perspective transformation, a process too rationally driven" (Taylor 1998, p. 33). Belenky and Stanton (2000) emphasized that many adults have not developed the capacity for articulating and criticizing their assumptions in the way that M ezirow described. Such learners often have had difficult early school experiences. There can also be a possibility that those learners may come from families and communities where discourse of this nature is not a part o f daily life. Belenky and Stanton (2000) supported a “more integrative way o f thinking” (p. 77) with a “profound openness to dialogue and connection” (p. 80). Taylor (2001) identified a gap in transformative learning theory, which appears to exclude the emotional and behavioural aspects of learning. For a shift in meaning perspectives, inclusion o f an intrinsic emotional engagement in learning situations is important. Curricula designed to facilitate transformative learning tend to be cognitive in orientation. Increased attention to the emotional needs and orientations o f participants in the transformative learning process may result in more successful learning experiences (Synder, 2008). Synder (2008) summarized that “it is difficult to create a context in which transformation might take place, and it is difficult to measure the level o f A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 41 transformation among participants when transformation is perceived as an end state” (p. 172). 2.4 Connection between Leadership and Learning The literature suggests that there is an important connection between transformational learning and leadership. For example, Bellas (2004) and Madsen (2010) found a significant positive relationship between transformational learning experiences and leadership. Bellas also noticed that critically reflective practices facilitated the learning process. According to Madsen (2008), in the transformational process, learning changes individuals, and developing leadership as part o f one’s identity and skill set can be a transforming process. Elkins (2003) studied how transformational learning may be adapted as a competency attribute for leadership development. Elkins explored qualities in leadership and process tasks that are necessary for successful implementation o f key strategic transformation within an organization. Elkins emphasized that the key traits listed in transformational theory are important for the development o f the management and leadership competencies. These traits are the ability to think critically and objectively in order to reflect on previous behaviours, the ability to collaborate with others and build consensus regarding the meaning o f individual reflections, and the ability to create action plans for implementation o f these new insights (Elkins, 2003). Similarly, Brown and Posner (2001) used transformation learning theory to understand how women are transformed through their learning experiences. They discovered the development o f leadership competencies in individuals as part of the transformative process. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 42 Gabriel’s (2008) research addressed the relationship between transformational leadership and transformative learning with business leaders. She found that “transformative learning and self-awareness were reflected in the participants’ construction o f their leadership framework; and that leadership frameworks are related to visionary, communications, credible, and principled leadership” (p. 252). According to Carter (2010), transformative learning is related to the emergence o f transformational leadership frameworks. She conducted a study to understand how transformative learning relates to transformational leadership behaviours and characteristics in physician leaders. She found that perspective transformation occurred in 100% o f the participants. She explained that the participants o f her study experienced transformative learning early in their personal lives and careers, sometimes as children and other times as young adults. These initial transformative experiences served as a catalyst for additional learning opportunities as the participants matured as leaders and their careers evolved (Carter, 2010, p. 286) 2.4.1 The Change: Leadership and Learning Transformational learning involves learning that produces change that is growth enhancing and developmental (Clark, 1993; Mezirow, 2000). Experience is the starting point in the process of transformational learning and becomes the content for reflection. For transformation to occur, it is important to engage the life experience in a critically reflective manner (Brown & Posner, 2001). "Effective leaders are constantly learning. They see all experiences as learning experiences" (Kouzes & Posner, 1995, p. 323). Kouzes and Posner (2003) also proposed that experience is the best leadership teacher A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 43 and challenging experiences offer the most opportunities. However, learning depends upon how well leaders are prepared to answer when opportunity knocks. Bennis and Nanus (1997) described transformational leadership as achieving significant changes that reflect the community o f interest o f both leaders and learners with a common vision. According to Brown and Posner (2001): leaders must establish direction in relation to the complex challenges and changes in their context, shape a culture that is conducive to that vision, and inspire their people, bringing forth their talents, uniqueness, and energies toward a worthy future, (p. 3) According to Poutiatine (2009), leaders who wish to lead in transformational ways must clearly understand the process o f transformation. Poutiatine proposed nine fundamental principles that are critical to developing a clear understanding o f transformation and transformational process (Figure 2). Poutiatine emphasized that “these principles provide a starting place from which a common semantics o f transformation can be established to further the exploration o f transformative learning and transformational leadership” (p. 193). 2.5 Mentoring Mentoring is a process for the reciprocal, informal transmission o f knowledge, social capital, and psycho-social support perceived by the recipient as relevant to work, career, or professional development; mentoring entails informal communication, usually face to face and over a sustained period o f time, between a person who is perceived to have greater relevant knowledge, wisdom, or A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 44 experience (the mentor), to a person who is perceived to have less (the protege). (Bozeman & Feeney, 2007, p. 731) In the context o f learner centered learning, mentoring is a collaborative process in which mentors become learners and learners become teachers (Mandell & Herman, 2009). The process o f shifting from expert to learner and for the learner to shift from novice to competent participants requires respect that they must respect one another as fully autonomous collaborators (Habermas, 1993; Yorks & Marsick, 2000). This collaborative process offers opportunities for mentees to contribute ideas based on their experience and goals; and mentors shape those ideas into learning. The other important condition in this collaborative process is that mentors need to understand who their mentees are and what will help them learn. Similarly, mentees need to find out what they want to learn and help their mentors understand these things. The learners are motivated and empowered to leam best when they have the feeling that they are cared about. Their ordinary experiences and “concerns about family, career, community, beliefs, friendship and so on” are centering the learning and become source o f meaningful learning (Mandell & Herman, 2009, p. 81). Daloz (1999) described a mentor as a guide to the holistic development o f the mentee and described the relationship as reciprocal. According to Daloz, (1999) mentor must be a “receptive presence”. Similarly, Chipping and Morse (2006) described mentoring is a two-way learning process— mentoring, the mentor is the guide, the “wise one” who nurtures critical thought, dispenses advice, opens doors of opportunity, and challenges and supports the mentee (Daloz, 2000, p. 116). Inman (1998) suggested that A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 45 multiple mentors are helpful as comparative to single mentors in order to strengthen both individual and professional development o f mentees. 2.5.1 Mentoring and Transformational Change The role o f mentoring relationships in fostering transformational change is well documented in the literature. According to English (2000), “igniting a passion for learning in adult students and a passion for teaching in ourselves can happen when we transform our teaching by including mentorship” (p. 261). Fletcher (2007) described mentoring as a transformative relationship in which individuals reconstruct possible selves. Mott (2002) referenced Mezirow and others, emphasizing that “mentoring can promote transformative learning and development by fostering an examination of underlying assumptions, encouraging reflective engagement between mentor and protege, providing deeper understanding o f the dynamics o f power in relationships, and developing more integrative thinking” (p. 9). Mandell and Herman (2009) proposed a strong relationship between transformational learning and mentoring: The mentor-student relationship could not exist unless teachers remind themselves that their role is not so much to profess as to facilitate, and equally, students understand that their role is not so much to absorb what is professed but to place their ideas and questions at the center of learning. (Mandell & Herman, 2009, p. 78) A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 46 Thus the definitions of mentorship range from a traditional view of a more experienced and knowledgeable person helping a novice to the view o f a mutually beneficial learning partnership (Mullen, 1994). 2.5.2 Benefits and Negative Consequences of Mentorship Most researchers suggested that the benefits associated with mentoring others include the personal satisfaction that comes from passing knowledge and skills onto others, exhilaration from the fresh energy provided by proteges, improved job performance by receiving a new perspective on the organization from proteges, loyalty and support from proteges, and organizational recognition (Allen, Poteet, & Burroughs 1997; Kram, 1985; Zey, 1984). Hunt and Michael (1983) suggested that mentors gain satisfaction, esteem among peers and superiors, and self-confirmation by mentoring others. Mullen (1994) described mentoring as an information exchange, where proteges serve as valuable sources o f information for their mentors. Hansman (1998) identified psychosocial mentoring relationships: friendship and emotional support, enhanced self­ esteem and confidence, role modeling, and possible career advancement. Cohen (1995) cited mentoring benefits for mentees as development o f higher selfconfidence, self-efficacy, and self-assurance. Fleming (1996) reported development o f identity as well increased communication and interpersonal skills in mentees. The support and encouragement provided by mentors in the mentoring process enhances mentees’ ability to reflect, learn to examine their cognitive processes, and to assess their strengths and weaknesses (Mott, 2002). A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 47 Darwin (2000), emphasized that mentoring can have negative consequences including jealousy, overdependence, and unwanted romantic or sexual involvement. Allen, Poteet, and Burroughs (1997) also identified several drawbacks o f mentoring for mentors: the time required for mentoring, perceived favoritism to the protege, potential abuse of the relationship by the protege, and feelings of failure. Ervin (1995) reported that in her study mentors were unwilling to share their knowledge, feeling unsupportive emotionally, and were unwilling or unable to give feedback. Some studies also reported significant effect o f race, class, color, ethnicity, gender and power in forming mentoring relationships (Hansman, 2002). 2.6 Women’s Learning and Empowerment According to Majoor and Manders (2009), on a global scale, females are poorer and more disadvantaged than males because o f their limited or complete lack o f access to education, property, and economic rights. Gender inequality contributes to their vulnerability and many women have few opportunities to lift themselves out o f poverty and achieve self-determination. Majoor and Manders asserted that “the concept o f women’s empowerment has changed over time from economic and financial empowerment to a broader concept including psychological, socio-cultural, relational, legal and political factors” (p. 11). Their research participants reported economic factors (self-reliance, financial autonomy, ability to support the family) and psychological factors (self-esteem, self-confidence, perceived esteem from others and fulfillment) as key factors that contributed to their empowerment. The authors outlined the characteristics o f A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 48 an empowered woman as inspiring, confident, courageous, and charismatic, among other positive adjectives. Majoor and Manders (2009) further suggested that, when designing programs related to microfinance, aimed at women’s empowerment, “start off by defining what we think women’s empowerment is and what the existing differences in conception are between various groups” (p. 22). Microfinance as a development strategy that provides credit and savings services to poor, particularly rural women, for income-generating projects (Kim et al., 2007). “Developmental activities achieve the best results when they are tailored to the needs and circumstances o f the beneficiaries” (Majoor & Manders, 2009, p.15). Majoor and Manders (2009) also reported a common criticism that although microfinance systems offer women an opportunity to start a business, the opportunities are limited to traditional (home-based) enterprises only. This limitation increases women’s chances of missing opportunities to graduate to more profitable work and, therefore, the gender gap remains. However, Majoor and Manders asserted that microfinance helps women to have “access to better communication, a larger network, and more mobility, which contributes to women’s empowerment through a different mechanism” (p. 24). Adult education plays an important role in women’s empowerment and responding to the social conditions o f women’s learning experiences (Poonwassie & Poonwassie, 2001). Poonwassie and Poonwassie (2001, p. 263) summarized principles that are effective in women’s’ learning, as fostering and developing a connected learning environment, co-operative and collaborative learning structures, co-operative A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 49 communication styles, holistic approaches to teaching and learning, opportunities fo r consciousness raising in group discussions and case studies, and teaching fo r transformation and empowerment. According to Medel-Anonueva and Bochynek (1995), “to promote wom en’s empowerment, it is necessary to create an environment that will allow women to participate in educational programs and share the benefits” (p. 6). W omen’s empowerment is central to women’s learning. Stormquist (1995) established four components of empowerment: cognitive (increased understanding o f the self and o f the causes and conditions of women’s gender roles and relations), psychological (values, feelings, and actions to improve oneself and to work for change by opposing helplessness learned from personal experiences in the environment), economic (productive capacities with a degree o f autonomy that is strengthened by resources), and political (the ability to analyze and organize for social change through collective awareness and action). Many studies reported the importance of social relationships and feelings o f connection to others as central to the lives o f female participants (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger & Tarule, 1986; Caffarella & Olson, 1993; Mackeracher, 1996, Prins et al., 2009). Supportive social relationships are also central to physical, mental, social, and economic well-being (Prins et al., 2009). Belenky et al. (1986) proposed two types o f women adult learners. These are separate/autonomous and connected/relational learners. Adult education can become more inclusive and effective for women if adult educators can identify learning patterns o f women who feel silenced, learners who attend to knowledge from authority, learners who derive knowledge from experience, and learning strategies that focus on either separate or connected knowing and full development of A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 50 integrated ways of knowing using a variety of learning strategies (MacKeracher (1996, p. 138). Prins at al. (2009) also referred to many studies to propose that social support or “emotional and instrumental assistance from others” is associated with decreased anxiety and depression, greater self-esteem, an increased sense o f control, and among poor women, the ability to survive with scarce material resources. Through educational programs, women create supportive social networks to meet psychosocial needs for companionship, social distraction, recreation, and personal development. Emotional support and less homogeneous social networks are associated with greater parental warmth, responsiveness, and feelings o f efficacy, which in turn reduce children’s behavior problems (Prins et al., 2009, p. 337). 2.7 Curriculum Development Riding et al. (1995) designed a group-based action research study to develop curricula modules based upon constructivist and experiential learning principles. The authors determined that working collectively during curriculum development and its implementation and analysis helped in developing a collegial and collaborative approach. A number o f studies have determined that, for the creation o f meaningful curriculum, it is necessary to define learners’ baseline knowledge and to understand their cultural context (Beyer, 1991; Lee, 1992; Peshkin, 1992; Protheroe & Barsdate, 1992). Learning experiences must begin where the learner is, that is, starting from the known and progressing to the unknown so that the new knowledge and skills developed through A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 51 curriculum re-uses prior knowledge through a process in which prior knowledge is refined and placed in a more encompassing structure (Roschelle, 1995). Students as participants should be given a voice in choosing and developing learning opportunities: choice should include both the ‘w hat’ and ‘how ’ o f the curriculum (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). Cohen (2003) and colleagues proposed effective and ineffective strategies in training programmes directed at excluded groups. For example, training for people who are either marginalized or at risk in the labour market can be highly successful if undertaken with their needs in focus. They demonstrated that a “one-size fits all” approach to training does not address the specific needs o f groups experiencing labour market disadvantage, nor does it produce effective outcomes (Cohen, 2003, p. 171). I believe the basic principle o f curriculum is that it should be directed to the whole development of the learner. An ideal curriculum for educating whole individuals should include the following characteristics (Schiro, 2008): 1. Ideal curriculum should aim towards learners’ intellectual development in such a way that they can develop their ability to understand and learn from experiences with their cognitive, social, emotional and physical development. 2. Ideal curriculum should be composed o f a knowledge that can be applied to action that helps in changing the learners’ behaviour. Individuals should learn to do things and learn skills that help them to work efficiently to achieve intended employment outcomes. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 52 3. Ideal curriculum should give learners the opportunities to have direct experiences with the world and also exercise self-expression so that they gain the highest level of self-actualization. 4. Ideal curriculum should give learners the ability to interpret and reconstruct their own identity and their involvement in the nature o f their society. 2.7.1 Curriculum Content The curriculum content is usually derived from objectives that form the basis for programme development and can be simply defined as the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to be learned (McKimm, 2007). According to Katz (2008), youth training programs that want to help women find and keep jobs should include both job readiness skills as well as job search skills as part o f the course curriculum, in addition to the technical skills. A life skills aspect is also emerging as a key element for pre-employment programs that create a change in the participants’ lives and provide them with a sense o f possibility and security (Cohen, 2003). Many studies indicate that the lack o f communication skills and Canadian experience adversely affects the self -confidence o f immigrant women (Watt, Tim & Kurtis, 2008; Weiner, 2008). Immigrant women may not appear to North Americans as competent or aggressive enough due to cultural differences (Hu, 2005). Direct experience can help participants develop confidence in themselves at their highest level o f self-actualization (Education for Employment Curriculum Guide, n.d.). Workers in the cleaning profession should be prepared intellectually with the knowledge o f work skills; socially with how to get along with A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 53 society and how to cope with emotions at work. They should also understand the importance of maintaining physical fitness, implementing safe work practices, and coping with the stigma with which middle-class society may view those who work as cleaners (Cohen, 2003). Many studies support the assertion that educational programs for cleaning workers need to focus on the prevention o f occupational diseases and health maintenance (Weisshaar et al., 2007). Literature also reveals how training should emphasize the proper use of chemicals, tools, and protective equipment used in the cleaning work (Jungbauer, Van Der Harst, Schuttelaar, Groothoff & Coenraads, 2004). A rif et al. (2008) conducted a study on occupational exposures among domestic and industrial professional cleaners. In their qualitative study, they found that domestic cleaners were more frequently exposed to chemicals that are respiratory irritants and/or sensitizers as compared to industrial cleaners. A survey of 5,000 cleaning staff and follow-up ergonomic risk assessments indicated widespread musculoskeletal pain and discomfort often leading to time off work cleaners due to injuries (Cleaners mopped up by injuries, 1999). The high risks o f such pain had been associated with equipment design, job organization and poor training. Woods and Buckle (2005) recommended modifications to the design o f buffing machines (machine height, design o f triggers/grips/levers, pressure to activate controls), mopping systems (mop length, pressure required to squeeze mop, bucket stability) and vacuum machines (attachment length, grip design, provision o f safety lights) in their study to explore the design and use o f commonly used cleaning equipment. They acknowledged that other than equipment and postures adopted in cleaning work that A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 54 increased risk for musculoskeletal problems among cleaners are due to inadequate work organization, task scheduling, and social support. They described social support system as low appreciation of work. 2.7.2 Curriculum Materials and Processes Work and life skills taught via resource materials reflect the personal, work and/or community contexts of learners. A study conducted by Croydon and Crichton (1997) on job preparation for refugee and immigrant women suggested that speakers from the community, agencies, and field trips to potential work and training sites can be integrated into the curriculum. Teaching can include a wide variety o f materials as well as human and technological resources such as local cleaning experts, success stories, computers, audio-visual technologies, videotapes and discs. Students can learn cleaning skills, the need for clean and right-for-the-job tools, and the importance o f systematic and consistent work routines (Walker, 2007) in real situations. The discussion method is also recognized as one o f the best method for adult education (Brookfield, 1985, 1990; Brookfield, S. & Preskill, 2005; Galbraith & Zelenak, 1991; Knox, 1986; Linderman, 1926). According to Galbraith and Zelenak (1991), the discussion method, properly implemented, should result in a collaborative, challenging, reflective, transforming, and democratic learning process. Brookfield (1990) proposed a compelling cognitive processin which discussion exposed learners to a diversity o f perspectives on an issue, topic, or theme. This process also helped learners to externalize their assumptions, underlying values, beliefs, and actions. It assisted learners in A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 55 perspective taking and introduced them to elements o f complexity and ambiguity in an issue, topic, or theme (p. 192). Knox (1986) suggested that for an important and provocative discussion, it is important to acquire information about participants’ backgrounds and experiences. Factors such as personalizing the discussion topics and having the flexibility to welcome unanticipated occurrences during discussion can bring a new dimension and significance for both learners and facilitators (Galbraith & Zelenak, 1991). According to Johnson (1997), lecture, role playing, and discussion promote critical reflection. 2.7.3 Curriculum Assessment Curriculum assessment and curriculum development are closely linked in the ongoing development o f educational programmes (Clark, 1995). When developing program objectives or competencies, it is valuable to consider how the success o f the programme can be measured (Wolf, Hill & Evers, 2006). There can be continuous re­ assessment o f the curriculum and its structure. Co-researchers can reflect on teachinglearning performance, curriculum content, and structure (Riding et al., 1995). The success or failure o f both the program and the individual learners is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour and person of the learner (the meeting o f behavioural objectives) (Smith, 2000). Success is not measured simply by whether the subjects found paid work following program completion but the overall development o f the subjects for a better future is considered as a major achievement (Chen, 1995). Tyler (1949) established that curriculum assessment, also described as program evaluation, should decide whether or not the program has changed A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 56 student behavior. Tyler asserted that evaluations should be done in the beginning o f the program, one toward the end o f the program, and one after completion o f the program (p. 106). Houle (1996) emphasized that a programmer should not overlook assessing changes in values and beliefs o f learners (p. 233). According to Knowles (1990), program evaluation “requires getting inside the skulls o f the participants—and inside the social systems in which they are performing— and finding out what is happening in their way o f thinking, feeling, and doing” (p. 139). Kelly and Gluck (as cited in Stringer, 2007) proposed that evaluation o f programs should not only include technical o f functional worth but also their impact on students’ social and emotional lives. Their evaluation criteria included eight factors that play an important role in the evaluation: pride, dignity, identity, control, responsibility, unity, place, and location. Regarding types o f program evaluation, Groteleuschen (1980) asserted that “most evaluations for accountability are done on activities or programs that have been completed” (p. 70). According to Brown (1984), as cited in (Warren, n.d.), the primary objective o f the evaluation is to observe if the program achieved its goals or not. Brown pointed that summative evaluations are goals driven (p. 31). According to Deshler (1984), the objective o f formative evaluations is to gather information about what to improve and how to improve the program (p. 7). Formative evaluation occurs while the program is running and “is most likely to be appropriate when a program is in its early stages” (p. 11). Internal personnel conduct formative evaluations. According to Caffarella (2002), “there is no one acceptable systematic process for conducting a program evaluation” (p. 230). A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 2.7.4 57 Role of Curriculum and Instruction in Transformative Learning According to Mezirow (1997), learning contracts, group projects, role play activities, case studies, and simulations are the methods associated with transformative education. The key idea of these instructional methods is to actively engage the learners with the concepts and relate them to their own lives. These methods can also help them to critically assess the justification o f new knowledge and to identify and examine assumptions, including their own. According to Snyder (2008), some curriculum designers believe that participants take a program or class with a pre-existing disorienting dilemma or that the program or class may prompt a disorienting dilemma. Snyder also pointed out that transformation takes place when the participant is ready, which raises a difficulty in the transformative learning literature - a lack of attention to the affective domain. Taylor (as cited in Snyder, 2008) also commented on the lack o f attention paid by transformative learning theory to the emotional and behavioural aspects o f learning. Adults in new learning situations who are not intrinsically and emotionally engaged are likely to experience only a slight change in meaning perspectives. Therefore, curriculum designers should pay attention to the emotional needs and orientations o f participants in the transformative learning process, which could result in more successful learning experiences. Snyder (2008) also suggested that the learning must take place in a contextually relevant setting for the learner so that a learner can experience transformation. According to McKinzie (1997), "transformation theory is based on personal change and . . . the identified capacity is descriptive of critical indicators in the informational context that seemed to support this process" (p. 136). She mentioned three A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 58 types of the critical indicators: personal indicators (desire, commitment, collaborative culture, degree of computer literacy skills, prior experiences, time; access indicators (availability o f the technology); and process over product indicators (project-oriented curriculum, non-traditional assessment methods). A number of studies have established that program planning plays an important role in adult education (Caffarella, Houle, Knowles as cited in Warren, n.d.). According to Warren (n.d.) these models may have limitations that include ignoring power relationships and social contexts. In his review of how program planning has evolved from the behaviourist product focus to the humanist process focus, Warren (n.d.) suggested a globally integrated model. According to this model, the program planner should take into account “multiple and simultaneous responsibilities, last minute decisions and adjustments, conflicting interests” (para. 1). Program planners must decide what is to be accomplished and what evidence will be accepted that the program has accomplished its objectives. Warren further suggested that in order to create an understandable, accountable learning situation, the person or group o f people who plan a program must explore a number o f issues that include personal interests, organizational expectations, facilities, budget(s), subject experts, public perceptions, societal values, and beliefs. Chapman (2007) proposed a new transformative-deliberative approach by integrating the transformative learning theory of Jack Mezirow with the deliberative curriculum theory o f Joseph Schwab. Chapman emphasised that for education to be transformative, curriculum planning must be done in a deliberative fashion. The deliberative curriculum theory was a linear, administrative procedure for curriculum A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 59 development (Tyler, 1949). Tyler’s four basic phases to curriculum development, as cited by Chapman, are: a) select and define learning objectives; b) select and create appropriate learning experiences; c) organize the learning experiences to achieve maximum cumulative effect; and d), evaluate the curriculum. The literature review reveals that there are several elements that were important for developing curriculum for the cleaning company. These elements were immigrant women’s understanding o f the housecleaning and janitorial skills, life and work skills, jo b readiness and job search skills; healthy self-esteem; knowledge of housecleaning and janitorial materials, processes, and procedures; the effective development o f assessment strategies with a hidden curriculum o f transformational leadership and transformative learning. The diversity and cultural context was also another important factor that was considered in the curriculum development. 2.8 Action Research The basic design o f this study is action research (AR). The AR term was first used in contemporary texts by Lewin (1946), a social psychologist who worked for improving social, economic, and industrial conditions. According to Carr and Kemmis (1986): Action research is simply a form o f self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own practices, their understanding o f these practices, and the situations in which the practices are carried out. (p. 162) According to Melrose, 2001, AR covers a wide range o f practices from investigating and changing social and political condition for communities to A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 60 organizations, businesses, individual classrooms and individual practice. It includes addressing the context for work and learning to improve the processes and results o f interactions between teachers/facilitators/managers, learners/staff or to improve individual practice. It may begin with a problem, a hypothesis, an issue, a concern, or a conflict (Melrose, 2001, p. 161). AR is called a social process because o f “its focus is on the social practices o f education, on understandings whose meaning is shareable only in the social processes o f language and social situations, including educational institutions” (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 182). AR is also called a deliberate process in which the action researcher arranges to improve particular practices, understandings, and situations (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). AR is a democratic process as those involved in the research process participate equally in all its phases of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. According to Melrose (2001), AR is about action and research. Action is taken by a group for change and improvement. Research includes collecting data to inform the group about the context for present practice; generating theory about, in, and from the area o f practice; connecting that emergent theory to previous theories in that field; and disseminating that theory so that others may benefit from it. If we eliminate research, then AR becomes just an action to solve problems perceived by the group. However, the aim o f AR is to contribute both to the practical concern of people in an immediate challenging situation and to the goals o f social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework (Rapoport, 1970). In other terms, the aim o f AR is to be instructive as well as constructive. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 61 Stringer (2007) defined action research as a process o f inquiry with explicit social values. He proposed five characteristics for this type of inquiry: democratic (enables participation of all people); equitable (acknowledges people equality o f worth); liberal (provide freedom from oppressive and deliberative conditions); and life enhancing (enables the expression o f people’s full human potential) (p. 11). However, Greenwood and Levin (1998) argued that the meaning construction process related to solving problems is the primary knowledge generation element in AR. They established that action research has five core characteristics (p. 75). First, AR is context bound and addresses real-life problems. Second, AR is inquiry where participants and researchers cogenerate knowledge through collaborative communicative processes. Third, AR treats the diversity o f experience and capacities within the local group as an opportunity for the enrichment of the research-action process. Fourth, the meanings constructed in the inquiry process lead to social action or the construction o f new meanings. Fifth, the credibility-validity o f AR knowledge is measured according to whether actions that arise from it solve problems (workability) and increase participants’ control over their own situation. Reason and Bradbury (2008) also emphasize the problem-solving orientation o f action research: in their view, the primary purpose o f action research is to produce knowledge applicable to everyday conduct o f people’s lives. This practical knowledge contributes to the whole development o f individuals and communities —that is economically, politically, psychologically and spiritually. As a research method, AR involves a cycle o f action and reflection (Reason & Bradbury, 2006; Lewin, 1946, 1948), defined as a process that “proceeds in a spiral of steps, each o f which is composed o f a circle o f planning, action and fact finding about the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 62 results of the action” (p. 206). The first cycle may result in a revised and improved plan for action, which leads into the second cycle (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988). In other words, through action, knowledge is created and analyses o f that knowledge may lead to new forms o f action (Reason & Bradbury, 2008). In each cycle, emphasis is on the action first and then on critical reflection on the process and outcomes. The rational understanding o f the practice can be achieved through systematic process o f reflection. Critical reflection involves two stages: a) a meta-review o f what happened in the previous cycle to draw insight from it and b) planning what to do in the next cycle (Dick, 2002). Townsend and Adams (2002) identified 12 steps that occur and recur in cycles, and loops within cycles describing the activities o f groups o f teachers as they engage in the process o f learning fo r practice, learning in practice, and learning fro m practice. Learning fo r practice included the inquiry-based activities o f readiness, awareness, and training engaged in collaboratively by the researcher and participants. Learning in practice included activities of planning and implementation and the gathering of evidence. Learning from practice included the debriefing and reflective activities necessary to adjust, realign, or refine current practice in order to plan effectively for future inquiry. 