LOG QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE KILLED LODGEPOLE PINE TREES FROM SOUTHERN INTERIOR BRITISH COLUMBIA FOR BOARD PROCESSING by Benjamin Woodward B.Sc. University of Northern British Columbia, 2006 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (FORESTRY) UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA May 2010 ©Ben Woodward, 2010 1*1 Library and Archives Canada Bibliotheque et Archives Canada Published Heritage Branch Direction du Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada 395, rue Wellington OttawaONK1A0N4 Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-75143-5 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-75143-5 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a nonexclusive license allowing Library and Archives Canada to reproduce, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, communicate to the public by telecommunication or on the Internet, loan, distribute and sell theses worldwide, for commercial or noncommercial purposes, in microform, paper, electronic and/or any other formats. L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, pr§ter, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou autres formats. The author retains copyright ownership and moral rights in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's permission. L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation. In compliance with the Canadian Privacy Act some supporting forms may have been removed from this thesis. Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la protection de la vie privee, quelques formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included in the document page count, their removal does not represent any loss of content from the thesis. Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. 1*1 Canada ABSTRACT The mountain pine beetle (MPB) {Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) epidemic has ravaged lodgepole pine {Pinus contorta var. latifolia) forests throughout British Columbia (BC). The research focussed on the effects of three stages of MPB trees, green, red, and grey attack from southern interior BC on the MPB-induced variables of log moisture content (MC), blue stain, and checking and how these relate to log quality from an end product perspective. The objectives were to determine if: 1) the percentage of blue stain calculated from the log end surface at diameter breast height (DBH) correlates to the percentage of blue stained boards; 2) the quantity and size of checks present in a disk removed at DBH correlates to the percentage of checked boards; 3) the sapwood moisture content from a cross sectional disc at DBH correlates to the percentage of MPB-induced degrades (checking, wood borers, and decay fungi). Three sections of each MPB log (bottom, middle, and top), were examined for the MPB-induced degrades blue stain, checking, and the losses due to wood borers and decay fungi. The results support the findings of previous MPB research where reduced moisture content, blue stain, and checking significantly reduce log quality. However, this study is unique since it relates these findings to the effects that they have on the board products. The percentage of blue stain from a disc cut at DBH is correlated to the percentage of blue stained boards from that tree for green, red, and grey attack. As blue stain increases in the disc cut at DBH by attack stage, the amount of blue stained boards also increases by attack stage. When the check depth is >3 cm and the check depth to width ratio in a disk cut at DBH is >4, there is a ii positive correlation to the percentage of checked boards for that tree. If the check depth to width ratio is less, these shallow checks are removed by the canter chipping heads during primary breakdown. As MC decreases below the fibre saturation point, there is a linear relationship between MC and MPB-induced board degrades (checking, grubholes, and pinholes). Forest product mills can use these results for predicting the log quality characteristics of MPB trees for board processing. Woodlands departments and especially timber purchasers are always concerned about predicting the value of MPB trees and these results may be useful to the forest industry to determine if a predominantly lodgepole pine stand of MPB trees can be profitable. As shown in this study and others, losses due to checking and blue stain are the primary reasons for decreased MPB grade recovery and value. in PREFACE The studies were designed and performed entirely by the candidate (B. Woodward) with guidance from the supervisor (I.D. Hartley) for the M.Sc. program. This research occurred in the southern interior of British Columbia at Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. in 2007 over a seven month period and involved travelling to the forest to identify and mark healthy lodgepole pine logs, green, red, and grey attack mountain pine beetle-killed logs (MPB logs). MPB logs were obtained from three different Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) zones, Interior Douglas-Fir (IDF), Montane Spruce (MS), and the Engelmann Spruce Sub-Alpine Fir (ESSF). The author arranged for log separation at roadside and there transport to the mill where the author measured, marked and bucked the logs including the removal of a disc cut from diameter breast height (DBH) from each of the 85 trees. The author sawed two rectangles from each disc, heartwood and sapwood, resulting in a total of 170 wood samples. The author transported these samples to UNBC and dried them in a laboratory oven to determine the oven-dry weight and calculate the moisture content (MC). The author measured and recorded the number of checks, depth, and width of checks from the disc cut at DBH and a digital image of each disc was taken in order to determine the depth and severity (area percentage) of blue stain. IV The author arranged for the marked logs to be transported from the log yard and decked next to the mill infeed. The logs were individually processed at the mill in a timely fashion and the author coordinated the processing with the infeed and debarker operators, the quality control supervisor and assistant supervisor, the shift superintendent, the canter and edger operator, and the grader (other mill personnel were involved in the study, including the mill owners). The author assisted the grader by safely lifting all 1872 boards from the three edger's in order for the grader to record the data. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii PREFACE iv LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiv 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5 2.1 Effects oftheMPB on log quality 8 2.1.1 Moisture content and checking 10 2.1.2 Blue stain 12 2.2 Time since death and stages of attack 13 2.3 Processing of MPB logs inBC 14 2.4 Shelf life of MPB-killed standing lodgepole pine 16 2.5 Predicted annual allowable cut falldown 19 2.6 Past research recommendation summaries 21 3.0 OBJECTIVES 25 4.0 METHODS 26 5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 35 vi 5.1 Log Diameters 35 5.2 Blue Stain 37 5.3 Moisture Content 41 5.4 Checking 42 5.5 MPB-induced degrades 47 5.6 Summary 51 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 53 7.0 REFERENCES 56 8.0 APPENDICES 70 8.1 Appendix A - Sample of healthy pine optimization software printout 70 8.2 Appendix B - Sample of green attack optimization software printout 71 8.3 Appendix C - Sample of red attack optimization software printout 72 8.4 Appendix D - Sample of grey attack optimization software printout 73 vn LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Analysis of log diameters grouped by healthy, green, red, and grey attack 36 Table 2. ANCOVA analysis of the percentage of blue stained boards to disc blue stain at DBH 38 Table 3. Regression analysis of the check depth to width ratio to the percentage of checked boards 44 Table 4. Regression nalysis of moisture content below fibre saturation point to the percentage ofMPB degrades 51 vm LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Areas affected by the mountain pine beetle within British Columbia 2 Figure 2. Red forests of southern interior British Columbia in Manning Provincial Park as a result of MPB attack (2003) 6 Figure 3. Percentages of MPB logs processed by region in British Columbia in 2006 (modified from White and Taylor 2006) 7 Figure 4. Effects of blue stain and checks on lumber recovery and value due to degraded lumber (Adapted from Orbay and Goudie 2006) 11 Figure 5. GBLL and study area identifying ESSF, MS, and IDF BEC zones within the southern interior of British Columbia (source: Google Earth, 2010) 26 Figure 6. Pine logs marked, processed and decked at roadside in Montane Spruce BEC Zone 27 Figure 7. Pine logs ready for repainting, individual log layout and preparation 28 Figure 8. Pine logs individually spread out in log yard for characterization measurements.. 29 Figure 9. Wood disc cut from MPB log used for determining moisture content and percentage of blue stain 30 ix Figure 10. Sapwood and heartwood sample method for removal from disc 31 Figure 11. Pine log section rotated by canter log turners on route to canter, note log ID is at lower butt end 32 Figure 12. Pine log hoisted from edger out-feed for board grading 33 Figure 13. Mean ± SD diameter at breast height for each pine category 35 Figure 14. Lumber recovery by log diameter classes 37 Figure 15. Mean ± SD blue stain of total DBH disc area and boards for green, red, and grey attack trees 39 Figure 16. Cumulative percentage of blue stained boards from the bottom, middle, and top log sections for green, red and grey attack 40 Figure 17. Mean ± SD sapwood moisture content at DBH for each MPB attack category... 41 Figure 18. Mean ± SD disc check depth and width for each MPB attack category at DBH.. 43 Figure 19. Check depth to width ratio from disc at DBH relationship to percentage of checked boards by tree 44 Figure 20. Mean ± SD checked boards for each MPB attack category from whole trees 45 x Figure 21. Cumulative percentage of checked boards for red and grey attacked trees by location in tree: bottom, middle, top 46 Figure 22. Percentage of MPB degrades from #2 or better boards for each pine category from whole trees 48 Figure 23. MPB-induced defects as a cumulative percentage of degraded boards from #2 or better for bottom, middle, and top logs 49 Figure 24. Linear regression model for MPB-induced board degrades as a function of moisture content 50 XI LIST OF SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS MC - Moisture content, dry basis (%) MPB - Mountain pine beetle Dendroctonusponderosae Hopkins MPB logs - Logs from MPB attacked trees MPB trees - MPB attacked trees MPB wood - Wood from MPB attacked trees MCfSp - Moisture content, dry basis at fibre saturation point (%) OD - Oven dry tsd - Time since death GBLL - Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. Grade recovery - the term "grade recovery" is used in this paper to replace the more commonly used term "recovery" throughout the literature. The reason for this is that a sawmill will always recover the maximum amount of lumber possible from a log, whether that lumber is sound, checked or split. The lowest quality lumber is most often chipped and thus not counted in the recovery value; however, the chips are still recovered at a value, in some cases, similar to the value of the lowest grade lumber. For these reasons, grade recovery is used to better define the recovery based on grades and thus the true value of the products. True shape scanner - A computer controlled scanning system that determines log shape in order to rotate the log to the optimal position prior to the initial breakdown ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. mill staff and employees for their help with