Transpersonal Psychotherapy Applied to Children:
A Jungian Approach

Waylon Donald Greggain
B. Sc., University of Toronto, 2007

Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of
The Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Education

m
Counselling

The University ofNorthem British Columbia
May 2009

© Waylon Greggain, 2009

UNIVERSITY of NORTHERN
BRITISH COl.UMBiA
LffiRARY

Prince George, B.C.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... ii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................... ..... ....... ....... ... ...... ............. ...... ............... ..... ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................. ...... ........... vii
DEDICATION ......... ............................ ............................................................................ viii
CHAPTER 1 - TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOTHERAPY AND CHILDREN ................ 1
Rationale and Purpose of Project.. ............ ..... ................................. ...................... .......... 1
Transpersonal Psychotherapy ...................................................................... ............... .... 2
Overview ................................................................................... .. ............... ....... .......... 2
Principles of Transpersonal Psychotherapy ............................................................... 3
Critiques ...................................................... ............. ................................................... 6
Contributions ... ......... .................... ................. .. ....... ............................ .......... ... ........... 8

CHAPTER 2 -REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................... 9
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 9
Religion vs. Spirituality ........... .. ... ... ........... ......... ... ..................................... ................. 10
Common Misconceptions ....................... ...... ..................................... ..... ...................... 12
Spirituality as an Individualist Enterprise ......... .. .. .................................. ..... ............ 12
Transcendence and Enlightenment ............................................... ............................ 12

Defining Spirituality ..................................... ....... .. ........... .......................... .................. 13
Transpersonal vs. Spirituality ................................................................................... 14
Intrinsic Universality ................................................................................................ 14
Relational and Unitive .................. ................................ ............. .. ..................... ........ 15

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Meaning Making ............. .................... ....... ............................................... ................ 16
Children and Spirituality: The Developmental Debate ................................................. 17

Cognition of Multiple Perspectives ... .............. ..... .... ........ ....... .................................. 17
Logical Organization of Experience ......................................................................... 18
Metaphoric Logic ...................................................................................................... 20
Superior Spiritual Aptitudes? ................................................................................... 20
Research Findings ................ ..................................................................................... .... 21

Spiritual Sensitivities ................................................................................................ 22
Spiritual Sensitivities as Idealizations .............................. ....... .... ..... ........................ 24
Psychological and Emotional Benefits ..................................................................... 24
Effects ofNot Incorporating Spiritual Experiences .................................................. 25
Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3 - ISSUES IN PRACTICE .................. .. .......... ............................................. 28
The Counsellor's Own Consciousness ......................................................................... 28
Spiritual Emergence vs. Spiritual Emergency .............................................................. 31

Differential Diagnosis ........................................... ............ ..................................... .. . 32
Forms of Spiritual Emergency .................................................................................. 34
Treating Spiritual Emergencies ................................................................................ 37
Spiritual Assessment ..................................................................................................... 40

Reasons for Doing Spiritual Assessment ..... ....... ........................ .............................. 40
Difficulties in Spiritually Assessing Children ........ ................. ........................ .. ........ 41
Clinically Relevant Dimensions of Children's Spirituality ...... ............................... .. 43
Ethical Considerations ............................................................................. ..................... 45

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Working with the Child Population ....... ..... ........................ ..... .... .. .... .. ... ... ............. .. 46
Working within Multiple Systems .......... ... ...... .... .......... .... .... .. .. .. ..... .... ............ .. .. .... .. 46
Working with Parents ..... .. .. ................... .. .... .. .................. ........ ....... .. ..... .... ............... 47
Ethics and Spirituality .......... ...... ........ ...... ............ ..... ... .. ................................. .......... 48
CHAPTER 4 - JUNGIAN PSYCHOTHERAPY AND ITS THEORETICAL
UNDERPINNINGS .. ..... ........ ..... .................................... ....................... ...... ................. .... 49
Introduction ..... ......... ......... ......... ... .... ...... ....................................... .......... ....... .............. 49
Overview of Jungian Psychotherapy ...... ..... ... ... ... ................ ..... ...... .......... ................... 49
Jungian Theory .. .. .. ................. .............................. ...... .............. .... ....... ............... ......... . 52

The Ego and Its Def enses ... .. ... ... ..... .... .. .......... ...... .......... .... .. ............ ......... .. ........... .. 52
Archetyp es ......... ............. .... ................... ...... ... .... ............................................. ... ..... .. 55
The Shadow ...... ............. ............................. .. ............................ .. ........ ..... ................ .. 57
The Anima/A nimus .... ..... ............................... ............. ... ..... ............... .............. .... .. .... 59
The Self. ... .. ....... ..... ... .. .. .................................. .... ... ..... ............. ... ... .... ..... ... ................ 61
Other Archetyp es .... ....... .. .................... ....... ...... ........... ............... ....... ................. ... ... 62
Ego-SelfAxis .. .. .... .......... .... .. ........ .... .. ......... ...... ... ......... .. ... ..... ....... .............. .. ........ ... 68
Individuation ............... .... ...................................... ...................... ........... .. .... ............. 69
The Language of the Psyche ... ...... ....... .... .... .. .. .... ..... ...... ............................. ............. 70
Dreams ........ ................. ........................ ... ..... ... ........ ....... ... ..... ........ ... ... ................... .. 71
CHAPTER 5 -JUNGIAN INTERVENTIONS ... .. ....... ........... ...... ... ......... ............ .. ......... 75
Picture and Writing Journals .................. ............ ..... .... ............... .... ..... ... ...... ............... .. 75

Method ......... .. .. ..... ............ .... ...................... ...... ...... ...... ... ....... ............. ..... .. ..... ..... .... 77
Materials .. ... ............................ ... ... ..... ..... .... ......... .... .. ... ............. ............................. .. 78

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Directed Activities ......... ................ .... .. ... .... ...................................................... ......... 78
Non-Directed Activities ..... .......... ................................................ ...... ............. .. ....... .. 81

Letter Writing ........ ....................................... ... .. .......................... ...................... ......... .. 82
Letters from the Counsellor ....................... .. .. ............. ...... ....... ........... ...... .... ........... . 82
Letters from Children .......... .................................... ......... .. ........ ............... ........ ...... .. 83

Sandplay Therapy ......................................................................................................... 84
The Process ............................................................................................................... 85
Supporting Integration .............................................................................................. 86
Concluding Sandplay ................................................................................................ 87

Keeping Track of the Process ....................................................................................... 88
General Considerations for Use with Children ..... ..... ............ ................ ....... .... ....... ..... 90
Necessary Capacities and Developmental Stages ..... ....................... .................. ...... 92
Appropriate Issues ... ................ .. .... ............................... ..... ....... ................... ............. 96
Unsuitable Uses ........................................ .............................................................. I 00

Conclusion ...................................... .......................... ........................ ................ ........ .. 100
REFERENCES ........ .......................... ........................... ....... ....................... .... ..... ........... 102

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Summary of Jungian Interventions ........ ..... .... ..... ......... .. .. . .... ......... ....... ..... 75
Table 2 Worksheet for Incorporating the Use of Archetypes in Child Counselling ...... ...... .... 89

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this project would never have been possible without the patient and loving
support I have received from my parents Donald and Aline Greggain as well as my kindred spirit
Kevin Joubert.
I will be forever grateful to my fellow students who encouraged me to pursue the project route
for my degree. A special thanks goes out to Patricia Pilotte and Christine Jackson-two amazing
practitioners whose strength, compassion, and wisdom continue to inspire me.
Deep appreciation goes out to my committee members Dr. Corinne Koehn and Dr. Sherry
Beaumont whose knowledge and expertise in their respective fields have made my project what
it is.
I would also like to express my undying gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Linda O'Neill for
her tireless support and guidance as well as the many lessons she has so gracefully imparted.

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DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to the Magical Child within all of us that embodies the wisdom,
courage, and belief that anything is possible.

CHAPTER 1 - TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOTHERAPY AND CHILDREN
Rationale and Purpose ofProject
Transpersonal psychotherapies are a relatively recent addition to the counselling field,
with the majority of them aimed at helping adults. Few have been adapted for use with children
due to psychological findings that seemed to suggest this population lacked the necessary
capacities to understand spiritual and/or transpersonal phenomena (Bruner, 1986; Piaget, 1966).
More recent findings suggest that not only can children understand spiritual phenomenon, they
may actually be better equipped to do so (Flavell, 1990; Levine, 1999). This "spirituality gap"
that currently exists within the field of child counselling is moderated somewhat by the fact that
mainstream interventions are able to address spiritual concerns indirectly through working with
children's cognitions and emotions. Jungian psychotherapy stands out in this regard as it is based
on the language of the psyche-a language that children may be better equipped to understand.
A Jungian approach to counselling is not only characterized by similar theoretical
principles as those of other transpersonal psychotherapists (Cortright, 1997; Jung, 1964, 1980;
Lines, 2006), but also uses mediums with which children can easily identify, such as drawing,
writing, and playing (Allan, 1988; Allan & Bertoia, 1992; Kalff, 2003). Jungian psychotherapy
was chosen because of its focus on the integration and individuation of the psyche-the two
opposing forces that I believe form the basis for all spiritual growth. Therefore, I have
constructed a transpersonal counselling guide consisting of Jungian interventions and techniques
aimed at developing the spiritual lives of children. The guide is based on the premise that not
only do children have the capacity to work on matters of spirituality in a counselling setting, but
that those capacities must be honoured and addressed in order to foster their complete health and
well-being.

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The purpose of the project is twofold: (1) to help fill the spirituality gap that currently
exists within the field of child counselling, and (2) to give counsellors a starting point from
which to build their own transpersonal practice. It will by no means replace adequate training as
a Jungian Analyst (see Chapter 4), but instead serve as a starting point from which counsellors
can begin to acquire the basic knowledge to incorporate transpersonal theories and practices in
their work with children. Although the guide will incorporate the use of physical and mental
modalities, its primary goal will be to help foster and integrate children's spiritual experiences. It
is my hope that the guide will allow practitioners to not only identify when spiritually-based
interventions may be appropriate, but also enable them to assist their child clients in the
interpretation and processing of their spiritual selves.

Transpersonal Psychotherapy
Overview
A transpersonal approach to psychotherapy is not defined by a specific subject matter,
such as meditation or altered states of consciousness, but goes beyond these types of phenomena
to articulate a "comprehensive psychospiritual vision oflife and its unfolding" (Cortright, 1997,
p. 12). Transpersonal therapists view all psychological, emotional, and physical processes
against a backdrop of spiritual unfoldment (Cortright, 1997; Lines, 2006; Sperry, 2001). Viewing
the world through a transpersonallens imparts everything one sees through it with significance
and meaning. A transpersonal orientation also implies openness to spiritual content whenever it
arises in the course of therapy. Unlike conventional psychotherapies that focus solely on the
contents of consciousness, the transpersonal approach aims to also explore consciousness itself
(Lines, 2006). Even though it can have similar goals as other approaches (e.g. symptom relief,

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altering thoughts or behaviours, etc.), it allows for learning and integration across a wider range
of life experiences.
Transpersonal psychotherapy has undergone considerable changes since its conception.
In the beginning, the theoretical assumption was that true spiritual work could only start after a
person's psychological work was complete; however, now clinicians have moved toward seeing
spiritual work emerging within the psychological rather than after it (Lines, 2006; Sperry, 2001).
Transpersonal practitioners now see growth and development as a process that is sometimes
purely psychological, sometimes purely spiritual, and sometimes with both happening
simultaneously. Transpersonal psychotherapy encompasses such a wide range of treatment
modalities because it views spiritual and psychological development as interdependent
processes. However, even with many differing perspectives in the field, there are still some
underlying principles that are common to all approaches.

Principles ofTranspersonal Psychotherapy
Our essential nature is spiritual. Transpersonal therapy affirms that our being is both
psychological and spiritual in nature, but gives primacy to the spiritual as it sees it being the
source of-and support for-all the structures of the self (Cortright, 1997). The implication of
this principle is that spirituality is an essential component for health and well-being.
Trans personal therapists maintain that any definition of healthy functioning must include a
spiritual dimension to be complete. Another assumption is that there exists a dimension to the
human experience that is indestructible and eternal. Belief in such a seemingly simple principle
can have widespread ramifications in one's life. If someone truly believed that the essence of
who they were was eternal, then events and aspects of their physical existence would take on
significantly less importance. Although one could see this realization as somewhat depressing, it

4

is important to remember how much pain and suffering in the world is caused by people's
frustration and dissatisfaction with their particular life circumstance.
Consciousness as multidimensional. Transpersonal theorists have come to believe that the
normal and ordinary states of consciousness most people experience on a daily basis is only the
most outward tip of humanity's potential (Cortright, 1997; Scotton, Chinen, & Battista, 1996).
Spiritual experiences often lead to expansions in consciousness that can reveal the level of
restrictedness with which most people live. Transpersonal theorists believe that while there are
distinct dimensions of awareness, there is not necessarily any "end-point" to which we must
strive (Cortright, 1997). Although this tenet can become inextricably complex, what therapists
need to remember is that the evolution and/or development of consciousness is multi-factorial
and involves numerous processes that have yet to be discovered.
Our life and actions are meaningful. From a transpersonal view, each experience that we
have on earth is significant to our spiritual growth and development (Cortright, 1997; Lines,
2006; Sperry, 2001). People' s lives are not filled with random and pointless events, but instead
are part of the divine order of the Universe. Unlike the existentialist view that people create
meaning in a meaningless world, transpersonal therapists maintain that health comes about as we
uncover the meaning that is already inherent in what is (Cortright, 1997). As meaning is
discovered, one begins to realize that there is a larger process of transformation and growth
occurring at all times. As a result, transpersonal psychotherapy is considered to be profoundly
optimistic and hope-centred for it posits the reality of a divine intelligence in which all of our
experiences are seen as significant.
A deeper source of wisdom and guidance is available at all times. Transpersonal
psychotherapists maintain that people' s fundamental nature is born out of- and therefore

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remains connected to--a source ofvast intelligence (Cortright, 1997). Like some Western
approaches, transpersonal therapy seeks to uncover a deeper source of wisdom and guidance than
the ego; however, it believes that it is a deeper spiritual reality that is the source of this wisdom
(Scotton et al., 1996). This form of divine guidance is found throughout various traditions and is
known by such names as spirit guides, guardian angels, the Holy Spirit, and/or spiritual teachers
(Gallagher, 1997; Samuels, Shorter, & Plaut, 1986).
Each person comes into life with a set of self-chosen challenges to meet. Although this
principle is closely tied to the belief that everything in life is meaningful, it is more specific in
the sense that it describes the way in which that meaning comes about. Most transpersonal
theorists maintain that the soul incarnates in order to learn and/or live through a set of predetermined lessons and/or experiences (Cortright, 1997; Davila, 1979). These lessons could be
described as archetypal patterns that have been born out of the collective unconscious and
influence people's consciousness (Jung, 1965, 1980). From this perspective, there is little
therapeutic value in looking for the causes of a dysfunction-although this may still have
preventative value for others. For currently afflicted clients, the goal is to handle and/or cope
with the experience, and if possible transcend it (Davila, 1979). Therefore, the focus of
transpersonal therapy is on one's current state and the possible alternatives for learning that
present themselves, rather than on how to suppress or change particular symptoms.
All behaviours are an attempted solution to the problem being confronted. Closely tied to
the aforementioned principle, this tenet implies that deviant behaviour does not necessarily need
to be extinguished, but instead used to discover the underlying challenge the client is facing
(Davila, 1979). Transpersonal theorists maintain that on some level the client is aware of the
challenge and is attempting to meet it with whatever limited tools or understanding he/she has.