2.8.1 Role of Participants and Researcher in AR Action Research may be performed by an individual or group o f individuals who work collaboratively. Unlike traditional social science research, action research supports subject participation in seeking answers to the problems and development o f practical new knowledge in authentically participatory contexts (Reason & Bradbury, 2006). For A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 63 researchers, action research means to engage in research with people rather than on them. Each participant in action research is a co-researcher who helps in shaping the question, designing the research process, exploring the research question, and making and communication meaning (Bray, Lee, Smith & Yorks, 2000). In action research, the participants are not passive recipients o f change but active change agents who are responsible for identifying and solving their own problems (Sung-Chan & Yuen-Tsang, 2008). In AR, an important goal for researchers is to investigate their own practices as well as those of participants because they are also participating members o f the situation being investigated (Winter & Munn-Giddings, 2001). The researcher encourages participants to examine their own practices as well as to support the participants’ attempts to contribute to the study and to conduct action inquiry in her own context (Sung-Chan & Yuen-Tsang, 2008). Brown et al. (1988) established a list that describes aspects o f a researcher’s role in action research, specifically a teacher researcher’s role. These are: 1. Catalyst or a Change Agent 2. Facilitator 3. Teacher o f Action Research 4. Critic in the Process 5. Group Recorder 6. Source of Personal Support 7. Resource Person 8. Source for a Second-order Inquiry A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 64 The practice o f action research rests on the assumption that thought and action are the result o f practices that have emerged as customs or traditions in particular situations. The transformation of these situations depends upon “transformations in individual practices, understandings and situations, and transformations in the practices, understandings and situations which groups of people constitute through their interaction” (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 184). Through the process of action-reflectionaction over time, the nature of action can be deepened from practical problem-solving to more fundamental social transformation (Hall, 1981). In the current study, action research was an appropriate guide for w orking with the immigrant women because o f its potential for guiding efforts towards collective transformation and improvements (Reason & Bradbury, 2006). However, the type o f action research - participatory or collaborative - was dictated by established criteria, particularly related to the extent o f participation that occurred. 2.8.2 Participatory Action Research (PAR) Action research traditions established by Kurt Lewin(1946,1948) is a platform for the broader array of collaboratively structured, action focused forms o f inquiry that are emerging today. One o f the most emergent types of AR is Participatory Action Research (PAR). PAR is recommended when working with participants towards capacity building and/or community development (Koch et al., 2005). Participation and action made research contextual (Reason & Bradbury, 2008). People who participate in PAR processes become “full partners or co-researchers in running the research process itself’ (Elden & Chrisholm, 1993, p. 125). This co-participation involves practitioners from the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 65 client system in engaging the entire research process from the research design, through data gathering and analysis to conclusions (Whyte, 1991). This co-participation means “system members must learn how to make sense o f their own data in terms o f their own language and in relation to their own perception and values” (Elden & Chishom, 1993, p. 125). In the process o f communication, the roles o f the researchers and the researched are interchanged. This leads to the mutual development of knowledge and learning to understand the people’s problems. Participants are empowered through the construction and utilization o f their own knowledge. Knowledge gained through research can become part of people’s life (Reason & Bradbury, 2008). Tondon (1998) argued that participants have control over PAR processes. McTaggart (1997) referred to authentic participation, which means that participants may reinterpret and reconstitute the research methodology itself. PAR cannot be only participatory, it has to be integrated into the way knowledge is created (Reason & Bradbury, 2008). Cassano and Dunlop (n.d.) documented the challenges faced by researchers, as outsiders, as they seek to build PAR relationships with community members. They pointed that in PAR, each researcher (outsider) and community member (insider) brings emotions, opinions, and motivations. Researchers, as outsiders, may find themselves in challenged situations to create and maintain participatory relationships as they work towards the empowerment o f community members (Hyde, 1994; Yoshihama & Carr, 2002). Cassano and Dunlop (n.d.) asserted that community members may execute their power by changing previously agreed upon research or refusing to participate in the PAR process. There can be some situations in which the researcher, as an outsider, works to A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 66 silence his/her own voice in the process o f encouraging the voice of community members, or resign the responsibility for connecting the community members to relevant knowledge (Hyde, 1994; Yoshihama & Carr, 2002). Cassano and Dunlop (n.d.) suggested PAR researchers learn to negotiate their roles and participation in the process and reflect on the shifting dynamic o f insider-outsider boundaries, negotiations, and resolutions. As trust grows and the working alliance develops, insider-outsider boundaries shift in the helping process. 2.8.3 Collaborative Action Research (CAR) Hills and Mullett (2005) define CAR as: a collaborative, participatory, and action oriented research methodology that performs research with rather than on, to or about people. Those involved in the study are both co-researchers, who generate ideas about its focus, design and manage it, and draw conclusions from it; and also co-subjects, participating with awareness in the activity that is being researched. The CAR engages people in a transformative process o f change by cycling through multiple iterations o f action and reflection, (p. 280) The primary characteristic o f this kind of action research is collaboration, which sets the ground for mutual understanding, consensus, democratic decision making and common action (Carr & Kemmis, 1986). Jones and Stanley (2010) emphasized that collaboration is at the core o f any action research agenda and is inextricably linked with democratic notions o f empowerment, emancipation, and ownership. Collaborative A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 67 inquiry provides us with more flexibility to develop our projects with others engaging in inquiry (Bray et al., 2000). Participants work together on all phases o f a project, which provides mutual benefits (Oja & Smulyan, 1989). Wallat, Green, Conlin and Haramis (1981) asserted that, in collaboration, Parity and equal responsibility do not mean that each member each member has an equal role in decision making or input during all phases o f the study. Role shifts occur depending on the needs o f the situation. Continuity is provided by researchers through the communication and collaboration network they establish with those involved in the study, (p. 94) CAR can provide an opportunity for participants to learn and work collectively and strengthen their connections with each other. The co-researchers also develop social skills, such as how to cooperate, collaborate, display flexibility, and persist from the beginning o f planning (conception) to end reflection (completion). The process o f participating can build skills, confidence and knowledge (Sewell, 2006). According to Oja and Smulyan (1989), collaboration depends primarily on the degree to which practitioners are included in the project. They proposed a project structure conducive to effective action research collaboration. The elements o f this project structure are a) frequent and open communication among participants', b) democratic project leadership; c) spiralling cycles o f planning, acting, observing and reflecting', and d) positive relationships. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 68 Open communication among participants helps in devising clear and specific goals from the outset of the project. Clear goals, according to Oja and Smulyan (1989), provide all participants with an understanding of the value of the project. Participants recognize what they will gain from the project and theory and future plans can be generated from a shared frame o f reference. The process o f communication provides a research group with a shared sense o f commitment, mutual understanding, and a framework for future tasks (p. 16). According to Greenwood and Levin (2000), in collaborative projects knowledge can be generated through “collaborative communicative processes in which all participants’ contributions are taken seriously” (p. 96), “a meaning making dialogue between stakeholders” (Stringer 2004, p. 189) can be facilitated, and “emergent understandings and decisions (can) be problematized and explored openly” (Kemmis 2006, p. 472). Oja and Smulyan (1989) stressed the need for a democratic process that considers each participant’s needs, perspectives, and skills. “Successful action research projects may struggle with and find ways to balance the concepts o f collaboration or democracy and leadership that allow the project to move forward” (p. 17). According to Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) collaborative action research is a systematic process that includes four spiral "moments" or stages called planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. CAR also uses a structured framework that consists o f a series of logical steps. These are: identifying the issues and questions to be studied, developing an explicit model or framework for practice, putting the model into practice and recording what happens, and reflecting on the experience and making sense out o f the whole venture (Hills; Reason, as cited in Miller, Van Sant, & Mullett, 2009). According A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 69 to Hills and Mullett (2005), “In this way, evidence about what constitutes ‘best practices’ is generated by people examining their experiences in practice and reflecting on those practices” (p. 284). 2.8.4 PAR and CAR Bray et al. (2000) referred to KasTs description regarding differences between PAR and Collaborative Inquiry (Cl). The primary distinction was made on the basis of the focus of the research. While PAR focuses on problem solving, “the focus o f a collaborative inquiry group is on understanding and constructing meaning around experience - a focus that may involve learning for purposes o f personal development, enhancement o f one’s practice, or problem solving” (p. 38). Bray et al. emphasized that in collaborative inquiry the initiator plays “a problematic role - a person who has to quickly concede authority as soon as possible during the inquiry” (p. 39). Other than collaboration, ideas o f community and empowerment are also central to action research. Winter and Munn-Giddings (2001) referred to the work o f Carr and Kemmis (1986) in establishing the emphasis o f empowerment in action research as “encouraging individual reflection within a mutually collective supportive endeavour” (p. 33), described as a selfreflective community. AR has a potential role in community development. According to Reason and Bradbury (2008), AR responds to people’s desire to act creatively to practical and pressing issues in their lives, organizations, and communities. Reason and Bradbury also referred to Dave Brown and Rajesh Tondon describing how practical efforts at A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 70 consciousness raising and empowerment o f marginalized people attracted policy makers in international institutions. Sung-Chan & Yuen-Tsang (2008) reported how the use of CAR was pivotal to the success of their project, which aimed to enhance the capacity o f a marginalized group o f women in Beijing to cope with major life crises. Through active involvement in CAR, the women were able to articulate their experiences, learn, reflect, and experience challenges and obstacles as a team and gradually became empowered. Greenwood and Levin (1998) also described action research as connecting research, action, and participation to provoke members of a community to find agency, control their destinies, and continually gain strength from that newborn power. Yorks (2005) described a particular form o f practitioner research that rests on a participatory worldview and draws heavily from theory and practice in adult learning and action research. He proposed that adult education practices can meaningfully contribute to creating the kind of social space necessary for producing actionable knowledge in organizations and other social institutions. He emphasized the importance o f creating generative social space (learning that is necessary for transformational changes) in practice within which intense dialogue and knowledge creation can take place through practitioner based collaborative action inquiry. It can be characterized as a learning environment o f high trust, openness, and security or a liberating structure. He further mentioned, It is the qualities o f this space that differentiate various forms o f action-based learning methodologies such as action learning, action research, and collaborative inquiry as manifestations o f this kind o f practitioner research... the qualities of A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 71 the space significantly influence the kind o f learning that results and its transferability from the inquiry to the practice setting, (p. 1221) 2.8.5 Summary This chapter summarizes the literature that informed my study. The literature was crucial to identify the theoretical framework of my study and shape the problem statement. I began with an overview o f transformational leadership, transformative leadership and transformative learning theory. I noted that transformational leadership, transformative leadership and transformative learning theory share a common concept o f transform or change. I then reviewed mentoring and noted that there is a relationship between mentoring and transformational change. In the review of curriculum development, I pointed out that curriculum development and instruction play an important role in transformative learning and leadership. Next, I reviewed the literature related to various kinds o f action research, in order to shape the research method that I believed would be most appropriate for this study. Thus, literature review provided me with the background knowledge to proceed with my research as well as the criteria for a successful collaborative action research process. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 72 CHAPTER 3: CAR RESEACH DESIGN This chapter describes the research design used in this study. To support NonEnglish speaking immigrant women in articulating their needs and becoming empowered to obtain employment using janitorial skills, I used the Collaborative Action Research approach (CAR) (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988) reported as a case study (Stake, 1995). I begin this chapter with a description o f action research, particularly collaborative action research. Next, I explain the case study approach that guided the process o f my action research and provided data for the analysis leading to findings. I adopted a Collaborative Action Research method informed by Participatory Action Research (PAR) because it could fully engage both the researcher and NonEnglish speaking immigrant women in the training with the opportunities o f transformative learning and transformative leadership. This methodological framework was the most appropriate research method for this research question, context, and the participants. I believe a collaborative rather than a participatory approach allowed for more flexibility in the women’s involvement at various stages o f the study. I also believe a collaborative action research is best fit for this research than collaborative inquiry as it is action based. However, it is widely understood that any form of collaborative research tends to embrace principles of action research. As often occurs in studies with instructors researching with their students, it was not possible for participants to be involved in the initial planning stages. CAR addressed the research question of exploring participants’ needs in learning cleaning skills, what helped them in learning these skills, and the ways to improve the program. My interest in A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 73 learning and teaching combined with my aim to serve the community directed me to utilize CAR. The Employment Mentors Program coordinator o f the non-profit agency, Abbotsford Community Services (ACS), was interested in sponsoring a program tailored to the needs o f the Non English speaking immigrant women. The primary objectives of the program were to train immigrant women in cleaning and work skills, empower them to find employment, and nurture their economic independence with the knowledge, skills, and practices acquired in the training. The ACS initiative involved a group o f NonEnglish speaking immigrant women, a program coordinator, a settlement counsellor, two trainers (community kitchen supervisor and professional cleaner) and m yself as the instructor. After I had volunteered to work with programs at ACS, the program coordinator identified my potential to teach and help adults to learn the skills they need to improve their lives. She offered me employment as an instructor for the Immigrant W omen’s Cleaning and Work Skills Project. I told her that I was interested in accepting this offer to serve the community but I could not do so because I needed to complete my graduate studies. She asked me if I would consider undertaking this project as my research. This idea appealed to me and I discussed the possibility with my supervisory committee. With their approval and support, I developed a research proposal. I planned to conduct collaborative action research as I carried out my professional duties as instructor for the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Project. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 74 The participants of this study were recruited from the Immigrant Settlement Program and Punjabi Mothers and Grandmothers Program at Abbostford Community Services (ASC). There were six immigrant women who attended this training. My collaborator in the project, the ACS Settlement Counsellor, recruited these participants for the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Training program. Interested candidates completed an application form and six candidates were shortlisted, based upon their interest in learning janitorial work skills (see Appendix A). Selected candidates were invited to participate in the study (see Appendix B). Their participation in this study was voluntary. I explained to each participant that if she stopped participating in the study, her information would be destroyed but she would finish her training. The immigrant women understood that their choice o f whether or not to participate in the research would not jeopardize their enrolment in the training program. There were two trainers for this program. The first trainer was the supervisor o f community kitchen at Abbotsford Community Services. The second trainer was a professional cleaner who had contracts o f cleaning city hall, health unit, recreational center, homes and industries. The role o f these trainers was to provide hands on experience to immigrant women in real work situations. However, I led the theoretical sessions of the program and provided knowledge and information on positive self-esteem, cleaning, and health and safety concepts. During practicum sessions with the trainers, my role was to observe, be there to support participants, and lead subsequent discussions related to the training. At the beginning o f each practicum session, I gave the brief description of the theory and explained how it related to practicum activities. I also translated Punjabi to English and vice versa for the supervisor of the community kitchen, A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 75 whose first language was English. At different stages o f the curriculum development and implementation, the trainers and I consulted each other to devise activities in relating theory to practice. I coordinated the trainers’ work so that it fit into the curriculum. The program coordinator worked collaboratively with me to define the objectives o f the program, refine training modules, and manage resources to ensure that the program was delivered properly. The settlement counsellor also collaborated with the program coordinator and I to define program objectives, recruit participants, and organize program evaluation. My experience of teaching and working with adults contributed to my choice o f research method and prepared me to carry out collaborative research effectively. I have experience working with a community during my Master’s in Food and Nutrition from Punjab Agricultural University, Punjab, India. For my master’s thesis, I investigated childhood obesity and its dietary management using a quantitative research method. The study included 60 subjects comprised o f equal number o f males and females, 7-9 years o f age, from three public schools in Ludhiana city (Pandher, Sangha & Chawla, 2004; Sangha, Pandher & Kochar, 2006). The study involved delivering nutrition education to the parents o f obese children. My experience working with these parents helped me understand how knowledge of adult learning and motivation as well as o f the needs, values, beliefs o f participants, applied with respect and empathy, built trusting relationships. I found that trust then played a key role in developing a climate for parents’ learning. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 3.1 76 Research Design To support my research design, I searched for literature on transformational leadership, transformative leadership, and transformative learning and found a variety o f theoretical frameworks, settings, and methodologies. Madsen (2010) conducted a qualitative study to explore the transformational learning experiences o f Emirati women attending college in the UAE. The goal o f her study was to understand how women in leadership learning programs learn and develop. She used a phenomenological research approach to design and conduct her qualitative project. She also used transformational theory as theoretical framework for her study and established that transformational learning theory has been used as a theoretical framework for a variety o f studies in a multitude o f unique learning environments. Gabriel (2008) used the lens o f transformative learning and transformational leadership to understand and describe the experiences of business leaders. In this qualitative case study, the author used content analysis and a conceptual mapping approach to examine the process and outcomes o f transformative learning experiences. The method o f data collection was semi-structured interviews. Gabriel found that her indepth interview technique was somewhat limited because there was “no way to verify whether the individual accurately described events, triggers, and learning” (p. 13). Carter (2010) did a qualitative case study to obtain an understanding about the relationship between transformative learning and transformational leadership, related to transformational physician leaders. Her method o f data collection was in-depth interviews. She examined a relationship between transformative learning and A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 77 transformational leadership behaviours and characteristics in physician leaders. A limitation o f this study, as identified by Carter, was the researcher’s ability to remain objective throughout the data collection and analysis process. According to Klenke (2008), an ongoing monitoring process should be followed to eliminate existence o f such prejudices. Taylor (2000), in his review o f 23 studies, provided a brief overview o f transformative learning theory and the related conditions for fostering transformative learning from Mezirow's perspective. He found that majority o f these studies were qualitative in design, predominantly case studies, and their methods o f data collection were interviews and observations. He found that some o f the qualitative studies with quantitative data offered little insight into the findings. He contrasted these with a quantitative study of perspective transformation within the context o f students’ higher education experience (King, 1997). The educational activities pertaining to perspective transformation were informative. However he noted that a significant limitation o f this study was “the lack o f reliability in identifying a change in meaning schemes and/or meaning perspective” (Taylor, 2000). Brown and Posner (2001), in a quantitative study, investigated the relationship between transformative learning and transformational leadership. They found significant correlations between respondents’ learning tactics and their leadership practices. They suggested that these quantitative findings would be enriched through qualitative methodologies such as case studies and interviews (p. 3). In terms o f methodological perspective, the majority o f these studies were qualitative in design, reported as case studies, and used interviews and observations as A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 78 methods of data collection (Taylor, 2000). The study that I have designed here, to report the implementation o f a cleaning curriculum for immigrant women, is a similar study in terms of theoretical framework and case study reporting. The data collection includes interviews. However, this study extends the observation to more intense interaction o f researcher with participants as collaborators over an extended period o f time. An inherent risk of this method is that the researcher may lose objectivity because o f personal involvement with the participants and personal investment in the curriculum design and implementation as a stakeholder. Further, it is difficult to present concrete evidence o f the internal process of transformative learning. Awareness o f these potential issues may help researchers to address them; I have taken care to reduce bias by selecting participants’ own words to describe their experiences. However, I believe that the richness of data that comes from being personally involved with participants in a CAR study helps to offset the risk o f reduced objectivity. 3.2 Case Study Research According to Creswell (2007), there are five major qualitative research traditions: grounded theory, narrative research, phenomenology, ethnography, and case study (Creswell, 2007). I chose to report my CAR inquiry as a case study because, according to Cassel and Symon (2004), the case study is “a detailed investigation, often with data collected over a period o f time, o f phenomenon, within their context” (p. 26). The case study provides the analysis of the context and processes that highlight the theoretical issues being studied (Cassel & Symon, 2004). In this study, the case study method is particularly suited to the research questions, which require detailed understanding o f the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 79 lives o f participants, their orientation to transformational self-leadership, and the context of their potentially transformative learning. The case study facilitates the conveying o f experience of actors and stakeholders as well as experience of studying the case (Stake, 2008). The nature o f the case study can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory (Yin, 1994) which influences the focus o f the research questions and the degree to which the aim o f case study is to analyse particular, unique circumstances or to focus on generalizations (Cassell & Symon, 2004). This case study is exploratory in nature because the overarching research question is to explore how a cleaning company training and mentorship can foster learning and leadership in immigrant women. A key characteristic and principle of the case study methodology is the use o f multiple data-gathering methods for triangulation and validity (Stake, 1995). For this study, the data sources included initial interview data, interviews about participants’ experience, a questionnaire, my reflective journal, group work and discussion, and participant responses on a program evaluation form. By using multiple data, I was able to meet the criteria of establishing credibility (Creswell, 2008). A data collection matrix was prepared for this study (Appendix H). I also used member checking so that participants could check the accuracy o f my reporting and thus increase the credibility o f the study. 3.3 Rationale for Using CAR CAR allowed the participants to engage in the research as they decided what janitorial skills and practices and what methods o f learning were appropriate for them. This research method allowed me to focus on the practices o f janitorial skills and also on A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 80 the capacity o f the immigrant women to address their experiences systematically and collaboratively in order to invite personal transformation. The change-oriented action research method allowed me to attempt to empower the participants to take action to improve their lives. It provided a unique way to approach individual as well as group learning, as I learned about participants’ needs and came to understand how the curriculum could be improved to better support them. The CAR method helped me to develop theory from practice by involving those most affected by the practice in its refinement and transformation. This study fulfilled three basic premises o f PAR (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005): 1. It investigated the action o f research participants in a specific local context; 2. It included the cycles o f action and reflection that produce experiential learning in a specific context, thus potentially transforming both research participants and the researcher; 3. The emergent experiential learning created a shared conceptual framework and local knowledge amongst participants regarding phenomena in their context. CAR, informed by PAR, appeared to provide a unique and influential method to approach group and individual learning. The study may not have met the standard for participative (Greenwood & Levin, 1998) because the research participants did not participate in the development o f the research question. However, this study does have cycles of action and reflection, as in action research, and it does propose to solve a practical problem as well as contribute to social improvement in terms o f opportunity for A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 81 women who might otherwise be economically marginalized (Greenwood & Levin, 1998). Thus, I have chosen to describe it as collaborative, rather than participative, action research. 3.4 Participants (Co-Researchers) The participants o f this study were recruited from the Immigrant Settlement Program and Punjabi Mothers and Grandmothers Program at Abbostford Community Services (ASC). The Immigrant Settlement Program facilitates the settlement and adaptation process for immigrants and refugee newcomers with information about BC society, guidance and support on personal and family adjustment issues, and connects them to the broader community (ACS, 2012). The Punjabi Mothers and Grandmothers Program provides basic ESL support and parenting information to mothers and grandmothers o f pre-school and elementary school children (ACS, 2012). My collaborator in the project, the ACS Settlement Counsellor, recruited these participants for the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Training program. Interested candidates completed an application form and six candidates were shortlisted, based upon their interest in learning janitorial work skills (see Appendix A). Selected candidates were invited to participate in the study (see Appendix B). Therefore, participants in the study were recruited using availability sampling (Engel & Schutt, 2009). Because I had volunteered with a variety o f ACS programs, including Punjabi Mothers and Grandmothers, Best fo r Babies, and Employment Mentors ’ Program, most o f the participants were familiar to me. I also made initial contacts with the women A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 82 personally or by telephone, talking with them about their experiences as immigrants, shared the patterns that I was making from their conversations, and exploring what they believed the janitorial training combined with collaborative action research could offer them. I also accompanied participants for their criminal record check, which was required for the practical training they would do at different work places in the city o f Abbostford. Being an immigrant myself and sharing a similar cultural and linguistic background with participants appeared to be beneficial for understanding the participants and developing a relationship of mutual trust, respect, and collaboration with them. 3.4.1 Consent and Ethical Considerations Participants were given an information letter and consent form that described the research purpose and procedures, potential risks, and benefits o f the research, the steps I would take to ensure confidentiality, and what I would be asking of them and how they could withdraw from the study at any time. A signed consent form was obtained from each participant (Appendix C). I also presented some o f the theory that motivated the research approach to the research participants at the beginning of the study. I wanted to explain the research design so that participants could understand their role as co­ researchers and would feel comfortable with an action research-based program. It is important to note that the women who became participants in this research had no research background. All o f them had completed high school but were reluctant to write journals for the research due to their inability to put thoughts into words and lack o f writing skills. We agreed to have audiotaped discussions and I tried to help them express their feelings orally by using questioning techniques. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 3.5 83 Research Site The study took place at Abbotsford Community Services, in Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada. Abbotsford Community Services is an interdependent, non-profit, multi-service, community based agency registered in 1969. The aim o f ACS is to plan for and provide direct social and community services, to raise and heighten awareness o f social concern and priorities within the community, and to create opportunities for community members to participate in serving, developing and strengthening their community through partnership with government, private organizations and individuals (ACS, 2012). Abbotsford Community Services strives to foster community well-being and social justice through positive action and leadership. It is a large social service organization that includes programs for early childhood development, counselling and youth services, immigrant settlement and seniors’ services, families, developmental disabilities, people on limited income, and caring for our environment. Every year the 300 plus staff members o f Abbotsford Community Services help more than 37,000 residents in one way or another through our 70 different programs. The motto o f Abbotsford Community Services is "People Helping People" {ACS, 2012). The Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Program, a pilot program, evolved as a result o f persistent efforts o f the Employment Mentors’ Program coordinator, a teacher from the English Language and Services for Adults (ELSA) Program, and an Immigrant Settlement Counsellor who had a vision for marginalized immigrant women. When the needs o f immigrant women were identified, various A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 84 programs come together to help them develop self-esteem, become more self-reliant, and help to build a stronger community through skills such as cleaning, childminding, and cooking. The convergence o f needs, thoughts, and skills sowed the seed for the first pilot of the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Project, focused on learning janitorial skills. Programs focused on childminding and cooking skills are planned. The Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Program included thirteen sessions and each session had a planned duration o f two and half hours twice a week in eight weeks. This included a theory and a practicum class each week. The theory classes were held in a library at a Sikh Temple and practicum was held at different places according to the procedures being demonstrated, including Abbotsford Community Services ’ Community Kitchen, Abbotsford City Hall, Abbotsford Public Health Unit, and Valley Countertops Industries Ltd. The reason for choosing the Temple as a venue for instruction was, first, the women felt comfortable there because they were used to that atmosphere and second, it was central to their residences. 3.6 Program Planning The study began with my initial meetings with the ACS program coordinator and settlement counsellor. I had met with them for the first time when I came to co-facilitate programs at Abbotsford Community Services (ASC) as a volunteer: the Best fo r Babies program, the Punjabi Mothers & Grandmothers program, and the Employment M entor’s Program. My cultural background, language skills, and previous experience as an instructor in community education had prepared me to co-facilitate these programs. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 85 After noticing my abilities to teach adult learners, the Employment Mentors ’ Program coordinator invited me for a discussion regarding planning a project based on cleaning skills for Non-English speaking Immigrant women. I explored the studies relevant to cleaning projects and found a lack o f literature focusing on the skills and knowledge required for the housecleaning and janitorial profession. I found that most o f the literature was based on the health (Alamgir &Yu, 2008; A rif et al., 2003; Arif, et al., 2008; Bell et al., 2008) and psychosocial effects (Bongers et al., 2002; Davis, 2000) of cleaning work. From these studies, I concluded that if the proper methods and materials for cleaning are used, cleaning work can be done effectively and safely. I planned an outline of the program for discussion with the program coordinator and settlement counsellor. After a long discussion, focusing on the cleaning project curriculum and the realities and work needs of immigrant women, we agreed upon the objectives o f the program. I was given the responsibility to design the curriculum and the settlement worker would recruit the training participants. When I was offered the opportunity to develop this curriculum, I embraced a new challenge that suited my passion to work for immigrants and the community as a whole. An important aspect o f a planning framework is the development o f a comprehensive curriculum (Glatthom, Boschee, & Whitedead, 2006). Glatthom et al. (2006) argued that good curriculum work requires extensive knowledge as well as awareness of constraints. Therefore, as a step toward designing a cleaning project curriculum, with the suggestion and guidance o f my thesis supervisor, I developed my knowledge in an independent study course focused on the design of this specific curriculum. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 86 In order to collect and organize information, specifically to be used by particular individuals for a particular context, I followed the needs assessment process. A needs assessment is a process of identifying gaps between what is and what should be (Kaufman, 1982). I reviewed application forms o f the selected candidates o f the training and conducted a questionnaire or survey focusing on participants’ needs and prior experience with cleaning work. I also conducted initial interviews with the training participants. These data collection methods helped me in understanding participants’ needs, limitations, and capacities. I discussed participants’ needs, limitation and capacities with the program coordinator and trainers (community kitchen supervisor and professional cleaner) and looked for available resources, including practicum location and materials needed for the training. The program trainers emphasized the inclusion o f information regarding Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) in the curriculum. WHMIS is a comprehensive plan for providing information on the safe use o f hazardous materials used in Canadian workplaces. After conducting an in-depth analysis o f curricular needs, developing a background o f cleaning skills and usage, types o f materials and resources used in theory and practicum o f training, I started designing the first draft o f the curriculum. The training participants, the program coordinator, settlement counsellor, two trainers (community kitchen supervisor and professional cleaner) worked in collaboration with me to refine the curriculum design. The participants’ ideas, communicated in the questionnaire and interview, were given special attention. Early meetings ensured that the participants were aware of their role in the design o f the curriculum and their role as co­ A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 87 researchers. None o f the co-researchers or participants had previous research experience but they were willing to assist in the research process with my guidance. We discussed several important considerations for this research as outlined by Stanley (1990). First, we acknowledged that the primary researcher (myself as instructor) and co-researchers (learners) had particular ways of knowing, learning and experiencing things. Second, we noted the social relationship between the primary researcher and co-researchers (learners), which would operate on many levels. Third, we read that my intellectual autobiography, including books I had read and theories I subscribed to, would affect the research process. Fourth, we talked about emotion as an important component o f the research experience. Fifth, we reiterated that researcher and co-researchers would have different realities and understandings o f the same situations. Sixth, we acknowledged that the research process and the final production of the documents would be affected by the different kinds o f power held by each o f the co-researchers. After reviewing expectations for this research and how it would be embedded in the training, the women felt comfortable and found their place in it. 3.7 Curriculum Design I referred to Tyler’s four basic phases to curriculum development, as cited by Chapman (2007), to develop the curriculum for this training. First we selected and defined learning objectives; second, we selected and created appropriate learning experiences', third, we organized the learning experiences to achieve maximum cumulative effect, and fourth, we evaluated the curriculum. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 88 I created curriculum modules built upon the knowledge and skills required for cleaning work. Together, the objectives o f the program, the needs and capacities o f participants, and the trainers’ suggestions provided an appropriate framework for adult learning. Further, in the early stages o f curriculum planning, the program coordinator and settlement counsellor shared my belief that it was also necessary to empower women by helping them to identify with their positive self (Poonwassie & Poonwassie, 2001). Therefore, I planned the first model o f the curriculum based on identifying strengths and developing self-esteem. The group exercises o f this module fostered a connected learning environment as they began to capture, for each participant, their unique spirit o f self and to acknowledge individual abilities and competencies (Poonwassie & Poonwassie, 2001). The second module focused on the nature and environment of the cleaning work, including employment insurance, and work requirements such as a criminal record check. We reviewed the anticipated benefits of the training as well as the ethics and code o f conduct expected from the participants during training. The third and fourth module, the core of the curriculum, emphasized health and safety in cleaning work to ensure safe use during training as well as at home and at work. The fifth module was focused on the Standards o f Professionalism fo r Janitors, which reviewed roles and responsibilities o f janitors as well as their relationship with others at work. This module also emphasized the common manners and etiquette expected from individuals, which helped women to feel included in Canadian society. The sixth module was the Janitorial Job Workshop which included instruction in writing a resume and cover letter, how to fill out a job application form, and how to present yourself during a job interview. Participants were also given basic information about how to start their own cleaning business. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 89 Practical sessions were also designed in collaboration with the participants and the trainers (community kitchen supervisor and professional cleaner). The practicum activities were based on the trainees’ needs to practice learned theory in the classroom and acquire hands-on experience at different work places. It provided the learners with an opportunity to consolidate knowledge and relate theory to practice. In my instruction, I focused on active listening and I presented curriculum and offered feedback in the Punjabi language, which was reported as a basic need by the participants in the needs assessment stage. I applied these skills to develop trusting relationship with learners. These strategies as well as the collaborative work supported learning transfer as learners assisted in designing and formulating learning goals, implementing strategies, and evaluating progress. 3.7.1 Curriculum Implementation and Refinement The designed curriculum put into practice is curriculum implementation. Implementation took place as the learners acquired the planned or intended experiences, knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes (University o f Zimbabwe, 1995). During the implementation process, my role shifted from researcher to facilitator, facilitator to teacher, teacher to critic, and all of these to group recorder. To understand what the participants and I experienced in the training process specifically for each session, we followed the cyclic process o f action reflection where theory was developed directly from the action within the research. Reflection leads on to the next stage o f planning in which we redefined the learning goals, tailored the curriculum (the first curriculum design) and activities and tested it in a new action. 90 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM Basically, we followed Sung-Chan and Yuen-Tsang’s (2008) four iterative steps o f CAR which consisted of: (1) mapping the strengths and limitations o f the existing practice/problem-solving approach initially used by the unemployed women;(2) constructing a new practice framework through collaborative synthesis; (3) experimenting with the new practice framework on mutually identified, concrete problems; and (4) reflecting on the experimentation and refining the practice framework to guide future practice. Plan CYCLE 1 Reflect CYCLE 2 Observe Action Figure 1. Action Research Cycle. From “The action research planner, ” (3rd ed.) by S. Kemmis, & R. Mctaggart, 1988, Geelong: Deakin University Press. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 91 The short cycles of reflection during each session o f training resulted in curriculum refinement. Dialogue with participants occurred in various forms o f data collection, including a questionnaire, interviews before and after the training, reflexive journals, group work and discussions, and final program evaluation forms. I developed a questionnaire to identify the prior knowledge and skills o f the immigrant women in the housecleaning and janitorial work and the learning needs o f immigrant women in this study (Appendix D). A five-point Lickert scale was used to measure the degree o f satisfaction or agreement. The respondents were assured the information provided by them in the questionnaire would remain confidential. The face-to-face interview was designed to solicit responses that were not captured on the questionnaires and also to check the reliability and validity o f previous responses. The interview process gave immigrant women the opportunity to describe their experience and previous knowledge and skills in housecleaning and janitorial work as well as gave them a hopeful perspective on their own situation that they might not have had previously. Moreover, the interview encouraged trainees to become research participants because I had an opportunity to explain the role I expected they would play in refining the curriculum if they chose to participate. Descriptions o f the women’s prior experience and knowledge found through the interview process provided a deeper understanding o f their realities. It helped to identify existing knowledge and skills gaps in the immigrant women’s prior experiences. During each interview, I probed or asked follow-up questions and I interpreted the non-verbal communication or body language. Interviews were also conducted after the training to understand participants’ curricular experience o f housecleaning and janitorial work (Appendix G). The A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 92 interviews were conducted at a time that was convenient for each participant. A tape recorder as well as note pad was used in the all interviews. To record participants’ responses, I used an audio taping system with high quality microphones. We met in a quiet room with minimal distractions. The interviews helped me to understand participants’ perceptions as I reviewed the tapes to produce an accurate transcription. I also recorded and transcribed training sessions that were relevant to the research questions. I kept a journal that included my thoughts, feelings, observations, and reflections pertaining to the research. Journal entries helped me to document my perceptions o f the immigrant women’s’ training and research experience as well as my own. I recorded both positive and negative experiences as potentially critical incidents (Newman, 1987), later analysing them through the coding process. I looked for themes, patterns, and practices relevant to transformational and transformative leadership and transformative learning as well as any contradictory elements. Through group work and discussions, I came to an understanding o f my co­ researchers’ preferred learning styles and strategies and I attempted to match them with appropriate teaching strategies. Group discussions were conducted at the beginning and at the end of each training session, which also helped me to explore and influence the opinions, beliefs, and attitudes o f the learners toward transformative learning, in the role o f mentor. Evaluation forms were filled in by the co-researchers at the end o f the training to help with the curriculum improvement and identify co-researchers’ concerns and interests. The evaluation forms were designed to determine what instructional changes A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 93 were needed in terms of curriculum content materials and methods (Appendix F). A five point rating scale was used as the research instrument. 3.7.2 Data Analysis I examined the data collected through questionnaires and evaluation forms for themes articulated by participants. I transcribed the recorded meetings and interviews verbatim and translated them from Punjabi to English. Themes were subsequently identified by coding the transcripts, beginning with a search for data pertaining to my research questions, and then identifying themes within and across the questions. My reflective journal entries were analysed similarly. The method o f analysis chosen for this study was a hybrid approach o f thematic analysis that incorporated both the data-driven inductive approach o f Boyatzis (1998) and the deductive codes approach outlined by Crabtree and Miller (1999). In an attempt to discover themes within the data, I carefully “read and re-read the data” (Rice & Ezzy, 2001) to form pattern recognition within the data, where emerging themes became the categories for analysis. The deductive approach involved a template based on the research questions and the theoretical framework. Thus, in this study, a coding scheme was derived from the conceptual framework and research questions as well as naturally emerging codes. This approach emerged as most applicable to generating understanding o f the learning and leadership experiences o f participants or co-researchers. In this study, coding was guided by recommendations from Miles and Huberman (1994), using a hand coding process without employing computer software. Some researchers suggest hand coding allows the researcher closer proximity to the data and A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 94 the analysis process (Barry, as cited in Carter, 2010). I also tried to represent the voice o f the participants accurately (Creswell, 2007) by incorporating narrative quotes in the study. Themes that I identified from the different data sources, as well as my interpretations and conclusions, were then were validated with the co-researchers. 3.7.3 Trustworthiness By using multiple data sources such as a questionnaire, audio taped interviews and meetings, observations noted in a reflexive journal, and participant evaluation forms, I was able to meet the criteria of establishing credibility (Creswell, 2008). Triangulation o f data helped to neutralize biases in the data, especially when all different sources were showing similar results (Creswell, 2008). I prepared a data collection matrix (see Appendix H) to organize data and facilitate analysis. Member checking was used to check the credibility of my interpretations, by testing data, analytic categories, interpretations, and conclusions with the co-researchers from whom the data was originally obtained. 3.8 Summary In this chapter I have presented the methodology for this study and provided justification for my method o f investigation: collaborative action research. A description of the study's participants, setting, and procedures for program planning and curriculum development has been given, including the data collection instruments. Through the use o f the four iterative steps o f collaborative action research, I have described how I engaged participants in the process o f action-reflection and documented the process o f A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 95 change in the context of curriculum development within a theoretical framework o f transformative learning and transformative leadership. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 96 CHAPTER 4: THE CONFLUENCE OF LEARNING AND LEADERSHIP This chapter describes the findings from this collaborative action research study involving Non-English speaking immigrant women as co-researchers in exploring how a janitorial business curriculum and mentorship can foster transformative leadership and transformative learning in immigrant women. During the training sessions, which I co­ planned and instructed, immigrant women met in groups and learned cleaning and work skills. Wherever possible I have used the actual words o f immigrant women, recorded during training discussions and interviews, to describe their experiences. I believe that I listened to their truths from their own perspectives (Apps, 1994). 4.1 Immigrant Women Who Attended the Training There were six immigrant women who attended this training. In order to protect the confidentiality of participants, identifying information is not revealed and pseudonyms are used. All the women who participated in this research emigrated from India to Canada between 1992 and 1996. All of them had similar cultural backgrounds in that they were bom and raised in Punjab and their first language was Punjabi. The ages o f the women varied between 20 and 40 with an average age o f 30 years. 4.1.1 Anita Anita came to Canada with high aspirations o f moving into a new country with her husband. She did not anticipate that her life would see a dramatic change due to her divorce. She acquired support from her brother and his family and she was inspired by her brother’s cleaning business when she assisted him a few times. She said, “My first A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 97 job in Canada was a janitor’s work” . After getting remarried, she worked at different places as a cashier and labourer. She always thought of getting into the cleaning business but she was looking for janitorial training so that she could “learn and improve skills before getting into this line”. Anita’s spouse’s income was the major source o f income in her family, which includes three children. She began this training so that she could obtain a janitorial job and assist her family financially. “This is my own decision to get into this training”, she answered on being asked who influenced her decision. Her main aim was to learn janitorial skills, improve work safety practices, and obtain employment using her new skills. Anita was a confident woman who had set goals to achieve in life. A strength she brought into this training was her prior experience in janitorial work. She shared her past janitorial experiences and work problems, which helped other learners better understand the cleaning concepts. The second reason that she mentioned for getting into this training was to make friends with whom she could talk and share her thoughts. She appreciated being part o f the collaborative action research. Her curiosity to know about action research resulted in a series o f questions that helped me to explain this concept more clearly. She also shared the story o f how she came to Canada and experienced the ups and downs of her life here. Her story helped others to have courage and share their thoughts. Her enthusiasm to improve her cleaning skills and make new friends helped her to enjoy this training. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.1.2 98 Jessie Jessie was a timid woman who faced troubles in her married life. The first impression that I had in our initial meetings was that she was not sure if she would be able to continue her training. She explained that she could not afford child care for her daughter. I discussed this issue with the program manager and she arranged for funding to help Jessie with child care for her daughter. Because of this success, Jessie wondered if the program manager could arrange a job for her. Jessie’s response seemed typical o f the plight o f many immigrants - they never lose a chance to make new connections in the hope o f obtaining a job. Jessie showed interest in learning the basic etiquette o f Canadian culture. We chose this topic for discussion in our initial meetings, which helped us to get closer to each other and develop mutual trust. Initially, Jessie did not talk in the group because she felt shy. She asked her questions either before the meetings or afterward. However, her questions were discussed in the group and other participants appreciated her contribution. This helped Jessie to believe in herself and to feel ownership as part o f the group. Jessie’s behaviour transformed and she emerged as a successful trainee. 4.1.3 Kulraj Kulraj was a woman in her forties who immigrated to Canada more than 15 years ago. When she enrolled in the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills training, she was receiving social assistance to support herself and her two children. It was hard for Kulraj to find a place to work in this “unknown world” after she was divorced. She A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 99 worked as a labourer in nurseries and greenhouses a few times and she found that “it was really a hard work and quite difficult for me as I never worked before” . “I just wanted to get employed learning cleaning skills as I feel I am good at cleaning”, Kulraj explained, when I asked her why she wanted to join this training. She was apprehensive when she shared that she was on social assistance because she said, “I don’t want to lose my social welfare services - please tell me if having this training will lead to loss o f these services”. I explained that this training would not affect any services that she was receiving before or after the training. The settlement counsellor also assured her the same and she felt relaxed and joined the training with full enthusiasm. Kulraj always liked to learn from the group. It was a new experience for her to be part of this training and research. She said that “this training will be a good starting point for me to leam Canadian culture and know new people and places”. 4.1.4 Harleen Harleen and her sister Isha immigrated to Canada on the basis o f their spousal visas. Both sisters had a great urge to learn English and experience inclusion “in the foreign country”. Infused with this urge, Harleen joined a Punjabi Mothers and Grandmothers Program with her sister Isha to improve her English speaking skills. She found the Punjabi Mothers and Grandmothers Program “a good place to get refreshed from the tiresome routine o f the daily work”. She liked being part of the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills training, because, as she said, A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 100 I got good opportunity to be with this group and specially with you (Amandeep) as I know you before . . . and I ’m wondering it will be a great fun to learn cleaning skills and having a chance to work at different places during training. Harleen had worked as a labourer in a nursery. She shared her thoughts how she had to work hard in a in a nursery and was paid less. She always thought about how she could earn good money with less laborious work. She liked to work as a cleaner and she said that she joined this training “to learn cleaning and job finding skills” . 4.1.5 Isha Isha was at first reluctant to share many details of her past. She had worked in a nursery and greenhouse as a labourer and she described it as “tough work where one has to work all day even if it’s raining”. She had two children. “I have no time to spend with my children and when I look at other families I feel like I’m doing injustice with my children as I’m not taking them for any outing”. Isha came into this training with the hope o f achieving her long term goal o f getting well established in Canada. However, she described the pressure that she experienced: “lack of language skills, no Canadian education and the obligation to my parental family, who are still waiting to immigrate to Canada —I have to pay money advance for their immigration and settlement”. She explained, “This is the only reason I have to accept to work in a greenhouse and nurseries”. She said that she liked cleaning work. Further, she added that she believed this kind of work would be easier for her she would have the option to work at night and spend the day time with her children because most offices are cleaned after business hours. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.1.6 101 Ginny Ginny was the youngest women who participated in this training. She always had a smile on her face, although she lived with the hidden sorrows of domestic issues. She had a daughter of three years o f age whom she left with her parents during training sessions. She shared that “it’s really good that my parents are here and I always have a support from them”. Ginny sat quietly through the first o f our training sessions. I believe it was difficult for her to focus on learning with the distractions o f her family issues always hovering around her and enveloping her in sadness. However, within a few weeks o f training, she developed a good rapport with the group and learned ways to cope with stress and manage daily chores. “I need someone to share my thoughts” she said. “Being part of this group I feel like . . . all are so polite and [I’m] having fun with them and learning while sharing our own thoughts and experiences”. In the next section o f this chapter I discuss the experiences of these six immigrant women: Anita, Jessie, Kulraj, Harleen, Isha, and Ginny, in the process o f developing, implementing, and refining the curriculum. The following six research questions led to my consideration o f the overarching question: How can a janitorial business curriculum and mentorship foster transformative learning and leadership in immigrant women? 4.2 Question 1: Previous Experiences and Learning Needs Roschelle (1995) emphasized that learning experiences must begin where the learner is, that is, starting from the known and progressing to the unknown, and so this study focused on the learner’s prior experience and need for cleaning skills. Assessment A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 102 of prior knowledge and skills was used to define and refine the cleaning business curriculum. The immigrant women’s experiences depicted their previously held beliefs, attitudes, values, and feelings. All the women in this study shared their feelings and beliefs about leaving their homeland in India and living in Canada. None o f the women had worked in their country because their family income was enough and their role was to take care o f the household chores. Some o f them moved to Canada with their parents and were married here. Others moved to Canada after marriage. Two participants had been divorced and one had remarried. Asking about the previous experiences o f the women helped me to understand the knowledge and beliefs that they brought into the training and also how they made sense o f their experiences and lives. All the women who participated in this training left their homeland with a dream that life would be better in Canada and they hoped for bright and prosperous futures. For most o f them, life in Canada was totally different than what they dreamt of. Most participants started working in Canada, which was a significant shift from non-work to work. All o f them were passionate about learning the English language and culture in order to expand their opportunities. Most o f them entered into this training to enhance their basic cleaning skills, take advantage of employment opportunities in the city of Abbotsford, and meet the economic demands of their families. The women in this study reported previous experience working as labourers in a nursery or greenhouse or as housecleaners or cleaning their own home. Harleen shared her experience of working in a nursery: “Just because of working so hard for all day and sometimes on weekends too, I am having no time to take rest. I also started having A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 103 backache problems but for economic security I have to work here”. She added, “I learned about this training and thinking o f - if I can get a cleaners’ job - that will be awesome”. Otherwise “I have to toil in the fields...enduring low wages and long hours o f hard work” . Harleen’s sister Isha who also worked in a nursery and greenhouse, shared her story o f how she began to have spinal cord troubles because o f her work. She described the variety o f jobs she had done at different places: I had to do lots of work just for few wages . . . I planted bulbs, packed berries, bell peppers, did pruning and twisting, cutting and trimming plants and grass, planting in trays, and mowing and much more. Sometimes I wonder how I could do all this”. Most of the women reported that they were familiar with cleaning equipment such as vacuum cleaners. However, they did not have any knowledge of safety regulations and precautions to take when using cleaning tools and chemical-based cleaners. Jessie shared her experience o f working as a housecleaner. She enjoyed her work and the fact that she was able to earn money. She encountered some cleaning equipment that was new to her and she was happy to leam new things at her work. She enjoyed the company o f the woman for whom she worked. She described how it helped her to develop a feeling o f security when she got her first pay check. However, Jessie had faced some problems that she called “bad experience” in using cleaning supplies. She described how a cleaning chemical reacted on her hands. “The skin on my hands peeled off with the cleaner” . She replied, “No” when I asked if A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 104 she had contacted a doctor. She just applied a hand lotion instead of seeing a doctor because “it might cost money for buying the medicine”. Anita described the experience of working as a janitor with her brother who had subcontracts for cleaning banks and restaurants. She explained how cleaning work was a passion for her. She had learned some basic cleaning tasks as she helped her brother in his work. “He wanted to pay me but I said I ’m just learning and helping you”. She also explained how her brother cared about her. “My brother was really caring for me when I was working with him”. She continued, “I still remember I was wearing some fancy shoes” and he said, “D on’t wear these shoes next time at work as these are slippery ones and you may fall soon.” She added, “Just working with my brother I learned many things that a janitor does. I felt this is really easy and I liked it.” A variety o f learning needs related to cleaning skills were reported by the immigrant women. It was common for them to need to leam job finding skills so that they could obtain employment using the janitorial skills learned in the training. Some women reported the need to leam the basic etiquette and manners of Canadian culture so that they could do well in their jobs. Few women mentioned the need to leam the basic management or self-leadership skills that would help them to improve their own personal skills and qualities. Two women reported that they needed to leam how to find clients and build customer relationships in the cleaning profession. One woman’s eyes filled with tears as she talked about leaving her home country and family o f origin so that she could begin her married life here, which did not last long. She had lost hope that she would be able to get any job in this “new country” while A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 105 raising her children alone. She saw her biggest barrier as her inability to read or write English. In my data analysis, themes that emerged in documenting immigrant women’s previous experiences and learning needs included: immigration, new country, bad experiences, losing hope, labourers, physical problems, familiarity with cleaning tools and equipment, demands o f cleaning jobs, and carefulness. These categories o f prior experiences and needs helped me to design an appropriate curriculum that would build on their prior knowledge. All of these immigrant women were seeking the information, skills, and habits required in the cleaning profession, which they hoped would contribute to obtaining employment and improving their lives with physical, social, and economic benefits. From these immigrant women’s past experiences and needs, I concluded that there was a need to improve the self-esteem o f the women and restore their hope o f finding a better life. It was important to provide the basic information and knowledge to use the cleaning equipment and tools, as a realistic basis for that hope. My experience confirms the assertion in the literature that it was important to make special efforts in training to develop self-esteem as well as the proper use o f chemicals, tools, and protective equipment used in cleaning work (Jungbauer et al., 2004). Further, the educational programs for cleaning workers needed to focus on the prevention o f occupational diseases and health maintenance (Weisshaar et al., 2007). A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.3 106 Question 2: L earning from M aterials, M ethod, and M entorship The Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills program helped participants to enhance their cleaning skills and increase their positive feelings about themselves. All the immigrant women who participated in this study reported their belief that their cleaning skills and knowledge improved during the program and that this was helpful to them both at home and work. Some o f the women also reported a change in one or more o f their beliefs or attitudes in that they were freed from previously held beliefs, attitudes, values or feelings, thus fulfilling the criteria for transformative learning (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999). This change was less about the amount or type of skills or knowledge possessed than about the very way the learners understood self, the world, and the relationship between the two (Drago-Severson, 2004). The immigrant women saw and understood different aspects o f self and others (Cranton, 1994; Mezirow, 1991). Jessie explained that her training experience had taught her “how to communicate with others - 1 didn’t know - group discussions helped me a lot. My friends told me that now I can better explain my feelings and there is a good change in my personality”. In one of the discussions she said that she had learned “how to handle chemicals, mops, how to keep body posture while handling weights and a lot more . . . I didn’t knew all this before coming into this training”. This technical knowledge is referred as first order change because there were incremental improvements in Jessie’s skills (Educational Leadership that Works, 2007). According to Levy and Mary (as cited in Poutiatine, 2009), “ first-order change refers to those minor improvements and adjustments that do not change the system’s core, and occurs as the system naturally grows and develops” (p. 4)- A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 107 Jessie mentioned how it was painful for her that she could not explain to others what she meant to say. This was happening because she was not aware o f the etiquette in this new culture. She said she always had a feeling that instead of saying something wrong it would be good to be silent. I saw evidence that Jessie was frustrated with her pre-existing frame o f mind. In the frame o f mind that was reconstructed throughout the training, she began thinking about herself and the world around her in a more positive way. Jessie reflected, “I learned new skills in this training. It helped me to develop selfconfidence and self-esteem. I started thinking more about self in a good way that I never thought of before”. According to Clark (1993), transformative learning induces change in the learner through learning experiences that shape the learner and produce a significant impact, or paradigm shift, which affects the learner's subsequent experiences. Jessie saw substantial change in her habits o f mind (meaning perspective), which were crucially important to the quality o f her life. I propose that Jessie’ first order change influenced her in a positive way to bring about the second order change that implied a significant break with her past practices (Educational Leadership that Works, 2007). According to Anita, she learned new skills by comparing new techniques with the ones that she knew from her past work. Initially she thought that she had enough knowledge to do this training easily. However, she found some cleaning strategies were challenging for her. First, she disliked her new experience o f using the back pack vacuum cleaner. She had a previous experience o f using it and found it was too heavy to carry it on her back. She had a notion that back pack vacuum cleaners were not good for the back and developed a fear o f using them. Many times, the trainer (professional cleaner) A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 108 demonstrated for Anita the right posture for carrying the vacuum cleaner and described the situations in which this tool would be most effective for finishing the work quickly. It was difficult for Anita to let go o f her fear and change her previous assumptions about the vacuum cleaner. One day, while discussing her experiences with other women in the training, she shared her every fear with the group. Some of the group members indicated that they had also been thinking the same way before the practicum. They shared their techniques for using the back pack vacuum cleaner and how they had noticed that it was actually convenient for finishing work quickly. In the very next practicum session, Anita tried to use the back pack vacuum cleaner. A couple of times a feeling o f fear came to her mind that it could hurt her back or she would fall down while cleaning stairs with it. It took her a long time to prepare herself to start using it. To her surprise, when she tried using it, it was really easy to finish work with that equipment. She was not carrying it properly before and found that it was her fear that was not allowing her to be comfortable with it. Anita’s reflective learning involved assessing and reassessing assumptions regarding use o f cleaning equipment and “reflective learning becomes transformative when assumptions or premises are found to be distorting, inauthentic, or otherwise invalid” (Mezirow, 1991). Here learning occurred when Anita went through a process o f reconciling newly communicated ideas with the assumptions o f prior learning (Cranton, 1994). Her learning consisted of a change in her beliefs and attitudes. This involved a change in her perspective as she was freed from previously held beliefs, attitudes, values and feelings that had constricted her use of that equipment (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). It also A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 109 involved some aspect of risk and fear to adopt the new belief. Trust in the group and the experiences o f other women similar to herself appeared to support her risk-taking. Like Anita, other participants also found how their thinking was changed regarding use o f different cleaning equipment. However, their change involved only behavioural change without any change in their beliefs. This is a non transformational change as, “we may be able to change our behaviors without changing our beliefs but we cannot transform without our behaviors, competencies, beliefs, identity, and mission all participating in the reconsideration and reform” (Poutiatine, 2009, p. 198). Thus, transformation involves all aspects o f an individual’s life (Poutiatine, 2009). 