this report. Special thanks go to Glenn Griffin, Nick Arkle, Kerry Rouck, Nathan Griffin, Brad Kolababa, Gordon Woodward, Martin Kubala, Dr. Ian Hartley, Dr. Chris Hawkins, Dr. Brian Aukema, and Dr. John Lohrasebi for their significant contributions. Studies performed at Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. required the input and cooperation of many people who have not been listed, but know of their contributions and I thank them for their help. In addition, I would like to especially thank the Natural Sciences Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for their financial support through the Industrial Post-graduate Scholarship (IPS) that Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. contributed too. In addition, the Canadian Forest Service provided a graduate supplement to the NSERC IPS that was greatly appreciated. Without the financial help from these contributors, this research most likely would not have occurred so with my utmost respect, I thank you for your support. xiv 1.0 INTRODUCTION For more than a decade, a large increase in the interior British Columbia (BC) mountain pine beetle (MPB) Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins population has led to an increase in the amount of dry, blue stained, lodgepole pine {Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm. ex S. Wats) trees being processed by mill operations throughout the province. The MPB outbreak was the largest in Canada's recorded history and as it spread, major economic, social and environmental problems have appeared (Orbay and Goudie 2006). The forest industry plays a vital role in Canada's economy and the MPB-epidemic may affect the physical and economic health of many parts of Canada for several decades. To date, the MPB outbreak is only in BC, Alberta (AB), and western mountain States causing widespread mortality of lodgepole pine. As the MPB moves eastward, it could affect jack pine {Pinus banksiana Lamb) with the potential to spread as far as Quebec. Approximately 80% of the mature lodgepole pine in BC will be killed by 2013 (Eng et al. 2005) posing an impact on both the physical and economic landscape of BC's interior. A main concern with regard to the MPB epidemic is the loss of wood value and lumber yield (Breuil 2008a). The MPB epidemic in BC will not end until most of the mature and to some degree immature pine are infested (Ministry of Forests and Range 2007). Beetle outbreaks have devastating effects on lodgepole pine forests in western North America (Amman and Cole 1983). This statement cannot be overemphasized enough since the BC MPB epidemic began to intensify in the northern part of Tweedsmuir Provincial Park 1 in 1993. From 2001 to 2002, the volume of MPB logs1 increased from 72 to 108 million m3 (Zaturecky and Chiu 2005; Kadla et al. 2008). In 2003, approximately 174 million m3 of mature pine forests were attacked; one billion m3 of healthy lodgepole pine remaining (COFI 2003). Figure 1 shows the MPB affected areas within British Columbia and the 2005 major outbreak area. In 2006, more than 400 million m3 of lodgepole pine was killed by the MPB that had an estimated timber value of $3.2 billion (Natural Resources Canada 2005). By 2008, approximately 710 million m3 of merchantable timber had been attacked and killed by the MPB (Breuil 2008a; Ministry of Forests and Range 2008a). Canada(2005) Figure 1. Areas affected by the mountain pine beetle within British Columbia ' MPB logs, MPB trees, and MPB wood refers to lodgepole pine logs, trees or wood killed or attacked by the mountain pine beetle. 2 MPB logs have a relatively short shelf life which varies depending on the type of processing and final product. The majority of sawmills in the interior of BC produce dimension lumber and the shelf life of MPB trees for this processing is approximately 5 years (Hartley and Pasca 2006); however, the shelf life can extend to 15 years (Zaturecky and Chiu 2005) for pulping and oriented strand board production, or may be as short as 1 to 3 years for veneer and plywood processing (Wang and Dai 2004; Woodward 2005). Research results from this study will provide forest product companies with the knowledge needed to maximize value from the MPB logs. The questions about the shelf life of these logs for each type of wood product manufacturing help to create a plan for the harvesting regime using sound economics. In addition to shelf life, the stumpage fee paid by forest companies to the BC Government is also important because this fee determines whether processing MPB logs is economically feasible or not. Even though lumber companies observed lower grade recovery when processing MPB logs, stumpage for low grade logs (grade 4) was $0.25/m3 resulting in company profit, extending the shelf life and increasing the harvest of grey attack trees. In addition, the value of residual chips, shavings, and sawdust contribute to the shelf life of MPB logs by producing value-added products such as biofuels. Increasing the harvest of grey attack trees results in the better quality timber being left in the forest, which can help meet some mid-term timber supply needs. 3 Moisture content (MC), check depth, blue stain, secondary beetle damage, and decay content are important factors for determining lumber grade recovery and value after MPB attack. The current industry methods used to measure these factors are not easily performed due to time, equipment and the necessity of a lab environment. The research in this study focussed on the effects of three stages of MPB trees, green, red and grey, from the southern interior of British Columbia on the MPB-induced variables of log MC, blue stain, and checking and how these relate to log and board quality. The studies were performed in the southern interior of British Columbia with the assistance of Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. (GBLL) in the fall of 2007. In this thesis, a literature review is presented describing past research in log processing and wood quality. Chapter 3 describes the objectives. The methods chapter (Chapter 4) describes in detail the work carried out to obtain the data. Results and Discussion is presented in Chapter 5, followed by Conclusions and Recommendations in Chapter 6. 4 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW MPB epidemics are not uncommon to BC as they have occurred periodically since their first recorded event in 1910 (Taylor and Erickson 2007). The MPB and lodgepole pine are native to the ecosystems of BC's interior forests and historically, the MPB naturally aids with establishing younger trees by attacking old and weakened trees (Ministry of Forests and Range 2008). The MPB is normally an important native disturbant agent for a healthy forest. Since the MPB population has expanded to the epidemic level, the MPB has been termed as a forest pest due to the economic losses that it has created. The MPB has spread from west central BC, north of Fort St. John, south to the United States border (Aukema et al. 2006), and east into Northwest AB (CFS 2010). Approximately 35% of BC's forested land base is covered with lodgepole pine forests which, prior to the current MPB epidemic contributed approximately 25% to the province's total harvest volume (Miller et al. 1993). The quantity of lodgepole pine stands killed by the MPB are expected to grow in the future and volumes of dead, blue stained wood will increase as will the amount of red and grey attacked trees (Lum 2005). For many years, the major forest product companies in the interior of BC were harvesting and processing healthy pine, green attack, and a limited amount of red attack pine (see stages of attack section for definitions). As the beetle population continued to expand throughout the Okanagan region, mill operations saw an increase in the amount of MPB logs brought for processing (Figure 2). Due to the relatively short shelf life, the majority of available timber 5 was MPB logs for wood processing as the spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.) and fir {Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt) stands were left to help with the mid-term timber supply. *''-% c* r:=si fe; >* "'It Jfc !vS*^$' £« I J- ":.- . •-.•'* v-- - Figure 2. Red forests of southern interior British Columbia in Manning Provincial Park as a result of MPB attack (2003) By 2004, most of the central BC forest product companies processed a large quantity of MPB logs in all stages of attack (green, red, and grey), whereas companies from southern BC were processing only a small percentage of MPB trees, primarily green attack and to a small extent, red attack. As seen in Figure 3, in 2006, 80% of the respondents (wood processing companies) in the Thompson Okanagan region were consuming less than 33% of MPB logs and the remaining 20% were processing greater than 66% MPB logs (White and Taylor 6 2006). Between August and September 2007, there were approximately 40% MPB logs of the green and red attack stages in the log yard at GBLL. 100 c 0) TJ C 3^3 80 o 60 o 20 #i® • High{>66%) • Medium (33-66%) DLow(<33%) Q. 0 Thompson Okanagan Cariboo Chilcotin Central BC Region Figure 3. Percentages of MPB logs processed by region in British Columbia in 2006 (modified from White and Taylor 2006) White and Taylor (2006) surveyed forest product companies that process MPB logs at their mill operation. Based on 19 mills that responded out of the 32 mills surveyed by White and Taylor (2006), 13 were processing 80% or more MPB logs. Mills located near Quesnel and Prince George were harvesting and processing MPB logs from areas where there was widespread mortality of mature lodgepole pine due to the MPB. Most factors that affect log processing are MC, blue staining of sapwood, length of time the tree remains standing after attack, and other wood quality attributes. These factors have been studied by others in the past decade and their results are summarized below. 7 2.1 Effects of the MPB on log quality A fungus that is transported by the MPB to the inside of the tree spreads throughout the sapwood, leaving a blue or grey stain; the fungus is not present in the heartwood section of the lodgepole pine tree because of diterpenoid resin acids (Zheng et al. 1995; Martinez-Inigo et al.1999; Dorado et al. 2000). There are several types of blue stain fungi in western Canada, most of which are Ophiostoma spp. As the tree dies from a combination of the MPB and the fungus, the moisture content (MC) decreases below the fibre saturation point (MCfsp) and spiral splits (or checks) begin to develop in the outer section of the sapwood. The quantity and the size of these checks increased with decreased MC and the MC, in turn, decreases with time since death (tsd) which further exacerbates checking. It is well known that checks vary with size, shape, quantity, and location on the tree and have a major impact on lumber value and recovery (Orbay and Goudie 2006) not only for MPB logs/trees, but for any tree that has been left standing-dead. As noted by Brdicko (2007), when forest product companies process MPB logs, product value and recovery decreases relative to healthy pine logs, but is mainly dependent on the severity of checking. Lewis et al. (2006) found that during the first 1 to 2 tsd, most changes to MPB log quality occurred. Sawmills are experiencing increased difficulty with processing high volumes of green, red, and grey attacked trees due to more checks and pitch pockets; the wood is drier and harder to cut which causes a quicker dulling of saws (White and Taylor 2006b). In addition, blue stain, decay fungi, and secondary beetles cause further degradation and thus value recovery of end products is reduced. This decrease in end product value requires sawmills to acquire higher volumes of MPB logs in order to achieve the desired percentages of grade and quantity 8 outcomes while remaining profitable. There is a limited quantity of MPB logs, dependent on stage of attack, that sawmills can process and still remain profitable. Lumber grade recovery and value from MPB logs decreases with time since death (tsd) and grade recovery values can be reduced by as much as 30% during and after the transition to the grey attack stage (Snellgrove and Fahey, 1977; Parry et al., 1996; Lewis and Hartley 2005). However, the lower valued end products obtained from the MPB logs can be offset by lower stumpage costs when purchasing low grade logs. The shelf life of deteriorating MPB logs is determined by the level of profitability for each forest product company (White and Taylor 2006). Thus, increasing value recovery through scanners and optimizers along with increased sawing and processing speeds can extend the shelf life of MPB trees. As log quality declines with increased tsd, and grade recovery decreases, sawmillers will search for new and emerging technologies to reduce the adverse impacts of processing large quantities of MPB logs (Orbay and Goudie 2006). New scanning systems that detect blue stain and checks are available and can improve grade recovery, but the true benefits of these systems have not been studied (Orbay and Goudie 2006). Wood product mills will continue to process large volumes of MPB logs over the next 15 to 20 years (Lau et al. 2006) and as tsd increases, the value recovery will decrease. As the MPB trees degrade to the grey attack stage, they may not be suitable for lumber production and thus a considerable amount of research has been performed to determine if the wood is suitable for other products such as fuel pellets, oriented strand board and pulp (Orbay and Goudie 2006). 