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Meeting the client where they are and relinquishing all forms of judgment and resistance form
the basis of all trans personal approaches. Such an approach fosters change by helping to uncover
the client's hidden challenges. When counsellors no longer view their client's behaviour as
wrong or deviant, spontaneous healing and/or change can occur since the practitioner no longer
fuels the client's attachment to the problem (Scotton et al., 1996).
Full resolution occurs only through an opening to being. The transpersonal view of
healing encompasses what conventional counselling psychology has discovered about the
working-through process and much more. Although the working-through of issues is considered
important, it is believed that true healing occurs only by the infusion of spiritual energies into the
psyche (Cortright, 1997). Consequently, therapeutic techniques and interventions are considered
tools with which to access a different dimension of Being. The implication underscoring this
principle is that the client requires something greater than him or herself in order to heal.
Although some may see this as detracting from the autonomy and agency of the client, it is
important to remember that the individual seeking a resolution is still required to fulfill certain
therapeutic requirements-it is simply that the onus of responsibility does not lie solely on the
client and/or his or her actions.
Critiques
The basic tenet of trans personal psychotherapy-that there exists a dimension beyond the
personal-is the very same point used to criticize the approach. Transpersonal psychotherapy has
been accused of being removed from the ordinary reality in which most people live by its narrow
focus on higher levels of functioning (Cortright, 1997). Some have criticized the field for
ignoring the darker side of human nature by going directly to altered states of consciousness
(Scotton et al., 1996). Cortright (1997) notes how transpersonal psychotherapy has been

7
classified as a dogmatic, absolutist, and fanatical approach to therapy based on a narcissistic
preoccupation with the self. Although some transpersonal counsellors may practice from such a
perspective, there has been a move toward a more comprehensive view of human functioning
that aims to find the sacred in the ordinary while remaining open to a myriad of spiritual paths
(Cortright, 1997).
Another major critique of transpersonal approaches is its lack of research and theoretical
integration. There is limited research when it comes to transpersonal psychotherapeutic
effectiveness and its application to clinical practice, partly because the subject matter does not
translate well to empirical study. Transpersonal theory also does not have clear demarcation of
its theoretical boundaries, which can cause confusion for practitioners when trying to establish
conceptual frameworks with their clients. For example, transpersonal theorists have yet to come
to a consensus in regards to what constitutes "reality," which could prove troublesome when
explaining such a concept to clients (Sperry, 2001).
Closely tied to the above is the problem of accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment
implementation within trans personal practice (Lines, 2006). With an increased field of possible
realities (i.e., auras, energy fields, consciousness expansions, clairvoyance, past lives, etc.), it
makes it very difficult to determine the causative factor and/or which intervention would be most
appropriate (Cortright, 1997). In other words, it can be extremely difficult for a counsellor to
decide on which level to intervene. Being open to so many different levels of consciousness
necessitates a highly skilled and experienced practitioner, which could prove elusive to clients as
such skill and experience is rare and takes time to develop.

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Contributions
All things are possible to him who believes.

-MARK 9:17-24

The primary contribution of trans personal psychotherapy has been its affirmation of
spirituality as an essential aspect of healthy human functioning (Cortright, 1997; Scotton et al.,
1996). Although seeking an ultimate reality has been a major aspiration in every culture in
history, counsellors are only beginning to recognize its importance for the health and well-being
of their clients. While still honouring the personal realm, trans personal psychotherapy goes
beyond it by placing it within a larger framework. A transpersonal approach offers more
opportunities for growth as it does not deny the findings of conventional psychotherapy, but
offers a wider perspective from which to view them (Cortright, 1997).
When it comes to therapy, transpersonal counsellors are open to more possibilities
because their goal is the development of consciousness itself (Cortright, 1997). For example,
because transpersonal therapists see consciousness as being multidimensional, they are open to
entering the client's world from any level. Another contribution has been the way in which
transpersonal psychotherapy has brought to light the role Being has in the process of healing
(Lines, 2006; Sperry, 2001). It is the only therapeutic approach that views consciousness and/or
Being as the primary healing agent (Cortright, 1997). Finally, transpersonal psychotherapy
engenders hope and trust more readily than other therapies because it implies that humans are
continuously connected to a source of divine grace (Sperry, 2001 ). It is one thing to believe in an
ultimate or Supreme Being, it is quite another to know that Being as a caring and benevolent
force in one's life.

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CHAPTER 2 -REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The word spirituality often brings to mind images of the church and/or other religious
practices, or of solitary renunciates who have given up all worldly possessions in order to
journey inward. Yet, both of these notions stem more from society's misconceptions about
spirituality than from spirituality itself. Defining spirituality becomes even more difficult when
we recognize that such experiences often make themselves known in subtle ways, frequently
being mistaken for coincidence or subjective constructionism and therefore seldom shared (Hart,
2003). Many in the field of spirituality are purporting it be assigned a more universal and
inclusive definition (Boorstein, 1996; Gallagher, 1997; Harris, 2007; Lawton, 2003 ; Long,
2000).
The acknowledgement that the experience of spirituality applies not only to adults, but to
children as well, is also gaining credence among researchers (Coles, 1990; Eaude, 2003; Hart,
2003; Hay & Nye, 2006; Scott, 2003). The reason this has been a recent acknowledgment is
because earlier research suggested children lacked the necessary mental capacities to understand
abstract and/or paradoxical phenomena (Bruner, 1986; Piaget, 1966). However, this
preconception has been based on an adult-type of logistical reasoning that may not be children's
primary mode of deduction (Flavell, 1990; Levine, 1999). Nevertheless, researchers have
continued to explore the spiritual lives of children and in doing so have produced some
surprisingly similar results (Eaude, 2003 ; Engebretson, 2002; Hart, 2006; Hyde, 2008; Pearmain,
2005).

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Religion vs. Spirituality
Religion is the politics of God. Spirituality is the practice.

-CAROUNE MYSS

One of the most problematic and confusing issues preventing the development of a
universal definition of spirituality is the idea of religion. While some argue that spirituality and
religion are highly interconnected and cannot be separated (Gallagher, 1997), others maintain
that they are two distinct realities and not necessarily related (Engebretson, 2002; Hart, 2003;
Lawton, 2003). As the notion of a more universal idea of spirituality gains credence among
researchers, religious fanatics have countered by accusing spirituality of being merely an
existential and individualist version of religion (Lawton, 2003). Proponents of spirituality, on the
other hand, maintain that its conceptual development is a result of a shift currently taking place
within the human species towards a more meaningful and personal exploration of the divine
(Eaude, 2003; Zukav, 1989). Researchers are beginning to assert that spirituality is a distinct and
separate reality worthy of its own exploration (de Souza & Hyde, 2007; Lawton, 2003).
In delineating the differences between religion and spirituality, it is important to consider
the sociocultural factors that have come to shape what is known as religion. According to
Lawton (2003), religion is more about belonging than believing. Lawton points out how religion
is something we are born into rather than born with. In other words, the religious affiliation in
which we were raised depends almost entirely on when and where we were born. The social
aspect of religion can also be seen in the profound power and influence of groups.
Groups have an enormous impact on the personal and religious beliefs of individuals
(Lawton, 2003). If they did not, then we would see a lot more "baby Buddhists" growing up on
Alberta farms, as well as "baby Jehovah's witnesses" being raised in Japan. The fact that we do
not suggests that religion is more a construct of community than a private affair (Lawton, 2003).

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Because religion is primarily a group dynamic aimed at fostering solidarity, it has by
necessity been built upon absolute principles and convictions-the upholding of which keeps the
group intact. Religious institutions put forth required laws of conduct to which all members must
adhere lest they be deemed "unworthy." Religious dogma depends more on group and cultural
dynamics than on one's personal relationship with God, which is why such practices do not
translate well to all individuals. Some have suggested this as the reason for the recent interest in
a universal spiritual philosophy (Eaude, 2003).
To help further clarify the difference between religion and spirituality, Hart (2003) offers
a useful metaphor: religion is the road on which we choose to travel, whereas spirituality is the
experience of journeying. In other words, we can engage in religious practices without having a
spiritual experience and vice versa. Religiosity, therefore, could be thought of as a practical
commitment to a religious tradition that does not guarantee a spiritual experience (Engebretson,
2002). Spirituality, on the other hand, can be thought of as a universal phenomenon in which a
person experiences the unfoldment of his or her own unique journey (Hart, 2003). Religious
affiliation implies volition, whereas spirituality does not. For example, I can say "I choose to be
a Buddhist," or "I choose to be a Catholic," but volition is less evident ifl were to say, "I choose
to have a spiritual life," or "I choose to have a spirit." This distinction would support the notion
that religion is what we do, whereas spirit is what we are.
There is a fundamental difference between religion and spirituality that must be
recognized if we are to move towards a universal understanding of what it means to be spiritual.
The conceptual difference between religion as conditional and spirituality as unconditional shall
form the basis for all subsequent discussions and definitions herein. Throughout the remainder of
this project, spirituality will be regarded as a universal and experiential phenomenon that exists

12
independently from any social or cultural context. I should point out that my intent in making
this distinction is not to denigrate or judge religious traditions in any way; on the contrary, it is
my hope that we can use the purpose and meaning behind religiosity as a way of increasing our
overall understanding of the human experience.

Common Misconceptions
Spirituality as an Individualist Enterprise
This major misconception regarding spirituality has been born out of religion's longstanding authority in society. Religious fundamentalists have accused spirituality of being an
isolationist and individualist enterprise, whose sole purpose is to divide society and the power of
the church (Engebretson, 2002). However, this goes against the findings of unity and relational
consciousness that many researchers have reported to be part of spiritual experiences (Hay, 2000;
Hay & Nye, 2006; Hyde, 2008; Schlarb, 2007). Many have argued that a move towards a more
unified concept of spirituality is exactly what is required to remedy the widespread conflict and
separation that currently afflicts our planet (Harris, 2007; Hay, 2000; Zukav, 1989). Because the
primary driving force behind religious institutions is to maintain group solidarity (Lawton,
2003), a certain degree of resistance can be expected whenever a more universal and inclusive
ideology emerges. This is not to say that spirituality does not involve individual workings, but to
claim that spirituality does not support or promote societal relations is to overlook one of its
greatest assets.
Transcendence and Enlightenment
The concept of spirituality is often confused with a kind of transcendental state in which
one achieves pure and ever lasting happiness (Long, 2000). The word "transcendence" implies

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an attainment of something greater or more valuable than what one has right now. Because
people tend to associate spirituality with a certain amount of goodness and value, it is easy to fall
into the trap of turning trans personal experiences into a "goal" one must attain. This belief can be
dangerous because it devalues our current experience and promotes a preoccupation with the
future. It can also mislead us into believing that some future state is going to better or more
pleasant than the one we are experiencing right now. Being on a spiritual journey is not always
pleasant or joyous and often involves searching for answers to questions we would sometimes
rather not address (Eaude, 2003) .

Defining Spirituality
The Tao that can be described is not the Tao.

-LAO TZU

Before attempting to define spirituality, there is one caveat of which I must make note,
and that is the inherent limitation found in language. I believe there has been so much confusion
and disagreement regarding the definition of spirituality because we are attempting to define
something that ultimately cannot be put into words. As Lao Tzu noted in the very first line of his
book the Tao Te Ching: you cannot describe that from which all descriptions come. As soon as
we define or label something, there is a false sense of knowing that replaces the true essence of
that which is being labeled. There is an old Chinese proverb that attempts to demonstrate this:
the finger pointing to the moon is not the moon. In other words, any concept that we put on an
object is never a replacement for the object itself, which means that words or labels only serve as
"pointers" to a deeper and more real experience of understanding. This realization does not
mean, however, that we should not speak about spirituality or any other abstract concept; rather

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it is suggested that one remains mindful of this fact while not being overly attached to the labels
and descriptions one uses.

Transp ersonal vs. Spirituality
The word transpersonal is defined as both: "extending or going beyond the individual"
and "relating to esoteric mental experiences, such as mysticism and altered states of
consciousness" (Merriam-Webster, 2009). Similarly, spirit is defined as the "animating or vital
principle held to give life to physical organisms" (Merriam-Webster, 2009). I will be using the
two terms interchangeably throughout the remainder of the project because I feel that spirit lies
beyond the person/individual and is also able animate and shape one's state of consciousness.
Even though some may see these two concepts as qualitatively different, I am choosing to use
them interchangeably. Some may prefer the word transpersonal to that of spirit due to the
religious connotations of the latter. Because transpersonal is a relatively recent addition to our
society ' s lexicon, it may be more appropriate in situations where the client has issues with
organized religion or needs more "room" for multiple interpretations. The following are
conceptual categories often included in modem definitions of spirituality.
Intrinsic Universality

Through its comparison with religion, it is evident that one of spirituality's key aspects is
that of universality. If spirituality does not depend on religious or cultural contexts, then it must
be shared by all of humanity. Hyde (2003) describes spirituality as an essential human quality
comprised of biological and genetic components. He posits that spirituality is a human
predisposition that has undergone selection in order to help the human race survive. In other
words, humans are spiritual today because prior generations who were spiritual enjoyed a greater
reproductive advantage. Although Hyde does not speculate as to exactly how spirituality has

15

helped to propagate our species, it can be assumed that the way in which we related to others and
our environment were most likely influenced.
Relational and Unitive
Spirit is not in the I, but between the I and you.

-MARTTN BUBER

Another key feature of spirituality is the sense of connectedness with others and/or the
universe (de Souza & Hyde, 2007; Engebretson, 2002; Harris, 2007; Hay, 2000; Hay & Nye,
2006; Hyde, 2008). Hay (1997) describes spirituality as "the potential to be much more deeply
aware of both ourselves and of our intimate relationship with everything that is not ourselves" (p.
9). This definition suggests that spirituality is essentially an experience that one has in relation to
something or someone else. In other words, spirituality could be thought of as a "relational
dimension ofbeing" (de Souza & Hyde, 2007, p.98) in which a person moves from the
experience of being separate to that of a unified entity. However, this sense of connectedness is
not limited to that found between human beings.
Many theorists posit that transpersonal experiences are a move toward unity with an
Ultimate or Supreme Being (de Souza & Hyde, 2007; Hyde, 2008; Long, 2000). Rather than
being two separate entities in a relationship, the individual actually becomes one with the other,
thereby becoming one with all that is. Long (2000) remarks how it is the reaching out that is the
hallmark of spirituality and that it does not matter where one "reaches," but more so the
destination at which one arrives. For example, some people may choose to reach towards the
infinite, while others journey to the depths of their own soul. Although seemingly different, these
two pathways may in effect lead to the same unitive state if we are all connected by a single field
of consciousness as many claim (Hay & Nye, 2006; Long, 2000).