4.3.1 Distinguishing Transformation from Change Initially, I found the concept and process o f transformation confusing and ambiguous. To develop a clearer understanding o f transformation and transformational process, I used Poutiatine’s (2009) nine principles o f transformation (see Figure 2, chapter 1) as a framework for analyzing data related to personal change for participants. I believe the findings o f this study provide insights into differentiating change from transformational change. Participants who were changed in the process o f their training experience indicated skills development, emotions, confidence, knowledge, learning materials and methods, and personality as the factors that brought about change (transformational or non-transformational). 4.3.1.1 Skills development The immigrant women reported a number o f skills learned in this program. Some o f the women emphasized how cleaning skills helped them to do their home tasks more A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 110 effectively. Jessie and Anita talked about how their skills had changed as a result o f the program participation. They both said that the skills they learned in the program were helping them to change the way they did their work at home. Harleen and Isha reported how they could sweep and mop in a less time with better equipment selection and method. Others emphasized their learning o f communication skills, for example, Kulraj and Ginny felt more comfortable in developing relationships with others. Jessie mentioned different skills that she learned in the group. She said, “I believe this training should have been named the skills training” . She added, “I learned anger management, problem solving, networking, and personality development along with learning cleaning skills”. She also mentioned about critical thinking in her own way. “I liked the new way to think about things, what I am doing, why I am doing, what I have learned or how effective I have done and what else I can learn or do” . Here, the change that was brought by immigrant wom en’s practicing skills in the training was a non-transformational and continuous change process (Poutinatine, 2009). This type o f change does not “challenge taken-for-granted assumptions, motions, and meanings” (Dirkx, Mezirow & Cranton, 2006, p. 126). Contrary to this, transformational change, “usually disrupts our past patterns” (Quinn, 1996, p. 3). 4.3.1.2 Emotions Immigrant women reported that they were not feeling isolated anymore. They emphasized how the program members with different perspectives had different ways o f understanding the same concepts. Anita, Kulraj, and Jessie reported that by participating in this program and because of the support o f the other women, they had been able to A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 111 express some of their feelings. Kulraj said, “I was wondering if it’s only me who is always thinking of living in bitterness and despair” . Kulraj said, “Learning life skills helped me to understand others and make friends . . . and helped me to work in collaboration”. A large number of studies have suggested the importance of social relationships and feelings connected to others as central to women’s lives (Belenky et al., 1986; Caffarella & Olson, 1993; Mackeracher, 1996, Prins et al., 2009). The supportive social relationships are also central to physical, mental, social, and economic well-being (Prins et al., 2009). Forming a group and having multiple interactions with group members increased a sense o f well-being but also facilitated learning in that participants saw differences in the way others thought and then questioned their own deeply held assumptions. There were also times when program rules, formulated by the participating members, were violated by some members. The members who violated the rules, such as coming late to the program, were having commonly encountered difficulties in dealing with familiar life transitions. Ginny was late for practicum more than once and for the last practicum she came late by one hour. The trainer (professional cleaner) was busy assigning tasks to the members after giving a detailed description of the methods and materials to be used in that practicum. I approached Ginny to ask why she was late and to provide emotional support. She yelled at me, “I don’t want to talk to you and don’t want to do any training . . . I don’t care about anyone .. . leave me alone.” I tried to calm her by saying that not to worry about the practicum or training but to relax and talk to me. Instead o f calming down, she began behaving in a way that distracted other members o f A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 112 the group. “What do you think . . . I’m wrong in being late? Is it only me who always comes late?” She continued asking questions and answering herself. I felt helpless to allay Ginny’s anxiety. I always kept emergency contact information o f all the group members handy, so I called Ginny’s sister, who said that she would come to the practicum venue as soon as possible. She arrived within ten minutes and helped Ginny to regain her composure. Ginny began working normally in the group but all the others were disturbed and worried about her. Everyone was wondering why she had not shared her troubles with us. Why she was so upset? If she needed help, why didn’t she talk to us? Our discussion times had contained many questions to help group members plan to seek help and solve problems. Later, Anita reported that this incident helped her to understand how things worsen if one does not control one’s emotions and how it affects others and the environment. Jessie reported that she would always avoid approaching a problem emotionally. This incident revealed transformative learning for some o f the participants because they were developing a value for the trust and support of a collegial group - a new way to solve problems. They learned a new frame o f reference. Ginny’s sister confided that Ginny had been in an abusive relationship with her husband, who left her alone with her one year old daughter. She could not bear it and got emotionally upset sometimes. Because it was the last practicum, we had only one discussion meeting remaining and that was not sufficient to help Ginny to deal her difficult life transitions. Because this program was over, Ginny was referred to the settlement counsellor for support. Mezirow (1991) asserted that it is necessary for adult educators “to make a careful distinction between adults who are having commonly A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 113 encountered difficulties in dealing with familiar life transitions and those who have extreme neurotic, psychotic, or sociopathic disorders and require psychotherapy” (p. 205). The immigrant women’s participation in the program engaged them constructively with the new concepts o f making friends and breaking isolation. Listening, sharing, developing a sense o f belonging, and learning to value the trust and support o f other women helped them to build and strengthen their friendships and overcome their feelings of isolation. Participants experienced disorientation related to Ginny’s outburst. This critical incident (Newman, 1987) forced them to either reject or revise their previous views o f approaching problems and help-seeking behaviour. Similarly, participants’ responses to Ginny’s behaviour contributed to their construction of new frames o f reference. In the process o f disorientation and reconstruction o f new frames o f reference, individuals became engaged in the process o f transformation described as transformative learning. As outlined by Poutinatine (2009), transformation requires assent to change; the immigrant women’s willingness to construct meaning was their assent to transform. Their active personal choice in transformation was driven both cognitively and affectively. The affective component was driven by the women’s feelings or emotions in the process o f immigration and settling in the new country, stressful situations at home and work, and training discussions and dialogue. The cognitive component involved reflecting on and articulating how they were feeling about the change, for example, their involvement in the critical self-reflection process that they believed helped them acquire deep learning. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 114 4.3.1.3 Confidence Jessie, Isha and Harleen reported how their involvement in this training and research helped them to identify their strengths. Harleen reported, “I couldn’t believe that my strength is my hard work and ability to understand others” . Jessie appreciated the inclusion of the self-esteem module in the training. In her excitement she reported, “I learned who I am - a good mother and wife” . She also reported how her personality improved as she learned how to communicate with others and demonstrate etiquette and courtesies in person, on the phone, and through emails. Listening to other’s experiences and beliefs, Kulraj shared that she did not like to be on welfare: “my children learn from me, if I earn good money only then I can provide them a good education and living” . Kulraj mentioned how she redefined her goals in the training. She reported that before having training she always worried about how she would be able to survive if she stopped receiving welfare. With the training, she changed her perspective from her fear o f losing welfare to a desire to become independent by doing work so that her children would be motivated to become independent like her. The knowledge o f self-esteem appeared to play an important role in her transitioning from welfare to work (Bruster, 2006). It also helped her in defining her goal to do volunteer work so that she could get more work experience to obtain a job. She further added that work would help her to keep healthy. Like Jessie and Kulraj, most of the women did not appear to be personally confident when they came into the training. Therefore, we decided together to include the importance o f work and work skills as one o f the aspects o f learning in the curriculum modules. We also discussed how to identify strengths and improve self-esteem. “I feel A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 115 like I am nothing, I can never get a job . . . I always compared self with others but now I know I do have some qualities”, Jessie reported on completing her training. Understanding the concepts o f self-esteem and self-efficacy in immigrant women appeared to be central to the empowerment o f the immigrant women. Thus, this study confirmed the findings o f Prins et al. (2009), who provided evidence that wom en’s self­ esteem can be developed through educational programs. At the beginning o f the program, Kulraj asked me more than once if this training would affect her welfare services, which reflected her fear o f losing her only means o f financial support. The open discussions in the group made room for her fear to be challenged by her urge to become independent. The generation of new knowledge from other’s experiences challenged her existing assumption that losing her welfare would be a disaster and led to the development o f some confidence in herself, which I interpreted as a transformational change. Thus, relationships played an important role in her transformational change process. The open and trusting relationships established between group members helped them in identifying their strengths and redefining their goals. The learning of self-esteem and life skills challenged their existing assumptions that they would not be able to support themselves and their children or improve their own lives. 4.3.1.4 Knowledge There were a variety o f knowledge factors reported by participants that affected their decision making power. These factors were knowledge o f self-esteem, self-efficacy, empowerment, networking, family development, transition from welfare to employment, and work safety. Most of the women reported that they learned how to use cleaning tools A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 116 and equipment safely and prevent work place injuries. Anita reported, “I did cleaning work with my brother but never knew how mixing different cleaning chemicals can be so dangerous”. Jessie also reported that she learned how to work safely and to change her perspective on using cleaning chemicals: “I had a passion for cleaning work but I was scared that my skin would be affected adversely with the cleaning chemicals as I had a bad experience before”. The knowledge o f safety at cleaning work helped Jessie to develop confidence in her cleaning skills. “I will be careful for having proper body movements while cleaning and wearing gloves for the safety o f my hands”. She further said, “the information that I got in this training will be helpful lifelong and I learned a lot in this training.” Here, Jessie’s entire paradigmatic perspective regarding safety in cleaning work is enlarged and restructured. This change is a transformational change that broadened Jessie’s knowledge, scope, and vision (Poutinatine, 2009) for cleaning work and equipment. Quinn (1996) called this a “deep change which is discontinuous with the past and generally irreversible” (p. 3). In other words, it is now impossible for Jessie to discard the known knowledge and awareness generated with this transformational change. Thus, transformational change is irreversible in nature (Poutinatine, 2009). 4.3.1.5 Materials and Methods As an educator, I believe that learners become eager to leam the material when their voices are heard in the designing o f learning experiences and the selection of materials and methods (Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 1998). In this study, involving the immigrant women in choosing options appeared to enhance their will to leam. This was a A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 117 transformative experience for me as I explored how adult learners leam best when their participation includes the power to plan and implement the course o f action. While working with other adult programs, I observed that adult learners’ willing cooperation was influenced by the educator’s way o f introducing the topic and relating concepts to life experiences as well as the educator’s sense o f humour, knowledge o f the learner’s culture, and respect for adult learners. Sharing their experiences with other immigrant women in the group seemed effective for cultivating a predisposition for learning. Jessie approved o f all the methods o f leaning: “I liked both learning in the class as well as doing practicum at different places. I best learned through the pictures depicting right and wrong methods o f doing cleaning work.” Although other learners mentioned practical work as the quickest method o f learning, they also liked the discussion o f theory, “just to share” their “ideas”. Thus, instruction was structured so that knowledge was easily grasped by the learners (Bruner, 1966). The instructional materials such as pictures, videos, and verbally stated questions for problem solving were, as evidenced by the participation and opinions o f participants, effective ways to generate active participation o f the learners (Gagne 1965). The immigrant women in this study were provided with experience working individually and in teams and asked to consider how various groupings affected their work efficacy. Initially, some o f the women liked working in rotation and others preferred choosing their work. Jessie reported, I have cleaning experience working individually but now I find working in teams is more fun” . “If you are not feeling well others can help you in finishing the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 118 work. You always have a feeling o f security that you are not alone in the building. Moreover, I like laughing and that I can do only in teams (laughing). On the hand, Kulraj reported, “I want to finish work at my own pace. Working in team is like working under pressure”. The trainer (professional cleaner) explained to the participants how the commitment to work and following the rules o f the team can affect their physical and mental performance. This trainer also explained the expectations of supervisors and responsibilities o f cleaners in detail. This knowledge helped the learners to perform their roles effectively both individually (zone cleaning) and in teams (team cleaning). The trainer’s (professional cleaner) personal story o f how she started from scratch to become a leading professional cleaner moved many to tears. Her story helped participants to realize that hard work pays in the long run. It also helped some women to become more confident to aspire to work hard and become professional cleaners, although others just saw it as a story and did not display any change in their attitudes or beliefs. An example illustrates my process o f differentiation between change and transformational change. The immigrant women experienced change in their work efficiency skills with practical education and the experience o f working in teams or individually. This was a first order change because it was part of a constant and continuous change process, not a discontinuous or transformational change process. Secondly, the immigrant women could control this type o f change (a characteristic o f first order change that is non-transformational) (Poutiatine, 2009). Thirdly, if working in A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 119 teams or individually did not work for the immigrant women, they could switch to a preferred method of cleaning. Thus, this change without transformation could be controlled and was also reversible in nature. The story o f the trainer (professional cleaner) was, for some participants, an example o f transformational change, a movement toward a greater integrity o f the immigrant women’s identity also described as a movement toward wholeness (Poutiatine, 2009). The trainer’s story influenced some immigrant women to think deeply (a deep inner reflection) “about their self and the internal and external structures” (Quinn, 1996). In this transformative learning experience, the women expanded their understanding of self through the trainer’s story. The immigrant w omen’s movement toward wholeness included expanding their understanding o f inner self (identity) and o f how it might be possible to manifest that self in the world (integrity) (Palmer, 2004). The trainer’s story left a positive impact on some women as they became more confident in their abilities to become professional cleaners and to find dignity and purpose in the world o f work. 4.3.1.6 Personality All the learners described the positive qualities o f others in the group. Kulraj was complimented for her sitting posture. She always sat straight, which appeared to be part of her personality, and others in the training were inspired by her way o f speaking softly and sitting and walking graciously. Isha was appreciated for her listening skills. She commented that she became a better speaker by participating in our group discussions and shared that at her work, she often withdrew questions for the fear that others would not understand her. Ginny, the youngest learner, was admired by a few for her quietness A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 120 but others tried to convince her to share her thoughts more freely. Harleen was admired for her hard work: Whatever task she was given to do, she always completed it on time and with the best results. Jessie and Anita were very much oriented towards helping others. They gave rides to others to get to practicum venues that were distant from the learners’ place of residence. Both o f these participants stated that they derived satisfaction from the process o f helping others. This study helped the learners to know each other better and to develop a sense o f belonging, appreciation, and compassion for the others. This was all possible because o f a shared understanding among the group members, which helped group members to make sense o f things and improve their knowledge (Wlodkowski, 2008). I interpreted this incremental growth as first-order change which did not change the individuals as a whole but represented the natural growth and development of the individuals within a supportive social environment. My analysis suggested that these immigrant women, as a result o f their participation in the program, experienced both change and transformational change. All participants in this study gained new knowledge and skills. The transformative learners described how change resulted in a new ways o f thinking, doing things, and viewing themselves and their assumptions. One interesting understanding that developed for me was that first order change can influence individuals in a positive way and precede second order change, which implies a significant break with their past and current practices. As an educator, this program emerged as a medium o f transformative learning for me. It gave me stronger self-awareness, a deeper awareness o f the interests o f the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 121 learners, a new understanding of the value o f mutual openness between m yself and the learners, and increased skill in fostering the engaging process o f critical reflection and self-reflection though dialogue (Cranton & Carusetta, 2004). My intention to teach for change in the lives of immigrant women brought opportunities for questioning my own frames of reference. My old beliefs about learning assumed that educating learners was sharing with them what they did not know by designing creative activities. In this approach, I found that the learners were dependent on their educator and were not involved as whole persons. My previous approach was more o f a one way process in which only the educator put forth efforts to develop activities to involve the learners. However, in the collaborative learning experience o f this study, participants showed more interest as they realized they were in charge o f their own learning and their participation structured the curriculum. I also found that when content was relevant to a learner’s current situation, problems and emotions emerged as a more powerful factor to support memory and learning than when content was connected to previous experiences. As described by Mezirow, transformative learning occurs when individuals change their frames o f reference (Cranton, 1994, 1996; Mezirow, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997) by critically reflecting on their assumptions and beliefs and consciously making and implementing plans. I experienced a consciousness raising regarding my teaching; I found that I can put what I knew before into entirely new frames of reference. This was not incremental change in my development as an instructor but something beyond my control and irreversible. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 122 Instructing this program gave me a stronger self-awareness as I gained a better understanding of how I teach, interpret my experiences, and reconstruct frames of reference. This study gave me an opportunity to assess my personal and leadership skills, competencies, and practices and to set goals for incremental growth or change that may not be transformative but will still be valuable for my development as an educator. I found that it was easy for me to converse with participants and encourage them to share their views with me and so I will continue to build on this strength in communication and relationship building for future projects. My self-assessment also helped me to discover areas in which I could improve, such as managing stress and working in teams. Here, the concept o f my critical awareness runs parallel to the process of transformative learning, as I think critically about what helped me and how and what is changed in the process o f teaching. However, the concept o f self-awareness is simply an incremental change. Awareness emerged but I did not question my construction o f meaning. In this study, I became self-aware as I helped immigrant women to become aware o f their personal strengths and weaknesses. I used dialogue and reflection as the main tools to achieve this goal for them and I found that these processes also had an impact on me. Through dialogue, we developed awareness o f our attitudes, feelings, and preferences over time. I am confident that I was able to document the signs o f change that occurred during the cyclic process o f CAR with some accuracy, confirming participants’ words with my own observations. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.4 123 Question 3: Improving the Curriculum and Delivery Collaborative action research allowed the participants and myself to share our individual learning and thus generate individual and group learning for each other. This approach was focused on the opportunity to revise and refine the janitorial business curriculum and raise awareness o f both learner and teacher from “ knowing what” into “ knowing how” (Quinn, 1992). This approach helped me, as an adult educator, to gain insight into the learning and teaching issues related to the context and to the participants. Working in collaboration with the learners, I was able to customize the curriculum to the needs of the participants. For example, in the janitorial workshop, participants had the opportunity to leam new skills (such as resume and cover letter writing, interviewing strategies, job search skills, and how to complete an application form). I customized the janitorial workshop according to the specific needs o f the participants, which helped the participants to prepare effectively for future job openings. 4.4.1 Participants’ Need-based Curriculum Improvement In the following sections I elaborate on how the processes of collaboration led to curriculum improvement and to knowledge creation. As the participants were becoming aware o f a variety o f cleaning tasks and equipment while working in a variety o f locations, they asked for more experience using cleaning techniques at other places. My ACS colleagues and I could not accommodate all o f their needs due to limited training time and funding. Most o f the women requested the addition o f waxing and polishing in the training. “Practicum should include cleaning experience in schools which we didn’t get and cleaning experience in hospitals should be A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 124 done for a longer period o f time”, Jessie mentioned in her suggestions for improving the curriculum. Anita responded, “training would have been more beneficial if we had a chance to work at a specific place like hospital, bank, or school for a longer period o f time so that we would have become experts in our tasks” . 4.4.2 Inclusion of Extensive Work-related Content I believe that the janitorial business curriculum and its delivery could have been improved with inclusion o f work-related content, preferably with different local employers to increase participants’ opportunities for employment and advancement. Working with local employers, participants may have gained real experience, developed skills, made connections, strengthened their resumes, learned more about their work in specific contexts, assessed their interest and abilities further, and obtained mentoring opportunities with local employers. Offering a paid practicum may have been beneficial, because the women would have appreciated the financial support. If such an arrangement is possible for a future program, an opportunity to earn while they leam could be a draw for participants, although employers may have recommendations about how much time would be required to hone their skills. As it was, time was an issue in this program because limited resources made it necessary to complete the program within the designated time frame, even though more time to practice may have improved participants’ skills. 4.4.3 Training Orientation The practicum places were chosen according to the learning needs o f the participants. For some participants, it was difficult to find their assigned practicum place. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 125 We managed this problem by requesting that participants help each other locate and travel to each practicum place and to our classroom sessions. In the first sessions, participants familiarized themselves with the surroundings. The operation o f building security and its alarms was a new experience for the participants. Some participants needed assistance to move from one room to another as they were not familiar with the building or using building maps. Together, the immigrant women, the program coordinator, and I decided that an orientation session should precede future training in order to orient the participants with the nature of the work and the locations where their learning would occur. We believed an orientation would help the learners become comfortable with the training sites and develop confidence in the overall learning process. Jessie reported, “as I volunteered for few programs at Abbottsford Community Services, I had a feeling o f confidence that I know this place and people as compared to other places of training”. Anita reported similar feelings, “I had an experience o f working at these types o f places with my brother. It was easy for me to leam quickly and perform the tasks assigned by the trainer (professional cleaner).” However, Ginny and Kulraj shared their need to solve transportation issues even to reach the training venues: “First we were wondering, how we can get there” remarked Kulraj. When I asked Ginny if she had trouble finding one venue, she replied, “I always asked my sister about the place as she knows more about this city” . In response to the same question, Kulraj plainly admitted, “I have no idea how to find a place. I ’m totally dependent on the bus service.” A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.4.4 126 Cleaning Tools and Equipment Information Most o f the participants reported that the best information they acquired in this training was related to cleaning tools and equipment information. For example, Jessie reported that the most valuable learning for her was “getting information about different and new cleaning chemicals and equipment and how to use them. She added that “I also learned what skills do I possess and how to communicate with others”. Kulraj reported, “The housecleaning and janitorial skills affected the way I performed cleaning tasks at home . .. like how to keep food safe while cleaning fridge”, referring to the community kitchen practicum that included food safety. Kulraj reported that the most valuable aspect o f the training was learning how to prevent body injuries while using cleaning equipment and chemicals. 4.4.5 The Language of Instruction The program was designed and delivered in English. However, because the first language o f all participants was Punjabi, I translated into Punjabi whenever clarification was needed. While explaining specific terms related to Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS), I found that it was difficult for the participants to understand the basic meaning of the terms and to do related assignments. After a thorough discussion on the day o f the WHMIS session, the participants and I developed strategies to deal with challenges associated with language issues. To better suit participants’ needs, we decided that our mother tongue, Punjabi, was the easiest language for learning complex terms. Therefore, I provided the learning materials for WHMIS, such as samples for chemical product labels and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) in A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 127 both English and Punjabi. I believe by asking about participants’ learning experiences, I was able to better support and guide them. From this example, I was reminded that the medium o f information dissemination plays an important role in whether learners understand the content and how to implement the tasks effectively. A more extensive knowledge of English was necessary for participants to read the instructions, precautions, and other important information printed on the labels of cleaning equipment and tools and MSDS. Therefore, I provided language support specific to that content and also recommended that participants take the English learning lessons available at Abbotsford Community Services to improve their English reading, writing, and speaking skills. 4.4.6 The Job Opportunity - A Motivator There was an opening for a janitor at the Community Kitchen at Abbotsford Community Services during the Immigrant W omen’s Cleaning and Work Skills training. This job opportunity served as a motivator for the participants. The jo b opening increased the participants’ desire to leam, in order to become a competent candidate for this job. All of the participants applied for this job on the completion o f their training and one o f them was offered this job. All others were genuinely congratulatory to the selected candidate. I believe their sincere response was a sign that the group was mutually supportive and overcame individual interests. I also feel strongly that if immigrant women were paid for their practical work during training, they would be more motivated as well as supported. A modest payment for their practical work would have empowered the immigrant women by putting capital A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 12 8 in their hands and allowing them to begin earning an independent income and contribute financially to their households and communities (Cheston & Kuhn, n.d.). 4.5 Question 4: Leadership Lessons Reflecting on my assessment o f the immigrant women’s needs and our sharing o f experiences related to curriculum development and implementation contributed some important leadership lessons. The highlights o f what I have learned may apply to leadership and adult education beyond this context. The following sections describe my learning about the importance o f self-awareness, o f empowerment for leadership, and o f the learning opportunities in collaborative action research. As a transformational leader I needed to know my participants well, and in the process of gathering information from them, the immigrant women also developed selfawareness regarding their own needs and values. From the initial meetings and interviews, I came to understand their existing needs and the reasons they had enrolled in the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills program. I also had previous experience o f working with some o f the participants in other community programs at Abbotsford Community Services. My familiarity with participants, their language, and their backgrounds helped me to look for the motives that would engage them more fully in the learning. Understanding their own needs with greater awareness seemed to help the women to begin to feel a sense o f control over their lives, which is a characteristic o f self­ leadership. I believe that self-awareness is the ability o f leaders to understand their own personal emotions, moods, and values. This kind o f self-awareness is also the foundation A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 129 for recognizing these aspects in others (Goleman et al., 2002). Goleman (as cited in Lyons, 2005) stated that, “before you can lead others, before you can help others, you have to discover yourself’ (p. 19). This understanding applies to me, as an active researcher, leader, and educator in this study. My own experience as an immigrant helped me understand how leaving roots and settling in a new country may lead to alienation and isolation that are beyond our control. Women who were once dependent on their parents, husbands, and friends or relatives in their home country find it difficult to become independent in a new place and with new people. Limited education and employment opportunities, as well as in adequate knowledge o f the official language aggravate their inability to participate in the host country (Sircar, 2000). During my journey as a student o f leadership education and in the process o f this study, I discovered that self-awareness develops through frequent attention to self and surroundings. It helps individuals to lead their lives with a focus on goals or objectives. In this study, I helped immigrant women to become self-aware of their personal strengths and weaknesses. I used dialogue and reflection as the main tools to achieve this goal. During the process of dialogue and reflection, I found that it takes time to reach others, to raise their consciousness, help them to build meanings, and inspire the goals that are the source of their own self-leadership power (Bennis, 1986). From breaking silence to developing feeling of belonging and group ownership, dialogue helped participants to reflect on their lived experiences in the process of learning. In the cycles o f action and reflection that were evident in our approach to learning and to research, participants became aware o f nature o f the problems, their strengths and weaknesses, what they had learned, and how they could better achieve their goals. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 130 Anita said, “When I joined this training, I have nothing in my mind like what other things I can leam. But after joining the training, it came to my mind that I can do (leam) more”. Jessie reported, “This training was truly beneficial for me as I got a janitors’ job. I got hands on experience through the training and whatever I learned there helped me to get this job. It’s ap art time job but I’m sure that I will definitely get a full time job very soon” . She continued, “I applied for work at different places before this training. Most o f the times, they refused my application saying that I don’t have any trainings. But now I have training, experience and a part time job. I can show this training, experience and have good references. I’m happy I got job and earning good money. Now I can help my kids to plan for their vacations and buy toys or any other food that I couldn’t afford before getting job”. Her eyes filled with tears o f jo y when she added, “It sounds good how hard work pays o ff’. When I asked Jessie if she was ready for the job o f a supervisor if it was offered to her, she replied confidently, “Everything is possible nothing is impossible - you just have skills and guts to do it and believe in yourself’ and “this is what I learned in this training”. The participants’ self -awareness preceded their conscious intention to transform their own reality. Once they understood their strengths, they could more readily put those strengths into action. A realistic assessment o f strengths and weaknesses through the process of critical reflection developed their self-confidence, which helped them to form and express opinions and make decisions. Their intention o f realizing their own potential helped them to get janitorial jobs done effectively and look forward to leading their lives more independently. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.5.1 131 Empowerment Influences Leadership Effectiveness Objectives o f the training included empowering immigrant women to find employment and nurturing their economic independence. To achieve these objectives, the learning activities were designed to help them gain the knowledge, skills and practices that would lead to their empowerment. The discussion topics, such as identifying strengths and self-esteem, the importance o f work, developing communication skills, understanding Canadian culture and etiquette, and networking skills were highly appreciated by the participants. The questions they asked were focused on selfimprovement for greater feelings o f inclusion in Canadian culture. For example, Harleen asked out of curiosity, “Please tell me how to introduce self to others especially on phone and carry on the conversation”. I also found that this study helped to break the isolation frequently experienced by immigrant women by making space for the participants to meet and learn as a group, where they had opportunities to discuss the implications o f the learning for their personal lives. The discussion of common family problems and community problems helped participants to look for solutions as a group, which contributed to feelings of empowerment both as individuals and as a members of a group (Lloyd, Ennis & Atkinson, 1994). Anita mentioned, “the most valuable about this training was “the collaboration” and “the friendliness” . Kulraj reported, “this training gave me a great opportunity to know different places which I never visited before doing practicum” . Immigrant women also reported how their direct experience helped them to be more selfconfident. Isha reported, “working in city hall and health unit helped me to believe in my own abilities that I can work at those places”. Thus, the activities of this program A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 132 appeared to achieve the goal of developing the women's sense of self-worth; improving their capacity to make choices and decisions and find solutions; building their awareness o f how to access opportunities and resources; and increasing their power to control and influence their own lives and those o f their families (Guidelines on Women's Empowerment, n.d.). 4.5.2 Collaborative Action Research: An Opportunity to Learn The collaborative action research method gave the immigrant women in this study an opportunity to understand and improve their situation through their own efforts, with the support o f a small group of peers and a mentor. The wom en’s collaborative participation in the research provided them opportunity to design, organize, and implement the learning activities. They were given choice in selecting the content, methods, and materials for learning. After I had explained my objectives, including what they might be learning and how it could be beneficial for them, the women were able to make effective choices to shape the curriculum to their needs. However, there were times when they had different opinions based on their different learning priorities. Usually the differences among participants’ viewpoints led to opportunities for providing more information and enriching the discussion. There were also situations when personal differences hampered the collaboration. For example, participants were slow to schedule dates for their practicum experiences because o f preferences based on their own availability. After a long discussion they realized that they had spent too much time just in scheduling. We ended that session without a solution A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 133 but with an assignment for the participants to think about what steps they needed to take to solve this problem. In our next meeting, I was surprised to find that the women had moved to a discussion o f the program rules and o f their roles and responsibilities. Anita was saying, “When I reached home, I was wondering why we took that long and couldn’t figure out date and time for the practicum. She continued, “You know we should have talked to our trainers (community kitchen supervisor and professional cleaner) first to know what best time suits them instead of coming up with our own personal problems to change the dates and time. We are supposed to work in collaboration.” All other participants appreciated her thoughts. Jessie said, I was also wondering if we could revisit our work ethics . . . commitment to work and responsibility to perform it. Remember, at the beginning o f training we discussed about work ethics. Don’t you think that we should find out solution as a group instead o f spending time on personal issues and excuses to change the time? Let’s ask trainers and whatever dates they will give us we will stick to that. If anyone has some genuine problem to attend the practicum, as per program rules that person can talk to the trainer and or instructor for her absence. I ’m ready to give ride if anyone has some problem to reach the practicum venue. Kulraj added, “I ’m going to attend whatever dates will come up. According to rules of the program we won’t be able to get the program certificate if we won’t give full attendance.” A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 134 Through this process, the participants became aware that they were working on a problem, taking action lead to change in the knowledge o f themselves, and changing their understanding o f their own interests and priorities (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2006). The scheduling problem helped participants to learn how collaboration was hampered by too much focus on their own interests. The participants appeared to be functioning well as a group and the program rules that we had set together appeared to be clear to everyone. I was delighted that the women had developed group ownership and were responsible throughout the process. The self-critical process helped Anita and Jessie to investigate and analyse the problem and come up with knowledge for action. This knowledge also served as an illustration to others. Both Anita and Jessie emerged as leaders by influencing the direction of the conversation toward a solution. The collaborative action research approach also enabled the immigrant women to observe themselves within the group and to consider how they interacted with each other. In one o f our discussions, Anita mentioned that, “collaborative action research helped us to get more information regarding program, people and places . .. more we use our brains more it sharpens”. The immigrant women also showed interest in discussions of social and legal issues. In order to gain knowledge o f their civil and legal rights, we planned a session with a Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) official. But due to some emergency, the RCMP staff could not meet with the group to answer their questions. However, I was able to provide the women with information regarding available community resources and where they could get help for their individual concerns. The need to meet with an RCMP official was not expressed until near the end o f the training and so we did not A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 13 5 have time to reschedule the meeting. From this incident, I learned that time and budget constraints can be important barriers for fulfilling the emerging needs o f adult learners. I wondered if a follow-up training program may have helped to meet their remaining needs. Another time, I would attempt to plan additional time and budget for follow-up sessions if needed. One of my aims in this program was to assist the participants in learning while working in collaboration with them. While providing assistance, I learned, from the learners’ responses, new strategies to improve the teaching. I struggled in the first few sessions of the program to determine how to best assist them. Most o f the time in those first sessions was spent on discussions to improve self-esteem and discover identity. I found that when learners’ interests were evoked, my efforts to change their thought process abruptly to connect it to subject content could lead to their disengagement in the discussion. There were situations during sessions when we tried to finish the subject content quickly due to time constraints and did not continue discussing the topics that were not directly related to the main topics. However, one or two learners wanted to discuss those topics that were important to them. Moving too quickly to the main topic led to less participation in the discussion. The women later revealed that they felt that their participation might take more time and so it would be better to sit quietly. We worked collaboratively to address this problem and decided to make a plan to list the topics that we wanted to come back to for discussion. I shared the emerging needs of the learners with the program coordinator, who asked me to finish the program in the decided number of sessions due to budget constraints. However, I was able to volunteer to continue to assist learners on the A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 136 weekends, where we enjoyed longer discussions. This sequence of events showed how the learners’ interest in learning, specifically connected to their urge to know more without time constraints (Tough, 1979), engaged them in more dialogue and reflection. I also learned that “we are committing one o f the most valuable assets as instructors to our learners - our time. Being available to learners before, during, and after class directly tells them we care about them” (Wlodkowski, 2008). 4.5.3 C ritical Thinking and T ransform ation Critical thinking helped participants to analyze their learning during the training. It also helped them to analyze their own lives, make their own decisions, and take their own actions. They gained ability to act by building self-awareness and confidence as well as skills, knowledge, and experience. For example, Anita shared how her learning helped her to analyze her actions within her family. According to Anita,” nothing is impossible... I wanted to do this, it should be ingrained in us...we should know how we can reach our goals”. She shared with her daughter Elli about how strong urges can help us to reach our goals. Elli was a grade five student who thought that she was not a smart student and could not get good grades. Anita said, “I talked to my daughter that if it’s in her mind to be a top student in grade five, she can become a top student for sure. For achieving this, she has to develop a ‘yes’ feeling that she can do this”. She continued, “We need to talk to our inner [self] that we can do this. We need to think how we can do this, what we have to do, to achieve that”. Other members o f the group asked Anita why her daughter had the feeling that she could not be a top student. Anita replied, “Actually, now, I realized why my daughter A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 137 developed feeling of “no” . It was just my impact on my daughter in the past. I asked my daughter to choose music as I was feeling that it will be a good choice to learn music. I put my own choice on my daughter instead o f asking my daughter if she likes it or not. I developed a feeling in my daughter that study is really hard for her. N ow I realized she developed the feeling of “no” because of the impact of my negative image on her in the past. Right now I am fully aware that how a positive self affects those who surround us. I am trying myself to be positive always as it has a great impact on my kids”. Anita’s situation here depicted transformation in her attitude. She reflected on how her past attitude affected her daughter negatively. Here, Anita changed her frame o f reference by critically reflecting on her beliefs and consciously implementing a new plan to motivate her daughter. The new frame o f reference helped her to understand her past and present experiences and shape her thinking and her feelings so that she could take more appropriate action (Mezirow, 1997). The self-esteem discussions in the group helped Anita to realize when, where, and how she needed to improve herself. She experienced development in the power to control and influence her own life. Her adoption o f a more “positive se lf’ helped her to make a positive difference in the lives o f her children. Anita shared Elli’s response: “Mom I will see in my November tests how I ’m doing in class. If I find that I couldn’t get good marks then I will change my subjects”. Her daughter’s reply reflected how an empowered individual’s change o f frame of reference can empower another individual to take an effective action. Anita was really happy and satisfied with what she learned in the class and how it was helping her and her family in making decisions and finding solutions to problems. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 13 8 This example contributed to my belief that the janitorial business curriculum, particularly the collaborative nature o f the project and our habit of critical reflection, contributed to the personal empowerment o f participants. The example illustrated how an empowered woman can put into practice what she has learned to bring her satisfaction, pleasure, and fulfilment as she makes decisions and finds solutions to her problems. Second, I observed that empowered individuals may be able to inspire and motivate others, particularly their children, to make more effective decisions and seek solutions to their problems. I also concluded that the main factors that influenced the critical reflection that led to empowerment were dialogue and critical questioning (Taylor, 2008). 4.5.4 Knowledge Sharing: Spreading Empowerment The majority o f the participants reported that they would like to share the knowledge that they gained in this training with their family and friends. They reported increased self-reliance, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and self-confidence along with ability to support the family financially as key factors that contributed to their empowerment. Kulraj reported, “I saw a change in my behaviour . . . I am more happy than I was before. I can see a big change . . . I wanted to be independent and I keep myself physically fit. I am happy and keep my children happy. This is what I learned here”. Kulraj reported that she would like to tell her friends how she learned so many things in the training. She emphasized the importance of the work, which she realized after coming into this training. She said, “If I work my children will feel proud and will learn how work is important for living and keep self healthy. As kids grow their needs are also increasing. If I work it will help me to provide good education to my kids and fulfil their needs”. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 139 I believe that learning in this group helped Kulraj to change her perspective to begin to see herself as an independent woman. She was empowered to bring a change in her lifestyle and family through her work. Her perceived capacity to change her own situation depicted self-efficacy associated with her work and employment. Her desire to share her empowerment can be seen as moving beyond self-leadership to conscious leadership or intention to influence of others. She was ready to lead her own life and bring a more positive disposition to encourage change in her children. 4.5.5 Mentoring: A Catalyst for Learning and Leading I believe that mentoring played an important role in the leadership development o f the immigrant women enrolled in the program and participating in the study. The community kitchen supervisor, the professional cleaner, and I were mentors who contributed knowledge and skills through sharing of personal and professional experiences with the participants. It was group mentoring, where more than one experienced person provided guidance to a group o f individuals (Herrera, Vang, & Gale, n.d.). We built strong mentoring relationships with participants through listening and providing guidance, teaching, professional support, and personal encouragement. The knowledge and skills identified as most useful to participants in this mentoring process were cleaning skills, job finding and networking skills, as well as knowledge o f self­ esteem and self-efficacy. The job finding skills were identified as the most useful information shared by mentors. As mentorship, this program empowered immigrant women by providing professionally experienced individuals who shared their experience and knowledge. Although the formal program was delivered over eight weeks, participants were in contact with the program’s mentors for a period o f three to six A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 140 months, in which the immigrant women were provided with special attention to build their confidence to take on challenges. Perhaps a powerful factor in the success o f this mentorship was the common cultural background o f two o f the three mentors. From our modeling as much as what we taught them related to the cleaning curriculum, we showed the immigrant women that Punjabi women in Canada can become confident, independent, and self-supporting. 4.5.5.1 The mentorship component of the program The major function of my mentoring role in the Immigrant W omen’s Cleaning and Work Skills Program was to promote the immigrant women’s development in personal and professional areas and to facilitate their successful completion o f the program. A community kitchen coordinator from Abbotsford Community Services and a professional cleaner also volunteered to act as trainers and mentors for the women in the program. They shared their personal and professional experiences during the practicum sessions o f our eight week training and although they were aware of the contents o f our classroom sessions, they did not attend them. I continued to mentor participants during and after the program for a period o f six months as part o f this study. I met formally with the participants both as a group and individually. The topics that we talked about in the additional mentoring sessions addressed their further concerns about how to apply for jobs, including how to write cover letters and prepare for an interview. I believe participants had ample time to obtain answers to all their concerns in the ongoing mentorship period that they did not have in the training period. For similar future programs, I would recommend that a period o f access to mentorship follow the formal program. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 141 The mentorship component o f the training helped participants to become comfortable as they confronted the unknown in the form o f new concepts and skills. Mentors encouraged the learning by providing the immigrant women with a variety o f familiar and novel learning opportunities. The familiar activities helped learners to build confidence in their abilities and encouraged them to try new ideas and learn what is unknown. Mentors also challenged participants by asking questions to stimulate their thinking. For example in the community kitchen, the mentor asked what cleaning strategies participants were using at their homes that could be applied to community kitchen cleaning. As mentors, we used the strategy o f sharing our own mistakes with participants to encourage mentees to think creatively about how they would handle a situation or problem. Sharing our own mistakes helped us present practical situations for the participants to think constructively about and suggest solutions. For example, the professional cleaner asked, “How will you assess if you have followed all necessary cleaning precautions as I did and even then you met with an accident in the cleaning work. Is there any better option that you can consider here?” These scenarios gave participants opportunities to consider the real life situations that their mentors faced and discuss with them how to tackle those situations effectively. It also helped mentors to build an honest relationship with their mentees. The mentees were inspired to be frank about raising their own problems faced during their work. Our discussions also revealed other problems that workers could face, such as employers misusing the capacity o f immigrant workers to do work and not allowing enough breaks. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 142 The mentoring interactions revealed that the trainer/mentors were genuinely interested in the participants’ thinking, as I was. We believed that participants owned each problem, which helped them to implement their newly acquired knowledge and skills to develop solutions. Both the personal and the professional experience o f the mentors appeared to contribute to effective learning by the mentees. Kulraj said, “I could never think in that way unless she (the mentor) explained the situations. I feel really lucky that I know what to do in those risk situations” . Jessie said, when finally I find the right answers, it gave me a feeling that I know what I learned” . Challenging questions appeared to help participants gain confidence in their own abilities and actions. In one of the self-assessment processes, Kulraj indicated that she believed that she took more time to complete the tasks as compared to other participants. However, she saw the level o f the quality of her work as similar to that o f the others. Regarding her performance, Kulraj conceptualised that her job, “required more time to clean the rooms as those were really dirty”. When this discrepancy occurred repeatedly, Kulraj asked the trainer who was a professional cleaner to suggest ways to improve her performance. The trainer had often given participants tips how they could use short cuts to complete tasks more efficiently and quickly and she appreciated Kulraj’s initiative to improve her skills. The trainer suggested making an outline o f what she usually did and what changes she should bring to improve her performance. Upon reconceptualising her performance, Kulraj figured out that she was just completing the task without using techniques to complete the task quickly. “I was thoroughly cleaning every part though some parts needed more attention. I was just spending equal time on them. But after working with the trainer, I realized that how I was putting in more efforts with less output” . Kulraj used A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 143 the strategy of reconceptualising her performance successfully as an opportunity for learning (Manz & Sims, 2001). The role of trainer was to help participants learn the skills o f cleaning, “how to learn from real work and in helping participants learn how to leam from one another” (Taylor, Marienau & Fiddler, 2000). In one of the sessions, Kulraj said, “It gave me a wow feeling that I can do it. I liked working in team now as others’ suggestions helped me to make changes in the way I do my work. I didn’t like anyone to give me directions before but now I realized that it’s good sometimes to make a change which can be good both for you and others”. Kulraj began focusing her attention on the challenge o f improving her performance and put effort into completing her tasks successfully. Her feeling o f competence is reflected in her statement “I can”. This is what is called as selfefficacy, a personal judgment o f one’s ability to achieve specific pursuits (Gist & Mitchell, 1992; Wood & Bandura, 1989). Thus, her success in learning cleaning tasks and work skills with the goal o f emerging as leader in her own life depended on her selfefficacy. Further, the self-efficacy o f participants appeared to be influenced by how mentors drew on their own experience to provide uncertain situations for the women to consider. The personal narratives of the mentors played an important role in the mentorship process. One trainer/mentor shared how she started her cleaning business and how she managed to take care of both her business and her child as a single mother. Hearing what she had experienced and recognizing the emotions that were generated for her by those experiences, Jessie reported, A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 144 I was really influenced by [her] story. When she was telling her story, I was feeling like it’s my story. We faced same problems in the past. I feel I took the right decision to be part o f this training and one day I will also be self-sufficient like [her], I will also have a big house with all those comforts like she is having. The professional cleaner’s personal experience o f starting her business from nothing encouraged some participants to confirm their decision to begin working as a cleaner or janitor and to feel satisfaction with their new choice of career. Thus, the trainer’s story served as a catalyst for the transformative process for some o f the participants. The mentor’s own authenticity and honest example became a model for the mentee (Poon, 2006). The informal communication style o f one o f this mentor and her similar cultural background helped participants to ask questions freely and clear their doubts. Most o f the time, participants appeared comfortable asking their questions of her in Punjabi. However, the first language o f the community kitchen coordinator mentorship was English, which helped participants to better understand Canadian workplace culture and employment systems. This trainer/mentor defined professional behavior and described the expectations of employers. However, some of the participants reported language as a barrier to developing a relationship with this mentor. I worked as an interpreter when participants needed help during practicum in the community kitchen. The participants whose spoken English was proficient did not have problems understanding the mentor’s points and appeared more confident working with her. For example, Anita was fluent in English and had no difficulty conversing with her mentors. She also contributed to the group by acting as an interpreter for others. Her ability to better understand and explain A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 145 training concepts helped her to lead the group, while others who needed the services o f an interpreter became shy about asking direct questions. Jessie was hired as a community kitchen janitor immediately after her training. She reported, “I was really happy that I was selected as a janitor. I had a feeling that I will be selected but I was just waiting for their results. I did well in the interview.” She was thanking all the mentors for their help and guidance. In one of the follow up meetings, she reported, You know the mentorship program helped me to get well adjusted in the new environment where I’m working now. The community kitchen coordinator, my boss, she believes in my strengths. She always appreciates the way I work. Sometimes if I need to change my style of work or attitude, she explains in a nice way. I love my work. My kids are happy that mom is working. What I can ask for more than this? What I always looked for I got at a right place and in the right time. She further added, “You know, [my boss] is also helping me to connect with other people who wanted someone to clean their houses. This is the best start to earn money and get know more people.” For Jessie, the mentorship program proved beneficial, possibly because she was able to adjust easily to a new environment. Jessie’s relationship with her employer, who had been the community kitchen trainer, developed during mentorship and helped her to implement the values and strategies learned during training. She was able to take a lead role in suggesting improvements in the work environment to her employer. Her increased A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 146 network gave her an opportunity to receive more opportunities to make social connections. Thus, the mentoring support helped her to become an independent and self­ directed learner and to express confidence in her new work environment. 4.S.5.2 My leadership learning My personal experience o f mentoring throughout the implementation o f the janitorial business curriculum helped me to better understand the mentoring process. I learned that mentoring in a non-profit agency not only enhanced the program but also influenced my personal growth and learning. I had little experience o f working as a mentor or mentee before becoming involved in this program and I hesitated when I learned that program delivery would include a mentoring component. Many questions came to my mind about how I would be able to manage the mentoring component o f this program as well as the collaborative research component. I was fortunate that the ACS program coordinator served as a mentor for me. She gave me an opportunity to better understand the mentoring process through attending a mentoring workshop. In this workshop, I learned the roles and responsibilities o f mentors and mentees. From the beginning of program development to implementation, the program coordinator guided me by sharing her experience as a mentor. She did not provide me with solutions to problems but rather she encouraged me to analyse situations and generate solutions. She also shared with me her personal experience o f how she had become a leader and what circumstances influenced her leadership capacity. Both her personal and professional experience helped me to understand how the passion o f a mentor for mentoring contributes to a successful mentor-mentee relationship. I gained a A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 147 sense of empowerment by making a difference in the lives o f the immigrant women through the mentoring process. My experience offering and receiving mentorship in the context o f this training supports the view that mutual respect and open communication between mentor and mentee are important for successful mentorship. Understanding mentees’ point o f views and addressing their concerns were the main factors that helped me to develop my productive relationships with mentees. A number o f times, mentees asked me personal questions and I was willing to share my feelings as well as my thoughts with the group, which led to freedom of expression and mutual trust. One participant illustrated this trust in her comment to me: “We have good chemistry, no doubt you are so frank that we can ask anything”. From this mentoring practice, I concluded that the mentor’s own authenticity and honesty can be a model for the mentee. The similarity o f cultural background and language also served as a major factor that led to open communication between mentors and mentees. Here, mentors were also leaders who helped mentees to learn and become empowered to improve their lives. As a mentor and leader, I developed the conviction that “the values o f honesty and accurate communication helped in maintaining the mutual trust of the leaders and their followers" (Bass, 1998). The creation of a trusting group environment helped in the development o f better relationships with the women. It further influenced individual and group learning with the open discussion of personal and work related problems. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.6 148 Question 5: Leadership Learning for Transformational Change Though my literature review for this study, I developed a working knowledge o f three leadership theories: transactional, transformational, and transformative leadership. Transactional leadership involves reciprocal exchange between leader and followers and is often contrasted with transformational leadership, which brings about changes in the followers due to the encouragement and modeling o f the leader (Bass, 1998). Transformative leadership focuses on process of deep and meaningful change for meeting the social justice needs o f individuals and systems (Bader, Horman & Claire Lapointe, 2010). I do not see transactional leadership as relevant to this study. Although there was an exchange o f the cooperation o f participants for the training they received, this view o f the leadership that was practiced by me and others at ACS and experienced by participants is not adequate to explain the growth that occurred. However, both transformational and transformative leadership theories share the concept o f transforming or changing something (Shields, 2010). The concept of change is highly relevant to the learning and leadership in this study. I have tried to identify the elements o f my leadership practices (as a teacher, mentor, and researcher) that I believe helped to generate change in individuals and how this change benefitted both the relationship as well as the resources o f those involved. 4.6.1 Transformational Leadership My transformational leadership applies to how I led participants as well as m yself through the process o f personal transformation. Differentiating the concept o f change A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 149 from transformational change helped me to understand transformational leadership and to examine how I helped to facilitate transformational change in this situation. First, I tried to understand who would benefit from participating in this study and whose needs it would meet. As part of my graduate research, this study helped me to achieve my goal o f working for the betterment of the community. In this way, the study was an opportunity to nurture the leader-follower relationship as described by Bums in promoting mutual growth or self-actualization by meeting wants and needs from shared values (Bums 2003). Working collaboratively with the immigrant women to refine an empowering curriculum contributed to changes that benefitted the relationship of participant to leader or researcher as well as increasing the participants’ personal resources. My transformational leadership was driven by the immigrant women’s wants and needs and culminated in expanding their opportunities for happiness as well as my own (Bums, 2003). Second, I experienced transformation that involved change and personal upheaval. My old beliefs about learning were educating learners what they do not know through designing creative activities and involving them as a whole individuals. In this approach, I found that learners were dependent on their educator. They were not involving their whole self. It included one way process in which only educator put efforts to develop activities to involve the learners as whole. Learners’ interest did not trigger for an urge or curiosity to learn more beyond their structured learning. Being in collaborative learning program, I found that participants showed more interest as they realized that they were in charge o f their own learning and that their participation structured the curriculum. They were instructed to decide what they wanted to learn and then assisted in their A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 150 learning when I provided resources (Apps, 1994). I also found the learning content that was relevant to learner’s current situation, problem and emotions emerged as more powerful factor to learn and remember than the one related to their previous experiences. This is opposite to what Angelo (1993) identified as a best practice in teaching and learning system, “To be remembered, new information must be meaningfully connected to prior knowledge”. The learners learned best when they had the feelings that they are cared about (Mendell & Herman , 2009). Third, I believe my strength as a transformational teacher was the inclusion of learning activities and learning experiences that supported building transformational learning environment relevant to individual needs, context, and culture. The learning processes that brought about transformational change in participants were: trust, openness, learning in collaboration, a sense o f empowerment, critical questioning, discussions and dialogue. Figure 4 summarizes the transformational experiences of participants and learning processes. The fourth and final thought that I developed in the process o f transformation was the development of skills and knowledge by identifying the importance o f change and uncertain events (Bennis & Nanus, 1997). The cleaning company curriculum that I was able to develop in collaboration was the result of documenting the knowledge and skills that resulted in change in participants. While documenting change in participants, I learned how adults leam, what strategies works for learning in adults, how working and learning in collaboration play an important role in the change process. Thus, the importance of change is undeniable as it helped me define and redefine who I am and A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 151 how I will continue to improve my abilities as a teacher or leader working toward transformative and empowering learning for my students or followers. I viewed uncertain events as windows o f opportunity for learning. The circumstances that challenged me were participants’ unfocussed attention. Distractions caused by family responsibilities, tensions and work roles were a substantial barrier for participants’ learning. In one of the discussions, Harleen came forward with her problem of focusing her attention. The interpersonal comfort or trust that developed between us helped her to come forward with her problem and helped me to seek to understand how I could support her learning. I asked her if she would like continue her input in the classroom discussions. She replied, “I wanted to do so but things on my mind bothering me”. Here, I connected the problem to my own personal experience o f how I used to lose my focus during my studies in school. I shared the story o f how my classmates and I decided to tell our teacher that we were in no mood to study that day. But our teacher replied that we have to do something other than study. We accepted his idea and he asked us to write whatever was there on our minds. I wrote that I always try my best to focus my attention and be in classroom both physically and mentally. No matter the teacher’s way of teaching was really creative and he involved us in learning. But just at the start o f the class, not being attentive, I missed important information in each session. I asked my teacher to help me to focus myself. My teacher gave me this feedback: I appreciate that you shared your thoughts openly and it gave me a challenge to develop your attention. But for this first you have to help yourself. Resolve your problems first. First define the problem, think what is happening, why it’s A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 152 happening. Think what you can do to solve the problem. Talk to yourself and believe in yourself. You can also seek help from family, friends, teachers, or with whom you feel comfortable sharing. Your resolved problems would allow you to give you full attention in the classroom. Transform ational E x p erien ce L earning Process A sense o f empowerment “I learned new skills in this training. It helped me to develop self-confidence and self-esteem . I started thinking more about s e lf in a good way that I never thought o f before”. Discussions “Anita, g iv e away her fear and changed her previous assumptions about the vacuum cleaner by discussing with other women in the training”. Trust Overcoming Fear “They (participants) were developing a value for the trust and support o f a collegial group - a new w ay to solve problems”. “A couple o f times a feeling o f fear cam e to her mind that it w ill hurt her back or she w ill fall down w hile cleaning stairs with it. It took her a long time to prepare herself to start using it”. Critical thinking “I liked the way to think about things, what I am doing, w hy I am doing, what I have learned or how effective I have done and what else I can learn or do”. Learning in collaboration “I w as wondering if it’s only m e w ho is alw ays thinking o f living in bitterness and despair”. “Learning life skills helped me to understand others and make friends...and helped me to work in collaboration”. Openness I feel like I am nothing, I can never get a job...I always compared se lf with others but now I know I do have som e qualities”. Dialogue Kulraj did not like to be on welfare as she said, “my children learn from me, if I earn good money only then I can provide them a good education and living”. Figure 4. Summary of the transformational experiences of the participants A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 153 I found that this story had an empowering impact for my study participants. After listening to my story they raised classroom problems that were bothering them. We figured out collectively how the ability to be an attentive listener is influenced by a person’s state o f mind. If one’s emotions can be heard, it is easier to relax. Jessie said, “I really liked Amandeep’s style o f teaching. She is so open and frank that I feel like to share everything that comes to my mind”. Anita said, “I liked the way she speaks. She is so soft spoken. Moreover I trust her and the group we have here is really good. I believe only the trust helps me to share openly”. Ginny smiled, “I always wait for this group. I think I always come here first in each session. I don’t want to miss a single moment to learn, share, and enjoy”. I believe that I actively listened to the learners’ needs, respected their differences, and responded to them compassionately and creatively. I encouraged participants to share information openly and contribute to discussions that led to mutual understanding. The development of positive relationship as a mentor helped me to provide individualized consideration (1C) to the needs o f the followers. The development of authentic personal connection with the learners and connecting teaching with personal experience helped me to solve learning problems. As I was admired, respected and trusted by the followers, I was able to have idealized influence (II) on the followers. The creative process o f finding solutions to the problems helped me to motivate followers to be innovative in the problem solving process. Thus, I was able to provide intellectual stimulation (II) and inspirational motivation (IM) to the followers by working as a team to attain the goals o f the program and team as a whole (Bass, 1998; Bass & Riggio, 2006). A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 154 My ability to listen actively and attend to the thoughts of the learners helped me to communicate effectively with them as an example of communications leadership, developing the trust that is key to credible leadership. I demonstrated caring leadership by respecting learners’ feelings and judgements and showing concern for them. My efforts to empower learners, to develop their capacity to change their reality through supportive learning opportunities, represented my creative leadership. On the whole, I believe this program helped me to develop transformational leadership characteristics as proposed by Bass and Riggio (2006) and Sashkin and Sashkin (2003). For a leader to recognise and manage his or her transformational leadership, I believe that it is important first to understand what transformation is and how it differs from change. If we, as leaders, can recognize when we are leading in ways that facilitate transformation, we can also discern our leadership strengths and identify where we plan to improve our practice. In this study, I believe, as a CAR researcher I was transformed more than participants as I was able to comprehend and clearly differentiate what and when I experienced change and transformational change. As a transformational leader, I focused on nurturing leader and follower relationships through empowerment so that I could better understand the needs o f the followers and lead in ways that would create an environment in which those needs could be met. Transformational leadership and transformational learning in participants was facilitated by our collaborative inquiry, although transformed thinking, identity, relationships, and resources did not occur for all for participants and may not have occurred in the same way for those participants who did experience it. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 4.6.2 155 Transformative Leadership I examined my leadership approach as a transformative leader in the light o f seven major elements of transformative leadership found in the literature (Shields, 2010): attempts to affect deep change; balance o f critique and promise; creation o f new knowledge frameworks; acknowledgment ofpow er and privilege; emphasis on both individual achievement and the public good; a focus on liberation, democracy, equity, andjustice; and evidence o f moral courage and activism. 4.6.2.1 Effecting deep change The focus of my leadership was to empower immigrant women and to bring about deep change in their self-confidence and thinking about what they could do in Canada. To achieve my goal, I started by identifying and building understanding o f the needs o f the immigrant women, most o f whom were unemployed. With an understanding o f their needs and a shared cultural background, I was able to involve the immigrant women in shaping a curriculum in which the needs o f the immigrant women, o f the program, o f me as an educator and researcher, and o f society were taken in account (Knowles, 1980). Meeting participants’ employability needs could be expected to assist their own economic development and development o f the community and country as a whole. I felt responsible for balancing individual development and the development o f the community or society. Through mentoring and collaborative inquiry, immigrant women were involved in the innovative process of learning: learning new knowledge and skills such as improving self-esteem, self-confidence, and work skills; dealing effectively with emotions; decision A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 156 making as problem solving; and building relationships. The collaborative, creative and challenging opportunities offered in the program as well as development o f strong and positive relationship among them and with them and with me and the trainers, helped immigrant women to learn the unlearned. The transformation that most o f the immigrant women reported was the development o f their ability to believe in themselves, see themselves as a good mother or wife, and to do their work more effectively using their new skills. 4.6.2.2 Balancing critique and prom ise I believe that all the participants had fair if not equal opportunities for acquiring knowledge and developing skills. I took responsibility for engaging participants in dialogue about their developing knowledge, skills, and former and current experiences. I tried to view and treat participants fairly, taking into account their life and training experiences. In the respectful environment that I modeled and the immigrant women participated in, it was important for each person to have opportunities for her voice to be heard. Through dialogue, I developed awareness o f the learners’ attitudes, feelings, and preferences over time. I am confident that I was able to document the signs o f change that occurred during the cyclic process o f CAR with some accuracy, confirming participants’ words with my own observations. Participants were engaged in the cycles o f action and reflection to explore the best practices for learning cleaning work skills. In the action phases they experimented with practicing cleaning skills both for personal and professional applications. In the reflection phase they reviewed their experience critically, A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 15 7 which included what they had learned from their experiences, what helped them learn, and what else should be learned to ensure successful practice. There were times when the experiences that participants requested were not arranged due to lack o f time and budget. According to our collaboratively planned program, participants would have hands on experience working in the community kitchen, a public health unit, the city hall, and an industrial building. Some participants also showed interest in practicing their skills in schools and banks but this was not possible due to limited time and budget. In this instance, my leadership role was restricted by the availability of resources. However, to maintain the spirit o f collaboration and the trust of participants, I suggested that the trainers describe the practices commonly used in schools and banks. In our classroom sessions, I also distributed information regarding cleaning practices in schools and banks. In this way, participants’ needs and preferences were acknowledged and at least partially addressed without straining the limited budget or going over the time allotted for the program. 4.6.2.3 Creating new knowledge fram eworks From the literature, I understand the term knowledge fram ework as a personal perspective that can be transformed. However, I believe that the term can also be applied to knowledge that is generated in the process o f collaborative or participatory action research, such as the development o f a curriculum. In this program, knowledge was shared with and among participants to generate an approach to learning that went beyond the technical aspects of cleaning and equipment use to include personal development objectives by instructors, mentors, and trainers. Ongoing discussions engaged participants A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 15 8 in dialogue and critical reflection to generate new knowledge for themselves and in the process, to frame an approach to adult education. My leadership role here was to create and implement strategies that led to a curriculum for future use. Figure 5 depicts the curriculum framework that emerged from this study for future delivery o f an Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship program. In addition to cognitive and skill development related to working in the cleaning industry, an adult education program that draws on what was learned in this study will have elements of personal development as well as collaboration among trainers and an instructor that is well-suited to mentor the group. Elem ent N ew K now ledge Increased Self-awareness The participants’ awareness o f agency to transform their reality Self-Esteem Changed the w ay the participants can see them selves through a deeper understanding, realization, and appreciation o f who they are Self-Confidence Improved the participants’ b elie f in their own abilities and motivated them to strive for independence Collaborative Learning Instructor Source o f knowing and bringing change Engaged the participants with active dialogue about their current and prior feelings and experiences Mentors Shared stories o f personal and professional experience with the participants and revised new knowledge in the process Trainers Imparted information on cleaning skills, roles, practices in real work places; posted problems for knowledge application Empowerment Brought deep change by providing opportunity to voice participants’ interests and priorities and they learned from their own actions Self-Efficacy Improved task performance with new ways o f doing things and the practice o f new skills Networking Multiple interactions brought deeply held assumptions into question Improved Work Knowledge, Skills, Cognitive and skill development and Practices A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 159 Figure 5. The knowledge building framework for the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship program I designed the collaborative teaching and learning environment to fulfil the mandate o f Abbotsford Community Services to provide social improvement. The construction of this new approach to collaborative curriculum design with learners as participants encouraged ACS to consider developing other programs in this reflective way. However, the inclusive, collaborative approach was part of what made our curriculum successful: I believe the needs o f new participants would have to be considered and their participation in adapting the curriculum welcomed in order to achieve similar success. 4.6.2.4 Acknowledging pow er and privilege I played an important role as the leader o f our collaborative action research. My other roles were educator and a mentor. In all these roles, I shared power with the participants, mentors and trainers, so that the research would be used, “not as an instrument o f domination and exclusion but as instrument o f liberation, inclusion and equality” (Johan, 2000). We shared power by sharing shared responsibility, decision making, and discussions to achieve individual, group, and program goals. 4.6.2.4.1 As a researcher I was perceived as a research expert by participants, which I saw as a potential barrier to the development of collaborative work and building relationships with them. To help participants feel them valued and to support mutuality instead o f dominance, I A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 160 explained how the research process would help to achieve the goals o f individuals and the group, as well as meet ACS and research goals. The participants were confused by the concept of the research. I assured them that the activities they would do to learn new skills and fulfil their own needs would direct the process and content o f the research. The documented curriculum planning and delivery could inform new programs at ACS as well as future research. The participants had trust in me and one person responded on behalf o f the group: “We are not that much educated that we can understand this concept but we will see how it works for us” . By the end o f the program, two responses were, “It was a great fun and I never realized that it was a research”, and “It looks like learning happily what we wanted to learn and live” . 4.6.2.4.2 As an educator I used the power o f my role as instructor to ask questions that challenged the existing frameworks o f the participants that shaped their views and actions. I believe another source of my power to inspire trust and evoke a transformative response was that I am also an immigrant. I had come from similar circumstances as the participants and I had also experienced the process o f uprooting from my home to settle in a new country. My intention was to use this power with empathy and compassion as an instructor and mentor. In my own mind, I aspired to “reach the souls” o f the participants and empower them by building their capacity to change their circumstances. 4.6.2.43 As a mentor I used my power to meet the context specific needs o f mentors and mentees involved. Other mentors, the trainers, also sought my assistance in shaping and reshaping A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 161 the learning activities according to the mentees needs, context requirements, and available resources for learning cleaning skills and practices. The focus o f the activities we designed together was to provide mentees with real world, context-based learning. In the planning phase, I discussed participants’ situation and needs as well as the learning contexts with the other mentors. The mentoring, teaching, and learning processes were influenced by what the mentors and mentees brought to the situation. I addressed the emerging needs of the mentees, such as the need for English to Punjabi translation, and attempted to manage emotional disturbances by walking along with the mentees as they encountered new experiences and possibilities. The power o f trust and empathy helped me to give support and empowerment to mentees to deal with their emotions in a way that supported their learning. It was a privilege for me to connect my own theoretical learning related to transformation and the mentees’ self-awareness to the context in which they were learning, working, and living. 4.6.2.5 Emphasizing both private and public good I have always been passionate about serving the community through teaching and learning. Through this study, I have achieved my dream o f giving back to the community by empowering women with high inspirations to change their reality and community as a whole. This program was the first session in a series of wom en’s work skills programs. Future programs are planned for cooking and child care skills so that immigrant women may start their own businesses in these areas. The cleaning skills program was well received by the immigrant women o f the community and there have been many inquiries about participating in the next work skills program at ACS. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 162 4.6.2.6 Focusing on liberation, democracy, equity, and justice My own struggle to get settled in a new country and subsequent success has helped me to empower immigrant women to believe in themselves and to grow toward independence. It was my aim to contribute to personal and economic development for immigrant women to improve their life conditions. This was a social justice goal in that unskilled immigrant women are a disadvantaged sector o f society, less likely to be employed due to their lack of experience and limited English language skills. I used dialogue and critical reflection in a collaborative learning environment free from unnecessarily restrictive traditions and power relations in order to make learning inclusive, collaborative, and democratic. This learning environment provided opportunities for the immigrant women to discuss their individual interests and issues and have their specific needs addressed. By arranging the practicum experiences at different places, participants had opportunities to meeting new people and becoming aware o f new resources, places, and programs. My purpose was to give immigrant women exposure to real work experience and to become more familiar with the world around them. Constructive learning experiences, the voicing o f emotions, and the democratic inclusion o f all points o f view gave participants liberation from isolation and helped them develop and share new insights about their identities. I believe this program provided fertile ground for articulating ideas for program development with the democratic participation o f the participants. Instead o f implementing a program with a rigid structure, our collaborative reflective practice created a democratic and productive learning context. I expect that the actions and interactions within the program shaped the immigrant women’s ability to affect change beyond this program. As the group collectively brought A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 163 change by developing practices for adult learning programs, their individual change had a direct or indirect influence on their families. For example, Anita’s development had an impact on her daughter’s future decisions and Kuraj aspired to be positive role model for her children by becoming employed so that they would not have to depend on welfare benefits. 4.6.2.7 Demonstrating moral courage and activism I believe I took a risk as the first one to create a cleaning company curriculum for ACS and by framing the curriculum development as research. I lived with tension at the beginning o f the program. Many questions were coming to my mind, such as, “How will I be able to address everyone’s needs? (content reflection)-, “How will I be able to achieve individual, program, and research objectives?” {process reflection)-, and “How will this program help me?” {premise reflection). These questions served as guideposts for me throughout the program development and implementation. The process o f these various types o f reflection (Mezirow, 1996) helped me to reconsider situations and reconstruct knowledge. My personal background as an immigrant and teacher developed my intent to teach immigrant women the practical skills they needed to know in order to create the kind of learning they wanted to have. The program was criticized by others at ACS for preparing immigrant women to start with “dirty jobs”. I addressed this criticism in collaboration with the immigrant women, who identified janitorial work as a source of pride. They explained that they felt more stigmatized by being out o f work. Thus, I affirm A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 164 that the most important contribution of this program was to empower women to support themselves and their families by acquiring new knowledge and skills. From my practice as a teacher/educator/mentor/researcher/program developer in this study, I infer that it is the responsibility o f the teachers/educators, mentors and program developers to involve adult learners in the process o f recognizing and addressing the learners’ needs. A collaborative approach combined with a mentoring element can help to develop strong and positive relationships among learners and between learners and instructors or mentors. When instructors and mentors share a similar cultural or experiential background with learners, it may be a major source of developing deep understanding and open dialogue among them. The collaborative actions, discussions, and reflections can develop new knowledge frameworks for individuals and for programming. In other adult learning projects that are informed by what has been learned in this one, empowerment may also emerge as an important factor that plays a crucial role in learning. 4.7 Question 6: The Role of the Curriculum in Transformation The success of this program and o f the individual learners is judged on the basis o f pre-specified changes that occurred in the learners (Smith, 2000). There are number o f essential elements that fostered change in the context of transformative leadership and transformative learning in immigrant women. Collaborative curriculum development successfully engaged the immigrant women with new knowledge and skills and the habit of identifying and examining their own assumptions and beliefs. The program outcomes revealed that program focused attention largely on empowering immigrant women to A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 165 develop ‘deep change’. Immigrant women reported benefits that brought about ‘deep change’ included developing new knowledge and skills, improved self-awareness, selfconfidence, self-efficacy, and self-esteem and independence. The collaborative culture and program activities like learning from real life situations, mentoring, discussions, dialogue, and critical reflection provided opportunities for the immigrant women to shape their identities, learn in a transformative way, and develop leadership capacity of their own. They learned how to solve problems in real life situations, break isolation, develop relationships, engage in learning, and apply their knowledge and skills to make improvements in their own lives and the lives o f others. By acquiring new understanding how ‘trust’ and ‘openness’ plays an important role in building relationships within the group, helped immigrant women in learning new skills and leading in the program development and refinement process . The ‘trust’ and’ openness’ also helped immigrant women to share their emotions in the group and this sharing process played an important role in developing transformational change in them. Immigrant women learned and worked in collaboration within the group where each woman shared responsibility for the success o f the group. The process o f generating knowledge related to developing and refining the concepts for cleaning skills and practices, through the process o f action and reflection, was possible only with the immigrant women’s shared participation and leadership. Their leadership is also noted how they showed moral courage and activism to ‘empower’ others by sharing knowledge and information getting others excited about their learned skills. Thus, enhancing other’s self-worth thereby transforming others (Heglesen, 1990). A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 166 Immigrant women’s experience o f getting satisfaction by helping others in the program is an example o f transformative leadership as they achieved success through managing situations and obtained support and validation from other group members. They set an example for other community programs at ACS and professional businesses in which they served in the way in which they collaborated as agents o f change. The curriculum practices also helped immigrant women to learn manners and etiquettes for professional and personal lives. Their effective communication skills to listen and make others feel valued by looking at positive aspects of their personality is a characteristic how they empowered others through influence and collaboration. From above discussion, I concluded that transformative learning experiences of immigrant women lead to development o f their leadership capacity. Thus, there is a significant relationship between transformative learning and leadership. I also pointed out that my journey as an educator, mentor and primary researcher in the course o f this program from curriculum planning, development, and implementation to writing reports helped me to understand the concept o f transformative learning deeply and to recognize the potential of my transformative leadership role. 4.8 Summary This section reviewed the six research questions which were the extensions o f the overarching question: How can a janitorial business curriculum and mentorship foster transformative learning and leadership in immigrant women? From the immigrant women’s past experiences and needs, I concluded that there was a need to improve the self-esteem o f the women and restore their hope o f finding a better life. It was important A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 167 to provide the basic information and knowledge to use the cleaning equipment and tools, as a realistic basis for that hope. The curriculum materials, method, and mentorship helped participants to learn and enhance their cleaning skills and increase their positive feelings about themselves. All the immigrant women who participated in this study reported their belief that their cleaning skills and knowledge improved during the program and that this was helpful to them both at home and work. Some o f the women also reported a change in one or more of their beliefs or attitudes in that they were freed from previously held beliefs, attitudes, values or feelings, thus fulfilling the criteria for transformative learning. As an educator, this program emerged as a medium o f transformative learning for me. It gave me stronger self-awareness, a deeper awareness o f the interests o f the learners, a new understanding of the value o f mutual openness between m yself and the learners, and increased skill in fostering the engaging process o f critical reflection and self-reflection though dialogue and distinguishing change from transformational change. The processes o f collaboration led to the janitorial business curriculum improvement and to knowledge creation. In this program, immigrant worked with only two local employers. I believe that the janitorial business curriculum and its delivery could have been improved with inclusion o f work-related content preferably with different local employers to increase participants’ opportunities for employment and advancement. Training Orientation also emerged as an important factor to be included in the future training programs. Most of the participants reported that the best information they acquired in this training was related to cleaning tools and equipment information. Working in collaboration, we also developed strategies to deal with challenges associated A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 168 with language issues. To better suit participants’ needs, we decided that our mother tongue, Punjabi, was the easiest language for learning complex terms. However, a more extensive knowledge of English was necessary for participants to read the instructions, precautions, and other important information printed on the labels of cleaning equipment and tools and MSDS. I also feel strongly that if immigrant women were paid for their practical work during training, they would be more motivated as well as supported. A modest payment for their practical work would have empowered the immigrant women by putting capital in their hands and allowing them to begin earning an independent income and contribute financially to their households and communities (Cheston & Kuhn, n.d.). Reflecting on my assessment of the immigrant women’s needs and our sharing o f experiences related to curriculum development and implementation contributed some important leadership lessons. I described how my learning about the importance of selfawareness, empowerment for leadership, and the learning opportunities in collaborative action research played an important role in leadership and learning. First, I found that self-awareness is the key to leadership and learning. As a leader with self-awareness, I was better able to discover myself before leading others. Through the cycle o f action and reflection, I was able to help learners to become aware of nature of the problems, their strengths and weaknesses, what they had learned, and how they could better achieve their goals. Second, I found how empowerment influences leadership effectiveness. I mentioned how the program and program activities contributed to women’s empowerment both as an individual and group. The program activities developed their sense of self-worth, improved their capacity to make choices and decisions and find A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 169 solutions, built their awareness o f how to access opportunities and resources, and increased their power to control and influence their own lives and those o f their families. Third, I found that collaboration action research (CAR) emerged as an opportunity to learn. Through CAR, the participants became aware that working on a problem, and taking action lead to change in the knowledge o f themselves, and change in understanding o f one’s own interests and priorities (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2006). I also found that the collaborative nature o f the project and our habit of critical reflection contributed to the personal empowerment o f participants. The mentoring component o f the program served as a catalyst for the transformative process for some o f the participants. It also empowered participants by giving them support to build confidence in their abilities and encouraged them to try new ideas and learn what is unknown. The concept o f change is highly relevant to the learning and leadership in this study. This study is useful for a teacher, educator, or mentor to recognize and manage transformational and transformative leaderships as both transformational and transformative leadership theories share the concept of transforming or changing something (Shields, 2010). I provided examples how my role in this study fulfils the criteria of both transformational and transformative leadership. The curriculum also played a vital role in the transformation process. The curriculum activities contributed to the transformative learning experiences o f immigrant women and lead to development o f their leadership capacity. The whole process o f action and reflection, combined with CAR, helped me to understand the relationship between transformative learning and transformative leadership more deeply. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 170 Thus, the findings o f my study support the notion that transformational leadership, transformative leadership, and transformative learning shared a common r understanding o f change (Shields, 2010). Empowerment emerged as a significant concept that influenced the change process. The process o f critical reflection influenced the frames of reference o f individuals to generate a deep change in their thinking and practices, which served as a catalyst for transformative learning and transformative leadership. Further, the processes o f curriculum development, implementation and mentoring helped to create learning contexts with ample opportunities for reflective practices. My critical awareness o f myself as an adult educator or mentor opened my practice to reflexivity. My knowledge o f inclusive transformative practices fostered further critical reflection and helped me to be proactive in creating contexts for transformative learning and transformative leadership. The learners equally shared responsibility for creating the contexts through their processes of reflection and collaboration. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 171 CHAPTER 5: REFLECTIONS This chapter presents the essence o f my reflections about this study by summarizing my transformative learning and leadership journey, reiterating my learning or conclusions, and making suggestions for further research. This thesis reports my purposeful and reflective response to what I observed and how I learned in working with participants as co-researchers in the development o f the janitorial and work skills curriculum. This study was designed to explore how a janitorial business curriculum and mentorship can foster transformative leadership and transformative learning in immigrant women. I reviewed literature that would expand my knowledge o f concepts and influence my research, my understanding of participants as learners and co­ researchers, and of my-self as a researcher, teacher, mentor and learner. The concepts that guided this study included: transformational leadership, transformative leadership, and transformative learning; connections between leadership and learning; mentoring; women’s learning and empowerment; and curriculum development. Undeniably, one o f the most important contributions o f the CAR method was the goal o f empowering participants to bring about changes in their lives. I wanted to empower immigrant women who lacked employment opportunities and confidence. I tried to match the reality o f their situations with descriptions o f transformative change mechanisms and curriculum development processes. With collaborative research as a change mechanism, the immigrant women had the opportunity to voice their interests and priorities and learn from their own actions. Several o f the immigrant women felt very strongly that their involvement in the study broadened their understanding o f the janitorial business and helped them to make A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 172 connections with each other. It also helped them to feel less isolated because they are now, as a result o f the program, connected to each other as well as to other programs in the local community. Seeing themselves as collaborators gave them an opportunity to participate actively in the research and the learning and to share their experiences with each other. Interactions often stimulated additional personal change as participants compared and adjusted their knowledge, skills, and beliefs based on what they had observed. The process o f curriculum development gave immigrant women ample opportunities to construct knowledge that supported their interests and acknowledged their power. Thus, the janitorial and work skills curriculum can be identified as transformative because it empowered women to develop critical thinking skills and construct knowledge themselves. The curriculum development encouraged them to compare the different points o f views of group members and develop new meaning perspectives. The empowered women not only developed decision making skills but also interpersonal skills such as caring for and valuing their peers. 5.1 Reflective Practice In this study, I have identified the situations and activities that tapped this group of immigrant women’s enormous potential for empowerment. Catalysts for change were real life experiences, dialogue with peers and mentors, and critical self-reflection. These mechanisms enabled these immigrant women to analyze their own lives and consider changes that would make their lives more meaningful, pleasurable, and fulfilling. Incremental or first order change, the acquisition o f new technical knowledge and skills, A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 173 helped the women prepare to earn a living. However, when these changes contributed to irreversible and permanent transformative change, the women came to see themselves in a new way as valued and empowered members of the community. This study confirmed the occurrence o f change as proposed by Mezirow (2000): personal change occurs by elaborating existing frames o f reference, by learning new frames of reference, by transforming points o f view, and by transforming habits o f mind. The process o f action and discussion initiated by teacher, trainers, and mentors was the source o f a variety of experiences that ignited the process o f transformative change. As Levy and Mary (as cited in Poutiatine, 2009) outlined, once transformational change has begun, its development is not constant, but rather starts, cycles, and stops in a somewhat predictable pattern. The immigrant women, in the process o f leaving their home country and settling in a new country, found that life was totally different than what they had dreamed. For some, transformation may have preceded the training, as they adjusted their view o f themselves and their roles and potential in accordance with the setting. For example, some of the participants developed new goals for themselves while working in a plant nursery. Other participants did not appear to have experienced transformational change during this training but they did experience incremental change in terms o f acquiring additional knowledge and skills. For the participants in this study, some o f the most evocative transformative learning came from disorienting dilemmas that occurred as personal stories, experiences, and emotions that were shared. Those who experienced transformative change reported change beyond the development o f new knowledge and skills, including enhanced self- A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 174 confidence and self-esteem, greater self-awareness, improved ability to network, and a belief that they would become more self-sufficient. A new understanding that emerged for me may be significant for adult education and particularly for educators planning technical training for marginalized groups. I came to see how first order change may move individuals toward a second order change, a transformative break with their past and current practices. Second, I found that empowerment is somewhat fragile and requires the continued attention o f the instructor or mentor, as illustrated when I moved to quickly past topics o f interest to individual participants. My actions had adverse effects for empowerment because they led to the learners’ disengagement in the discussion and in the process o f constructing new points of view. At this point the learners began to lose their sense o f agency. When the women were involved in the plan to remedy the situation, their sense o f agency returned. In this study, immigrant women strongly articulated how the development o f their own self-leadership capacity helped them to make decisions independently and lead their lives more effectively. There were a number o f factors related to the development o f this leadership capacity, including a sense o f empowerment, improved self-awareness, the habit of critical self-reflection, and improved communication and collaborative skills. There were also situations when immigrant women applied their shared leadership capacity to solve emerging problems in the group and within their own families. Relationships, in this study, were an aspect o f transformational leadership that contributed to transformative learning and the development o f self-leadership in participants. It is not surprising that the immigrant women, through their interactions, enabled others to learn and became transformative agents themselves (Sashkin & A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 175 Sashkin, 2003). The open and trusting relationships established between group members as well as between mentor and mentees helped to establish a democratic environment in which leadership was shared. Participants who became leaders in the group may have modeled their treatment o f others on the mentoring that they were receiving. This study also emerged as a medium o f transformative learning for me as an educator. It gave me a new self-awareness, deeper convictions regarding the importance of the interests of the learners and of mutual openness between educator and learners, and the ability to foster the engaging process o f critical reflection and self-reflection though dialogue (Cranton & Carusetta, 2004). This study also gave me an opportunity to assess my leadership and personal skills, competencies, and practices and to set goals for incremental growth or change. This planned learning will be valuable for bringing my skills in line with the new understandings that I gained due to transformative learning. For example, I will seek opportunities to build on communications strengths in future projects and look for ways to improve my ability to manage stress and work more effectively as a team member. In this thesis, I have described the materials, processes and strategies used for the development and implementation of a cleaning company or janitorial business curriculum with the potential to foster transformative learning and self-leadership in immigrant women. One o f my goals was to uncover the immigrant wom en’s potential to become leaders in their own lives by sharing information about healthy self-esteem and facilitating discovery o f their own identity. I followed the principles o f critical self­ reflection, dialogue, collaboration, mentoring, and empowerment in the process o f developing transformative or transformational leadership and transformative learning. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 176 My leadership education and my professional experience as an educator helped me to develop a cleaning agency curriculum with effective work place skills and the well-being o f participants in mind. I learned and improved facilitation skills, teaching skills, program coordinating skills, and communication skills such as listening and empathy during the process of working and learning collaboratively with the immigrant women. I began this study with some conceptual knowledge o f transformative theory. However, the action-based reflection gave me an opportunity to explore my values and goals more deeply. While working as a teacher, I realized that education can contribute substantially to transforming society (Bums, 1978). Therefore, teaching inspired me to pursue other leadership roles to achieve the goals o f education and serve society as a whole. I delved into the adult education literature to discover what motivates and empowers adult learning and this theoretical knowledge, combined with my analysis o f transformation as it occurred, helped me to understand the concepts deeply. Each session provided me with an opportunity to reflect critically on my own teaching practice as well as on the learning o f the participants. I invested my best efforts in linking their personal experiences and needs to the subject content to encourage learning through reflection. This study enhanced my will to leam and taught me how I am able, as an adult educator, to enhance the will to leam in others. This study proved to be a positive challenge for me as well as for participants. In the processes o f reflection in action and reflection on action, I was considering the learning and change that occurred, both for participants and in my own personal context. In both areas, I observed shifts in A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 177 awareness that brought about the deep learning and change described by Mezirow (1997). On the whole, I conclude that this study gave me an opportunity to study the adult learning process firsthand, with developing awareness o f personal leadership assumptions, beliefs, knowledge and practices (Mezirow & Taylor, 2009). For each learner, our learning process involved the learner’s self. There was a direct correspondence of the learning environment to real environments in which the knowledge and skills would be applied (Illeris, 2007). As a researcher, I collected ample information regarding participants’ interests, needs and experiences. Valuing learner’s experiences and connecting learning to their real lives helped me to develop relationships and to have influence with them. Moreover, my experience of teaching adults and children helped me to respond to both intellectual and emotional attitudes o f the learners. The most powerful new understanding gained in this study is that CAR can be a powerful tool in assisting teachers, mentors and learners to co-construct a transformative learning and leadership environment. I believe this study helped all participants to better understand who they are. It helped each o f us to define our goals and become empowered to achieve them. It created real-life changes in the way participants think about themselves and their ability to initiate changes to improve the quality o f life for themselves, their families, and society. 5.2 Implications for Practice My literature review indicated that research on developing curriculum to build non-English speaking immigrant women’s knowledge and skills in the house cleaning A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 178 and janitorial profession is virtually non-existent. In this study, I addressed this knowledge gap by developing such a curriculum for Abbotsford Community Services (ACS) in Abbotsford, British Columbia, implemented the program as a pilot, assessed the outcomes, and reported the results as an academic case study. My findings in this study support the notion that transformational leadership, transformative leadership, and transformative learning share a common concept o f transforming or changing (Shields, 2010). Empowerment emerged as a significant concept that influenced the change process. The process of critical reflection influenced the frames of reference o f individuals to generate a deep change in their thinking and practices. This deep change served as a catalyst for transformative learning. Further, the processes o f curriculum development, implementation and mentoring helped to create learning contexts with ample opportunities for reflective practices. As an adult educator or mentor, my critical awareness o f self and adult education opened my practice to proactive reflexivity and helped to create contexts for transformative learning and transformative leadership. The learners shared responsibility for creating transformative learning and leadership contexts through their process of reflection and participation in collaboration. In this study, I noted a convincing connection between transformative learning and leadership (Bellas, 2004; Brown & Posner; 2001; Elkins, 2003; Madsen, 2010). Although there is a wealth of literature on transformational leadership and transformative learning, in this study I found an explicit connection between transformational leadership and transformative learning in the unique setting o f a cleaning company training for immigrant women. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 179 I also explored aspects related to curriculum development of a cleaning agency curriculum based on janitorial knowledge and business skills. This field tested employment skills curriculum may be o f value to other community development agencies. While documenting change in the participants, I learned how adults leam, what strategies are likely to be effective for adults, and how working and learning in collaboration can play an important role in the change process. I documented how the importance of change is undeniable as it helped me define and redefine who I am and how I will continue to improve my abilities as a teacher or leader working toward transformative, empowering learning for students or associates. Further, this documented account of the learning and leadership process may inform other community educators as well as program planners and policy makers, about how to structure and deliver programs that will have an impact in the community. In this way, this study has made a unique contribution to community-based adult education literature, to address an area that has been virtually non-existent. 5.3 Future Research Recommendations The recommendations included here grew out of my experience during this project. I developed these recommendations for organizations and networks involved in adult education, for policy makers, volunteers, and students. A t the centre o f these recommendations is my belief that that CAR can be a powerful tool in assisting teachers, mentors, and learners to co-construct the transformative learning and leadership environment. A collaborative approach combined with a mentoring element can help to develop strong and positive relationships among learners and between learners and A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 180 instructors or mentors. Having instructors and mentors who share a similar cultural or experiential background with learners may be an effective strategy for developing deep interpersonal understanding and open dialogue. The collaborative actions, discussions, and reflections can develop new knowledge frameworks for individuals and for programming. In other adult learning projects that are informed by what has been learned here, empowerment may also emerge as an important factor that plays a crucial role in learning. In this study, I believe, as a CAR researcher I was transformed more than participants as I was able to comprehend and clearly differentiate what and when I experienced change and transformational change. The role o f my own self-awareness in transformation raises the question as to the extent to which a learner's meta-cognition contributes to transformative learning. This is a question for further research. Possibilities for future research include four main recommendations. 5.3.1 Recommendation 1 This study was exploratory and related to the design rather than to the evaluation of a curriculum. Alternate research methods are required to evaluate the impact o f this kind of curriculum with validity and reliability and for generalizability across contexts. The story o f empowerment and transformative learning shared here is personal and context-bound and so similar research in other contexts may support this study’s findings or may call them into question. However, community education for transformative learning and social change for immigrants is a critical topic and merits additional research with an array of methods, both to design and to evaluate curricula. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 5.3.2 181 Recommendation 2 Canada is a multicultural society and community programs serve the needs o f the diverse community. Understanding the impact that cultural influences have on values, beliefs, and behaviours is o f critical importance. Researchers must recognize the likelihood for differences in perceptions when working with participants from diverse cultural backgrounds (Olatundun, 2009). Therefore, if a similar study is conducted with a more diverse population in terms o f sex, race, and culture, valuable cross-cultural comparisons may be generated. Further cross-cultural research related to the design o f adult learning programs and their outcomes may add valuable understanding to the concepts o f transformative learning and transformative leadership. 5.3.3 Recommendation 3 Programs must recognize the participants’ primary needs and acquire adequate resources to meet those needs. These resources include time, appropriate venues, and funding. It is important to identify and address resource deficiencies as potential barriers to success. In this study, if the immigrant women had been provided with paid work experience and opportunities to work with a variety of local employers, their empowerment may have been enhanced. Other learning barriers such as childcare needs should be considered or accommodated as part o f an adult learning program, to enhance involvement and successful learning for participants. W omen’s access to transportation may also be a barrier to participation. Appropriate arrangements such as providing bus passes or taxi fare may be considered. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 5.3.4 182 Recommendation 4 The parameters o f subsequent studies could be expanded to gather perceptions from all facilitators and mentors who collaborated to provide the program. This study focused on my role in facilitating transformative learning and on the impact for participants. However, it did not access information about what other program developers, trainers and mentors contributed or how they were affected. A better understanding o f the behind-the-scenes collaboration required to initiate, fund, and develop adult learning programs could be useful for other agencies seeking to implement similar programs. 5.3.5 Summary Collaborative action research with learners has shown promise as an effective way to develop curricula for adult education programs. A collaborative approach not only helped to empower the participants in this study but helped to reveal the catalysts for their individual transformation. Gaining competence in recognizing how transformative learning is connected to transformative leadership had practical value in this study and could be a valuable guide for other adult educators. However, my own experience has taught me that one cannot seek to transform others without considerable change to one’s own beliefs and perspectives. The impact o f this study will remain with me as a landmark in my development as an educator committed to collaborative community development. 183 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM References Abbotsford Community Services. (2012). http://www.abbo tsfordcommunityservices.com/index.cfm ?method=pages.showPa ge&pageID=21267dac-cfl8-c8e9-f4ab-5092b7c06c25 Alamgir, H., & Yu, S. (2008). Epidemiology of occupational injury among cleaners in the healthcare sector. Occupational Medicine, 58(6), 393-399. Allee, V. (1997). Transformational learning. Executive Excellence, 14(8), 12. Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., & Burroughs, S. M. (1997). The mentor’s perspective: A qualitative inquiry and future research agenda. Journal o f Vocational Behavior, 51, 70-89. Angelo, T.A. (1993, April). A "teacher's dozen": Fourteen general, research-based principles for improving higher learning in our classroom. ALAHE Bulletin, 3-13. Apps, J. (1994). Leadership fo r the emerging age: Transforming practice in adult and continuing education. Jossey-Bass Publishers. A rif A.A., Hughes, P.C., & Delclos, G.L. (2008). Occupational exposures among domestic and industrial professional cleaners. Occupational Medicine (London), 58(1), 458-463. Arif, A.A., Delclos, G.L., Whitehead, L.W., Tortolero, S.R., & Lee, E.S. (2003). Occupational exposures associated with work-related asthma and work-related wheezing among U.S. workers. American Journal o f Industrial Medicine, 44(A), 368-376. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 184 Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (2000). Leadership reconsidered: Engaging higher education in social change. Battle Creek, MI: Kellogg Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.wkkf.org/Pubs/CCT/Leadership/Pub3368.PDF Bailey, J., & Axelrod, R.H. (2001). Leadership Lessons from Mount Rushmore: An Interview with James MacGregor Bums. Leadership Quarterly, 12, 113-127. Bandura, A. (1997). The exercise o f control. New York: Freeman & Company. Barling, J., Christie, A.M., & Turner, N. (2008). Pseudo-transformational leadership: Towards the development and test o f a model. Journal o f Business Ethics, 81, 851-861. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership: Good, better, best. Organizational Dynamics, 73(3), 2 6 40. Bass, B. (1990). Bass and Stogdill’s handbook o f leadership. New York, New York: The Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1998). The ethics o f transformational leadership. In J. Ciulia (Ed.), Ethics, the heart o f leadership. Westport, CT: Praeger. Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industry, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bass, B. M. (1999). Two decades o f research and development in transformational leadership. European Journal o f Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(1), 9— 32. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 185 Bass, B. M., & Riggio, E. G. (2006). Transformational leadership (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bass, B. M., & Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 181—217. Bates, R. (1995). A socially critical perspective on educational leadership. Paper presented at the Flinders University Conference on Educational Leadership, Adelaide, South. Australia. BC government support fo r women. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.cd.gov.bc.ca/women/pdfs/support_for_women.pdf Bader, B., Horman, J., Lapointe, C. (2010). Fostering community and civic engagement in low income multicultural schools through transformative leadership. Exceptional Education International, 20(2), 25-37. Belenky, M. F., & Stanton, A. V. (2000). Inequality, development and connected knowing. In J. Mezirow (Ed.), Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp. 71-102). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. (1986). W omen’s ways o f knowing: The development o f s e lf voice, and mind (10th ed.). New York: Basic Books. Bell, J.L., Collins, J.W., Wolf, L., Gronqvist, R., Chiou, S., Chang, W.R., . . . Evanoff, B. (2008). Evaluation o f a comprehensive slip, trip and fall prevention programme for hospital employees. Ergonomics, 5/(12), 1906-1925. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 186 Bellas, M. D. (2004). How transformational learning experiences develop leadership capacity. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Royal Roads University, Victoria, Canada. Bennis, W. (1986). Transformative power and leadership. In T. J. Sergiovanni & J. E. Corbally (Eds.), Leadership and organizational culture (pp. 64-71). Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Bader, B., Horman, J., & Lapointe, C. (2010). Fostering community and civic engagement in low income multicultural schools through transformative leadership. Exceptional Education International, 20(2), 25-37. Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1997). Leaders: The strategies fo r taking charge. Harper & Row, New York. Beyer, B. K. (1991). Teaching thinking skills: A handbook fo r elementary school teachers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Beyer, J. M. (1999). Taming and promoting charisma to change organizations. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 307-330. Bongers, P.M., Kremer, A.M., & Ter Laak, J. (2002). Are psychosocial factors, risk factors for symptoms and signs o f the shoulder, elbow, or hand/wrist? A review o f the epidemiological literature. American Journal o f Industrial Medicine, 41(5), 315-342. Boyatzis, R. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 187 Bozeman, B., & Feeney, M.K. (2007). Toward a useful theory of mentoring: A conceptual analysis and critique. Administration & Society 39(6), 719-739. Bray, J., Lee, J., Smith, L., & Yorks, L. (2000). Collaborative inquiry in practice: Action, reflection, and making meaning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Brookfield, S. D. (1985). Discussion as an effective educational tool. In, S. Rosenblum (Ed.), Involving adult learners in the educational process. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Brookfield, S. D. (1990). Discussion. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult learning methods: A guide fo r effective instruction (pp. 187-204). Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. Brookfield, S., & Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a way o f teaching: Tools and techniques fo r democratic classrooms (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Brown, K. M. (2004). Leadership for social justice and equity: Weaving a transformative framework and pedagogy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(1), 77-108. Brown, K. M. (2005). Transformative adult learning strategies: Assessing the impact on pre-service administrators’ beliefs. Educational Considerations, 32, 18-26. Brown, L. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2001). Exploring the relationship between learning and leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22(5-6), 274-280. Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory o f instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 188 Bruster, B. (2006). The Transition from Welfare to Work: Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy’s Influence on the Employment Outcome o f African American Female Welfare Recipients. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1811/25150 Bryman, A. (1992). Charisma and leadership in organizations. London: Sage. Bums, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Perennial. Bums, J. M. (2003). Transforming leadership: A new pursuit o f happiness. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press. Caffarella, R. S. (2002). Planning program fo r adult learners: A practical guide fo r educators, trainers, and sta ff developers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Caffarella, R. S., & Olson, S. K. (1993). Psychosocial development o f women: A critical review o f the literature. Adult Education Quarterly, 43, 125-151. Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming Critical: Education, knowledge and action research. Lewes, Falmer. Carter, S. (2010). Transformational physician leaders: The relationship between transformational leadership and transformative learning. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest database. (3427049). Cassano, D. R., & Dunlop, J. M. (n.d.). Participatory action research with South Asian immigrant women: A Canadian example. Retrieved from http://www.uwindsor.ca/criticalsocialwork/participatory-action-research-withsouth-asian-immigrant-women-a-canadian-example A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 189 Cassell, C., Symon, G. (2004). Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research. CA: Sage. Chapman, S. A. (2007). A theory o f curriculum development in the professions: An integration o f Mezirow's transformative learning theory with Schwab's deliberative curriculum theory. A transformative-deliberative curriculum approach can lead to curricula that target transformation in curriculum processes, classroom experiences, and professional work. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProOuest database. (3247879) Chen, L. (1995). Needs o f immigrant women in orientational training programs. Retrieved from http://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/3769 Cheston, S., & Kuhn, L. (n.d.) Empowering women through microfinance. Retrieved from http://www.microcreditsummit.org/papers/empowerment.pdf Cheston,S., & Kuhn, L. (n.d.). Empowering women through microfinance. Retrieved from http://www.microcreditsummit.org/papers/empowerment.pdf Chipping, D., & Morse, R. (2006). Using a supportive mentoring relationship to aid independent action research. London: DFES and the National Teacher Research Panel. Clark, C. (1993). Transformational learning. In S.B. Merriam (Ed.), A n update on adult learning theory. New Directions fo r Adult and Continuing Education, No, 57. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Clark, D. R. (2004). The A rt and Science o f Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat.html A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 190 Cleaners mopped up by injuries. (1999). J Occup Health Safety Environ 3(5):8 Cohen, M. G. (2003). Training the excludedfor work: Access and equity fo r women, immigrants, first nations, youth, and people with low income. Vancouver, BC, CAN: UBC Press. Cohen, N. H. (1995). Mentoring and adult learners: A guide fo r educators and trainers. Malabar, FL: Krieger. Cooper, S. (n.d.). Transformational learning. Retrieved from http://www.lifecirclesinc.com/Leamingtheories/humanist/mezirow.html Crabtree, B., & Miller, W. (1999). A template approach to text analysis: Developing and using codebooks. In B. Crabtree & W. Miller (Eds.), Doing qualitative research (pp. 163-177.) Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Cranton, P., & Carusetta, E. (2004). Perspectives on authenticity in teaching. Adult Education Quarterly, 55, 5-22. Cranton, P. (1992). Working with adult learners. Toronto, ON: Wall and Emerson. Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and promoting transformative learning: A guide fo r educators o f adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cranton, P. (1996). Professional development as transformative learning: New perspectives fo r teachers o f adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cranton, P., & Carusetta, E. (2004). Perspectives on authenticity in teaching. Adult Education Quarterly, 55, 5-22. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 191 Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among fiv e approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Columbus, OH: Pearson. Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative Approaches. London: Sage Publications Croydon, A., & Crichton, K. (1997). Job Preparation: A Curriculum fo r Refugee and Immigrant Women. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED423724.pdf Daloz, L. A. (1999). Mentor: Guiding the journey o f adult learners (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Daloz, L. A. (2000). Transformative learning for the common good. In J. Mezirow & Associates (Eds.), Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Darwin, A. (2000). Critical reflections on mentoring in work settings. A dult Education Quarterly, 50(3), 197-211. Davis, K. (2000). The relationship between psychosocial work characteristics and low back pain: underlying methodological issues. Clinical Biomechanics, 15(6), 389 406. Deshler, D. (1984). Involving program constituencies in the evaluation process. In D. Deshler (Ed.), Evaluation fo r program improvement (pp. 3—21). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 192 Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books. Dick, B. R. (2002). Action research. Retrieved from http://www.alara.net.au/aral/actionresearch Dirkx, J.M., Mezirow, J., & Cranton, P. (2006). Musings and reflections on the meaning, context, and process of transformative learning: A dialogue between John M. Dirkx and Jack Mezirow. Journal o f Transformative Education, 4 (123). Dixon, N. (1993). Developing managers for the learning organization. Human Resource Management Review, 5(3), 243-254. Douglas, W., Krywulak, T., & Kitagawa, K. (2008). Renewing Immigration: Towards a Convergence and Consolidation o f Canada’s Immigration Policies and Systems. Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada. Drago-Severson, E. (2004). Becoming adult learners: Principles and practices fo r effective development. New York: Teachers College Press. Education fo r Employment Curriculum Guide (n.d.).Virginia Vocational Curriculum and Resource Center, 2200 Mountain Road, Glen Allen, VA 23060-2208. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED406530.pdf Educational Leadership That Works. (2007). Glossary o f leadership terms [Web based citation]. Retrieved from http://www.educationleadershipthatworks.org/PopUp.aspx7pageModeV4leamingc enter&displayType%glossary&phraseV4first-order%20change Elden, M., & R.F. Chisholm. (1993). Emerging varieties o f action research: Introduction to the Special Issue. Human Relations, 46(2), 121-142. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 193 Elkins, S. L. (2003). Transformational learning in leadership and management positions. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14(3), 351-358. Engel, R. J., & Schutt, R. K. (2009). Fundamentals of social work research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. English, L. M. (2000). Mentorship. In T. Barer-Stein & M. Kompf (Ed.), The craft o f teaching adults. Toronto, Ontario: Irwin Publishing. Ervin, E. (1995). Power, frustration, and ‘Fierce Negotiation’ in mentoring relationships Four women tell their stories. Women’s Studies, 24(5), 447-481. Fetherston, B., & Kelly, R. (2007). Conflict resolution and transformative pedagogy: A grounded theory research project on learning in higher education. Journal o f Transformative Education, 5, 262-285. Fit, L. W., & Newton, D. A. (1981). When the mentor is a man and the mentee is a woman. Harvard Business Review, 59(2), 56-60. Fleming, J. L. (1996). Who Are the Proteges? The relationship between mentoring experiences, self-efficacy, career salience, attachment style, and Eriksonian life stage. Retrieved from ProOuest database. (9631696). Fletcher, S. (2007). Mentoring adult learners: Realizing possible selves. In M. Rossiter (Ed.), Possible selves and adult learning: Perspectives and potential. New directions fo r adult and continuing education (No. 114, pp. 75-86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Foster, W. (1986). Paradigms and promises. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 194 Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy o f the oppressed. New York, NY: Continuum. Gabriel, P. (2008). Personal Transformation: The relationship of transformative learning experiences and transformational leadership. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest database. (3315444). Gagne, R. M. (1965). The conditions o f learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Galbraith, M., & Zelenak, B. (Eds.). (1991). Facilitating adult learning: A transactional process. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Co. Gaventa, J., & Cornwall, A. (2006). Power and knowledge. In P. Reason & H. Bradbury (Eds.), Handbook o f action research (pp. 71-82). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Giles, D. L., & Alderson, S. (2008). An Appreciative Inquiry into the transformative learning experiences for students in a family literacy project. Australian Journal o f Adult Learning, 48(3), 465-478. Gist, M. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1992). Self-efficacy: A theoretical analysis o f its determinants and malleability. Academy o f Management Review, 17, 183-211. Glatthom A., Boschee F., & Whitehead B. (2006). Curriculum leadership: Development and implementation. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the pow er o f emotional intelligence. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Grabove, V. (1997). The many facets o f transformative learning: Theory and practice. In P. Cranton (Ed.), Transformative learning in action: Insights fro m practice (pp. 89-96). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 195 Gray, D. E. (2006). Executive coaching: Towards a dynamic alliance o f psychotherapy and transformative learning processes. Management Learning, 37, 475. Greenwood, D., & Levin, M. (1998). Introduction to action research social research fo r social change. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Greenwood, D.J., & Levin, M. (2000). Reconstructing the relationships between universities and society through action research (2nd ed). In N.D. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook o f qualitative research (pp.85-106). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Grotelueschen, A.D. (1980). Program evaluation. In A. B. Knox (Ed.,) Developing, administering, and evaluating adult education (pp. 75— 123). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Guidelines on Women's Empowerment, (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/popin/unfpa/taskforce/guide/iatfwemp.gdl.html Habermas, J. (1971). Knowledge and human interests. Boston: Beacon Press. Habermas, J. (1993). Justification and application: Remarks on discourse ethics (C. P. Cronin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Hall, B. L. (1981). Participatory research, popular knowledge edge and power: a personal reflection. Convergence, 14 (3), 6-17. Hansman, C. A. (1998). Mentoring and women's career development. In L. L. Bierema (Ed.), Women's career development: Implications/or adult education (pp. 63-72). New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 80. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 196 Hansman, C. A. (2002). Diversity and power in mentoring relationships. In C. A. Hansman (Ed.), Critical perspectives on mentoring: Trends and issues (pp. 3948). ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education (Information Series No. 388). Ohio State University: Columbus, Ohio. Heimlich, J. E. (1993). Nonformal environmental education: Toward a working definition. Columbus, OH:Educational Resources Information Center. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 360 154) Helgesen, S. (1990). The female advantage: Women’s ways o f leadership. New York: Doubleday Currency. Herma, M., & Manders, J. (2009). W omen’s empowerment: Comparing concepts and assessing implications fo r microfinance. Retrieved from http://www.oikocredit.org/documents/doc/women-empowermentreport.pdf?&hit=no Herrera, C., Vang, Z., & Gale, L. Y. (n.d.). Group mentoring. Retrieved from http://www.ppv.org/ppv/publications/assets/153_publication.pdf Hills, M., & Mullett, J. (2005). Community-based research: a catalyst for transforming primary health care rhetoric into practice. Primary Health Care Research and Development, 6, 279-290. Houle, C. O. (1996). The design o f education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hu, X. (2005, June). What Makes Them So Upset? Chinese Immigrant Women in Vancouver Labour Market. Presented at when women gain, so does the world, IWPR’s eighth international women’s policy research conference. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 197 Huddleston, P., & Unwin, L., (2002). Teaching and learning in further education (2nd ed.). Routledge Falmer, New York. Hunt, D. M., & Michael, C. (1983). Mentorship: A career training and development tool. Academy o f Management Review, 5(3), 475-485. Hyde, C. (1994). Reflections on a journey: A research story. In C. K. Riessman (Ed.), Qualitative Studies in Social Work Research (pp. 169-189). London: Sage Publications. Illeris, K. (2007). What do we actually mean by experiential learning? Human Resource Development Review, 6(1), (84-95). Inman, P. L. (1998). Women's career development at the glass ceiling. In S. Imel (Series Ed.), & L. L. Bierema (Vol. Ed.), New directions fo r adult and continuing education: No. 80. Women’s career development across the lifespan: Insights and strategies fo r womsn, organizations, and adult educator's (pp. 35-42). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Itzhaky, H. (2003). Developing empowerment and leadership: The case o f immigrant women in Israel. Affilia, 18(3), 289-301. Jahan, R. (2000). Transformative leadership in the 21st century. Retrieved from http://www.capwip.org/resources/womparlconf2000/downloads/jahanl.pdf Johnson, C. M. (2001). A survey o f current research on online communities o f practice. Internet and Higher Education, 4( 1), 45-60. Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive and individualistic learning (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 198 Johnson, G. P. (1997). Concomitants o f increased reflective thinking: A comparison o f two approaches to teaching bible content in Brazil. (Doctoral dissertation).Retrieved from ProQuest database. (0591393913) Jones, M., & Stanley, G. (2010).Collaborative action research: a democratic undertaking or a web o f collusion and compliance? International Journal o f Research and Method in Education, 33(2), 151-163. Jungbauer, F. H. W., Van Der Harst, J. J., Schuttelaar, M. L., Groothoff, J. W., Coenraads , P. J. (2004). Characteristics o f wet work in the cleaning industry. Contact Dermatitis, 51(3), 131-134. Katz, E. (2008). Programs promoting young w om en’s employment: What works? Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GenderYouthEmploy atz.pdf Kaufman, R. A. (1982). Identifying and solving problems: A systems approach (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: University Associates. Keeley, M. (1995). The trouble with transformational leadership: Toward a federalist ethic for organizations. Business Ethics Quarterly, 5, 67-95. Kemmis, S. (2006). Participatory action research and the public sphere. Educational Action Research, 14(A), 459—16. Kemmis, S., & Mctaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner (3rd ed.). Geelong: Deakin University Press. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 199 Kemmis, Stephen & McTaggart, Robin (2005). Participatory action research: Communicative action and the public sphere, In Norman K. Denzin & Yvonna S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook o f qualitative research (pp. 559-603). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kim, J. C., Watts, C. H., Hargreaves, J. R., Ndhlovu, L. X., Phetla, G., Morison, L. A .,. . . Pronyk, P. (2007). Understanding the impact o f a microfmance-based intervention on women's empowerment and the reduction of intimate partner violence in South Africa. American Journal o f Public Health, 97(10), 1794-1802. King, K. P. (1997). Examining activities that promote perspective transformation among adult learners in higher education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Widner University, Philadelphia. Kitchenham, A. (2008). The evolution o f John Mezirow's transformative learning theory. Journal o f Transformative Education, 6, 104. Kitchenham, A. (2006). Teachers and technology: A transformative journey. Journal o f Transformative Education, 4(3), 202-225. Klenke, K. (2008). Qualitative research in the study o f leadership. Bingley, UK: Emerald. Knowles, M. S. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species (4th ed.). Houston: G ulf Publishing Co. Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice o f adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Chicago: Follett. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 200 Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. G., & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resources development. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company. Knowles, M.S. (1989). The making o f an adult educator. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Knowles, M.S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R.A. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. (6th ed.). Elsevier Inc. Knox, A.B. (1986). Helping adults learn. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. Koch, T., Mann, S., Kralik, D., & Van Loon, A. M. (2005). Reflection: look, think and act cycles in participatory action research. Journal o f Research in Nursing, 10(3), 261-278. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2011). Leadership begins with an inner journey. Leader To Leader, 2011(60), 22-27. doi:10.1002/ltl.464. Retrieved from http://www.hesselbeininstitute.org/knowledgecenter/joumal.aspx?ArticleID=864 Kouzes, J.M., & Posner, B.Z. (1995). The leadership challenge: How to keep getting extraordinary things done in organizations. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Kouzes, James M., & Posner, Barry Z. (2003). Challenge is the opportunity for greatness. Leader to Leader, 28, 16-23. Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 201 Lee, C. D. (1992, February). Literacy, cultural diversity, and instruction. Education and Urban Society, 24(2), 279-291. Lewin K. (1948). Action research and minority problems. In Lewin K (ed.). Resolving social conflicts: Selected papers on group dynamics. New York: Harper Brothers. Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal o f Social Issues, 2(4), 34-46. Lindeman, E.C. (1926). The meaning o f adult education. New York: New Republic. Lloyd, B., Ennis F., & Atkinson, T. (Eds). (1994). Women in literacy speak: The pow er o f woman-positive literacy work. Halifax, NS: Femwood. Loughlin, K. A. (1993). Women’s perceptions o f transformative learning experiences within consciousness-raising. Edwin Mellen Press. Lyons, T. (2005). Emotional intelligence: An element to successful school leadership or does it matter2 Masters Abstracts International, 44 (1092), 03. (U M IN o. AATMR09462). MacKeracher, D. (1996). Making sense o f adult learning. Toronto: Culture Concepts, Inc. Madsen, S. R. (2010, February). Leadership development in the United Arab Emirates: The transformational learning experiences o f women. Journal o f Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17(1), 100-110. d o i:l0.1177/1548051809345254 Majoor, H., & Manders, J. (2009). Women’s empowerment: Comparing concepts & assessing implications fo r microfinance. Retrieved from A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 202 http://www.oikocredit.org/documents/doc/women-empowermentreport.pdf?&hit=no Mandell, A., & Herman, L. (2009). Mentoring: When learners make the learning. In J. Mezirow, E.W. Taylor, & Associates (Eds.), Transformative learning in practice: Insights from community, workplace, and higher education (pp. 78-88). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P. Jr. (2001). The new superleadership: Leading others to lead themselves. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. McKendall, M. (1993). The tyranny o f change: Organizational development revisited. Journal o f Business Ethics, 12, 93-104. McKimm, J. (2007). Curriculum design and development. Retrieved from http://www.faculty.londondeanery.ac.uk/e-leaming/setting-leamingobjectives/Curriculum_design_and_development.pdf McKinzie, L. (1997). Transformation learning theory and the adult learner: The development of information literacy skills in response to the informational context. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest database. (0591645513) Medel-Anonuevo, C., & B. Bochynek. (1995). The International Seminar on Education and Women’s Empowerment. In C. Medel-Anonuevo (Ed.), Women, education, and empowerment: Pathways towards autonomy. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute o f Education. Melrose, M.J. (2001). Maximizing the rogor o f action research: Why would you want to? How could you? Field Methods, 13(2), 160-180. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 203 Mendell, A., & Herman, L. (2009). In Mezirow and Taylor and associates transformative learning in practice; insights from community, workplace, and higher education. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood (2d ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1978). Education fo r perspective transformation: Women's re-entry programs in community colleges. New York: Teacher's College, Columbia University. Mezirow, J. (1990). Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: a guide to transformative and emancipatory learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions o f adult learning. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Mezirow, J. (1995). Transformation theory o f adult learning. In M. R. Welton (Ed.), In defense o f the lifeworld (p. 39). New York: SUNY Press. Mezirow, J. (1996). Contemporary paradigms o f learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 46, 158-172. Mezirow, J. (1997a). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. In P. Cranton (Ed.), Transformative learning in action: Insights from practice (New Directions for Adult Learning, 74, pp. 5-12). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 204 Mezirow, J. (1997b). Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New Directions fo r Adult and Continuing Education, 74, 5-12. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J., & Taylor, E.D. (Eds.). (2009). Transformative learning in practice. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Mezirow, J., & Wiessner, C. A. (2001). Theory building and the search for common ground. In J. Mezirow & others (Eds.), Learning as transformation (pp. 329-357). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miller, G., Van Sant, D., & Mullett, J. (2009). Collaborative action research: A catalyst fo r enhancing the practice o f community youth mapping: Full report. Retrieved from http://www.cclcca.ca/pdfs/FundedResearch/201009MillerVanSantMullettFullRep ort.pdf Mott, V. W. (2002). Emerging Perspectives on Mentoring. In C. A. Hansman (Ed.), Critical perspectives on mentoring: Trends and issues (pp. 39-48). ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education (Information Series No. 388). Ohio State University: Columbus, Ohio. Mullen, E. (1994). Framing the mentoring relationship in an information exchange. Human Resource Management Review, 4, 257-281. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 205 Nan, W. (2008). Breaking Down Barriers to Labour Market Integration o f Newcomers in Toronto. The Institute fo r Research on Public Policy Choices, 74(10), 6. Newman, J. (1987). Uncovering our assumptions. Halifax, Canada. Newman, M. (1994). Forum: Response to understanding transformation theory. Adult Education Quarterly, 44(4), 236-242. Northouse, P. G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. NTC Mentorship Program, (n.d.). Retrieved from http://systemattic.wtcsystem.edu/ProfessionalDevelopment/NTC_MentorshipProgram.pdf Oja, S., & Smulyan, L. (1989). Collaborative action research: A developmental approach. London: Falmer Press. Olatundun, I. (2009). What is cross-cultural research? International Journal o f Psychological Studies, 1(2), 82-96. Palmer, P. J. (2004). A hidden wholeness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Pandher, A.K. Sangha, J., & Chawla, P. (2004). Childhood obesity among Punjabi children in relation to physical activity and their blood profile. Journal o f Human Ecology, 15(3), 179-182. Retrieved from http://www.krepublishers.com/02Joumals/JHE/JHE-15-0-000-000-2004-W eb/JFIE-15-3-161 -236-2004-AbstPDF/JHE-15-3-179-182-2004-Pandher/JHE-15-3-179-182-2004-Pandher.pdf A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 206 Peshkin, A. (1992). The relationship between culture and curriculum: A many fitting thing. In P.W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook on research on curriculum (pp. 248-267). New York: Macmillan. Phillips, J., Jones, W., & Schmidt, C. (2000). Level 3 application: Business results. Info Line. Alexandria, VA: ASTD. Pierce, G. (1986). Management education fo r an emergent paradigm. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Teachers College, Columbia University. Poon, R. (2006). A model fo r servant leadership, self-efficacy and mentorship. Retrieved from http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2006/poon.pdf Poonwassie, D. H., & Poonwassiem, A. (Eds.). (2001). Fundamentals o f adult education: Issues and practices fo r lifelong learning. Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing. Poutiatine, M. (2009). What is transformation? Nine principles toward and understanding o f the transformational process for transformational leadership. Journal o f Transformative Education, 7(3), 189-208. Prins, E., Toso, B. W., & Schafft, K. (2009). It feels like a little family to me: Social interaction and support for women in adult education and family literacy. Adult Education Quarterly, 59(4): 335-352. Protheroe, N. J., & Barsdate, K. J. (1992, March). Culturally sensitive instruction. Streamlined Seminar, 10(4), 1-4. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 207 Quantz, R. A., Rogers, J., & Dantley, M. (1991). Rethinking transformative leadership: Toward democratic reform o f schools. Journal o f Education, 173(3), 96-118. Quinn, J. B. (1992). Intelligent enterprise: A knowledge and service based paradigm fo r industry. New York: Free Press. Quinn, R. (1996). Deep change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rapoport, R.N. (1970). Three dilemmas in action research. Human Relations, 23, 499513. Reason, P. (Ed.). (1988). Human inquiry in action: Developments in new paradigm research. London : Sage Publications. Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (2008). The SAGE handbook o f action research: participative inquiry and practice (2nd ed.). London: SAGE. Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook o f action research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Rice, P.L., & Ezzy, D. (2001). Qualitative research methods. A health focus. Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Riding, P., Fowell, S., & Levy, P. (1995). An Action Research Approach to Curriculum Developmert. Information Research, 7(1). Retrieved from http://InformationR.net/ir/l-l/paper2.html Roschelle, J. (1995). Learning in interactive environments: Prior knowledge and new experience. In J.H. Falk & L.D. Dierking, Public institutions fo r personal A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 208 learning: Establishing a research agenda (pp.37-51). Washington, DC: American Association of Museums. Rosenbach, W. E., & Sashkin, M. (2007). The leadership profile: on becoming a better leader through leadership that matters. Retrieved from http ://www. leadingandfollowing.com/documents/TLPParticipantManual .pdf Sangha J. K, Pandher, A. K., & Kochhar, A. (2006). Anthropometric profile and adiposity in obese Punjabi children and their parents. Journal o f Human Ecology, 19(3), 159-162. Retrieved from http://www.krepublishers.com/02Joumals/JHE/JHE-19-0-000-000-2006-W eb/JHE-19-3-000-000-2006-AbstractPDF/JHE-19-3-159-162-2006-1207-Sangha-J-K/JHE-19-3-159-162-2006-1207Sangha-J-K-T ext.pdf Sashkin, M., & Sashkin, M. G. (2003). Leadership that matters. San Francisco, CA :Berrett-Koehler. Sashkin, M., & William E. R. (2005). A view o f leadership that matters. In R.L. Taylor & W.E. Rosenbach (5 th Ed.), Military Leadership: In Pursuit o f Excellence. Westview Press. Schiro, M.S. (2008). Curriculum theory conflicting visions and enduring concerns. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Schwerin, E. W. (1995). Mediation, citizen empowerment, and transformational politics. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. Scott J. A. (2007). Adult learning theory & leadership development, Kravis leadership institute. Leadership Review, 7, 26-37. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 209 Sefa Dei, D.J. (2002). Spiritual knowing and transformative learning: expanding the boundaries o f transformative learning. New York: Palgrave. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1990). Adding value to leadership gets extraordinary results. Educational Leadership, 47(8), 23-27. Settlement Workers in Schools, (n.d.) School district No 38 (Richmond). Retrieved from http://swis.sd38.bc.ca/home%20pageSewell, A. M. (2006). Teachers and children learning together: Developing a community o f learners in a primary classroom. Massey University. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/240/02whole.pdf?sequence=l Shields, C. M. (2009). Leveling the playing field in racialised contexts: Leaders speaking out about difficult issues. International Journal o f Educational Administration, 37(3), 55-70. Shields, C.M. (2010). Transformative leadership: working for equity in diverse contexts. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46(4), 558-559. Sircar, A. (2000). Work roles, gender roles, and Asian Indian immigrant women in the United States. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. Smith, M. K. (2000). Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopaedia o f informal education. Retrieved from www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm Snyder, C. (2008). Grabbing hold o f a moving target: Identifying and measuring the transformative learning process. Journal o f Transformative Education, 6(3), 159181. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 210 Snyder, M. (1987). Public appearances, private realities: The psychology o f selfmonitoring. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman & Co. Stake, R. E. (1995). The art o f case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stake, R. E. (2008). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies o f qualitative inquiry (3rd ed.) (pp. 119-150). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stanley, Liz. (Ed.). (1990). Feminist praxis: Research, theory and epistemology in feminist sociology. New York: Routledge. Statistics Canada. (2003). Women’s self-employment and entrepreneurship in the UNECE region. Retrieved from http://www.unece.org/press/pr2004/04gen_n06e.htm Stevens, C.U., D ’lntino, R.S., & Victor, B. (1995). The moral quandary o f transformational leadership: Change for whom? Research in Organizational Change and Development, 8, 123-143. Stringer, E. (2007). Action research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Stringer, E.T. (2004). Action research in education. London: Sage. Stromquist, N. P. (1995). The theoretical and practical bases for empowerment. In C. Medel-Anonuevo (Ed.), Women, education, and empowerment: Pathways towards autonomy. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 211 Sung-Chan, P., & Yuen-Tsang, A. (2008). Our journey nurturing the voices o f unemployed women in china through collaborative-action research. Qualitative Social Work, 7(1), 61-80. Tam, M. W. (2003). National settlement service and standards framework. Discussion paper developed for National Settlement Conference II Calgary —October 2-5, 2003. Retrieved from http://integration-net.ca/english/ini/vsiisb/conference2/pdf/p04 .pdf Taylor, E. (2000). Fostering Mezirow’s transformative learning theory in the adult education classroom: a critical review. The Canadian Journal fo r the Study o f Adult Education, 14(2), 1-15. Taylor, E. W. (1998). The theory and practice o f transformative learning: A critical review. Information series no. 374. Columbus: ERIC clearinghouse on adult, career, and vocational education, center on education and training for employment, college o f education, the Ohio State University. Taylor, E. W. (2001). Transformative learning theory: A neurobiological perspective o f the role of emotions and unconscious ways o f knowing. International Journal o f Lifelong Education, 20(3), 218-236. Taylor, E. W. (2006). Making meaning o f nonformal education: Practitioner’s perspective. Adult Education Quarterly, 56(4), 291-307. Taylor, E. W. (2008). Transformative learning theory. New Directions fo r Adult and Continuing Education, 119, 5-15. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 212 Taylor, K., Marienau, C., & Fiddler, M. (2000). Developing adult learners: Strategies fo r teachers and trainers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc. Tejeda, M. J., Scandura, T. A., & Pillai, R. (2001). The MLQ revisited - Psychometric properties and recommendations. Leadership Quarterly, 12, 31-52. The Justice Institute of British Columbia, Vancouver : the Institute. (2007). Empowerment o f immigrant and refugee women who are victims o f violence in their intimate relationships: final report. Retrieved from http://ccrweb.ca/files/empowerment_of_immigrant_and_refugee_women__final_report.pdf Tondon, R. (1988). Social transformation and participatory research. Convergence, 27(2/3), 5-14. Tosey, P., & Mathison, J. (2003). Mapping transformative learning: A neurolinguistic programming perspective. Paper presented at the living spirit: New dimensions in work and learning conference, University o f Surrey, UK. Tough, A. (1979). The adult's learning projects: A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning (2nd ed.). Toronto: OISE. Townsend, D., & Adams, P. (2002). Collaborative action research in education. Paper presented at Intemacional de Investigacion y Desarrollo Educativo en Educacion Superior Technologicia. Queretaro, Mexico. Tracey, J., & Hinkin, T. (1998). Transformational leadership or effective managerial practices? Group & Organization Management, 23(3), 220-236. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 213 Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles o f curriculum and instruction. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. University of Zimbabwe. (1995). Curriculum implementation, change and innovation. (Module EA3AD 303). Harare: Centre for Distance Education, University of Zimbabwe. Walker, J. (2007). Step by step. American School & University, 79(6), 26-28. Wallat, C., Green, J. L., Conlin, S. M., & Haramis, M. (1981). Issues related to action research in the classroom-the teacher and researcher as a team. In J. L. Green & C. Wallat (Eds.), Ethnography and Language in Educational Settings. Norwood, N.J.,Ablex. Warren, R. (n.d.). Program planning and development in adult education: Where we are at the beginning o f the 21st century. Retrieved from http://www.hiceducation.org/edu_proceedings/Ruth%20M.%20Warren.pdf Weiner, E. J. (2003). Secretary Paulo Freire and the democratization o f power: Toward a theory o f transformative leadership. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 35(1), 89-106. Weisshaar, E., Radulescu, M., Soder, S., Apfelbacher, C.J., Bock, M., Grundmann, J.U. Diepgen, T.L. (2007). Secondary individual prevention of occupational skin diseases in health care workers, cleaners and kitchen employees: Aims, experiences and descriptive results. International Archives o f Occupational and Environmental Health, 80(6), 477-484. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 214 White, L.P., & Wooten, K.C. (1986). Professional ethics and practice in organizational development; A systematic analysis o f issues, alternatives, and approaches. New York: Praeger. Whyte, W. F. (Ed.). (1991). Participatory action research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Winter, R., & Munn-Giddings, C. (Eds.) (2001). A handbook fo r action research in health and social care. London: Routledge. Wlodkowski, R. J. (2008). Enhancing adult motivation to learn: A comprehensive guide fo r teaching all adults (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Wolf, P., Hill, A., & Evers, F. (2006). Handbook fo r Curriculum Assessment. Retrieved from www.tss.uoguelph.ca/resources/pdfs/HbonCurriculumAssmt.pdf Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory o f organizational management. Academy o f Management Review, 14(3), 361-384. Woods V., & Buckle, P. (2005). An investigation into the design and use o f workplace cleaning equipment. International Journal o f Industrial Ergonomics, 35(3), 247— 266. Yearwood, M. P. (2000). Women's leadership training in micro-business: The case o f the women's leadership and enhancement institute o f Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/14375/l/MQ50381.pdf Yin, R. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 215 Yorks, L. (2005). Adult learning and the generation of new knowledge and meaning: Creating liberating spaces for fostering adult learning through practitioner-based collaborative action inquiry. Teachers College Record, 107(6), 1217-44. Yorks, L., & Marsick, V. J. (2000). Organizational learning and Transformation. In J. Mezirow & Associates (Eds.), Learning as transformation (pp. 253-281). JosseyBass, San Francisco. Yoshihama, M., & Carr, E. (2002). Community participation reconsidered: Feminist participatory action research with Hmong women. Journal o f Community Practice, 10(4), 85-103. Yukl, G. (1998). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Yukl, G. (1999). An evaluation o f conceptual weaknesses in transformational and charismatic leadership theories. Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 285. Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in organizations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: PearsonPrentice Hall. Zey, M. G. (1984). The mentor connection. Dow Jones-Irwin, Homewood. Illinois. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 216 Appendix A: Program Application Form Employment Mentors’ Program Immigrant Women’s Cleaning & Work Skills Mentorship Project Application Form The immigrant women who will be selected for the program must attend all sessions for certificate of completion. A commitment to attend all the sessions will be taken from the participants. Each participant will have to submit a fee o f 26 dollars for Criminal Record Check which will be reimbursed upon completion of the project. Name: Date: Address: (Postal code) Telephone: Cell: Work: Fax: e-mail: Emergency Contact Person: ____________ Age Group (20’s, 30’s, etc) How long have you been in Canada? P hone:___________ A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 217 What is your status in Canada? (Landed / PR / Refugee?)_______________ What languages can you speak and w rite?___________________________ Mother Tongue___________________________________________________ What are some of your hobbies/interests?____________________________ Employment needs? What would be some o f your goals in joining the Immigrant Women’s Cleaning & Work Skills Mentorship training? EXPERIENCE /EDUCATION: Do you have a current resume? Y / N A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 218 If yes, please submit your current resume with application form. Please list your prior employment field including duties and responsibilities (if applicable) What do you feel your strengths are? Please list any courses, night classes, lectures that you have attended which you feel might be helpful to you in learning cleaning and work skills. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 219 Do you understand, and are you willing to take on, the role and responsibilities that you will have while participating in this Program? Y / N Applicant’s Signature: Date: For office use only - Date o f CRC: A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 220 Appendix B: Cover Letter Amandeep Kaur Pandher University of Northern British Columbia 3333 University Way Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9 [Insert date] Dear Participant, We are inviting you to be in a study that is taking place at Abbotsford Community Services, Abbotsford, B.C. We are developing a curriculum for Immigrant W om en’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship Program that helps immigrant women to experience, develop and adopt best practices, knowledge and skills in the housecleaning and janitorial profession as means to being employable. We want to know if the developed curriculum, 1. helps immigrant women to experience, develop and adopt best practices, knowledge and skills in the housecleaning and janitorial profession. 2. means to being employable for immigrant women. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 221 The letter and consent form explains what we are doing in the study. Please call Amandeep Kaur Pandher at 604-832-1261 if you have any questions about the letter or the study. Thank you for your time. Sincerely, Amandeep Kaur Pandher M.Ed. Candidate University of Northern British Columbia Prince George, BC 222 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM Appendix C: Participant Consent Form Date: [Insert date] R esearcher: Amandeep Kaur Pandher M.Ed. Candidate, UNBC Phone: 604.832.1261 P roject title: Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship Project Employment Mentors’ Program, Abbotsford Community Services Purpose: As part o f my research requirement with the University o f Northern British Columbia, I am conducting a piece o f action research into studying how the development o f a curriculum for Immigrant Women’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship Program helps immigrant women to experience, develop and adopt “best practices” knowledge and skills in the housecleaning and janitorial profession as means to being employable. We want to know if the developed curriculum, 1. helps immigrant women to experience, develop and adopt best practices, knowledge and skills in the housecleaning and janitorial profession. 2. means to being employable for immigrant women. Study Procedures: A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 223 My data collection methods will include audio tape recordings of the participants and myself in conversation, interviews, group work and discussions; questionnaires and evaluation forms, field notes, journals, reports and photographs. I guarantee that I will observe good ethical conduct throughout. I promise that I will not reveal the name o f the participant at any time, unless you inform me in writing that you wish me to do so. My research report will be available to you for scrutiny before it is published. Confidentiality: All information (audio tapes, photographs, questionnaires, evaluation forms, journals and reports) collected for this study will be kept in a locked office at UNBC and or at Abbotsford Community Services. The consent forms will be kept by the interviewer (primary researcher) for research purposes only, and will be the only person to have access to the records. The information will be kept in a locked office at UNBC. The consent forms will not be including any information that will make it possible to identify any participant. When results from the study are reported the agency name will be identified. Contact for information about the study: The principal investigator for this study is Amandeep Kaur Pandher who is a M.Ed. candidate at UNBC. If you have any questions about this study you can contact Amandeep Kaur Pandher at 604-832-1261 or project coordinator, Pat Christie at 604217-0744. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 224 Potential Risks: There are no potential risks to the participants from this study. Potential Benefits: Participation can be beneficial by increasing your understanding of housecleaning and janitorial work skills, job readiness skills, and life skills. If you attend all sessions o f the training, you will get a certificate o f completion. The fee paid for Criminal Record Check ($27) will be reimbursed upon completion o f the project. Consent: Your participation in this study is voluntary. The health and social services you receive will not be affected. If you stop participating in the study your information will be destroyed but you will finish your training. Your signature below indicates that you have received a copy o f this consent form for your own records. I agree to participate in the study. □ Yes □ No (check one) A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM Signature o f Participant 225 Date Printed Name o f the Participant signing above Signature o f Principal Researcher Date A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 226 Appendix D: Questionnaire Directions: This questionnaire contains three sections. Some questions require your answer in words while others ask you to check one or more choice(s). Please complete all questions. If you do not fully understand a question please have someone translate for you and help you answer the question. Section I - Background Information and attitude perception Please check (V) one answer only unless otherwise indicated. 1. Where are you from? Country _____________________ S tate_______________ 2. What is your first language (Please specify) 3. How old are you? 20 or under 21-25 46-50 51 or over 4. What is your current marital status? 26-30 31-35 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM Single 227 Married Separated____ W idowed______ Common Law Divorced Other (specify) 5. How many children do you have? None One______ Two Three________ Four___________ Five or more_________ 6. When did you migrate to Canada? Month Year 7. What is the major source o f your family’s income? Employment______ Spouse Parents or relative U .I ._ Social assistance A.A.P. (Government sponsored refugee) Other (specify)_____________________ 8. Did you ever work in your home country? Yes No A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 228 9. If you worked in your home country, what types o f job(s) did you do? (Check many as applicable) Housecleaner Labourer Hairdresser Nurse___________ Janitor_______ Dressmaker Cook______ Waitress______ Cashier_____ Secretary______ Salesperson___ Childminder_ Others (specify) 10. If you have worked in Canada, what types o f job(s) have you had? (Check as many as applicable) Housecleaner Labourer Hairdresser Nurse___________ Janitor_______ Dressmaker Cook______ Waitress______ Cashier_____ Secretary______ Childminder_ Others (specify) 11. What is your highest level o f education? Salesperson___ A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM Primary 229 Secondary______ College_____ University___ Others (specify) Section II A ttitude, experience, p rio r knowledge an d skills in the housecleaning and janitorial w ork 12. What are the major three reasons for you to enter the Immigrant W omen’s Cleaning and Work Skills Mentorship Training? A. To learn housecleaning and janitorial work skills B. To get self-employed using housecleaning and janitorial work skills C. To improve work safety D. To make friends E. To learn Canadian culture F. To receive a certificate G. To satisfy personal needs H. Other (specify) 1. 3. 2. 13. Who influenced you the most to get into this program? My own decision Spouse______ Parents 230 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM Relatives Friends_______ Other (specify) 14. Do you have previous experience o f cleaning at work or your own home/basement? Yes ____________No____ 15. Do you have ability to stand, stoop, bend, and stretch for long periods o f time? Yes No____ 16. Do you have experience and knowledgeable in the following (Check as many as applicable) Vacuuming_________ Dusting________ Floor Cleaning kitchens Floor polishing Cleaning windows Removing Cleaning city halls Cleaning washing________ Cleaning bathrooms . Cleaning offices stains______ Cleaning in hospital Gym________ Cleaning hotel Cleaning banks_______ Cleaning schools_________ Others (specify)__________________________________ A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 231 17. Do you have experience and knowledge in using the following cleaning tools? Vacuum cleaners______ Floor sweepers Floor Furniture dollies Cleaning barrels & polishers___________ Microfiber mops carts___ Telescopic wall washing tools_________ W ater pails & buckets______ 18. Do you have knowledge o f safety regulations and precautions while using cleaning tools? Yes No 19. Do you have knowledge o f safety regulations and precautions while using chemical based cleaners? Yes No 20. Are you familiar with Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System? Yes No 21. Do you have knowledge of how to handle any accident on the cleaning job? Yes No____ Section III Curriculum needs of the respondents A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 22. 232 Other than learning best cleaning skills and practices, I would like to learn: (Check as many as applicable) Job finding skills Cultural adjustment______ How to find clients_______ Customer relationships_______ Personal skills and qualities______ Basic management skills_ Knowledge of basic etiquettes and manners________________ Others (specify)_______________________________________ 23. What type of instructors do you feel will be more helpful? Instructors who speak English and your language_______ Instructors who speak English only___________ A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 233 Appendix E: Initial Interview Guide The purpose of the in-depth interviews was to examine the reliability o f the research by comparing the answers o f the subjects during the interviews with those on the retuned questionnaires and application form, and to access the validity of the data interpretation. Therefore, the interviews were semi-structured, duplicating some questions from the questionnaire and allowing freedom to probe the interviewees’ responses. Some sample initial interview questions are given below. Sample Initial Interview Questions 1. Where were you bom? 2. What kind of job did you have in your home country? • What were your job responsibilities? 3. When did you come to Canada? • Have you worked in Canada? What kind o f jobs? • What were your job responsibilities? 4. What do you want to learn in the Immigrant W omen’s Cleaning and W ork Skills Mentorship program? A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 234 5. Previous experience in housecleaning and janitorial work: • What tools/machines do you use to clean your own house/basement or work areas? • What safety regulations and precautions do you take while handling different cleaning machines and chemicals? 6. Why do you think learning housecleaning and janitorial skills important to you? • Did you ever meet with an accident while doing cleaning work? • How did you handle that situation? 7. What knowledge or information do you have regarding Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System? (This question was asked i f the participant answered ‘y es ’ regarding knowledge o f Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System) 8. What else do you want to learn in this program other than housecleaning and janitorial skills? • Do you think learning life skills important to you? Why? 9. What you do you want to do after you finish this program? 10. What is your long term goal? A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 235 Appendix F: Curriculum Evaluation Form Directions: This evaluation form contains six sections. Some questions ask you to circle your response to each item while others require your answer in words. Please complete all questions. If you do not fully understand a question please have someone translate for you. Lesson N um ber: C urriculum C ontent (Please circle your response to each item) 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = strongly agree 1. I was well informed about the objectives o f the training. 1 2 3 4 5 2. This training content lived up to my expectations. 1 2 3 4 5 3. The content is relevant to housecleaning/janitorial job. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 1 2 3 4 236 5 C urriculum Design (Please circle your response to each item) 4. The training objectives were clear to me. 1 5. 2 3 4 5 The training activities stimulated my learning. 1 2 3 4 5 6. The activities designed in this training gave me sufficient practice and feedback. 1 2 3 4 5 7. The difficulty level of the training was appropriate. 1 2 3 4 5 8. The pace of the training was appropriate. 1 2 3 4 5 A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 237 Curriculum Instructor (Please circle your response to each item) 9. The instructor was well prepared. 1 2 3 4 5 10. The instructor was helpful. 1 2 3 4 5 11. The instructor’s method o f teaching was good. 1 2 3 4 5 Curriculum Implementation (Please circle your response to each item) 1 2 .1 accomplished the objectives o f my learning needs. 1 2 3 4 5 1 3 .1 will be able to use what I learned in this training. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 1 2 3 4 238 5 Curriculum & Place (Please circle your response to each item) 14. The housecleaning and janitorial work experience gained at different places during this training meet my employability needs 1 2 3 4 5. Curriculum & Learner (Please check (V) one answer only) 15. How much of the training did you enjoy? All o f it / Some of it / None 16. How much do you think you learnt? Nothing / Something / A lot 17. How much did you understand? Most of it / Some o f it / Nothing 18. How long did the training last? Long enough / Too long / Not long enough 19. Was the training boring / interesting? 20. Did you find any difficulty in understanding some o f the training content and learning activities? I f yes, please give details. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 239 21. Which method and materials did you like the most in learning cleaning and work skills in this training? 22. What is least valuable about this training? 23. What is most valuable about this training? A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 240 24. What suggestions do you have to improve the content, methods and materials for this training? 25. What other specific comments do you have? Thank you fo r taking the time to provide valuable feedback. A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 241 Appendix G: Final Interview Guide 1. Did you enjoy learning housecleaning and janitorial skills? • What did you enjoy the most in learning housecleaning and janitorial skills? • How housecleaning and janitorial skills affected the way you perform doing cleaning tasks at home? 2. What has been your experience in developing a curriculum? • What is most valuable about what you have learned? • What is least valuable about what you have learned? 3. What has been your experience in using the given curriculum? • What have you learned in curriculum content that you didn’t know when you walked in the door? • What difficulties did you find in understanding the curriculum content and learning activities? A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM • 242 Which method and materials did you like the most in learning cleaning and work skills? 4. What changes did you find in your behaviour as result of this study? 5. Please share your feelings about what you have learnt in the program and how it will be helpful in your employability. 6. What suggestions do you have to improve the curriculum? A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM 243 Appendix H: D ata Collection M atrix D ata sources Questionnaires D ata sources Interviews Data Sources Application form D ata sources Group work and Discussions Interviews Reflexive journals Group work and Discussions Evaluation forms 9. How can the janitorial business curriculum and its delivery be improved? Group work and Discussions Reflexive journals Evaluation forms Interviews 10. What leadership lessons can be drawn from this study? Reflexive journals Group work and Discussions 11. How is this study useful fo r a teacher/educator/me ntor to recognize and manage transactional, transformational and transformative leaderships? Reflexive journals Group work and Discussions 12. What role program/curriculum played in the development o f Reflexive journals Group work and Discussions Research Questions 7. What were the immigrant wom en’s previous experiences and needs fo r learning cleaning skills? 8. What learning occurred as a result o f the curriculum materials, method, and mentorship? A JANITORIAL CURRICULUM Transformative Leadership and Transformative Learning in Immigrant Women? 244