9 There have been several studies for assessing the attributes that affect MPB log quality including Byrne et al. (2005), Lewis and Hartley (2005), Harrison (2006), Lewis et al. (2006), Orbay and Goudie (2006), Brdicko (2007), and Orbay (2007). A summary statement of the research to date is that they all found that MPB log quality is mainly reduced due to two factors: checking and blue stain, although other factors such as decay and secondary beetles were also noted. 2.1.1 Moisture content and checking After a lodgepole pine tree succumbs to the attack of the mountain pine beetle, it immediately begins to lose moisture to the atmosphere. As MC decreases below the MCfsp, checks begin to develop in the sapwood (Nielson and Wright 1984; Lewis and Hartley 2005) and generally continue increasing in quantity, length, depth and width with increased tsd. With fluctuating atmospheric moisture levels caused by seasonal changes, checks may temporarily "close" in width, but they are forever present and greatly affect grade recovery and value of lumber products. Decreasing MC is a large concern to the forest products sector since it directly affects the quantity and size of checks and thus wood quality (Ifju 1979; Walters and Weldon 1982; Plank 1984; Lowell 2001; Lewis and Hartley 2005). Check depth and blue stain significantly varies along the length of the tree, primarily due to moisture content variation and affect the recovery value of lumber. In Figure 4, a typical cutting pattern is shown where the optimized sawing pattern is chosen for dimensional lumber products. Drawn on the picture are the effects of blue stain (blue) that is present in the 10 sapwood and checks (red) that extend from outer sapwood region into the center of the log The checks impact the overall product value produced from the log. The problems of reduced MC and increased checking of MPB logs are not exclusive to the lumber processing sector as mills producing oriented strand board and pulp and paper are also facing these concerns (Trent et al. 2006). Figure 4. Effects of blue stain and checks on lumber recovery and value due to degraded lumber (Adapted from Orbay and Goudie 2006) 11 Decreased MC in MPB logs reduces lumber drying costs that help to offset the loss in grade recovery and value (Maloney et al. 1978). However, this is only true if over-drying of the MPB logs does not result in increased checking and thus decreased grade recovery and value. 2.1.2 Blue stain The MPB carries specific blue staining fungi which within days after attack, quickly spread throughout the sapwood of lodgepole pine trees and interrupt water movement, thus weakening the tree's ability to defend itself (Byrne et al. 2005). The fungus does not spread beyond the sapwood into the heartwood of lodgepole pine because of diterpenoid resin acids (Zheng et al. 1995; Martinez-Inigo et al.1999; Dorado et al. 2000). The blue stain pigment develops slower by a few days than the spread of the fungus (Solheim 1995). The combined effects of the MPB damaging the phloem by girdling the tree and the fungi reducing water translocation, eventually cause tree mortality (Unger 1993). Pine tree mortality is primarily caused by blue stain fungus occlusion and as this encircles the bole, death occurs due to decreased water transport to the crown (Solheim 1995; Martinez-Inigo et al. 1999). The most common blue stain fungi vectored by the MPB include Ophiostoma clavigerum and O. monitum (Kadla et al. 2008), with a possibility of O. minus and O. ips (Kim et al. 2003; Lee et al. 2003). Breuil (2008a) found that if O. clavigerum is inoculated into 12 lodgepole pine, it is pathogenic and can cause mortality without the presence of the MPB. Hu et al. (2007) stated that MPB trees are commonly affected by the fungus Ophiostoma piliferum which generally does not cause structural weakness or decay. In addition, Hartley and Pasca (2006) stated that blue stain basically has no impact on the structure and thus strength and hardness of MPB logs. Blue stain development increases with tsd and when wood MC is within habitat tolerances. 2.2 Time since death and stages of attack After MPB attack, the lodgepole pine tree encounters three tsd stages based on tree foliage color and quantity. Stage progression is observed by the color change and quantity of foliage which varies with tree physiological conditions and the weather (Breuil 2008b). The stages are described below. • Green attack results in all of the foliage remaining, but changing from a bright or dark green to a dull green with a yellowish tinge (fading). This foliage color change generally occurs in the fall after the mid-summer attack and signifies the start of interrupted water transport within the tree (Kadla et al. 2008). • Red attack signifies a successful MPB attack causing mortality and the needles turn red because of cell death and loss of chlorophyll. Although there is some uncertainty amongst researchers, this normally occurs from 1-3 years after the beetles have killed and left the tree (Thrower et al. 2005; Trent et al. 2006; Lewis and Hartley 2006; Lewis et al. 2006). Runzer et al. (2008) found that in the warm dry summers of 2005 13 and 2006, MPB attacked trees <60 years and predominantly 20-40 years turned red and began to check only months after attack. Throughout the red attack stage, all of the branches remain intact. At the beginning of this stage (generally 1 year tsd), the trees have all or nearly all of their foliage and as tsd increases, the foliage decreases to the point where the tree can be classified as grey attack. Grey attack stage begins after the majority of red needles have fallen and some fine branches were shed from the tree, generally occurring after tsd is greater than or equal to 4 years (Thrower et al. 2005; Lewis and Hartley 2006; Trent et al. 2006; Hu et al. 2008). Later stages of grey attack result in the pine trees losing most small branches and bark in addition to all of the foliage, and many trees fall to the ground (Thrower et al. 2004; Hsieh et al. 2006; Dalpke et al. 2008). The three stages of attack are used as general guidelines for representing the tsd. However, Lewis et al. (2006) showed that external tree characteristics are not an accurate measurement of tsd. Brdicko (2007) found that checking severity increases with each stage of attack and tsd. Furthermore, the extent of MPB-induced damage from checking is unique to individual trees and varies intra-specifically amongst sites. 2.3 Processing of MPB logs in BC Since the MPB prefers to attack larger diameter lodgepole pine trees, the epidemic has resulted in an increased amount of large diameter logs that are checked and stained and 14 brought to BC mills (Wang et al. 2007). Every type of forest product manufacturer has a different desired log diameter that maximizes their production and quality. Since lodgepole pine trees are generally smaller diameter trees compared to spruce (Picea spp.) and fir (Abies spp.), the mature pine killed by the MPB used for this study averaged 37 cm at DBH which is desired by most forest product companies in BC. Nonetheless, MPB trees pose significant problems for wood product processing, mainly because of its dryness and checking but also the presence of blue stain (Byrne et al. 2005). Blue stain affects wood products by the presence of blue discoloration but has no significant effects on wood strength (Wang et al. 2007). Dry logs tend to have significant checking that reduces lumber grade recovery when processed, but also log losses during harvesting and handling; therefore, very dry MPB trees are not desired by sawmills (Bicho et al. 2006). If these very dry logs are brought to sawmills, quite often they are chipped or used as skids to maintain more valuable logs from contacting the ground, but these logs may be used for bio-energy in the future. Most interior sawmills in BC have true-shape log scanner and optimization systems that cannot detect visual log checks and thus MPB logs are normally sawn, without accounting for checks (Byrne et al. 2005) (see Figure 4). Mancini (1978) reported that due to significant checking of MPB logs, mill production was slowed by nearly half when processing these logs; three times the amount of economy studs were produced compared to normal 15 production. Processing a high percentage of MPB logs reduced the lumber-recovery factor (FBM/m3) and produced narrower board widths with shorter lengths (Byrne et al. 2005). A survey of 32 sawmills in the interior of BC by White and Taylor (2006) concluded: 1) grade recovery had decreased for visual grade products; 2) other grades were affected by sap rot, pin-holes, and cracks; 3) saw and knife changes were increased because of dulling from dry wood; 4) lumber breakage decreased mill production and recovery; and, 5) only a few of the mills surveyed have altered their methods to improve processing of MPB logs. Studies have shown that there is no significant loss in MPB wood strength or toughness for earlier stages of attack, but as tsd increases, decay may increase causing a decrease in strength properties (Byrne et al. 2005). 