16

Meaning Making
Another key component of spirituality appears to be the ability to either make or find
meaning. According to Harris (2007), spirituality involves the ability to make connections
between that which happens in our lives with some kind of higher purpose. In terms of evolution
this would have been beneficial, as those who could find meaning in negative or tragic
circumstances would have more of an incentive to live and therefore more opportunities to
reproduce (Hyde, 2003). On a more esoteric level, a search for meaning also implies the
existence of some kind of divine order-the fulfilling of which is worthwhile.
Though the particulars of said order are most likely different and unique for each person,
Eaude (2003) posits that one path shared by all humans may be to find the self when he described
spirituality as the "universal search for meaning and identity" (p. 153). If a connection does exist
between meaning, identity, and spirituality, it may lie in its mutually dependent relationship--for
one must first discover who one is before one can develop a sense of purpose or meaning. In
other words, if there were no I there would be no character around which to build a meaningful
story. With no self-realization, it would also be impossible to experience unity with another since
it requires an "I" to form a "we." Therefore, meaning making may be the primary motivating
force behind spiritual unfoldment.
In the end, when considering a definition of spirituality, it is important to remember the
aforementioned caveat: words can never completely capture the reality towards which they point.
Holding onto this perception not only prevents unnecessary conflict and strife over definitional
semantics, it also allows people to experience the meaning of the word for themselves. I believe
that any definition of spirituality that leads to the diminishment of who or what one is at this
moment will likely lead to problems in the future for it presupposes a state of insufficiency. On

17
the other hand, defining spirituality in such a way that both honours one' s current state, while at
the same time allows one to remain open to something new, would most likely be more
constructive. Based on the aforementioned research, a useful definition of spirituality for
counselling purposes could be as follows: spirituality is the universal and innate experience of
oneness with life born out of a search for meaning and identity.

Children and Spirituality: The Developmental Debate
Unless you receive the kingdom of God as a child, you cannot enter it.

-JESUS

A major reason why children's spiritual selves have only begun to be recognized is
because the majority of psychological research over the past 60 years has suggested that it was
impossible-or at the least extremely difficult- for children to understand the idea of
spirituality. Developmental theorists claimed that children lacked the cognitive capabilities
required to understand complex and abstract phenomena, of which spirituality is certainly a part
(Piaget, 1966). Because numerous studies showed that children only acquired particular mental
capacities at certain ages, researchers assumed that younger children were not mature enough to
make sense of the transpersonal (Bruner, 1986; Donaldson, 1978; Piaget, 1966). However, as
more research has been done on the spiritual experiences of children, new findings are causing
people to rethink prior Piagetian assumptions, with some putting forth an entirely new
perspective on children' s cognitive and/or spiritual competencies (Flavell, 1990; Levine, 1999).

Cognition of Multiple Persp ectives
Piaget ( 1966) claimed that young children were incapable of adopting the perspectives
and viewpoints of others. This limitation has been conceptualized by neo-Piagetians as a kind of
"egocentrism" in which children cannot differentiate between the self and others. However,

18
Donaldson (1978) found that by age 2, infants would reorient visual displays when showing
them to other people, indicating that they know the displays will look different to others.
Donaldson also noted that by the age of 6, children will hide objects from adults and other
infants, suggesting once again that they are aware of the difference between self and others.
The research on developmental capacities appears to reveal contradictory evidence,
which is why researchers continued to explore children 's cognitive and spiritual capabilities.
Levine (1999) offers an explanation that incorporates both the established psychological findings
as well as more recent ones. She posits that children are in fact able to do both (i.e., be aware of
others and only of self) and that this capability is what makes them better equipped to experience
the transpersonal than adults. Levine explains the apparent discrepancy in the research by
postulating that children have a unique ability to either apply or suspend these apparent cognitive
dichotomies.
Rather than being cognitively "limited," Levine (1999) suggests that children are actually
more advanced in this regard, as they are able to alternate between two different perspectives
(i.e. , between perceiving only the self and perceiving others as well). Why would this be an
advantage? For one, the child would be able to choose to apply the perspective that would best
serve him or her in a particular situation. For example, being overly concerned with the opinions
of others would most likely be unhelpful when one has to act assertively. Other benefits of being
able to alternate between two different perspectives may include less ruminative thinking and an
increased sense of self-esteem (Donaldson, 1978; Levine, 1999).
Logical Organization of Experience

When Piaget (1966) tested children's deduction and reasoning, he was comparing their
logic with that used by adults, a form of reasoning known as Aristotelian logic (Flavell, 1990).

19
This mode of reasoning is comprised of two primary tenets: (1) the principle of noncontradiction and (2) the law of excluded middle. The principle of non-contradiction states that
each identity is identical to itself (i .e., A=A). So if we were to claim that an object is identical to
something different (i.e. , A= B), then we would conclude that the latter is a contradiction and
must be false . For example, if we were to say that a car is a car, then we cannot also say that a
car is a dog. In like manner, the law of excluded middle states that any proposition is either true
or false and cannot be both true and false simultaneously.
When tested according to the above logistical principles, young children failed (Piaget,
1966). Yet, Levine (1999) surmises that children can use Aristotelian logic, but that is it simply
not their primary mode of reasoning. For example, an infant as young as 3 years can take a
cognitive position that asserts something is true, while agreeing that its opposite is false (e.g.
spinach tastes terrible, so spinach does not taste good). More importantly, Levine points out that
children tend to suspend this type of linear reasoning in favour of a more metaphoric
organization. For example, if a child sees a broom and proceeds to ride it around like a horse, in
that moment the child is holding in their awareness two contradictory yet simultaneous
perceptions. How do we know this? For one, the child makes physical adjustments for the broom
and not those for an actual horse. Second, when asked what they are riding, most children would
be able to say that they are riding both a horse and a broom.
Phenomenological research has even indicated that both realities in such situations are
perceived as real for the child even though they are qualitatively different (Bruner, 1986). In this
way, the child's experience is in direct violation of both the principle of contradiction (because
the broom is a broom, but it is also a horse) and the law of excluded middle (the truth that the
"broom is a broom" is perceived as both true and false) . Levine (1999) suggests that we rethink

20
our preconceptions about "sophisticated logic" and consider the possibility that children may not
be logically or cognitively incompetent per se, but that they might simply be operating from a
different reasoning modality.
Metaphoric Logic

Levine ( 1999) claims that a metaphoric-type of reasoning is the primary organizing force
behind children' s cognitive processes. Metaphoric logic is predominantly associative and often
highlights meaningful relationships that a linear type of reasoning would consider false or
inaccurate (Levine, 1999). To say that because flowers and humans both die, people are like
flowers would be an example of using metaphoric logic. This would be found false using
conventional reasoning, yet on some level feels true. Research seems to suggest that children are
able to apply metaphoric logic more readily than adults, while also being able to use a linear
form of reasoning when necessary. Levine believes that this unique cognitive capacity actually
gives children a greater ability to understand and/or work with transpersonal phenomena because
it allows children to hold within their awareness two contradictory perceptions simultaneously.
When applied to the concept of unity or relational consciousness, this would allow children to
hold the perception I am separate as well as I am one with all that is in their awareness at the
same time. In fact, many spiritual traditions describe spiritual enlightenment or nirvana as the
achievement of such a state (Gallagher, 1997).
Superior Spiritual Aptitudes?

The abilities noted above beg the question: are children more innately spiritual than
adults? Is the world in which children live the same state of unified consciousness that
contemporary mystics long to find? If this reality innately exists within children, when and
where along the road to adulthood is it lost? Moreover, are we able to get it back? Undoubtedly,

21
answering these questions will take many more years of research and exploration into the
spiritual lives of children. Whether it is our natural state of being or not, most scholars agree that
the study of children's spirituality needs to be approached and understood from an entirely
different level than that of adults (Coles, 1990; Hart, 2003; Hay & Nye, 2006).

Research Findings
Conducting research on the transpersonal experiences of children can be tenuous since
certain age groups lack the motor and verbal skills to accurately communicate their experiences.
Fortunately, questionnaires and surveys can be used with adolescent populations, which allows
for more empirically sound findings. Engebretson (2002) surveyed a group of 14 year olds who
attended Catholic schools to determine whether church affiliation and practices nurtured young
people's spirituality. Using both closed and open-ended questions, Engebretson found that the
majority of students: (1) spent time in prayer and/or quiet thoughts, (2) believed in a loving and
supreme being, (3) believed they held a special place in the universe, (4) wondered about the
meaning of life, (5) showed interest in helping others, and (6) valued their ability to share with
and be close to others.
It is important to note that the adolescents in this study were left to define spirituality for

themselves. Many of these reports correlate with the aforementioned definitions of spirituality,
including a belief in a higher power, feeling connected to others and/or the universe, and the
ability to make meaning. Another finding was that only half of the students sampled believed
that traditional religious practices helped them to grow spiritually (Engebretson, 2002). This
finding supports the notion of a mutually exclusive relationship between religion and spirituality.

22
Spiritual Sensitivities
Hay and Nye's (2006) concept of spiritual sensitivities is one of the most influential in
the field of children and spirituality. Hay and Nye have identified three sensory modalities
through which children experience their spiritual selves. The first is called awareness sensing, in
which children become unified with a performed activity, thereby entering the flow of their
present-moment experience. As the awareness of past and future recedes, the child becomes
more fully aware and attends only to the here-and-now. This includes a heightened awareness of
such things as bodily sensations, five sensory perceptions, emotions, and intuition (Hay & Nye,
2006; Hyde, 2008).
In experiments using tactile objects (e.g. puzzles, beads, etc.), researchers noticed that
children used their physical sensations as a source of knowledge about the items with which they
interacted (Hyde, 2008). For example, they would slowly feel and caress each puzzle piece in
order to acquire a complete sense of its qualities and placement. When two or more children
were put together during these activities, researchers also noticed a higher level of consciousness
emerge amongst them (Hyde, 2008). The children were able to hold sophisticated conversations
at the same time as they were completing their tasks. What is noteworthy is that the quality and
attention paid to the activity did not diminish in any way. It was as if the activity managed itself,
leaving the researchers to conclude that the children were able to integrate two distinct levels of
awareness simultaneously (Hyde, 2008).
The second sensory modality identified by Hay and Nye (2006) is mystery sensing. This
includes such things as imagination, fascination, a sense of wonder about the world, and an
overall questioning disposition. When asked to come up with solutions to ambiguous
photographs, children drew upon multiple sources of knowledge to explain what they saw (Hyde,

23
2008). For example, children used stories and teachings from various religious traditions as well
as from their own life experiences. It is this sense of wonder and mystery that Hay and Nye
claim enables children to express spirituality in an open and honest way. Without strict
adherence to predetermined or imposed meanings, children are able to draw upon a wider
breadth of information and were therefore less limited by religious or social dogma. This
capacity is important because it allows children to remain open to more possibilities by being
receptive to alternate interpretations.
The third spiritual sensitivity outlined by Hay and Nye (2006) is value sensing. This is
akin to a moral sensitivity in which children are able to experience a wide range of emotions,
including a sense of ultimate goodness. Having a varied empathic sense allows children to better
differentiate that which is desirable from that which is not. When asked what really mattered to
them, children responded in ways related to how they felt about themselves, others, and the
universe (Hyde, 2008). This finding once again speaks to the relational quality of spirituality
found in both adults and children.
Although this sensitivity could be seen as having judgmental undertones (i.e. , the
pronouncement of an "ultimate goodness"), it is important to remember that to value something
does not necessarily imply superiority. For instance, I am able to value both my life as well as
my friend's without suggesting that one is better than the other. One could say that value sensing
is the ability to sense that which is true, rather than that which is superior. This ability to find
truth is related to what Hyde (2008) calls spiritual questing, in which children experience a
perceptual shift from dichotomous perceptions (i.e., Aristotelian logic) to more universal and
ambiguous realities. In this way, children may be better equipped to decipher universal truths and
values, which would make them ideal candidates for understanding transpersonal concepts.

24

Spiritual Sensitivities as Idealizations
Critics of Hay and Nye's (2006) spiritual sensitivities theory warn there is a danger in
claiming that these skills are primarily of a spiritual nature. Children' s innate "sense ofwonder"
could simply be a natural drive to learn that has been biologically programmed to ensure the
survival of our species. Scott (2003) says we must consider the cognitive and social facets when
contemplating spirituality since these may be the actual driving forces behind such abilities.
While physiological and evolutionary factors most likely play a role in the development of
children's spirituality, we must be careful to not try and answer a question in terms that by their
very nature belie such an explanation.
Whereas transpersonal experiences could not be perceived without the brain and other
cognitive structures, it may be specious reasoning to conclude that these phenomena are caused

entirely by these physical structures. It may be that Hay and Nye (2006) are idealizing certain
traits of childhood based on adult spiritual aspirations; however, if these traits are the basis for
their adult counterparts, then to consider them in such a framework could help to facilitate a
return to such capabilities-or at the very least lead to a better understanding of spirituality in
general.

Psychological and Emotional Benefits
Having a rich spiritual life has been associated with numerous mental and emotional
benefits (Coles, 1990; de Souza & Hyde, 2007; Engebretson, 2002; Pearmain, 2005). For
example, having well-defined moral values have been identified as a protective factor that
immunizes young people from destructive and antisocial behaviour (Engebretson, 2002). Studies
have shown that teenagers who belong to spiritual-oriented groups report more feelings of safety
and acceptance and tend to experience an easier unfolding of spiritual processes (Pearmain,

25
2005). Adolescents who attend spiritual groups report stronger relational skills and a deeper
understanding of who they are and who they want to become (Pearmain, 2005).
In addition, such groups act preventatively by giving youth the tools and self-agency to
accomplish goals on their own. Studies have repeatedly confirmed that being able to find
meaning in difficult life experiences provides people with life-long sustaining potential (Scott,
2003). Even if one does not believe in a transpersonal reality, just the act of placing one 's
attention on positive thoughts and outcomes-which comprises a large part of spiritually-based
practices-will often ameliorate difficult circumstances by enabling individuals to respond in a
more positive and constructive way (Long, 2000).
Effects of Not Incorporating Spiritual Exp eriences
Schlarb (2007) looked at how dismissing childhood peak experiences (CPEs) affected
adults later in life. A peak experience is a term coined by Maslow (1999, as cited in Schlarb,
2007) that shares many of the qualities of spiritual experiences that have been discussed so far.
In Schlarb's (2007) survey, participants who experienced CPEs reported the following: (a)
feelings of unity, (b) flow and/or spontaneity, (c) a feeling of presence or knowingness, and/or
(d) shifts in self-perception. A sense of unity between the self and the universe was the most
commonly reported experience amongst participants, which supports the inclusion of unity in a
definition of spirituality. However, it was not the peak experiences that Schlarb was most
interested in, but the effects they had whenever the participants were not able to incorporate them
into their sense of self.
When the participants were not given the opportunity to assimilate what they had gone
through as children, they reported a loss across numerous intra- and interpersonal variables
(Schlarb, 2007). Adults recalled how they had lost the ability to make meaning out of subsequent

26
life experiences. One participant described it as no longer being able to believe in his own
personal truth. This finding is closely tied to the most commonly reported outcome of not
incorporating CPEs: loss of self-esteem.
Not being able to make sense of their experience and thereby "own" it resulted in
participants being unable to develop a sense of personal agency, which left many feeling alone
and depressed (Schlarb, 2007). When asked why they did not attempt to assimilate their CPEs,
all participants responded that fears over family or friend's reactions played a significant role.
Participants believed that if they had told anyone, they would have been rejected or humiliated.
Once again, this finding illustrates the influential role groups and society has on the
emerging beliefs and spiritual development of children. Unfortunately, this type of group
consciousness has lead to the repression and incredulity of children's spirituality. By the age of
10, children report embarrassment over their awareness of spiritual truths and after 10 years of
age, children become more reluctant to discuss or admit that they have had spiritual experiences
(Hay, 2000).
These findings suggest that children may lose their spiritual adeptness, rather than
having such abilities bestowed upon them by adults or religious institutions later in life (Hart,
2003). Therefore, children are left with little opportunity to share or express sacred or profound
truths of their own. It would be interesting to see how children's spirituality would be
conceptualized today had we always allowed them the freedom and authority to explore and
share their own spiritual realities.