2.4 Shelf life of MPB-killed standing lodgepole pine Even though the term "shelf life" is normally used for food products indicating a decrease in quality to a point where it is no longer saleable (Thrower et al. 2005), shelf life of MPB trees refers to the point where a forest product company cannot make a profit and thus, the wood value has "expired". The shelf life of MPB trees is different for each type of wood processing or manufacturing including veneer, lumber, pulp, and oriented strand board. The maximum shelf life is considered to be approximately 15 years (Zaturecky and Chiu 2005; Prince George Timber Supply Analysis 2010) A major concern that has and still exists today 16 is how long MPB trees can be processed before the shelf life expires based on each end product. Therefore, shelf life changes with the site variables such as blow down or fall down, price of the end product, stumpage, logging and transportation costs, mill processing production and efficiency, new technology, and new and emerging wood products. MPB trees continuously deteriorate resulting in decreasing grade recovery and value (Sinclair et al. 1977; Lowery 1982). There are several factors that influence the rate of MPB log deterioration including the amount and type of decay fungi, the amount of wood degrading insects, and the micro-site conditions such as soil moisture, oxygen, and temperature (Lewis and Hartley 2005). Shelf life is dependent on 1) biological and physical tree properties; 2) harvesting and transportation costs; and 3) wood product milling technologies (Ministry of Forests and Range 2009). The immense volume of MPB trees standing in the interior of BC could provide the forest sector with logs for many years, assuming that the trees hold their economic value (Dalpke et al. 2008). In 2003, it was estimated between 25 to 30% of the attacked wood would not be salvage logged for conventional wood products. However, there is similar research underway to determine the shelf life of MPB trees for solid wood processing, bio-energy, and the pulp sectors (Dalpke et al. 2008). 17 Lewis and Hartley (2005) stated that MPB trees will begin to fall 3-5 years after mortality and in wet zones, 25% to 50% will be down by 8 years and 90% will be down by 15 years. In dry subzones, 25% to 40% will be down by 10 years. Furthermore, an increased MPB log diameter results in a decreased fall rate (Lewis and Hartley 2005). More recently in a study of the Quesnel Timber Supply (2009), tree diameter may be a better predictor of the shelf life for dimension lumber than site factors such as soil moisture. Alternatives to leaving the MPB trees standing would be to harvest and deck the logs, storing under snow or in water to prevent further deterioration, i.e., checking. A major benefit of MPB decked logs as storage was studied by Barron (1971) who found that standing MPB southern pine trees lost approximately 50% more moisture compared to decked logs. Rogers (2002) found that storing MPB logs in water was not economically viable and MPB trees could only be economically stored as standing dead. A complete understanding of processing MPB logs aids with the decisions to retrieve the highest value possible from the resource, especially with increasing tsd (Feng and Knudson 2005). Research results provide forest product companies with the knowledge in order to maximize value from the MPB logs. The questions about the shelf life of MPB logs for each type of wood product manufacturing will take time to answer and when completed, these will help to create a plan for the harvesting regime using sound economics. Continued research to link tsd and site quality to wood quality characteristics allow forest managers to produce harvesting schedules based on the rate of MPB log deterioration. 18 2.5 Predicted annual allowable cut falldown Predictions for the impact of the MPB spread reveal that more than 80% of the mature lodgepole pine in BC will be dead by 2013 which is more than 900 million m3 of MPB logs (Eng et al. 2005 and Bicho et al. 2006). The long-term annual allowable cut2 (AAC) for BC is approximately 70 to 80 million m3 and, if all the forest product mills in the province were to process only MPB logs, it would take approximately 12 years to consume all the standing dead lodgepole pine. Obviously this scenario is not possible as MPB logs cannot be economically transported to coastal or other far-away mills, nor would these mills necessarily want to process such low quality wood. Therefore, there has been a considerable uplift in the AAC mid-term over the next 15 years for the north central part of BC (Hu et al. 2007) in order to consume as much of the MPB logs as possible prior to shelf life expiration. The BC Ministry of Forests and Range (2003) predicted that even with this uplift in the AAC, there will be approximately 200-million m3 of MPB pine trees left standing after 15 years, when they have little to no economic value (Kadla et al. 2008). However, new emerging technologies and product uses such as bio-energy can extend the shelf life and allow MPB attacked stands to develop as mixed species stands in order to help the mid-term timber supply. The Chief Forester of BC, provincial policy makers, forest managers and various stakeholders realize the importance and urgency with harvesting the MPB logs at the fastest rate possible in order to maximize the value of this wood (Orbay and Goudie 2006). In order to handle this massive volume of MPB trees, forest licensees have been forced to alter their Annual allowable cut is the managed volume of wood that may be cut every year. 19 harvest schedules in order to harvest, transport, and process more logs in order to meet the AAC set by the province. Both the BC government and forest industry performed a timber supply analysis for various units throughout lodgepole pine's range and they predict that this MPB epidemic will result in a significant mid-term decrease in the AAC (Pedersen 2004; Nussbaum 2006; Runzer et al. 2008). The mid-term AAC decrease will cause a sharp decline in harvest volumes that will pose significant economic challenges to the heavily forest dependent communities of BC. In order to prevent some economic losses from the forest, the forest product companies in the interior of BC will target MPB trees for harvesting throughout the 2004 - 2010 AAC period (Kadla et al. 2008) and until 2015 based on the current Prince George Timber Supply Review. In 2004, one predicted AAC assumption showed that no MPB attack would occur in age classes 1 to 3 (Eng et al. 2004). However, recent results have shown that MPB infestation rates are greater than originally predicted by timber supply analysts as attack rates in young, immature stands with the exception of age class 1, are 40% to 60% and mature stands have been attacked at greater than 80% causing nearly complete pine mortality (Runzer et al. 2008). Pousette and Hawkins (2006) found that the decrease in AAC for the province will most likely occur in 2016 and could continue for as long as 40 years. In addition, the MPB has 3 Age classes 1 to 3 (age class 1 is 1 - 20 years; age class 2 is 21 - 40 years; and age class 3 is 41 to 60 years old) 20 killed a considerable amount of immature pine which will result in a lower mid-term AAC decrease than any timber supply analysis for the province has predicted (Pousette and Hawkins 2006). However, Runzer et al. (2008) showed that immature stands were not impacted by the MPB as originally believed. In order to better predict the AAC falldown in the interior of BC, it is crucial to understand the shelf life and product grade recovery and value of MPB trees for each type of wood manufacturing in the interior part of the province. 2.6 Past research recommendation summaries There has been an abundance of research performed related to MPB-induced defects on wood quality; recommendations from them helped in the research and design for this study. Key recommendations from the studies are outlined below: "Development of a means for assessing checking on standing timber. Value recovery is contingent on directing the right wood to the right process. A practical means for assessing checking - a key determinant of lumber quality - is needed to ensure maximum value recovery from every stem harvested." (Bicho et al. 2006) "As external factors do not appear to be a reliable indicator of end-use applicability, emphasis needs to be placed on internal wood-quality deterioration. While the limited sampling in this study did not conclusively 21 result in predictions of wood deterioration with time since death, industrial experience indicates that such relationships must exist." (Trent et al. 2006) "Current volume and grade recovery information needs to be developed for post-mountain pine beetle lodgepole pine to predict what would occur in modern spruce-pine-fir lumber (SPF) sawmills. Current sawmill-optimization technology may be adaptable to maximize recovery from beetle-killed logs; however, recent data on lumber and grade recovery from post-beetle logs are not available." (Byrne et al. 2005) "In order to direct future harvest efforts efficiently, information is needed regarding the maximum allowable time infested trees can remain unharvested before loss in economic value due to irreversible loss of quality occurs. Such questions regarding the shelf-life of dead standing timber need a differentiated approach, as requirements regarding the quality of wood and thus shelf-life, differ by forestry sector and end-use application." (Dalpke et al. 2008) "The changing resource will impose on sawmillers the need for adaptability with respect to processing strategies as well as targeted products, which in turn will dictate the need for a greater understanding of the relationship 22 between beetle-induced defects and the expected yield of lumber volume and grades." (Orbay and Goudie 2006) "To reduce the impacts of the current and future mountain pine beetle outbreaks, it is necessary to know the relationships between time since death and factors of wood quality and quantity. Factors determining wood quality and quantity include moisture content, specific gravity, wood volume, blue stain, sap rot, checking and wood-borer damage. The wood products that can be manufactured from beetle-killed wood depend on these factors and on the technology used for production." (Lewis et al. 2006) "While visual indicators can be used to estimate the age of a tree or tree stand since attack, it is not a reliable predictor of the wood and fibre quality and therefore the true log value." (Hsieh et al. 2006) "Upon reviewing the literature, it is clear much of the available research information is based on research conducted 20 or more years ago. There is need to update the research base to reflect current processing techniques, current equipment technology, and markets, and to explore research questions that remain unanswered. With respect to research, high-priority needs include: 23 • "Assessment of the deterioration of post-mountain pine beetle stands as a source of solid wood products, and how this varies across site and stand types; • "Measurement of the impacts of processing grey-stage logs on value and volume recovery." (Byrne et al. 2005) Log quality directly affects wood processing grade recovery and log cost making it an important area to research. In summary, the major factors that affect the processing of MPB logs are lower MC, resulting in checks and the presence of blue stain. However, it was shown that the AAC will be impacted for mill operations to consider when processing future timber allocations. 24 3.0 OBJECTIVES It was shown in the previous chapter that many factors impact log processing including MC and blue stain. Therefore, the main purpose of this research was to determine the log quality characteristics of MPB trees for board processing . Specifically, the objectives were: • to determine if the percentage of blue stain area calculated from the log end surface at DBH is related to the percentage of blue stained products with varying degrees of staining; • to determine if the quantity and size of checks present in a disk removed at DBH is related to the percentage of checked products; • to determine if the sapwood moisture content from a cross sectional disc freshly cut at DBH is related to the percentage of MPB-induced product degrades (checking, wood borers, and decay fungi) In Chapter 4, the methods are described. It should be noted that the research methods conducted in this study were done solely by the author, with assistance from Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. 