Conclusion
What counsellors should take away from the aforementioned research is that children's
capacities to experience and understand spiritual phenomena need to be honoured and

27
acknowledged. No longer should counsellors be asking if children have spiritual lives, but rather
how we as practitioners can best incorporate that reality into our practice. In doing so, we must

remember to not tum our back on that which is not "spiritual." It is more appropriate that we
build upon our existing framework of knowledge of childhood development, than to dismiss
what we have come to know in favour of a purely transpersonal perspective.
Today, there remains little doubt amongst counsellors and other helping professionals
that the components that make up people's personalities cannot be completely isolated. It is
vitally important that we do not overlook the physical, mental, or emotional facets of our clients'
experience; however what should now be included in that composite is the spiritual component.
In other words, if we are to best serve our clients, we need to widen our interpretation, rather
than restrict it. This means we must keep an open, flexible and humble outlook as we help our
child clients explore their spiritually uncharted waters.

28
CHAPTER 3 - ISSUES IN PRACTICE
The Counsellor's Own Consciousness
Knowing others is intelligence; Knowing yourself is true wisdom.
Mastering others is strength; Mastering yourself is true power.

-LAO TZU

At the heart oftranspersonal therapy lies consciousness itself, which is considered the
primary force behind all therapeutic change (Cortright, 1997; Scotton et al., 1996; Sperry, 2001).
Transpersonal psychotherapy maintains that people's fundamental identity is consciousness and
that cognition and affect are essential but fragmentary aspects thereof (Lines, 2006; Sperry,
2001). Dysfunction arises when people over identify and/or cling to these lesser aspects.
Therefore, the greater or more complete our consciousness is, the greater likelihood that healing
or change will occur. This is why more importance is given to the development of
consciousness-both the client's and the counsellor's-than to specific techniques or
interventions. All techniques are considered to be completely dependent on the level of
consciousness with which they are used, and that as consciousness deepens, so too does the
effectiveness of such techniques (Scotton eta!., 1996).
In transpersonal psychotherapy, growth and change are facilitated by the way in which
the therapist sees him or herself, the client, and the therapeutic process. For example, the client's
consciousness is seen as being equally important to that of the counsellor's, which allows both to
meet in such a way that healing is facilitated. As Cortright ( 1997) puts it: "[c ]onsciousness is
seen as a field which influences, mutually interpenetrates, and provides a facilitating medium for
the client's inner unfolding" (p. 57). Seeing consciousness as a necessary component to the
healing process creates an atmosphere of cooperation and reverence that allows the client to
engage openly in their own inner work. At all times, the transpersonal counsellor supports the

29
client's innate capacity to change and maintains an unshakable belief in the client' s movement
toward a higher and more fulfilling self.
The practitioner's own deepening spiritual journey is another key factor that gives
meaning and life to the transpersonal therapeutic framework (Cortright, 1997). Since
consciousness is seen as the primary therapeutic force, counsellors must take care of and "finetune" their own "instrument" through the development and practicing of presence. It is important
to remember that this requires time, patience, and a persistent effort. The spiritual path is a
process, not a goal, which should serve as a reminder to practitioners who get discouraged when
at times they find themselves unsuccessful in understanding their own path.
As counsellors, we will always be struggling to maintain our centre amongst a cacophony
of images, sensations, and distractions. We should remember that it is the dedication to one's
spiritual path that provides the living influence upon the client and that the therapeutic process is
not the attainment of some "perfect" state of awareness (Cortright, 1997). In other words, it is
not the complete resolution of the counsellor' s own issues that is of primary importance, but that
he or she is actively engaged in his or her own healing. Counsellors should not be afraid of
drawing on knowledge from their own spiritual path, as long as the intention for doing so is to
benefit the client.
Spiritual oriented work requires giving a great deal of the self, which means that selfdisclosure will occur more in transpersonal therapies than in others. Although self-disclosure is
generally frowned upon when working with children because it is seen as being overly
influential, sharing one's own spiritual struggles and insights could serve as an invaluable source
of comfort for children whose spirituality has been largely overshadowed.

30
The counsellor's perspective on the therapeutic process is the third feature of a
transpersonal approach that helps to facilitate change. Unlike other approaches, the spiritual
dimension is given equal weight throughout the course of therapy. This translates into the
therapist being mindful of neither minimizing nor glorifying the client's spiritual life. As
counsellors, it may be tempting to lend too much credence to client's spirituality, thinking that
all issues stem from this dimension; however, it is important to not overlook the context or other
aspects of the client's personality and experience. In other words, the goal is to have no part or
aspect of the therapeutic process overlooked or regarded as less important than any other. Most
trans personal therapists liken the process of therapy to a journey or inward search for spirit that
both the client and counsellor are on together (Lines, 2006). In this view, it is the intention of
both parties to seek contact with a deeper level of Being and to maintain that search throughout
the duration of therapy.
In the end, a transpersonal approach is more than a theoretical orientation-it is a felt
sense towards life and therapy (Cortright, 1997). It is a lived experience and not merely a belief
system. With its equal emphasis on both the counsellor's theoretical framework and the
deepening of his or her own consciousness, the trans personal approach is a uniquely potent tool
for change. Boorstein (1996) sums up what it means to counsel from a transpersonal perspective:
Spiritually-oriented counsellors can be identified as practitioners
working within the science of transpersonal psychology who feel
confident and competent to work upon issues of religion and spirituality
broadly conceived. They recognize the various dimensions of religion
and spirituality and are not perturbed that spiritual aspects of the person
are not reducible or contained within conventional psychological
constructs. They are quite at home working with metaphor and symbol,
supra-psychology and the transpersonal. Spiritually-inclined therapists
recognize and venerate the numinous within human experience and
functioning, being neither embarrassed by non-empirical discourse nor
afraid to share similar accounts of their own with their clients. (p. 183)

31

Spiritual Emergence vs. Spiritual Emergency
According to transpersonal psychotherapy, the function of spiritual seeking is to come
into increasing contact with the Divine-in whatever form that may be conceived (Boorstein,
1996; Cortright, 1997). Most often, the emergence or awakening of the spiritual dimension
occurs gradually over a person's lifetime, brought about by a steady spiritual practice, guidance,
and purification (Cortright, 1997). This slow developmental process allows for a smooth
integration between a person's physical and non-physical realities.
In the event of a more sudden spiritual illumination, an individual may still be able to
assimilate the experience if he or she has enough inner resources (i.e., mental, physical,
emotional, etc.) to do so. However, when the spiritual dimension erupts so forcefully that the
person's integrative capacities are overwhelmed and psychological functioning is disturbed, then
that spiritual emergence has become a spiritual emergency.
Spiritual emergencies occur when "the self becomes disorganized and overwhelmed by
an infusion of spiritual energies or new realms of experience which it is not yet able to integrate"
(Cortright, 1997, p. 156). From a trans personal viewpoint, it is a purposeful process, even though
it can appear disorganized and uncontrolled. Underneath there is a deeper order seeking to be
born that results in a breaking up of old structures of consciousness, often giving way to a more
spiritual orientation towards life (Grof & Grof, 1986). As a clinical concept, spiritual
emergencies are relevant for three reasons: ( 1) they bring into view a range of human experience
that were formerly unseen or misinterpreted by traditional psychology; (2) they can be clinically
useful when diagnosing or treating a set of physical and/or psychological symptoms; and (3) they
challenge the biologically-based paradigm of psychiatric medicine (Cortright, 1997).

32
The appearance of spiritual emergencies is usually precipitated by two major
deficiencies: ( 1) a lack of conceptual framework and/or (2) a lack of emotional/physical
resources (Cortright, 1997). The former is the easiest to rectify as it mostly involves reeducating-and often depathologizing-the client. The latter is more labourious and requires indepth psychotherapy to help rebuild the client's inner resources. Here, the precipitating factor is
usually some kind of stress (i.e., physical or emotional) that occurs at a time when the person's
defenses and inner resources are weakened (e.g. a near death experience, drug abuse, starvation,
injury, accident, physical/sexual abuse, grief or loss, etc.).
In either case, the treatment outcome of spiritual emergencies generally fall into three
categories: ( 1) the person is able to integrate the experience and move forward, (2) he/she is
overwhelmed for a period of time, but eventually integrates, or (3) the person fixates on some
level and fails to integrate, even though the experience/symptoms themselves may subside
(Cortright, 1997). Depending on the level of integration, there is also an increased risk of
pathology developing later in life as the individual's psychological structures are usually
weakened.

Differential Diagnosis
The major confounding variable when it comes to diagnosing spiritual emergencies is its
similarities with states of psychosis. It has been said, "the mystic swims in the waters that the
schizophrenic is drowning in" (Cortright, 1997, p.169). The boundaries between spiritual
emergency and psychosis are not as clear as we would like to think, with a number of people
being misdiagnosed as psychotic when in fact they are suffering from a spiritual emergency. To
make matters worse, those experiencing a spiritual emergency can concurrently suffer from
psychosis.

33
Common psychiatric misdiagnoses of spiritual emergencies often include delusions
and/or hallucinations associated with schizophrenia, fusion states, loss of boundaries,
fragmentation, and/or depersonalization (Cortright, 1997; Grof & Grof, 1986). By no means is it
being suggested that all people experiencing psychosis or schizophrenia are actually suffering
from a spiritual emergency. What practitioners should be aware of, however, is that there
remains to be an adequate psychological framework with which to diagnose spiritual
emergencies, which could lead patients being included in diagnostic categories and mental
institutions in which they do not belong. In order to prudently differentiate and diagnose the two
states one needs to be familiar with each of their respective criteria.
The DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) criteria for brief reactive
psychosis includes emotional turmoil and at least one of the following: ( 1) incoherence or
loosening of associations (i.e., marked illogical thinking), (2) delusions (i.e., a firmly sustained
belief in spite of incontrovertible evidence to the contrary), (3) hallucinations (i.e., perceptions of
objects not seen by others), and/or (4) grossly disorganized behaviour or catatonia. From the
aforementioned criteria, it is important to note that emotional turmoil by itself is not necessarily a
sign of psychopathology and that for most people being flooded with affect usually ends up
disrupting their ability to function in at least one aspect of their lives. This misleading association
has surely played a part in the misdiagnoses of spiritual emergencies. Symptoms such as
emotional turmoil and decreased functioning need to be reframed within a more holistic
framework and reconsidered as criteria for psychosis. For example, affect flooding could be a
necessary part of a purificatory process (Cortright, 1997).
The general criteria for a spiritual emergency include: (1) changes in consciousness (i.e.,
perceptions, emotions, cognitions, psychosomatic functioning, etc.) in which there is a

34
significant transpersonal emphasis, (2) client is able to see condition as an inner psychological
process (i.e., there is a capacity for an observing presence), and (3) client is able to form an
adequate therapeutic relationship and/or maintain a spirit of cooperation, which would exclude
severe acting out and paranoid states (Grof & Grof, 1986).
It is important to note the difference between hallucinations and visions. Although very

similar in nature, hallucination is the term most often used in psychiatric medicine to denote a
perceptual experience that is not based in reality (Cortright, 1997). Having a vision, on the other
hand, has spiritual connotations and has been reported to occur amongst numerous ancient
cultures (Grof & Grof, 1986). During spiritual emergencies, visions often take on mythological
themes, and unlike hallucinations, rarely involve paranoia (Cortright, 1997). While both
hallucinations and visions involve some type of perceptual apparition, having a vision is
considered the more appropriate term amongst transpersonal therapists.
For those suffering from a spiritual emergence with psychotic features, the treatment plan
is invariably more complex and time-consuming. Such persons will present with a mixture of
symptoms of both psychosis and spiritual emergency, and as a population are more difficult to
treat and also most likely to be misdiagnosed. This type of clinical configuration will normally
require more comprehensive treatment from an experienced clinician. Although this particular
presentation is much more difficult to diagnose and treat, the outcome is generally good if there
was: (a) good pre-episode functioning, (b) acute onset of less than 3 months, (c) stressful
precipitants, and (d) client has positive attitude toward experience (Cortright, 1997).

Forms of Spiritual Emergency
The following types of spiritual emergencies were chosen based on their likelihood of
occurring in childhood as there are no studies examining their prevalence in the child population.

35
It is by no means an exhaustive list, with new forms surely to be added as the field of children's

spirituality develops. Other forms of spiritual emergency not covered here that practitioners may
wish to explore include kundalini awakenings, near-death experiences, shamanic crises,
channeling of spirit guides, and/or possession states (Grof & Grof, 1986).
Past life experiences. Belief in reincarnation is prominent among numerous religious

traditions and if often incorporated into the transpersonal psychotherapeutic framework. A past
life experience is the vivid perception or sensing of oneself having lived in a different time and
place (Cortright, 1997). It can involve unexplained knowledge or feelings, all ofwhich are
unattributable to one's current life. It is usually experienced as a distinct memory, but with
children could manifest as "ghosts," imaginary friends, or even story telling. Theoretically, past
lives can also occur within the same family, with the child having memories of having been his
or her deceased grandparent.
The exploration of past lives can reveal major insights into present life behaviours,
relationships, personality traits, and feelings (Cortright, 1997). For example, a person's likes and
dislikes, proclivities, phobias, and even physical markings can usually be traced back to an
earlier incarnation. If and when the past life is explored, there can be an emotional or cathartic
release that can result in a significant alleviation of present-day symptoms (Cortright, 1997).
However, care should be taken when exploring past lives as a spiritual emergency can result if it
is not done in a controlled and safe manner. Exploring for the sake of "sight-seeing" could lead
to unnecessary turmoil on behalf of the client. It is important to remember that the emergence of
past life memories can trigger panic over going "insane" and therefore should be embraced rather
than resisted and/or pathologized.

36
When examining this type of spiritual emergency in children, it is important to remember
to not automatically dismiss the stories and information they share as mere imagination or
embellishment. Instead, ask the child about what they tell you with genuine interest. Rather than
invoking defensiveness by asking things like: "Why are you so interested in such a thing?"
Instead, ask "Have you ever done that before?" or "When was the last time that happened?"
Doing so allows the child to use and explore their intuitional capacities, rather than teaching
them to dismiss certain aspects of their experience simply because it does not have a basis in
physical reality.

Episodes of ego loss. The experience of merging one's identity into unitive or relational
consciousness can be extremely disorienting for the unprepared and can make functioning in the
physical world extremely difficult. This is especially true for children as they inherently possess
aptitudes that make such a crises more likely-namely an underdeveloped ego and a propensity
for relational consciousness (Allan & Bertoia, 1992; Hay, 2000). Although the unitive
experience is an important aspect of spirituality, it needs to be balanced with individual or egobased consciousness otherwise it can lead to dysfunction.
People experiencing episodes of ego loss often report that they loose the capacity to
function in a directed and focused way (Cortright, 1997). The inability to focus and pay attention
is a common feature of a myriad of childhood disorders today, which raises the question of
whether or not these children are actually suffering from acute or chronic ego loss. Interventions
for ego loss should aim to strengthen the child's sense of self and/or individuality (see
Grounding).

Psychic openings. The opening of psychic abilities are a common feature of spiritual
awakenings and can include such things as clairvoyance (i.e., the ability to see the future and/or

37
other beings), clairaudience (i.e., the ability to hear verbal messages from non-physical reality),
clairsentience (i.e., the capacity to feel the physical sensations and emotional states of others),
and/or telepathy (i.e., the cognizant awareness of other people's thoughts; Cortright, 1997; Grof
& Grof, 1986). It is important to note that such abilities tend to co-occur to varying degrees

within the same individual with few people possessing only one type of psychic opening.
Psychic openings only become a problem when the abilities themselves are the central feature of
the person's experience and they cannot assimilate them in a way that is behaviorally or
emotionally adaptive (Cortright, 1997).
In order to assimilate these new abilities, children need a conceptual framework as well
as the necessary psychological and emotional resources to do so. If neither is present, there is a
danger of the child falling victim to ideas of grandiosity and/or discrimination from their peers.
Child clients should be warned against using any psychic powers for personal gain rather than
for the betterment of others or society as a whole. Treatment approaches could involve psychoeducational interventions to provide a conceptual framework and/or self-esteem building to
counteract possible prejudice.

Treating Spiritual Emergencies
The transpersonal approach to treating spiritual emergencies differs markedly from the
treatment of psychosis by conventional medicine. Instead of viewing the condition as purely
psychological in nature and having the suppression of symptoms as its primary goal,
transpersonal therapists view the experience in a much more positive light and tend to allow it to
develop naturally to its conclusion (Richards & Bergin, 1997). The belief is that if the counsellor
supports and encourages the unfoldment, the spiritual emergency eventually subsides and
becomes a spiritual emergence. It is important to note that support and encouragement does not

38
involve attachment to any particular outcome, but rather a sustained state of presence and
acceptance ofwhat the client is experiencing at any given moment. Ram Dass (1977) suggests
that we view the client
... as a being who is living out a certain incarnation in which this
neurotic pattern is showing. By contacting that being behind the
neurotic pattern, he can drop it when he's ready to drop it. .. The
minute you see him as a soul who's incarnated in this situation in
which he's working through this stuff, he's free to drop it
whenever he needs to because you're not attached to his having it
or not having it. (p. 91)
Education. This is generally the best and most powerful tool one can use in the treatment

of spiritual emergencies. The goal is to provide the child with a spiritual/transpersonal
framework for understanding what is happening to him or her, which will also help to
depathologize his or her experience. Educating the child serves two primary functions: ( 1) it
gives the child a cognitive grasp of the situation and (2) it changes the child's relationship to the
experience (Cortright, 1997). Although the psycho-educational process would most likely be
different for each child, counsellors' primary focus should be on re-labeling the child's
experience in a beneficial and empowering context. Seeing the experience as positive allows the
client to tum and face the inner flow of his/her experience rather than suppress it. The use of
positive role models, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, and/or Narrative Therapy might prove
useful in altering the child's conceptual framework surrounding their experience.
Providing a container. No matter what the spiritual emergency, every client needs the

space in which to fully experience the transformations taking place. Such a space is there to act
as a sanctuary or retreat from the ordinary world and to offer a certain degree of protection from
excess psychic stimulation (Cortright, 1997). Unfortunately, the noise of everyday existence is
often not conducive to the full expression of people's spiritual selves, which is why providing a

39
container is so important. Without it, the new emerging spiritual sensitivities may either be
stifled or overload the client's cognitive and emotional resources. This would be especially
important for children due to their sensitive and newly developing brain and nervous system.
Without the benefit of safety, it is unlikely that children will feel comfortable enough to put aside
any defense mechanisms they may be using and allow themselves to fully explore their emergent
expenence.

Presence. The therapist' s ability to remain present is of primary importance to almost all
forms of psychotherapy, but especially so in transpersonal work. This is because "the heightened
state of awareness that accompanies the person's openness and vulnerability makes the integrity
and authenticity of the therapist crucial (Cortright, 1997, p. 174). Being overly alarmed about the
child's experience, acting condescending, or being inauthentic can lead to fear, distrust, or even
paranoia on behalf of the child. It is essential for the counsellor to possess warmth, compassion,
and gentleness otherwise the relationship could be too jarring to the delicate perceptual shifts
taking place. A calm and quiet confidence regarding the unfoldment process is also crucial as it
serves to reassure and soothe any client apprehension or alarm that may be present.

Grounding. Using the body to ground the client is one of the best ways to deal with
spiritual emergencies. People are usually disconnected from the body during such experiences,
lost among a myriad of experiences on an inner and/or astral plane (Grof & Grof, 1986).
Grounding spiritual emergencies in the body allows the process to proceed in a much more
assimilable way. Ways in which to ground include: (1) a diet that includes eating grounding
foods such as grains, dairy products, and meat while avoiding raw fruit, vegetables, sugar, and
caffeine, (2) physical exercise that brings consciousness into the body, should be calming,
something the child enjoys doing, and not overly strenuous, (3) body work (e.g. taking frequent

40
baths/showers, light massage, games involving touch, etc.); however those not wanting to be
touched should be respected as affirming boundaries is also conducive to grounding the self, and
(4) medication-although generally discouraged-need not be ruled out as a way to slow down
the process so that the child can better assimilate the experience; the danger is that the process
will be overly suppressed, leaving the transformation unfinished (Cortright, 1997).

Spiritual Assessment

Reasons for Doing Spiritual Assessment
Assessing the spiritual dimension of clients' lives is essential to the therapeutic process
since transformation and change tend to be holistic processes (Cortright, 1997; Sperry, 2001). In
other words, change in one aspect of a person's life often requires or begets change in another. In
the clinical setting, spiritual assessment allows the practitioner to plan strategies that are more
effective to facilitate change. Sperry (200 1) outlines six key reasons for conducting spiritual
assessments: (1) to understand the client's spiritual life and orientation, (2) to communicate to
the client that his or her entire life experience is valuable, (3) to determine the degree to which
spirituality is impacting their presenting problem( s), (4) to determine whether the client's
spiritual beliefs and/or community can be used as a healing or coping resource, (5) to determine
whether the client's spiritual needs or concerns should be addressed in therapy, and (6) to
determine which transpersonal intervention may be most appropriate for that particular client.
While all of the above reasons for conducting a spiritual assessment apply equally well to
children, the way in which counsellors go about assessing them will be quite different. For
example, to determine the degree to which the child's spiritual self is implicated in the presenting
problem, counsellors would most likely rely on concrete expressions, such as drawing or

41

Sandplay, rather than conducting lengthy inventories or questionnaires. Practitioners must
remember to work within the emotional and cognitive capacities of their client.
Conducting any type of assessment conveys empathic understanding and enables the
counsellor to work with the client in a more sensitive way. This can be especially useful when
working with children whose spiritual experiences are often invalidated (Schlarb, 2007).
Ascertaining spirituality is crucial as higher degrees of spirituality have been associated with
better physical health, social adjustment, and emotional well-being (Richards & Bergin, 1997).
Locating external resources are also important as communities can provide a sense of
belonging, stability, as well as emotional and financial support (Richards & Bergin, 1997). In
doing so, however, the counsellor should be aware that since children are more susceptible to
adult influence, referring a child to a religious leader might not be beneficial if the child does not
feel safe enough to discuss doubts with a possibly biased party (Sperry, 2001). No matter what
intervention is used, conducting a preliminary assessment of the client is vital for research has
found treatment-tailoring approaches to be the most effective (Richards & Bergin, 1997).
Difficulties in Spiritually Assessing Children
Three limiting factors have made assessing children's spirituality a difficult task. The
first are the societal influences in which children are born and raised. Since society has tended to
believe that children are incapable of having spiritual experiences, any innate spiritual tendencies
displayed by children are disregarded. This oversight has reinforced the belief that children are
neither concerned with the purpose and meaning of life nor are they concerned with other
spiritual matters. However, to say that children do not have spiritual concerns simply because
they have not expressed them does not preclude their existence. This begs the question: which
comes first, the concern or the language to express it?

42
This brings us to the second inhibiting factor when it comes to accurately assessing the
spiritual realities of children: their inability to verbally express their experiences/inner world.
This is a major roadblock when it comes to understanding children's spiritual selves. Because
spirituality is essentially an experiential journey, practitioners need to assess their child clients
from a more holistic perspective. In order to get a complete picture of children's spirituality,
practitioners must think outside the boundaries of traditional assessment and be open to the use
of different evaluative modalities (e.g., drawing, playing, acting, dancing, etc.). These mediums
are not only more conducive to children's metaphoric mode of reasoning, but they may also
more easily facilitate the expression of spiritual realities since such experiences tend to be more
experiential in nature.
The third factor influencing the counsellor's ability to assess a young client's degree of
spirituality is children's lack of agency. Most children's decisions are made for them, which
makes it difficult to assess certain spiritual dimensions, such as the level of congruence between
their choices and spiritual values (Sperry, 2001 ). Children are also born into their respective
religions, which prevents clinicians from questioning or analyzing their motivations for joining a
particular faith. Ifthe child has been raised within a highly dogmatic or religious family,
performing a non-denominational spiritual assessment could prove confusing or offensive.
The counsellor's focus should be to understand the spiritual life of the client from his or
her own point of view, using the client's own language or representation as much as possible. It
is important to remember that the counsellor's job is not to impose their own set of beliefs onto
the client, but merely to help shift the ones that are resulting in distress. Practicing from such a
standpoint benefits the therapeutic relationship by showing respect for the client's beliefs, which
is especially important when working with children as it can help counteract their often-

43
invalidated sense of autonomy. Instead of having another set of beliefs imposed upon him or her,
the child's world is witnessed and accepted as it is.

Clinically Relevant Dimensions of Children 's Spirituality
Although still in the process of being clearly demarcated, there are several dimensions of
children's spirituality that could be clinically relevant to practitioners. Based on Hay and Nye's
(2006) spiritual sensitivities (see Chapter 2), the following are a list of questions grouped by
sensitivity type that practitioners could use to assess the degree of health and/or prominence of
spirituality in their young client's life. All of the questions to follow are given as examples only
and do not form the basis for any type of formal spiritual assessment. Counsellors are
encouraged to use an assessment framework that is useful for them.

Awareness sensing. How aware is the child of his/her present moment experiences? How
prominent are past and future concerns? Does the child ever display flow experiences when
performing an activity? How aware is the child of his/her own bodily sensations, five-sensory
perceptions, emotions, or intuition? Does the child use his or her physical sensations as a source
of knowledge? Can the child integrate two distinct levels of awareness simultaneously?

Mystery sensing. How prominent is the child's imagination? How fascinated are they by
their world? Do they have an overall questioning disposition? Are they able to draw from
multiple sources to explain ambiguous phenomena? How open is the child to alternate
interpretations? How comfortable is the child with ambiguity?

Value sensing. What range of emotion does the child seem to experience? How easily can
the child differentiate between that which is desirable for them and that which is not? Is the
child's values linked to feelings about themselves, others, or the universe? Is the child able to

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recognize universal truths? Does the child understand the mutually exclusive relationship
between superiority and equality?

Other clinically relevant dimensions. As far as other clinically relevant dimensions of
spirituality, there are a few used for adults that could also prove useful when working with
children: (a) God representation, (b) spiritual identity, and (c) involvement in a spiritual
community. God representation refers not only to the way in which a person views and
understands God, but also how he or she relates to such a concept (Sperry, 2001). In getting
children to describe their own personal image of God, it would be important to also have them
describe their relationship to him/her. Doing so can provide invaluable information as one's
representation of God has been shown to be connected to the view of his or her parents and the
world (Sperry, 2001). Conversely, research has also shown that one's image of God is affected
by parental relationships, self-esteem, relationships with others, religious figures, and
communities (Richards & Bergin, 1997). These findings are clinically relevant because it means
that counsellors can affect change on multiple levels of the client's life by simply helping to
reshape the client's image of God.
The second adult dimension of spirituality that could be applied to children is known as
spiritual identity (Richards & Bergin, 1997). A person's spiritual identity refers to his or her
sense of worth in relation to God or other form of Supreme Being, as well as his or her place in
the universe. People with a positive spiritual identity believe that they are worthy of their
experiences and are eternally connected to the Divine. They believe their core identity to be
timeless and that their consciousness persists beyond the death of the physical body (Richards &
Bergin, 1997).

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Conversely, people with a negative spiritual identity believe they have no divine worth
and do not feel God's presence in their lives. Though they may have an intellectual belief in
some form of higher power, they generally feel unworthy and doubt whether their inner spirit
persists beyond death (Richards & Bergin, 1997). Although these two feelings would most likely
co-occur, Richards and Bergin do not consider the possibility that people could feel unworthy
while still believing in a life after death. Despite the subjectivity of this dimension, and the fact
that children have a self-concept rather than an identity (Beaumont, personal communication,
December 2, 2008), counsellors could still use spiritual identity as a dimension of assessment by
relying on their own intuition regarding the strength of the child's self-esteem and personal
relationship to the Divine.
The third dimension along which children's spirituality could be measured is the child's
level of involvement in a spiritual community (Sperry, 2001). In this case, questions or activities
would examine the level of social and spiritual support received by the child and whether there
have been any recent changes in their relationship. It is important to remember that within a
spiritual framework, the word "community" often goes beyond fellow churchgoers and includes
anyone in the child's life with whom he or she has a significant relationship. Most transpersonal
therapists do not see themselves as having a monopoly on the support their clients receive and
tend to welcome additional assistance in any form it may come.