25 4.0 METHODS The studies were performed in the southern interior of BC with the assistance of Gorman Bros. Lumber Ltd. (GBLL) in the fall of 2007. Healthy lodgepole pine logs (control), greei red, and grey attack MPB logs were identified from three different Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) zones: Interior Douglas-Fir (IDF), Montane Spruce (MS), and Engelmann Spruce Sub-Alpine Fir (ESSF) (Figure 5 and 6). Figure 5. GBLL and study area identifying ESSF, MS, and IDF BEC zones within the southern interior of British Columbia (source: Google Earth, 2010) The MPB logs were retrieved from the following locations within each BEC zone: • • • I D F - 11U 307050.96 E 5528635.52N, elevation 838 m MS - 10U 713783.38 E 5536710.70 N, elevation 1516 m E S S F - 10U 709645.82 E 5442415.96N, elevation 1736 m 26 Figure 6. Pine logs marked, processed and decked at roadside in Montane Spruce BEC Zone The stage of attack was determined by the amount and color of foliage present (prior to delimbing), the presence, amount, and freshness of pitch tubes, and the amount and color of bark remaining on the stem. Healthy pine trees had no signs of MPB attack and had bright green foliage. Green attack trees were attacked in the summer of 2007 and showed minimal signs of yellow foliage, fresh pitch tubes, adult beetle galleries without larval galleries, and complete bark with no discoloration. Red attack trees were killed during or prior to the summer of 2006, as they showed red and yellow foliage, dried and hardened pitch tubes, both adult beetle and larval galleries, and partial bark sloughing but generally more than 50% remaining. Grey attack trees were killed prior to the red attack trees as they showed less than 27 10% foliage, small amounts of dried and hardened pitch tubes (if at all present), beetle and larval galleries, and less than 50% bark. A sufficient amount of logs for each study was transported to the mill so that a completely random sample set could be obtained from each tsd pine category. The logs were put in a loose pile to allow for marking so that the front end loader operator had good visibility to grasp the correct logs (Figure 7). The logs were marked starting from the outer limits of the two sides of the pile, working towards the middle. Figure 7. Pine logs ready for repainting, individual log layout and preparation 28 After marking, each log was placed onto the log yard skids, allowing enough room between logs for taking DBH, top log diameter, and log length measurements (Figure 8). The four categories of pine logs were randomly spread out in the log yard and were not grouped. • "^^mm?®* - %T%& .• . ' ' > ' * - : - v f- Figure 8. Pine logs individually spread out in log yard for characterization measurements A section was cut from the butt end of each log at DBH to allow the removal of a 2.5 cm thick disc used for determining MC and blue stain (Figure 9). Sapwood and heartwood percent MC were measured separately. One MC for each tree-length log was measured at DBH to determine if a single MC reading at DBH would be accurate for predicting board grade quality for the full tree length. The logs were then bucked into sections, ranging in length from 10 to 16 feet (generally 3 log sections were cut from each tree length). 29 The number, depth, and width of checks were measured from the disc cut at DBH and a digital image of each disc was taken in order to determine the depth and severity (area percentage) of blue stain using a Calcomp digitizing tablet and ArcGIS windows based software with a precision measure of+/- 0.75% total area. A 30 cm scale was photographed with the discs to provide a scale for calibrating the measurements from the images (Figure 9). Figure 9. Wood disc cut from MPB log used for determining moisture content and percentage of blue stain A line was drawn through the pith, across the diameter of the disc, and then two lines were drawn parallel, offset by 4 cm to the center line. This allowed for an 8-cm wide sample to be cut from the disc which contained the pith. The sample was cut across the pith to separate the radii, and then it was cut again to separate the sapwood from the heartwood, producing two rectangles (Figure 10). 30 &m& • Figure 10. Sapwood and heartwood sample method for removal from disc The weights of the sapwood and heartwood samples were immediately measured in order to prevent moisture loss that would affect the true MC using an Ohaus Scout Pro balance with a capacity of 400 g and readability of ± 0.01 g. The 170 wood samples were transported to UNBC and dried in a laboratory oven at 103°C ± 2°C for a period of 24 hours to determine the oven-dry weight based on ASTM Standard 4442-97s. Percent MC was determined based on oven dry weight using the following equation: MC = Green Weight — Oven Dry —2— „, . , Oven Dry Weight Weight — x 100% At the sawmill, the logs were measured, marked and bucked, the log section ends were painted and marked with a number and letter scheme. Each log was divided into three sections bottom, middle, and top. This number and letter scheme identified the complete treelength log and the sections from within (i.e. the first log had three sections and were therefore designated 1 A, IB, and 1C starting from the butt). The log sections were transported from the log yard and decked next to the mill in-feed. 31 Logs were individually processed at the mill in a timely fashion to ensure that a computer analysis was recorded for each study log (Appendices A, B, C, and D). Every study log was then captured at the out-feed of the edger's to allow for board grading. After the logs were placed onto the mill in-feed, they were conveyed to the debarker which removed the bark. The logs were then step-fed on to the incline conveyor prior to depositing into the canter in-feed conveyor. The study log was stopped momentarily in the conveyor by the canter operator until the computer was prepared for log analysis and printout. Once prepared, the log was sent through the log scanner; log turner and finally the canter (Figure 11). Figure 11. Pine log section rotated by canter log turners on route to canter, note log ID is at lower butt end 32 The cant was then conveyed to one of the three edger's (4", 8", or 12") which produces boards. The boards from each cant were held together by a clamp, loaded onto a hoist, and lifted to a position where each board could be safely graded while the mill operation proceeded (Figure 12). Figure 12. Pine log hoisted from edger out-feed for board grading Each board was visually graded by a certified grader and the grade was recorded along with a brief description of why a board did not receive a clear or #2 grade, but instead received a grade 3, 4, or 5 based on standards of the National Lumber Grades Authority (NLGA) rules. The description was recorded in order to distinguish MPB-induced degrades from non-insect caused degrades such as large knots. The presence of blue stain was recorded by the grader 33 as a present or not-present format. Since blue stain is only a visual defect, it does not impact the grade, but all blue stained boards are sold as a separate product from non-blue stained boards because the purchasers/retailers want to market blue stained boards separately. After the grading process, the boards were placed onto the edger outfeed conveyor and were no longer used for this study. There were 85 trees studied resulting in 263 log sections and 1872 boards. Statistical methodologies used were ANOVA, ANCOVA, and regression analysis, using Minitab 15 software with Windows XP platform and R-statistics software with Windows Vista platform. 34 5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.1 Log Diameters Healthy pine and MPB trees were selected with a diameter at breast height range between 30 and 45 cm and the average diameters were 34.7, 37.8, 39.2, and 35.5 cm for healthy, green, red, and grey attack logs, respectively (Figure 13). 45 40 - T 35 - -37.8. T i".? 35.5 30 U Z-> x 5 20 o 15 10 5 0 Healthy Green Red Grey Figure 13. Mean ± SD diameter at breast height for each pine category shows that differences were found in log diameters for healthy, green, red, and grey attack. The healthy pine trees sampled were the smallest from all four categories due to the abundance of larger diameter MPB trees and few healthy, live pine trees remaining. Although grey attack trees generally are larger diameter since the MPB targeted over mature pine trees, the grey attacked trees were selected with similar diameters to those of the other stages to achieve a uniform sample. 35 Table 1 shows that differences were found in log diameters for healthy, green, red, and grey attack. The healthy pine trees sampled were the smallest from all four categories due to the abundance of larger diameter MPB trees and few healthy, live pine trees remaining. Although grey attack trees generally are larger diameter since the MPB targeted over mature pine trees, the grey attacked trees were selected with similar diameters to those of the other stages to achieve a uniform sample. Table 1. ANOVA analysis of log diameters grouped by healthy, green, red, and grey attack Source of Variation SS Between Groups 248.0 Within Groups 1025.1 df 3 81 Total 84 1273.1 MS 82.661 12.656 F value 6.531 Pvalue 0.001 Log selection based on diameters does not form a statistical bias within the study as it is necessary to compare trees with a DBH greater than 30 cm and less than 45cm in order for all logs to be processed through the chipping canter line and in order to compare recovery results that are not presented in this thesis. Figure 14 shows the estimated lumber recovery (%) by log diameter class estimated by GBLL. 36 70 60 /•*^ £ ^-^ 50 >, 01 •— > o 40 o o> OS 30 01 J3 e 20 3 H-3 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Log Diameter Class (cm) Figure 14. Lumber recovery by log diameter classes 5.2 Blue Stain Blue stain surface area was calculated from the discs removed at DBH for all stages of attack. The percentage of blue stain from a disc cut at DBH is correlated to the percentage of blue stained boards from that tree for green, red, and grey attack. The multiple regression predictive equations from the coefficients are for green attack trees, y = 35.264 + 0.434x; for red attack trees, y = (35.264 + 35.648) + 0.434x; and, for grey attack trees, y = (35.264 + 43.149) + 0.434x where y = % of blue stained boards recovered and x is the % of blue stain in the disc. 37 Table 2. ANCOVA analysis of the percentage of blue stained boards to disc blue stain at DBH Blue Stained Boards in Tree ~ Disk Blue Stain + Attack Stage df Sum Sq. Mean Sq. F value Pr(>F) 1 30536 30536 27.05 2.37E-06 % Disc 2 12022 6011.2 5.3249 7.34E-03 Stage 62 69990 1128.9 Residuals Error Total 33.6 65 Coefficients (Intercept) % Disc Red Attack Grey Attack Estimate 35.264 0.434 35.648 43.149 Std.Error 6.139 0.271 11.521 18.106 T value 5.744 1.603 3.094 2.383 F value 3.00e-07 Pr(>|t|) 1.613e-06 0.11398 2.96E-03 0.02025 Multiple R-squared: 0.3781 Adjusted R-squared: 0.348 F-statistic: 12.57 on 3 and 62 DF Blue stain percentage of the total DBH disc area by green, red and grey attack was 1, 29, and 31% respectively (Figure 15). The percentages of blue stained boards produced from green, red, and grey attacked logs were 36, 84, and 92% respectively; greater than values obtained at DBH. As blue stained area calculated at DBH increases, the percentage of blue stained boards from the trees also increases (Figure 15). As blue stain increases in the disc cut at DBH by attack stage, the amount of blue stained boards also increases by attack stage. 38 100 T 92 80 <»4 ^ a an a 60 • Disc • Boards 40 3ft 2'# 20 1 Green Red Grey Figure 15. Mean ± SD blue stain of total DBH disc area and boards for green, red, and grey attack trees Green attack had fewer blue stained boards than did red and grey attack which reveals that blue stain fungus continues spreading beyond 2 months after beetle infestation. Lewis and Hartley (2005) found that 7 weeks after attack, 20 - 40% of the sapwood will contain blue stain and a study by Harvey (1979) on MPB trees in Oregon showed that 9 to 10 months after attack (most likely red attack stage), nearly 100% of the sapwood was stained. The bottom, middle, and top log sections for green and red attacked trees had nearly the same percentage of blue stained boards (Figure 16). The opposite trend for grey attacked trees was found with the highest percentage of blue stained boards at the top section, then decreasing to 39 the bottom of the tree. The MPB could have attacked higher up in the larger grey attack trees and resulted in a higher percent blue stain in the top section. 100% 28 35 80% 60% c 37 •M (V 3 0Q a Top 35 33 40% Middle • Bottom 20% 35 35 32 Green Red Grey 0% Figure 16. Cumulative percentage of blue stained boards from the bottom, middle, and top log sections for green, red and grey attack Lewis et al. (2006) reported that blue stain depth was not significantly altered by stem height, BEC zone, soil moisture, or mortality dates. In contrast, Harrison (2006) performed a study near Quesnel, BC and found that the percentage of blue stain in MPB-killed old grey attacked trees increased with tree height, from approximately 30% at the bottom to about 45% at the top. Grey attack may have the highest percentage of blue stain in the top section because of fewer beetles attacking these trees (MPB at endemic levels in southern BC when trees killed), which resulted in a slower drying rate of the tree top and thus, more blue stain moving to the top section. 40 5.3 Moisture Content The sapwood moisture content of healthy pine, green, red, and grey attack at DBH were 120, 93, 52, and 15% respectively (Figure 17). These findings are supported by other studies (Reid 1961; Woo et al. 2005; Lewis and Hartley 2005; Lewis et al. 2006; Trent et al. 2006; Breuil 2008b). Lewis et al. (2006) reported that sapwood MC at DBH for green, red, and grey attacks were approximately 70, 40, and 35%. Their results for green attack were lower by 23% MC, this may be due to a sample date beyond this studies' 8 week tsd; their red attack results were 12% lower and their grey attack results were 20% higher. The results for grey attack may have been lower due to the location of trees in the southern part of the province which receives 350 mm of precipitation annually compared to approximately twice that amount in the Prince George area. Reid (1961) reported that sapwood MC of lodgepole pine is normally from 85% to 165% with a considerably lower heartwood MC of approximately 30%. 140 • 120 120 £ 100 -) c £CD c 80 o u 01 3 1 93 60 52 40 20 15 Healthy Green Red Grey Figure 17. Mean ± SD sapwood moisture content at DBH for each MPB attack category 41 Furthermore, Reid (1961) found that the MC of MPB lodgepole pine will lose approximately 40% MC in the sapwood within a few months after attack (height of sampling is unclear) and that within one year post mortality, MC in sapwood can drop below MCfsp. A study by Nielson (1986) near Williams Lake, BC showed that MC decreased to 40% before the end of August, approximately 2 months after attack in July and MCfsp was reached within one year after attack. Dalpke et al. (2008) found that average MC for green attack ranged from 25 to 45%, red attack ranged from 10 to 35% and grey attack ranged from 10 to 20%. A direct comparison cannot be made from those MC results to those in this study due to unknown height locations along the stem; however, the results showed the same decreasing trend with tsd as did this study. Feng and Knudson (2005) found that grey attack MPB logs with little bark and large checks had a moisture content range of 15% to 25% and the results from this study support this conclusion. 5.4 Checking The mean check depths and widths for each stage of attack at DBH are shown in Figure 18. Grey attacked trees had the largest check depth and width, 8 and 0.6 cm respectively. Similarly, Harrison (2006) found that all of the 30 MPB-killed old grey attacked trees sampled had a number of deep checks that continued nearly the full tree length and most of those checks were 8 to 12 cm deep. 42 10 * 9 8 7 E u 6 (U 'u? -* 01 JZ u 5 ~| I Checkdepth 4 Check Width 3 2 1 0 Green Red Grey Figure 18. Mean ± SD disc check depth and width for each MPB attack category at DBH When the check depth is >3 cm and the check depth to width ratio in a disc cut at DBH is > 4, there is a correlation to the percentage of checked boards for that tree5 (Figure 19 and Table 3). The regression equation for this relationship is checked boards = 3.43 (check depth to width ratio) - 9.50. All 85 data points in the plotted model were used and then all of the points that had zero checked boards were removed as these were chipped off during the cant process. Then, the data was plotted and regression analysis was perfonned. The data cut-off was selected based on P value and R squared where points were removed until the P value and R squared were strong, and the significance didn't improve after removing more data points. 43 70 60 tt 50 •a •— s o pa T3 o -i .a U 40 HO 20 10 10 15 25 20 Check Depth to Width Ratio Figure 19. Check depth to width ratio from disc at DBH relationship to percentage of checked boards by tree Table 3. Regression analysis of the check depth to width ratio to the percentage of checked boards Regression (Intercept) depth to width Estimate Standard Error T value Pr(>|t|) -9.501 3.430 11.646 0.912 -0.816 3.761 0.442 0.007 Residual standard error: 13.88 on 7 degrees of freedom Multiple R-squared: 0.669, Adjusted R-squared: 0.6217 F-statistic: 14.15 on 1 and 7 DF, p-value: 0.007063 If the check depth to width ratio in a disk cut at DBH is less than 4, these shallow checks are removed by the canter chipping heads during primary breakdown or if present, these small checks have no or minimal impact on the board grades. These are similar results to those by Orbay and Goudie (2006) who found that blue stained logs with minor checks less than 2.5 44 cm in depth resulted in no checked boards and grade recovery was similar to those of healthy pine. Green attack trees had no checked boards, red attack had 8% and grey attack had 39% checked boards (Figure 20). This increase in checking can be explained by Figure 17 in which the moisture content occurs below FSP for the grey attacked trees. Since wood only shrinks below FSP, one would anticipate the grey attack to exhibit the most checking. 60 , 50 i £ . 40 < ~S 2 39 30 • T3 01 J 20 u 10 8 0 Green Red Grey Figure 20. Mean ± SD checked boards for each MPB attack category from whole trees The largest percentage of checked boards for both red and grey attack occurred in the top, followed by the bottom, and the least percentage of checked boards occurred in the middle sections (Figure 21). The top sections have the highest amount of checked boards because after MPB mortality, the tree dries from the top down. 45 100% - 80% •o 38 35 27 f&^ 60% 1 Top o J3 •a 40% 01 Middle • Bottom u 20% ! 0% 35 33 Red Grey ! Figure 21. Cumulative percentage of checked boards for red and grey attacked trees by location in tree: bottom, middle, top Lewis et al. (2006) found that the percentage of checking in MPB trees was highest in the middle section, then the bottom, and only minimal checking in the top section. In addition, the percentage of checking in the middle and bottom sections increases with tsd, but this did not occur for the top section (Lewis et al. 2006). Their findings of minimal checking in the top could be attributed to the higher moisture content that occurred in the top. Thrower et al. (2005) found that the proportion of logs with checks did not change significantly between the lower and upper log sections, varying only from 58% to 68%. In addition, they found that the proportion of logs with checks increased with tsd, with increased DBH, as MC decreased, and as tree foliage decreased. 46 The quantity of checks for each red attack log quadrant (Thrower et al. 2005), suggest that 25% or more log sections have checks in at least two of the four quadrants. In addition, their data suggest that 50% of the log sections in the late red attack or early grey attack stage have checks in at least two of the four quadrants. The depth of checks varies significantly along the vertical log length due to variations in log MC and these changes in check depth may significantly affect the recovery and value of the lumber produced (Orbay and Goudie 2006). Similarly, this study found that as check depth increases, the amount of checked boards increases and thus results in a decreased grade recovery. 5.5 MPB-induced degrades The cause of board degrades by the MPB were checked boards, pinholes created by the ambrosia beetles, and grubholes caused by wood boring beetles. The data were collected visually through the board grading process (NLGA 2003) and was recorded on sheets. The percentage of MPB-induced degrades were 0, 11, and 58% for green, red, and grey attack boards respectively (Figure 22). The majority of these MPB-induced degrades were checked boards with 0, 8, and 39% for green, red, and grey attack respectively. There were no MPBinduced degrades for green attack logs most likely due to the shallow checks that were chipped off during the cant process or the absence of insect damage. 47 70 "| 60 ^ ov (U •a 50 re i_ ai 40 a -a 0) u 18 ; Grubholes 1 30 Pinholes •3a c CO • Checking 20 39 a. S 10 3 S Green Red Grey Figure 22. Percentage of MPB degrades from #2 or better boards for each pine category from whole trees The location of the MPB-induced degrades for red and grey attack for the bottom, middle, and top log sections can be seen in Figure 23 and these results may show that ambrosia beetles causing pinholes target the middle of grey attacked trees. 48 100% s 0 * 80% - 32 20 •a S, 60% Top 29 Q TJ 0) u 3 Middle 40% Bottom £ CO a. 20% W 34 Red Grey 0% Figure 23. MPB-induced defects as a cumulative percentage of degraded boards from #2 or better for bottom, middle, and top logs As MC decreases below the fibre saturation point (30%), there is a strong linear regression relationship between MC and MPB-induced board degrades6 (Figure 24 and Table 4). The regression equation for this relationship is MPB-induced degrades = -4.06(MC) + 127.52. As MC decreases, the amount of MPB-induced degrades caused by checking, pinholes, and grubholes increases at a near linear rate. All 85 data points in the plotted model were used and then all of the points that were above the theoretical MC/jp at 30% were removed. 49 100 80 •a %> 6 0 •a -a -a a m 40 20 10 20 25 35 Moisture Content (%) Figure 24. Linear regression model for MPB-induced board degrades as a function of moisture content 50 Table 4. Regression analysis of moisture content below fibre saturation point to the percentage of MPB degrades (Intercept) MC Standard Estimate Error 127.517 14.341 -4.061 0.677 T value 8.892 -5.998 Pr(>|t|) 0.000 0.000 Residual standard error: 13.43 on 9 degrees of freedom Multiple R-squared: 0.7999 Adjusted R-squared: 0.7776 F-statistic: 35.97 on 1 and 9 DF, p-value: 0.0002031 5.6 Summary The objectives were achieved based on the results. Forest product mills can use these results for predicting the log quality characteristics of MPB trees for board processing. Woodlands departments and especially timber purchasers are always concerned about predicting the value of MPB trees and these results can help them to determine if a predominantly lodgepole pine stand of MPB trees can be profitable. As shown in this study and others, losses due to checking and blue stain are the primary reasons for decreased MPB grade recovery and value. By removing a sample of sapwood at DBH, this study showed that when its MC falls below MCfSp it relates to the percentage of MPB-induced product degrades (checking, grubholes, and pinholes). Since sapwood MC mainly decreases below MCfsp greater than 1 year after mortality, this mainly applies to the red and grey attack trees; both of these stages of attack are plentiful in 2010 due to the immense volume of standing MPB trees. 