Ethical Considerations
As with all forms of psychotherapy, practitioners must be aware of, as well as adhere to,
certain ethical standards and conduct. For this section, it will be assumed that the reader is
familiar with his or her own governing body's code of ethics, as this guide is not intended solely
for Canadian Certified Counsellors. Instead, I would like to focus on the unique ethical

46

considerations applicable to the child population as well as those pertaining to transpersonal or
spiritually-oriented psychotherapists. This statement is not intended to supersede or replace other
ethical codes to which psychotherapists are held accountable.
Working with the Child Population
Counselling children poses unique challenges for therapists because children are amongst
the most vulnerable of clients. Being extremely impressionable, as well as physically and
emotionally defenseless, requires that the intervening therapist pay close attention to his/her
moment-by-moment intentions. "Why am I doing what I am doing" or "what do I expect to
happen?" are critically important questions that counsellors should be asking themselves when
working with this unique population. Not only do children lack the necessary defense
mechanisms to ward off potential threats, they also have yet to develop the sense of self with
which to incorporate or make sense of painful or traumatic events (Allan, 1988). Therefore,
counsellors must be extra careful when using any type of therapy with children as any negative
psychological repercussions tend to be more severe for younger clients.
Working within Multiple Systems
Children hold a special position in clinical practice as issues requiring ethical judgments
are more complex and involve people other than the child. How the practitioner meets the
interests of both the parents and those of the child is frequently a cause of conflict (Mishne,
1992). Conflicting opinions present a serious challenge to the clinician who is forever mediating
among systems. Working within interlocking systems, such as hospitals, schools, and mental
health clinics, clinicians are required at all times to pursue the child's best interests. Child
therapists often view this as the central process affecting ethical decision-making in clinical
practice (Prilleltensky, Walsh-Bowers, & Rossiter, 1999).

47
The process of mediating among systems affects the other challenges that child therapists
often face . The ability to navigate successfully through various contexts will greatly facilitate the
resolution of other conflicts and/or ethical problems (Prilleltensky et al. , 1999). For instance,
engaging hospital administrators in dialogue or facing school personnel honestly about pressures
to label could help to improve the child's situation if the actions taken are in the best interest of
the child. The challenge of working in interlocking systems involves facing influences from
various comers and from various players. Although the clinician attempts to pursue the child's
best interest at all times, his or her actions are heavily influenced by the people in those other
systems. When clinicians ask themselves how they should pursue the best interest of the child,
the answer must take into account not only how the decision will affect the child, but also how
others in the child's life will react to the suggestion (Mishne, 1992).

Working with Parents
When working with parents, it is important that they are aware of the limits of
confidentiality pertinent to the therapist's ethical code and give informed consent to work with
their child. These requirements are even more important when dealing with matters of spirituality
as some parents may disagree with the philosophical underpinnings of the clinician. It is
therefore suggested that counsellors make their personal therapeutic approach and orientation
transparent from the outset of therapy as to prevent any misunderstandings or ethical dilemmas.
Counsellors should also give a brief explanation of all activities and their intent to parents before
implementing any intervention or exercise with a child client. Other ethical considerations
include informing the parents of expected number of sessions, duration and times of each
session, follow-up activities and/or homework, information regarding alternate treatments,
potential benefits and risks of therapy, how to rescind consent, and the procedures regarding the

48
safeguarding of journals, drawings, or other personal information (Schultz, Sheppard, Lehr, &
Sheppard, 2006).

Ethics and Spirituality
Spirituality can be a touchy issue for both parents and children as it is often confused
with religion or other religious practices. However, therapists can prevent most ethical problems
in this area by implementing the following two practices: (1) being up front about their personal
theoretical orientation regarding therapy and/or their own beliefs regarding spirituality, and (2)
remaining non-dogmatic about their practice. Although both of these practices can help prevent
misunderstandings and ethical dilemmas, practitioners should remember that implementing such
measures are not failsafe when it comes to preventing ethical problems as people's beliefs and
orientations toward therapy are continuously changing.
When working with children on spiritual matters, practitioners must remain aware of
their level of influence on the child. In order to prevent unduly influencing children's spiritual
beliefs, practitioners need to remember that how they respond and interact with their clients is
intimately linked and shaped by their own beliefs and meanings. However, such a fact does not
necessitate the therapist imposing his/her beliefs onto the client. Although it is tempting to think
that both parties must agree on ideas regarding spirituality or other spiritually-related concepts, it
is not a prerequisite for therapeutic change (Sperry, 2001). In fact, transpersonal therapists pride
themselves on remaining open to, and respectful of, all spiritual paths and traditions. Therefore,
spiritually-oriented practitioners should remain cognizant of any hidden agendas they might have
when it comes to sharing transpersonal beliefs or ideologies. Counsellors should also relinquish
any need to have their clients believe as they do.

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CHAPTER 4 - JUNGIAN PSYCHOTHERAPY AND ITS THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS
Introduction
I chose to include and explore Jungian Therapy in this guide for numerous reasons, such
as the ease with which children can identify with the mediums used as well as children's innate
connection to unconscious forces . Another reason is Jungian Therapy's apparent similarity to
Transpersonal Psychotherapy in both theoretical and practical content. Although the two
approaches sometimes use differing terminology, Jungian Therapy would be considered a
transpersonal approach because it focuses on the integration of both the personal and collective
aspects of the psyche. As Chapter 2 illustrates, spiritual phenomena involve a dimension that lies
beyond the individual, which means that spiritual work in a counselling setting necessitates the
exploration of a previously unknown facet of one ' s experience. Rather than being fixated on the
politics of God, the spiritual path requires that we look toward something greater than
ourselves-even if that something contains aspects or realities we would rather not confront.
Acceptance, as well as the courage to face that which we would rather not, forms the basis for
true healing. This is where Jungian Therapy proves invaluable as it allows children to make the
first steps toward greater wholeness and self-acceptance by working with the contents of their
unconSCIOUS.

Overview of Jungian Psychotherapy
Before outlining the key aspects of Jungian psychotherapy, there are some important
distinctions that must be made between Jungian psychotherapy, a Jungian-oriented
psychotherapist, and a Jungian Analyst. A Jungian orientation generally refers to a therapist who
approaches or views the therapeutic process from a Jungian perspective. This perspective can

50
range significantly from therapist to therapist in terms of experience, training, and exposure to
the Jungian approach. Some may have only read Carl Jung and have been exposed to him more
or less theoretically through books or other material. An interesting note is that some therapists
may be more well-read in Jungian literature than Jungian Analysts themselves.
Others may have undergone to some degree, or quite extensively, their own in depth
analysis. According to Jung (1959, as cited in Harris, 2005), all analysts must undertake their
own analysis if they are to be considered fully trained. A Jungian Analyst has taken a number of
years of formal training at one ofthe Jungian Institutes worldwide, which includes a formal
curriculum, completing their own in depth analysis, and specific training through work with
client cases. Thus, a Jungian Analyst has followed a standardized curriculum that may or may
not result in them having more experience than other Jungian-oriented psychotherapists, yet
suggests a certain level of formalized training.
The purpose of this Chapter is to familiarize practitioners with Jungian psychotherapy
and its theoretical underpinnings, including how Jungian therapy can be applied to children. It by
no means is meant to replace any formalized training as a Jungian Analyst or any other formal
designation. It is recommended that practitioners further explore the concepts found herein and
access other resources as needed. It is doubtful that within Jung's lifetime he was able to
elucidate all there is to know about the contents and workings of the human unconscious.
Therefore, practitioners are encouraged to work with and listen to their own intuition when
working with clients and rely primarily on their own clinical judgment.
Jung's approach to psychotherapy stems from what is known as Depth Psychology,
which is a framework that emphasizes the exploration and examination of the subtle or
unconscious parts of the human experience (Harris, 2005). It is a psychotherapeutic approach

51

that aims for a greater understanding by peering beneath the surface of our behaviours and
feelings and into the depths of our own psyche and its inner workings. Jungian psychotherapy
strives to assist the individual to find meaning and balance in their lives by going deeply into
psychological or physical symptoms (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). The approach is akin to
homeopathy in the sense that it views the darkness of our pain and symptoms as holding the key
to our health and wholeness. From a Jungian point of view, the individual is encouraged to listen
more deeply to their emotional pain rather than avoiding it (Samuels et al., 1986). Jungian
counselling emphasizes keeping an open line of communication with the "Self within," which
enables us to establish a healthier relationship to our deeper nature and develop a more balanced
personality.
Within a Jungian approach, it is not as important to discuss what we know about our
problems, but what we do not know about them (Bennet, 1966). Therefore, Jungian counselling
will include not only a discussion of the presenting situation or problem, but also a discussion of
dreams, fantasies, moods, and other such products of the unconscious. The attempt is always to
strive for a deeper understanding of the Self and a more balanced and meaningful life.
Within this process, the psyche is trusted to guide the process of counselling rather than
the therapist diagnosing and treating the individual as in the medical model (Allan, 1988).
Jungian psychotherapists believe that each person's Higher Self knows more than their conscious
minds ever will, which means we all have a certain degree of wisdom within us that does not
always coincide with our conscious attitudes or points of view. Thus, working with our
unconscious often shows us where we need to expand or change so that we can heal and/or
realize our full potential.

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Jungian psychotherapy shares numerous characteristics with other depth and
transpersonal approaches. As with other schools, Jungian psychotherapy is dialectical, which
means that the therapist and the patient are seen as more or less equals (Harris, 2005). While the
emphasis is on the patient, the therapist's dedicative involvement in the process is necessary for
healing to occur. Therefore, the therapist participates as much in the process of healing as the
patient. Counsellor and client are thought of as two individuals embarking on a journey together.
That journey is mutually explored-even in the darkest of times-with the only difference being
that the therapist is more familiar with this territory than the client. As with most therapies, a
highly personal element, genuineness, and rapport form the basis for healing.
An important emphasis for most Jungian therapists is the way in which psychopathology
manifests. Jungians believe that one of the human psyche's functions is to "pathologize" (Harris,
2005). This tendency is not seen as dysfunctional, but rather as a means through which the
psyche communicates. The purpose or aim of pathology is seen as part of the healing process.
For instance, if the psyche did not create symptoms, we would never know that anything was
amiss. Therefore, the healing message is found in the symptoms. It is a mistake to think,
however, that Jungians view pathology or self-destructive behavior as something to be
encouraged. Practitioners should keep in mind that symptoms are not to be avoided or
downplayed, but the meaning, which is often missed, needs to be discovered in order for healing
to take place.
Jungian Theory
The Ego and Its Defenses
While Jung perceived the ego to be the centre of consciousness, he also stressed the
incompleteness of it as a psychic structure and maintained that it did not encapsulate the whole

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of one's personality (Samuels et al. , 1986). As a psychological entity, the ego has the job of
mediating between our inner drives and the reality of the outer world. Jung (1969, as cited in
Allan & Bertoia, 1992) believed that there is quite a sophisticated ego structure in place by the
child's first year oflife. However, it is usually not until the third or fourth year that more durable
internal security is experienced. The attainment of such security leads to more independent
functioning and effective regulation of impulses (Kalff, 1980). Though the ego is the centre of
consciousness, there is always some overlap between it's role in conscious and unconscious life,
as aspects of the ego are clearly seen to function during sleep and dream states (Allan, 1998).
In children's drawings and stories, the unconscious is often depicted as the sea and the
ego as the land (Brandell, 1988). When children are overwhelmed by strong emotions, the ego
can take on the image of a "log" or "boat" that is being tossed around on a stormy sea. As the
child begins to calm down and integrate his/her painful emotions, "islands" appear in the stories
and are often followed by themes that take place on land. This can represent the development
and strengthening of ego functions, with the child becoming more "grounded."
Some Jungian theorists have postulated that the ego is built up slowly through repeated
processes of de-integration and re-integration (Fordham, 1957). For example, frustration or
other painful emotions will cause an infant's psychic structures to "de-integrate." On the other
hand, positive and/or pleasurable feelings will restore psychic equilibrium, thus "re-integrating"
the child's psychic structures and laying the groundwork for healthy ego development. While
many of the interventions found in this guide can be used to re-integrate a child's ego,
counsellors should be aware that the integrity of children's egos can both influence, and be
influenced by, other psychic structures.

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Jungians consider the ego to be a rather fragile structure, which in early childhood can
become threatened quite easily. In order to protect itself, the ego has numerous defense
mechanisms at its disposal. Some of these are biological, such as reflexes and adaptation to
stressors; whereas others are psychological, such as repression, projection, and the splitting of
"good" and "bad" (Allan, 1988; Allan & Bertoia, 1992). The degree to which children can
successfully adapt and/or deal with the workings of their unconscious depends partially on the
degree of integration mentioned above.
When the process of de-integration is not followed by or balanced with re-integration, a
negative pattern of de-integration can result whereby the child becomes anxious with too much
psychic energy going into building up rigid defense mechanisms, such as denial or paranoia
(Allan, 1988). The child learns to avoid pain through fight or flight behaviours, leaving little
energy for learning, growth, or the development of the ego. The hurt and aggression are so great
that the ego cannot integrate or handle these powerful emotions and so must defend itself against
them or risk annihilation.
Allan (1988) commonly sees two major patterns of defense structures in school-aged
children: either very rigid or seemingly non-existent. In the former, the barrier between the ego
(i.e., that which is conscious) and the Self(i.e., that which is unconscious) is very rigid and thick.
These children tend to be very controlled, somewhat aloof or detached, and emotionally flat.
However, they are prone to extreme outbursts of violence and temper when their defenses are
threatened or experience disintegration. Children with a thin or non-existent defensive structure
seem to have no inner control over their impulses and tend to be hyperactive, impulsive, and
undersocialized. In contrast, a child with healthy coping strategies shows a wide range of
emotion and is able to demonstrate appropriate control and flexibility in terms of their

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expression. In other words, the child is able to hold some emotions in check, express others,
while also focusing his/her attention on learning, friendships , or other academic and social tasks.

Archetypes
Archetyp es have been both f eared and revered as mysterious signifiers of things beyond our complete
understanding.

-GEORGE BOEREE

Archetypes played a central role in Jung' s theory of the unconscious, which is why it is
imperative that counsellors become familiar with these concepts, examples thereof, and the role
they play in Jungian therapy. Archetypal patterns can emerge through any therapeutic medium,
including writing, drawing, or play and form a common language through which therapeutic
outcomes are interpreted. Practitioners must become comfortable with and adept at working with
these symbolic forces if they are to successfully navigate the unconscious world of their clients.
Practitioners should keep in mind that this section does not provide an exhaustive list of
archetypes and that they should access further resources as required.
Archetypal forces are made up of characters, images, and themes that symbolically
represent universal meanings and basic human experiences (Jung, 1980). Archetypes can be
found in literature, myths, and stories and are considered to be the primary structural elements of
the human psyche. Jung was the first to extensively explore their nature and role they play in the
evolvement of human consciousness. Jung (1964) related archetypes to heredity and considered
them instinctual. As Jung looked across cultures, he found the same archetypal patterns and thus
came to conceptualize them as fundamental forces that exist beyond humanity. He believed
archetypes were born out of the collective unconscious-a term he coined to describe the
inherited experience of the entire human race (Jung, 1980). He believed the relationship between
an individual's consciousness and the collective ' s is reciprocal, with both having the ability to

56
affect and/or contribute to the other. The symbols and images found within the collective
unconscious are also inextricably linked to a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviour.
A notable characteristic of archetypes is that we recognize them in both image and
emotion (Hopcke, 1992). This association can have profound effects when working with children
as this population ' s first language is built upon associative connections between visual stimuli
and primary emotions (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). Children, therefore, may be better equipped to
understand archetypal phenomena because this type of information is more visceral in nature
(i.e. , it is obtained through intuition rather than reasoning or observation). This quality also
implies that archetypes have deep and primitive origins, which is why they resonate with people
cross-culturally (Gallagher, 1997).
Archetypes have also been described as our built-in ability to recognize a certain
relationship pattern, such as mothering (Hopcke, 1992). Jung ( 1964) said that because this
pattern can be rather abstract, we are likely to project this archetypal pattern out into the world
and onto a particular person, usually our own mothers. Even when an archetype does not have a
real person available, we tend to personify the archetype, and tum it into a mythological "storybook" character (Brandell, 1988; Samuels et al., 1986). This character then comes to symbolize
the archetype, which means that virtually any person or fictional character can subsume an
archetypal meaning for an individual. As counsellors, we must keep this in mind and not
discount the personal meaning that a person or character can have for a client.
The therapeutic function or role of archetypal patterns is to make us conscious of our
hidden vulnerabilities, strengths, and motivations (Allan, 1988). Although often associated with
the shadow side of our unconscious, archetypes are considered neutral energies that help to guide
us throughout our personal and spiritual development (Hopcke, 1992; Jung, 1980). From a

57
therapeutic viewpoint, the more we know about our archetypal patterns the more conscious we
become, which means we are able to make more responsible choices (Zukav, 1989). If we are
not aware of the unconscious forces within us, we will be more likely to react out of insecurity or
defensiveness. In other words, the goal of working with archetypal forces is to bring to light all
that which is unconscious within us. The existence of archetypes does not preclude people's free
will to choose-they are simply patterns of psychological experience through which to better
understand the workings of our unconscious (Samuels et al., 1986).

The Shadow
The Shadow is the most common archetype because it reflects the deeper elements of our
psyche where latent dispositions common to all ofus reside (Hopcke, 1992). Jung (1980)
believed that this archetype derived from our pre-human or animal past, when our concerns were
limited to survival and reproduction. It is the "dark side" of the ego, and the evil that we are
capable of is often stored there. It has been described as " [t] hose unpleasant and immoral
aspects of our selves which we would like to pretend do not exist or have no effect on our
lives-our inferiorities, our unacceptable impulses, our shameful actions and wishes .. ."
(Hopcke, 1992, p. 81).
However, the Shadow is amoral in nature-neither good nor bad-just like animals. An
animal is capable of tender care of its young as well as vicious killing for food, but it does not
choose to do either. From a moral standpoint, animals are "innocent." But from our human
perspective, the animal world looks rather brutal and inhumane, so the shadow becomes a
repository for the parts of ourselves that we cannot accept or would rather not have.
Our shadows are, by their very names, dark, shadowy, unknown and potentially harmful.
The Shadow archetype embodies chaos and the unfamiliar. In myth, the Shadow appears as the

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wild man, spider-people, mysterious fighters, or dark enemies (Gallagher, 1997). Symbols of the
Shadow include the snake, as in the Garden of Eden, dragons, monsters, and demons (Allan &
Bertoia, 1992; Von Franz, 1982). In stories, shadow characters often guard the entrance to a cave
or pool of water, which can represent the collective unconscious (Brandell, 1988).
In terms of people's personal relationship with their Shadow, this universal archetypal
pattern can appear to us in dreams, visions, or musings, often as something or someone who is
bad, fearsome, or despicable in some way. While it has the power to seduce through false
friendship, it can also threaten with callous disregard. As an aspect of the subconscious,
encounters with our shadows can reveal deeper thoughts and fears of which we are unaware. It
can also take over direct physical action when a person is seriously confused, dazed, or drugged
(Hopcke, 1992).
One of the goals of Jungian psychotherapy is to re-integrate our shadows with the light of
our consciousness (Jung, 1966). Ifthis can be done effectively, then we can become more whole
by bringing together that which was once split from us. The Shadow tends not to obey rules and
thrives on ignorance, which means that it can either be used as a catalyst for discovering new
territory or plunge things into chaos (Jung, 1966). The way in which one explores the content of
his/her Shadow ultimately determines the type of experience he/she will have. For example,
blaming, judging, or criticizing our repressed desires will only serve to keep our shadows in
place; whereas accepting and being compassionate towards them will help to fuel their
integration.
The Shadow is closely related to the Ego because our egos are intimately involved in
excavating the Shadow's hidden impulses and fantasies into the sphere of moral choice (Hopcke,
1992). Without the Ego (i.e., individual consciousness), our shadows could not be "illuminated,"

59
which means that the reality of one requires the reality of the other. The Shadow has power
precisely because it remains in the dark. Even though we tend to deny its presence in ourselves
because we consider it unacceptable, it is only when we face and acknowledge the Shadow's
presence can we neutralize its potential negative impact (Jung, 1966).

The Anima/Animus
While society has been traditionally separated into male and female dichotomies along
with accompanying roles and expected behaviours, Jung ( 1980) felt that we are all really
bisexual in nature. As fetuses in the womb, we have undifferentiated sex organs that only
gradually become male or female under the influence of hormones (Hopcke, 1992). Likewise,
when we begin our social lives as infants, we are neither male nor female in the social sense.
However, almost immediately each of us comes under the influence of society as our family
gradually molds us into men and women through the imposition of "rules" on how males and
females should behave.
In all societies, the expectations placed on men and women differ according to their
differing roles in reproduction, but many of these expectations are based solely on tradition
(Gallagher, 1997; Hopcke, 1992). In our society today, we still have many remnants ofthese
traditional expectations. Women are still expected to be more nurturing and less aggressive,
whereas men are still expected to be strong and ignore their emotional side. But Jung (1980) felt
these expectations meant that we had developed only half of our potential. Similar to the
exploration and acceptance of our shadows, one of the tenets of Jungian psychotherapy is to
achieve a more harmonious balance between the feminine and masculine sides of our personality
(Jung, 1966).

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The Anima archetype is the female aspect or energy present in the collective unconscious
of men, while the Animus is the male aspect present in the collective unconscious of women
(Jung, 1980). When spoken of as a pair, lung referred to these two qualities as syzygy, which is a
term applied to the pairing of opposites (Samuels eta!., 1986). While syzygy represents
wholeness and completion, it should not be confused with another of lung's concept: androgyne.
Androgyne is a "psychic personification, which holds male and female in conscious balance"
(Samuels et a!. , 1986, p. 22). Although the difference is slight, syzygy refers to the male and
female qualities as a whole, whereas androgyne speaks to the merging of these two opposing
characteristics in an individual.
In addition to being archetypal images, both the Anima and Animus form personal
complexes within the psyche of each person (Sharp, 1991 ). They are unconscious factors that
incarnate anew in each child and are "responsible for the mechanism of projection" (Sharp, 1991,
p. 18) for lung (1980) believed that archetypal forces could also be projected onto phenomena in
the external world. In fact, lung theorized that the development of the Anima/Animus began with
the infant projecting the female archetype onto the mother, eventually projecting onto
prospective partners until a lasting relationship could be found.
The Anima may be personified as numerous images such as a young girl, a princess or
queen, an intuitive healer, a witch, the earth mother, a seductress, or one 's fairy godmother
(Gallagher, 1997; lung, 1980; Samuels eta!. , 1986; Sharp, 1991). Whatever form the Anima
takes, it is likely to be associated with deep emotionality and the force of life itself. Conversely,
the Animus can take on the form of a wise old man, a sorcerer, a knight, a prince or king, or even
a group of male figures . The Animus can manifest as "a priori assumptions that lay claim to

61
absolute truth" (Sharp, 1991, p. 23) and tends to be logical, rationalistic, and even argumentative
(Hopcke, 1992).
J ung ( 1964) believed that the AnimalAnimus are the archetypes through which we
communicate with the collective unconscious, and therefore it is imperative that each person gets
in touch with his/her own. The development of one ' s own Anima/Animus depends on how one
relates to each aspect within oneself (Sharp, 1991 ). For example, as a male projects and
personifies his masculine qualities, he simultaneously forgoes his more feminine ones, which
means that the former becomes what he and the world identifies with, while the latter becomes
hidden and internal. When people over-identify with their projected personas, they become
"possessed" by their internal Anima/Animus, which invariably leads to dysfunction (Jung, 1966).
The Self
According to Jungian theory, the Self is an innate and unconscious psychological
structure that orchestrates psychological growth and development (Jung, 1980). It is the
regulating centre of the psyche and while the ego is considered the centre of consciousness, the
Self encompasses both all that is conscious and unconscious (Sharp, 1991 ). At birth, the ego is
embedded in the collective unconscious and is present in a weak and undifferentiated form
(Allan, 1988). As the infant matures, the ego slowly emerges and establishes its own existence.
The infant is then allowed more conscious control over his/her actions, thoughts, and emotions.
As an archetypal image, the Self represents wholeness or completeness, with some
likening it to a transpersonal power that transcends the ego (Sharp, 1991 ). The Self is intimately
tied to the Jungian concept of individuation, a process in which all aspects of the personality are
brought together as one (Samuels et al., 1986). The Self can be thought of as an archetypal urge
to coordinate and mediate the tension of opposites. By the way of the Self, each person is

62
confronted with the polarity of good and evil, right and wrong. Although necessary, the
realization of the Self as a dichotomous entity can precipitate an eruption of unconscious forces
within us that can result either in neurosis or a renewal of the personality (Jung, 1966).
The Self can appear in dreams, myths, or fairytales as a superordinate figure, such as an
emperor/empress, hero, prophet, saviour, messiah, etcetera (Jung, 1964). It can also assume any
symbol of totality, such as a circle, square, cross, mandala, and so on. Jung (1964) noted that
experiences of the Self possessed a numinous quality characteristic of religious revelations.
Similar to the eastern concepts of nirvana or the Tao, Jung believed that there was essentially no
difference between the Self as an experiential reality and the traditional concept of a supreme
being.

Other Archetypes
Jung (1964) believed there is no fixed number of archetypes that could simply be listed
and memorized. Because each person is unique, and because archetypes can also be created
through projection, there is essentially a limitless number of combinations and/or expressions of
archetypal forces . These additional archetypes are often linked to the ones outlined above and
may represent aspects of them. Archetypes can also overlap, with many of them appearing in the
same individual (Samuels et al. , 1986). These archetypes can be further classified into categories
such as family, story, and even animal archetypes.

The Child. All adults were at one time children, which means that the Child archetype is a
universal pattern within every human psyche. The child is "an image of both the irrecoverable
past and an anticipation of future development" (Sharp, 1991 , p. 34). The Child archetype is seen
as both a beginning and an end. On the one hand, the child can slip into a regressive longing for
dependence, while on the other can desperately desire to be independent and free of his or her

63
"childish" past (Sharp, 1991 ). Jung (1966) believed that in order for children to move toward
independence, they must first experience abandonment and/or isolation to some degree. Because
this dialectical relationship is seen as a necessary stage in the development of healthy egos, the
feelings of abandonment and/or loneliness that occur in childhood are not frowned upon in
Jungian psychotherapy (Allan, 1988).
The Child archetype is characterized by the belief in new beginnings, rebirth, hope,
endless possibilities, and wonderment (Allan, 1988; Jung, 1980; Samuels et al., 1986). The Child
is represented in mythology and art not only by infants, but as other small creatures as well
(Brandell, 1988; Gallagher, 1997). The Christ child celebrated at Christmas is a manifestation of
the Child archetype, and represents future salvation. The Child also often blends with other
archetypes to form the Child-God, or the Child-Hero (Hopcke, 1992). The archetypal child can
be found in numerous stories and fairy tales, including: Peter Pan, The Little Prince, Pippi
Longstocking, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Tarzan of the Apes, Oliver Twist, and The
Secret Garden.
Of course, the one archetype that all children are currently living through is that of the
Child, which means this pattern would likely be the most accessible for younger clients. Working
with the Child archetype could have some preventative value as well, as many adults spend large
amounts of time and energy working through the experiences oftheir childhoods. When it comes
to working with this archetype in child clients, the counsellor should remain open to whichever
archetypes the child is ready to explore and not push him or her to investigate one over another,
even if a particular archetypal pattern is apparent to the practitioner.
The Mother. In the same way that each of us were once children, we also all have had at
one point or another a Mother. As a species, we are extremely defenseless in the early years of

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life and would not have survived unless we were connected to a mother or mother-substitute.
From an evolutionary standpoint, it stands to reason that we have been "pre-programmed" to
desire, recognize and bond with some type of mother figure (Hopcke, 1992).
Mothers are the life-givers, the source of nurturing and nourishment, unconditional love,
patience, devotion, caring, and unselfish acts (Gallagher, 1997; Jung, 1964, 1980). This
archetype is the keeper and protector of life- everything from children, family, as well as the
earth in the form of Mother Nature (Jung, 1980). The Mother heralds the power of compassion as
well as the endless capacity to forgive her children and put them before herself. She embodies
grace and gentleness and her impact can be felt in the feeding, nurturing, and soothing of others.
The Mother archetype is symbolized by the primordial mother or "earth mother" of
mythology, by Eve and Mary in Western traditions, and by less personal symbols such as the
church, nations, and the ocean (Jung, 1964, 1980). According to Jung (1964), someone whose
own mother failed to satisfy the demands of this archetype may well be one that spends his or her
life seeking comfort in the church, in identification with "the motherland," meditating upon
female religious figures, or in a life at sea. The Mother archetype can found in such fairy tales as

Mother Goose and Mother Hubbard. Children's stories where the mother's absence had
deleterious effects on the child include: Snow White, Cinderella, Bambi, and The Little Mermaid.

The Father. While Jung paid significantly less time exploring the male half of the
parental pair, most Jungians agree that the Father archetype plays an equally important role as
the Mother (Allan, 1988; Hopcke, 1992). Jung' s lack of attention given to the Father does not
mean that this archetypal force of masculinity was unimportant to him personally or theoretically
for masculine qualities can be found in other archetypes such as the Hero and the Wise Old Man.
Although the Father has taken on negative connotations associated historically with paternalism

65
and male dominance, practitioners should not lose sight of its primary characteristics of courage
and protectiveness (Hopcke, 1992; Jung, 1964).
The Father archetype combines a talent for creativity or initiation with the ability to
oversee others, whether a biological family or a group of people (Hopcke, 1992; Samuels et al.,
1986). A true Father guides and shields those under his care, sacrificing his own desires where
appropriate. The shadow side of the Father emerges when that caring guidance and protection
turns into dictatorial control or abuse of authority. The Father image can be projected onto any
male figure and is seen by others as being stem, powerful, and controlling (Samuels et al. , 1986).
Father figures have appeared in countless fairy tales and children stories, with some of the more
notable being Pinocchio, The Forest Bride, The White Cat, and The Little Mermaid.