51 Checking at DBH can be measured for depth and width on standing MPB trees and this study showed that there is a relationship between the size of check width and depth to the percentage of checked boards produced. This is a relatively easy measurement for forest managers to obtain during a MPB stand cruise. The percentage of blue stained disc area at DBH in a standing MPB tree is correlated to the percentage of blue stained boards produced from that tree. However, this can be a difficult measurement for foresters to obtain without harvesting the MPB trees. 52 6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The results support the findings of previous MPB research where reduced MC, blue stain and checking significantly reduce log quality. Based on the findings, if the check depth and width, and MC of a disc cut from a MPB attacked tree at DBH are measured, it is possible to predict the outcome of the checked boards, and the amount of pinhole and grubhole damage. The percentage of blue stain from a disc cut at DBH is correlated to the percentage of blue stained boards from that tree for green, red, and grey attack. As blue stain increases in the disc cut at DBH by attack stage, the amount of blue stained boards also increases by attack stage. Since increment cores can be obtained during timber cruising, it is recommended that future studies are performed to determine if there is a general relationship between the blue stain present in an increment core taken at DBH to the percentage of blue stained products produced. When the check depth is >3 cm and the check depth to width ratio in a disk cut at DBH is >4, there is a correlation to the percentage of checked boards for that tree. If the check depth and width ratio is less, these shallow checks are removed by the canter chipping heads during primary breakdown. It is recommended that future studies are performed to determine if a 53 tool can be used to measure check depth and width at DBH of standing MPB to predict the outcome of checked boards. As MC decreases below the fibre saturation point (30%), there is a strong linear relationship between MC and MPB-induced board degrades (checking, grubholes, and pinholes). It is recommended that future studies be performed to determine if a moisture meter can be accurately used on standing MPB trees to predict the outcome of MPB-induced board degrades. In addition, it is recommended that future research includes: • While the limited sampling in this study did not conclusively provide predictions of MPB wood quality, additional grade recovery research needs to be performed to predict what would occur in other spruce-pine-fir (SPF) sawmills. This research is required for optimizing sawmill technology for MPB wood processing. • Developing a method for determining the checking and blue stain on standing timber. An easy to use and quick method for assessing MC, checking and blue stain is required in order to ensure that the highest value MPB trees/stands are harvested. This information is needed in order to determine the shelf life before loss in economic value occurs. 54 The objectives were achieved and the study was beneficial for the forest product industry. Due to the nature of this type of "forest to product" study, there were many obstacles encountered. Although difficult to perform due to the large number of forestry and mill employees and their rotating shifts, along with the financial aspect, it is recommended that future studies include meetings with a "group" of individuals responsible for collecting data at the mill and forest locations. For this study, a group setting would have been more beneficial resulting in less time required for collecting data. In addition, a research assistant should be hired for this type of study as it was difficult to manoeuvre some of the logs while marking, bucking, and measuring. Based on previous research, this study is unique amongst the literature due to the relationship of the MPB effects on board products and the author encourages others to perform the same studies in order for a direct comparison of the results. 55 7.0 REFERENCES Amman, G.D.; Cole, W.E. 1983. Mountain pine beetle dynamics in lodgepole pine forests. Part II: population dynamics. USDA Forest Service. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report INT-145. 60p. Aukema, B. H., Carroll, A. L., Zhu, J., Raffa, K. F., Sickley, T. A. and Taylor, S. W. 2006. Landscape level analysis of mountain pine beetle in British Columbia, Canada: spatiotemporal developments and spatial synchrony within the present outbreak. Ecography 29:427-441. Barron, E.H. 1971. Deterioration of southern pine beetle-killed trees. Forest Products Journal 21(3):57-59. Bicho, P.; Hussein, A; Yuen, B.; Gee, W.; Johal, S. 2006. Evaluation of in-woods chipping options for beetle-killed lodgepole pine wood. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Mountain Pine Beetle Working paper 2006-19:1-26. Brdicko, J. 2007. True-shape and defects data from mountain pine beetle-affected stems. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Mountain Pine Beetle Working paper 2007-04:1-5 Breuil, C. 2008a. Fitness and pathogenicity of the fungi associated with the mountain pine beetle and other secondary beetles in green attack. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Working paper 2008-04:6-17 56 Breuil, C. 2008b. Decay fungi and associated rates of decay in standing trees killed by the mountain pine beetle. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Working paper 2008-11:1-3 British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Range (BCMoF). 2003. Timber Supply and the Mountain Pine Beetle Infestation in British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Forest Analysis Branch. October 2003. 28p British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Range (BCMoF). 2006. Mountain pine beetle affects 8.7 million hectares. Press release, March 2006. Accesssed August 22, 2007 http://www.for.gov.bc.ca. Byrne, A. 2003. Characterising the properties of wood containing beetle-transmitted bluestain: background material collection and summary of findings. Report to Forestry Innovation Investment Program. Forintek Canada Corp., Western Division, Vancouver, BC Byrne, A.; Woo, K.; Uzunovic, A.; Watson, P. 2005. An annotated bibliography on the effect of bluestain on wood utilization with emphasis on mountain pine beetle vectored bluestain. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Working paper 2005-4. 57p Canadian Forest Service. 2007. Mountain pine beetle program. Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, BC. 10 p. Available at http://warehouse.pfc.forestry.ca/HQ/27367.pdf Accessed Nov. 18,2008 57 Canadian Forest Service. 2010. Mountain pine beetle program. Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, BC. Available at http://mpb.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/map_e.html. Accessed June 13, 2010 Chapman, A.D; Scheffer, T.C. 1940. Effect of bluestain on specific gravity and strength of southern pine. Journal of Agricultural Research 61(2): 125-133 Council of Forest Industries of BC. 2003. Mountain pine beetle task force. Accessed December 10, 2009 at http://www.mountainpinebeetle.com Dalpke, B.; Hussein, A.; Trent, T.; Gee, W.; Johal, S.; Yuen, B.; Watson, P.A. 2008. Assessment of the economic (pulping and pulp quality) effects of increased lodgepole pine in SPF chip mixtures. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria BC Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2007-08. 88p Dobie, J., Wright, D.M. 1978. Lumber Values from beetle-killed lodgepole pine. Forest Products Journal 28(6):44-47 Dorado J., Claassen F.W., Lenon G., van Beek T.A., Wijnberg J.B.P.A., Sierra-Alvarez R. 2000. Degradation and detoxification of softwood extractives by sapstain fungi. Bioresource Technology 71:7-11 Eng, M., Fall, A., Hughes, J., Shore, T., Riel, B., Hall, P., and Walton, A. 2005. Provincial level projection of the current mountain pine beetle outbreak: an overview of the model 58 (BCMPB v2) and results of year 2 of the project. Canadian Forest Service and the BC Forest Service, Victoria, BC Fahey, T.D., 1980. Evaluating dead lodgepole pine for products. For. Prod. J. 30(12):34-39 Fahey, T.D.; Snellgrove, T.A.; Plank, M.E. 1986. Changes in product recovery between live and dead lodgepole pin: a compendium. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR. Research Paper PNW-353. 25p Ferguson, A. 2003. Challenges and Solutions - An industry perspective. In T.L. Shore, J.E. Brooks and J.E. Stone (eds.). Mountain Pine Beetle Symposium: Challenges and Solutions. Pacific Forestry Centre, Can For. Serv., Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, BC Harrison, D.S. 2006. Methodology to assess shelf life attributes of mountain pine beetlekilled trees. Technology Transfer Note. No. 35. Forestry Research Applications. Pacific Forestry Center, Canadian Forest Service Hartley, I.D.; Pasca, S. 2006. Evaluation and review of potential impacts of mountain pine beetle infestation to composite board production and related manufacturing activities in British Columbia. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2006-12 Harvey, R.D. Jr. 1986. Deterioration of mountain pine beetle-killed lodgepole pine in northeast Oregon. USDA For. Serv. Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR. R6-86-13. 59 rd Haygreen, J.G.; Bowyer, J.L. 1996. Forest products and wood science: an introduction. 3 Edition Iowa State University Press, USA: 135-302pp Hsieh, E.; Uy, N.; Wallbacks, L. 2006. Development of a portable spectroscopic sensor to measure wood and fibre properties in standing mountain pine beetle-attacked trees and decked logs. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2006-16. 33p Hu, T.; Williams, T.; Yazdi, S.; Wallbacks, L.; Watson, P.A. 2008. Overcoming the brightness ceiling for mechanical pulps prepared from blue-stained lodgepole pine chips. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Working Paper 2008-05 Hu, T., Omholt, I., Johal, S., Yuen, B., Zhao, M., Drummond, J,. Miles, K.B., Stacey, M., Hellstern, M., Watson, P. 2008. Pilot mechanical pulping assessment of dry blue-stained and grey-stage wood chips from beetle-killed lodgepole pine. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2008-25 Ifju, G., Oderwald, R.G., Ferguson, P.C, Heikkenen, H.J., 1979. Evaluation of beetle-killed southern pine as raw material for pulp and paper. Tappi 62(2): 9-11 Kadla, J.F., Lam, F., Zaturecky, I., 2008. Chemical, mechanical, and durability properties of mountain pine beetle infested timber. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, 60 Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 200802 Kim, J.J., E.A. Allen, L.M. Humble and C. Breuil. 2005. Ophiostomatoid and basidiomycetous fungi associated with green, red, and grey lodgepole pines after mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) infestation. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35:274-284 Kim, J.J.; Kim, S.H.; Lee, S.; Breuil, C. 2003. Distinguishing Ophiostoma ips and O. montium two bark beetle-associated fungi. FEMS Microbiology Letters 222:187-192 Lawrence, V.; Woo, K. 2005. Silviscan: An Instrument for Measuring Wood Quality. Paprican Special Report (PSR-550). Paprican. Vancouver, BC 18p Lee, S.; Kim, J.J.; Fung, S.; Breuil, C. 2003. A PCR RFLP marker distinguishing Ophiostoma clavigemm from morphologically similar leptographium species associated with bark beetles. Canadian Journal of Botany 81:1104-1112 Lewis, K.J.; Hartley, I.D. 2005. Rate of deterioration, degrade and fall of trees killed by mountain pine beetle: a synthesis of the literature and experiential knowledge. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Report 2005-14 61 Lewis, K.; Thompson, D.; Hartley, I.D.; Pasca, S. 2006. Wood decay and degradation in standing lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm.) killed by mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonusponderosa Hopkins: Coleoptera). Can. For. Serv. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2006-11. Victoria, BC Lowell, E.C. 2001. Veneer recovery from beetle-killed spruce trees, Kenai peninsula, Alaska. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 16(2): 65-70. Lowery D. P. 1982. Dead softwood timber resource and its utilization in the west. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. General Technical Report INT-125. 17p Lum, C. 2005. MSR Lumber Grade Recovery of Post Mountain Pine Beetle Wood. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2005-21:1-16 Maloney, T.M.; Talbott, J.W.; Strickler M.D.; Lentz Martin T. 1978. Composition board from standing dead white pine and dead lodgepole pine. Pages 19-51 in The Dead Softwood Timber Resource Proceedings of Symposium (May 22-24, 1978). Spokane, WA. Washington State University, Pullman, Washington Mancini A.J. 1978. Manufacturing and marketing older dead lodgepole pine. Pages 193-196 in The dead softwood lumber resource: Proceedings of Symposium (May 22-24, 1978), Spokane, WA. Washington State University, Pullman, WA 62 Martinez-Inigo M.J., Immerzeel P., Gutierrez A., del Rio J.C., Sierra-Alvarez R. 1999. Biodegradability of extractives in sapwood and heartwood from Scots pine by sapstain and white rot fungi. Holzforschung 53:247-252 Miller, D.R.; Carlson, J.A., Stemeroff, M. 1993. BC Ministry of Forests, Forest Practices Branch. A Socio-economic analysis of mountain pine beetle management in British Columbia. 5p Ministry of Forests and Range. 2007. Mountain pine beetle action plan: Sustainable forests, sustainable communities. Annual Progress Report 2006/2007. Victoria, BC Ministry of Forests and Range. 2008. Mountain pine beetle. November. 2008. Available at http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/mountain_pine_beetle. Accessed January 200 Ministry of Forests and Range. 2009. Shelf-Life of Attacked Stands and Mountain Pine Beetle Mapping. Mountain Pine Beetle Update. Honourable Pat Bell Power Point Presentation. Available at http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/pab/media/PP_MPB%20update%20presentation_March3_FrNAL. pdf accessed April 22, 2009 NLGA. 2003. National Lumber Grades Authority. Standard Grading Rules for Canadian Lumber. National Lumber Grades Authority, New Westminster, BC 63 Natural Resources Canada. 2005. Forest.forward. Moving beyond the Pine Beetle. http://mpb.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/biology/introduction_e.html Nielson R.W., Wright, D.M. 1984. Utilization of beetle-killed lodgepole pine. Forintek Western Laboratory, Special Publication. SP-10102 Nielson R.W. 1986. Beetle-killed pine processing problems and opportunities: a British Columbia perspective. Harvesting and processing of beetle-killed timber. Forintek Western Laboratory Special Publication Nussbaum, A. 2006. Forecasting the effects of species choices on long-term harvest levels: Subcomponent of the provincial mountain pine beetle analysis project. Presented at the Northern Silviculture Committee 2006 Winter Workshop. http://www.unbc.ca/assets/conted/courses/nrme/nsc_presentations/anussbaum.pdfaccessed December 22, 2008. Orbay, L., Goudie, D. 2006. Quantifying lumber value recovery from beetle-killed trees. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Report 2006-09:7-18 Parry, D.; Filip, G.; Willits, S.; Parks, C. 1996. Lumber recovery and deterioration of beetlekilled Douglas-fir and Grand fir in the Blue Mountains of Eastern Oregon. USDA Forest Service, Pacific NWt Research Station. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-376. 64 Pedersen, L. 2004. Expedited timber supply review for the Lakes, Prince George, and Quesnel Timber Supply Areas. BC Ministry of Forests and Range, Victoria, BC Public Discussion Paper. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hts/tsa/PDP_TSAs_14-24-26.pdfaccessed December 22,2008 Plank, Marlin E. 1984. Lumber recovery from insect-killed lodgepole pine in the northern RockyMountains. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Research Paper PNW-320. 12p Pousette, J. 2005. Allowable cut uplifts in BC to address salvage of Mountain Pine Beetle killed lodgepole pine stands. FORREX conference November 10, 2005 Pousette, J.; Hawkins, C.D.B. 2006. An assessment of critical assumptions supporting the timber supply modelling for mountains-pine-beetle-induced allowable annual cut uplift in the Prince George Timber Supply Area. BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management 7(2):93104 Prince George Timber Supply Analysis Public Discussion Paper. 2010. Ministry of Forests and Range - Forest Analysis and Inventory Branch. Victoria, BC (Quesnel TSA 2009) Quesnel Timber Supply Area, 2009. Timber Supply Review Data Package. Accessed from http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hts/tsa/tsa26/2009_current/26ts09dp.pdf 2009-04-22 65 Radiotis, T.; Berry, R.; Hartley, I.; Todoruk, T. 2008. Kraft pulp and paper mill utilization options for grey-stage wood. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria BC Mountain Pine Beetle Working Paper 2008-09. 73p Reid, R.W. 1961. Moisture changes in lodgepole pine before and after attack by the mountain pine beetle. Forestry Chronicle, December 1961:368-376 Rogers Consulting. 2002. West central BC mountain pine beetle strategic business recommendations report. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, BC Runzer, K.; Hassegawa, M.; Balliet, N.; Bittencourt, E.; Hawkins, C. 2008. Temporal composition and structure of post-beetle lodgepole pine stands: Regeneration, growth, economics, and harvest implications. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Working Paper 2008-23:1-68 Sinclair, S. A.; G. Ifju; H J . Heikkenen. 1977. Bug boards: lumber yield and grade recovery from timber harvested from southern pine beetle-infested forests. Southern Lumberman 234:2901. 9-llpp Snellgrove, T.A., Fahey, T.D., 1977. Market values and problems associated with utilization of dead timber. Forest Products Journal. 27(10):74-79. Solheim, H., 1995. Early stages of blue-stain fungus invasion of lodgepole pine sapwood following mountain pine beetle attack. Can. Journal. Bot. 73:70-75 66 Taylor, S.; B. Erickson. 2007. Historical mountain pine beetle activity. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Victoria, BC. http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/subsite/mpb/historicalhistorique (Accessed May 2009) Thrower, J.; Willis, R.; de Jong, R.; Gilbert, D.; Robertson, H. 2005. Sample plan to measure tree characteristics related to the shelf life of mountain pine beetle-killed lodgepole pine trees in British Columbia. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2005-1 Trent, T.; Lawrence, V.; Woo, K. 2006. A wood and fibre quality-deterioration model for mountain pine beetle-killed trees by biogeoclimatic subzone. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2006-10 Unger, L. 1993. Mountain pine beetle. Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Forest Pest Leaflet 76. 8p Walters, E.; Weldon, D. 1982. Veneer recovery from green and beetle killed timber in East Texas. Texas Forest Service Wang, B.; Dai, C. 2005. Maximizing value recovery from mountain beetle-killed pine for veneer products. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Working paper 2005-9 67 Wang, B.; Dai, C ; Wharton, S. 2007. Optimization of gluing, lay-up and pressing for mountain pine beetle plywood. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC Working paper 2007-3 White, J.; Taylor, J. 2006a. Improving Processing Efficiency of Post-MPB Wood Part 1A: Mill Survey. Forintek Canada Corp. Forestry Innovation Investment FCC Project: 5154:1-13 White, J.; Taylor, J. 2006b. Improving Processing Efficiency of Post-MPB Wood Part IB: Benchmarking Cutting Tests. Forintek Canada Corp. Forestry Innovation Investment FCC Project: 5154:1-9 Woo, K.; Watson, P.; Mansfield, S. 2005. The effects of mountain pine beetle attack on lodgepole pine wood morphology and chemistry: Implications for wood and fibre quality. Wood and Fiber Science 37(1): 113-145 Woodward, B.G., 2005. Value recovery study of mountain pine beetle-killed trees on veneer processing. Report for Canfor - North Central Plywoods. Bachelor of Science Thesis, UNBC, Prince George, BC Work, L.M. 1978. Dead timber evaluation and purchase: firewood or lumber. Pages 179-185 in The dead softwood lumber resource: Proceedings of Symposium (May 22-24, 1978), Spokane, WA. Washington State University, Pullman, WA 68 Zaturecky, I.; Chiu, I. 2005. Alternative wood products from blue-stained mountain pine beetle lumber: non-stmctural laminated products. Mountain Pine Beetle Initiative Working Paper 2005-07. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forestry Service, Victoria, BC Zheng Y., Ruddick J.R., Breuil C. 1995. Factors affecting the growth of Ophiostoma piceae on Lodgepole pine heartwood. Material und Organismen 29(2): 105-117 69 8.0 APPENDICES 8.1 Appendix A - Sample of healthy pine optimization software printout BtLLori #879 SPF SMALL! ^ScemaripT 4 379 5 4" x 12'4" 19'9" (16.0 flam/ 0,074 m3} 216 Real Value: 9 60 9 62 Log # Log^GapRecovery Prod. Value. Product Fits ( r Opts: 0 0 U.triead: Left Inner Band: Left Outer Band: Infeed Lift- Species: Grade Class* Scenario - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 Tuesday, September 11, 2007 8 23 44 AM -1.968 Parked Parked 1 565 Opt, Time: Cant Opts: 0 03, 0 00 0 Right Head: 1,857 Right Inner Band: Parked Right Outer Band: Parked Top Head: 4.775 SPF All grades SMALL Scenario 1 % D 70 8.2 Appendix B - Sample of green attack optimization software printout - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 Tuesday, September 11, 2007 9:08:34 AM Log# Log Gap: Recovery Prod. Value: Product Fits: ( - Opts: 1312 7.7" x 12* 4" 14'1" 272 (32.0 f b m / 0.118 m3) 21.18 Real Value: 21.60 Leu Head: Left Inner Band: Left Outer Band: [nfeed Lift: ^2.943 Parked Parked 1.165 Species: Grade Class: Scenario 0 0 Opt. Time: Cant Opts: 9 1i 0.02, 0.00 0 Right Head: Right Inner Band: Right Outer Band: Top Head: 2.943 Parked Parked 5.840 SFF A l grades MEDIUM Scenario 1 lie 71 8.3 12- + Appendix C - Sample of red attack optimization software printout _ SPR —Altgradlik •» -MEEMUtf 11 -11 -10 -9 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 Tuesday, September 11,2007 8:05:30 AM Log # Log Gap: Recovery Prod, Value: 11 673 8.6" X 12* 4" 11' 8" 248 (38.0 fbm/0.153 m3} 25.71 26.00 Real Value: Product Fits: { r Opts: 0 0 Lett Head: Left Inner Band: Left Outer Band: infeedLtft: Species: Grade Class: Scenario 10 -3.063 Parked Parked 1.418 Opt. Time: Cant Opts: 0,03, 0.00 0 Right Head: 2.822 Right Inner Band: Parked Right Outer Band: Parked Top Head: 7.820 SPF AH grades MEDIUM Scenario 1 CA 72 8.4 Appendix D - Sample of grey attack optimization software printout - Log# Log Gap: Recovery Prod, Value: Product Fits: f <" Opts: Lt.. .lead: Left Inner Band: Left Outer Band: Weed Lift: Species; Grade Class: Scenario 1658 20'4" 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 Tuesday, September 11,2007 9:55:23 AM 7.6" x 14'4" 243 18.02 0 0 -3.317 Parked Parked 1.183 (23.8 fbm/0.119 m3) Real Value: 18.57 Opt. Time: Cant Opts: 0.02,0.00 0 Right Head: Right inner Band: Right Outer Band; Top Head: 2,568 Parked Parked 5,840 SPF A0 grades MEDIUM Scenario 1 l$6 73