The Wise Old Man. According to Jung (1980), the Wise Old Man is a personification of
the masculine spirit. This archetypal image represents meaning and wisdom and offers to those it
touches knowledge and guidance (Sharp, 1991 ). When the Wise Old Man is perceived by others,
it instills in them the belief and confidence that they too can attain a higher state of
consciousness. Jung (1980) believed that the Wise Old Man was in fact a mana personality, a
term pertaining "to the extraordinary and compelling supernatural power which emanates from
certain individuals" (Samuels et al. , 1986, p. 89). Although this archetype is a masculine figure,
the same qualities can be found in the feminine equivalent of the Great Mother (Sharp, 1991 ).
The Wise Old Man is believed to possess a form of quasi-divine power that allows him to
partake in the spirit world sufficiently enough to radiate its power (Samuels et al., 1986). This
archetypal image is involved not only in the teaching of beliefs and practices, but also strives to
see the Divine in all aspects of life. Because this archetype is meant to impart hope and insight, it
can take on myriad forms and can easily be missed. Its unique power can be found in stories that

66
have characters like the magician, mediator, priest, doctor, saint, or holy fool (Samuels et al. ,
1986). In addition, the Wise Old Man image can be predominate in modem day spiritual figures
such as Gurus, Sages, Yogis, Wise Women, Spiritual Directors, Evangelists, and Preachers.
The Hero. As an archetypal image, the Hero represents overcoming obstacles and

achieving specific goals (Sharp, 1991 ). The Hero is considered to be a rescuer, and if successful,
is regarded as a champion. In mythology, the Hero's mission is usually to find or retrieve some
object of interest such as a princess or maiden, the elixir of life, or a ring or other piece of
valuable of jewelry (Gallagher, 1997; Jung, 1980). Jung (1964) believed these objects were
metaphors for one' s true feelings or unique potential. The journey of the Hero runs parallel to the
process of individuation in that the Hero 's task is to "assimilate unconscious contents as opposed
to being overwhelmed by them" (Sharp, 1991 ,p. 60). While Jung (1980) believed the Hero to be
the ideal masculine type, this does not preclude females from adopting this archetypal force or
having it projected onto them.
The image of the Hero embodies humanity's most powerful aspirations as well as the
way in which those aspirations can be realized (Samuels et al. , 1986). The Hero represents the
capacity to seek and undergo repeated transformations in order to experience wholeness.
Therefore, the Hero will at times appear to be egoic in nature, while at other times, the Hero will
appear to be related to the Self. Jung (1964) believed that the Hero is actually the Ego-Self axis
personified. Any archetypal pattern with such widespread appeal is sure to attract projection and
find expression in the collective, which is exactly what Jung found. The Hero appears in
countless children stories and is a favourite motif of comic books. Examples of Hero characters
include: Superman, Superwoman, Batman, Batwoman, Wonder Woman, Spiderman, Paul
Bunyan, Prince Valiant, and Dorothy in the Wizard of Oz.

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The Kore/Maiden. In Greek mythology, Kore represented the personification of feminine
innocence (Sharp, 1991 ). While Kore is usually translated as Maiden, her roles in Greek
mythology were numerous and included virgin, daughter, bride, and queen (Hopcke, 1992). Jung
shared this multiplicity of views, which has resulted in the Maiden being one of the more
misunderstood archetypal patterns. In the West, Maidens have taken on a negative connotation of
being weak and helpless (Hopcke, 1992). However, Jung (1980) saw this archetype holding the
potential of renewal.
Jung (1964, 1980) saw the Maiden as the embodiment of feminine transformation and
maintained that this archetype holds great meaning for modern day women. Rather than
resigning herself to be helplessly dependent on a "hero," the Maiden is called to develop skills
and competencies that enable her to become self-sufficient and productive enough so that she can
provide for herself. The Maiden must ultimately learn to fight her own battles and evolve into a
Queen. The Maiden archetype can be found in such classic fairytales as Snow White, Sleeping

Beauty, Rapine, and Cinderella.
The Trickster. The Trickster is a dual natured character that plays dubious jokes or tricks,
makes fun or is made fun of, and may be camouflaged as one of the demigods of a religious
tradition (lung, 1964, 1980; Samuels et al. , 1986). This archetype revels in all that is deceitful
and hidden and embodies the ambivalent and mercurial nature of our shadows (Sharp, 1991 ).
Although the trickster is often portrayed as a somewhat unsavory or duplicitous character, this
archetype ' s antics can also be liberating by transcending convention, stuffiness, and predictable
behavior (lung, 1964). The Trickster archetype "manages to achieve through his stupidity what
others fail to achieve by concentrated effort" (Samuels et al. , 1986, p. 152). In other words, this
archetype highlights the possibility of transforming the meaningless into the meaningful.

68
Throughout history, the Trickster has appeared as a key figure in the human drama. A
common form the trickster takes is that of the serpent, which is the creature that tempted both
Eve and Jesus in the Bible (Gallagher, 1997). In both of these instances, the serpent tricks
humanity out of the gift of immortality and assumes it for itself. In many cultures, such as Native
Americans, the trickster can also be the Creator's helper or messenger. Some children's stories in
which the trickster plays a prominent role include: Little Red Riding Hood, The Fox and the
Grapes, and The Gingerbread Man .
Ego-Self Axis
Healthy emotional development occurs when there is a good relationship and connection
between the unconscious and conscious mind (Jung, 1980). This occurs when the child' s ego can
deal with pain and pleasure appropriately. Emotionally healthy children should be able to cry
when hurt, verbalize feelings when angry, and take in/experience pleasure, love, affection,
laughter, and humour (Allan, 1988). To insure healthy development, the child's ego needs to
look at and feel painful experiences, understand the situation, and then eventually let go and
move forward. Jung ( 1969, as cited in Allan & Bertoia, 1992) likened the development of the
ego to a heroic struggle one endures throughout life, with every now and again needing to be
replenished. This replenishment can occur in various ways such as through satisfying
relationships, positive experiences, relaxation, or artistic and creative endeavors (Allan, 1988).
During these experiences, there is often an alignment or coming together of the conscious
and unconscious life. This continuous interchange between the conscious and unconscious
worlds has been termed the Ego-Self axis (Dinger, 1973). Jungian theorists maintain that this
vacillating experience continues throughout our lives and forms the cornerstone for all psychic
development (Hopcke, 1992). For instance, without the Ego 's analyzing powers and capacity for

69
independence, the Self would not have a solid presence in the material world. Conversely,
without the Selfs tendencies to foster greater depth and meaning, these tendencies would not be
able to manifest in an individual's life (Samuels et al., 1986).
All of the interventions to follow facilitate ego development and will improve the lines of
communication between the conscious and unconscious worlds so that difficult emotions can be
integrated into the child's conscious awareness. Such experiences enable the child's life to be
lived at much greater depth and with more congruency, thus building up a rich interior life
(Allan, 1988). The following is an example of the establishment of the Ego-Self axis in an 8 year
old boy's story.
Once upon a time there was a whale who loved to whistle. He
didn't have any friends but humans. One night he heard the
humans talking about a whale. They were saying that they would
like some coral from underneath the sea, but nobody could go
underneath. So they decided to go and ask the whale to go and get
some. The next morning there was coral on the bay. The whale put
the coral there for the humans. The humans danced with joy. They
hugged the whale. (Allan & Bertoia, 1992, p. 11)
This story was written after the child had finished treatment and illustrates his newly
established Ego-Self axis. In the story, there is an important relationship between the humans
(ego consciousness) and the sea (the unconscious). The whale, a symbol for the Self, is the
intermediary who travels up an down the Ego-Self axis listening to what the humans have to say
and brings the riches (the coral) from the unconscious up into consciousness (the land).

Individuation
Jung believed the central drive in the human experience is the desire to grow, unfold, and
establish a separate identity (Jung, 1964). He called this innate tendency the process of

individuation and believed this drive to be the primary motivating force of the human psyche. It
is important to remember that the expression of this drive is dependent on the individual's stage

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of development. Not only are children just beginning the individuation process, but some are also
experiencing unhealthy ego integration, which can complicate matters and leave them
susceptible to either an over- or under-expression of the desire to individuate. It is also dependent
on how well an individual has dealt with/integrated his/her own struggle with this "tension of
opposites." To lung ( 1964), it is the ability to work with this tension that leads to the resolution
of difficulties and the creation of something new. Often characterized as a "rhythm of chaos,"
this process is one that repeats itself continuously throughout one's life as long as one continues
to work on developing one's inner and outer lives.

lung (1966) believed that rigorous inner work can bring about change, growth and
maturity and that the majority of this work is accomplished through the integration and
understanding of painful emotions. While this theory of growth applies equally to children,
counsellors should be cognizant of the fact that children are only beginning to embark on the
process of individuation and that therapeutic work should be done in such a way that allows them
ample time to familiarize themselves with the parts of their psyche.
The Language of the Psyche

The first language of the infant is essentially an auditory-visual language (Gardner,
Kornhaber, & Wake, 1996). Although infants connect to their outer world and caregivers through
cries and other vocalizations, they also take in the world visually, which becomes imbued with
emotion and eventually meaning (Allan, 1988). Structures within the psyche help the infant to
organize perceptions and responses on an unconscious level. In childhood, meaning is attached
to primary emotions such as love, joy, and pleasure. These pleasurable emotions take on
characteristics of"good," while anger, frustration, and fear become associated with "bad."

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Children tend to see and organize the world in pictures that have been characterized by particular
emotions, which in tum become symbols and images ofthe psyche (Jung, 1980).
This auditory-visual language has primacy for the first year and a half of life until verbal
communication begins to develop and take precedence over the visual mode as the primary
cognitive processing structure (Donaldson, 1978). Verbal language pushes visual language into
second place where it still operates, though usually unnoticed until an individual consciously
uses it. However, this ability is never lost. As adults we can still close our eyes and imagine
anything we like. This type of language is mentioned because when counselling from a Jungian
framework one needs to be aware of symbolism- how to understand it and how to use it for
healing.
Jungian counsellors take their sense of direction from the unfolding of the child's world
through image, symbol, metaphor, play, and writing (Green, 2008). Jung was not so much
concerned with the causes of problems as he was with where the client's images and metaphors
would lead (Bennet, 1966). He believed the unconscious mind is purposeful and that if one
follows its natural symbolic expression, then learning and growth can occur. All of the
therapeutic modalities contained in this guide operate through a language of symbols, which
means that if counsellors are going to work from a Jungian perspective, they must first
familiarize themselves with the most common symbols found in the psyche.
Dreams

A discussion of Jungian theory would be incomplete without discussing dreams and the
role they play in the psychological development of the individual. Jung (1961) considered dream
analysis to be the main source of information about the unconscious. From a Jungian perspective,
dreams are considered to be a spontaneous product of the psyche and can provide valuable

72

information when resolving issues or simply becoming more whole and integrated (lung, 1961 ).
Jungian therapists believe that the dream is an image coming from the unconscious that
elaborates on what is going on in the psyche of the patient right now (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). It
could be thought of as a "picture" from the unconscious that helps to give perspective on what
problems the patient is presently dealing with. For Jungians, dreams are so valuable because they
not only offer an unedited, pure expression of the situation from the unconscious' point of view,
but they are also an important component of self-realization (Harris, 2005; Jung, 1966).
Dream products carry various symbolic expressions of the psyche, which are all seen as
carrying elements of the self (Harris, 2005). This dualistic and interdependent relationship is
important because it illustrates how the psyche is united in diversity. Once the elements of the
dream are understood and integrated, they become united further into the whole. One often
discovers many helpful hints, directions, and healing messages but also things that they prefer
not to disclose to anyone, much less themselves. However, this "confession" becomes a further
dimension of the analysis. One might see this aspect of psychotherapy as serving a redemptive
function (Harris, 2005).
For counsellors, one of the main difficulties in working with dreams is to understand the
language of the unconscious, and for the patient, to accept that there is valuable information
inherent in his/her unconscious messages (Allan, 1988; Bennet, 1966). Fortunately for
counsellors, the same symbolic and archetypal imagery that appears in children's stories and
drawings, is the same unconscious language that can be found in dreams (Allan, 1988; Allan &
Bertoia, 1992). In fact, most Jungian theorists believe that children have a much closer
connection to, and relationship with, dreaming as they are closer to the primordial world from
which dreams come (Bennet, 1966).

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One of the main limitations, however, when working with dreams is the possible inability
of the child to see it through a symbolic lens rather than a literal one. For example, death in a
dream rarely indicates real death (Hopcke, 1992; Jung, 1980). Most often, this relates to the
discontinuation of something else. However, children of certain ages may have difficulty with
this, which is why assessing the child's level of development is so important (see Necessary
Capacities/Developmental Stages). The images and symbols found in dreams can take on a
myriad of forms , which means that practitioners must not only be conversant in the language of
the symbolic, but also flexible and open to alternate interpretations and manifestations (Allan,
1988). Both client and counsellor must be able to illustrate the archetypal value of a dream as
opposed to a concrete or literal view of one.
In Jungian dream analysis, there are primarily four types of dreams: (1) initial, (2)
recurrent, (3) anticipatory, and (4) compensatory (Allan, 1988; Bennet, 1966). Initial dreams
consist of the first, or first few, that the client has prior to commencing treatment and are often
comprised of ambiguous images or scenes of which the client cannot make sense (Bennet, 1966).
Although Jungian therapists are primarily concerned with analyzing dreams in series in order to
find repetitious themes (Allan & Bertoia, 1992), initial dreams are nevertheless noted as they
frequently bring into focus matters of special importance (Bennet, 1966).
Recurrent dreams occur most commonly in youth, although they can occur at any age and
may even persist for years. These types of dreams usually indicate an unrecognized or
unresolved problem, especially when the dream involves a marked emotional tone with the
dreamer awakening near its climax (Bennet, 1966). Anticipatory-type dreams seem to anticipate
or foretell the future; however, Jung (1966) always assumed that, because it occurred in the
present, the dream was important for the present. Lastly, compensatory dreams provide us with

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mirrored reflections of our psyches. According to Jungian theory, we often dream about that
which is lacking and/or what we would like to develop inside of ourselves (Harris, 2005). When
conducting any type of dream analysis, counsellors should remember that there is no steadfast
rule when it comes to interpreting dreams; they may point to present life situations, look ahead to
the future, or could involve impersonal or personal material. In other words, dreams are
"unlikely to meet our conscious expectations" (Bennet, 1966, p. 87).

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CHAPTER 5- JUNGIAN INTERVENTIONS
Table 1
Summary ofJungian Interventions
Intervention

Ages

Possible Issues

Method

Materials

Activities

Picture/
Writing
Journals

8+

Sexual/Physical
Abuse
Self-Esteem Building
Anxiety/Depression
Self-Awareness

Weekly Sessions
of 20-30 minutes

Booklets with top half
blank and bottom half
lined

Directed:
Narratives/Stories;
Dream Joumals

Additional artistic
materials as needed

Non-Directed:
Self-Exploration/
Awareness

Parental Divorce
Grief/Loss
Anger Management
Self-Expression

Can be used
sporadically or
whenever client/
counsellor feels it
is necessary

Pencil and paper

Letters from Child:
To/From Archetype
or Significant Other;
Unsent Letters

Preferably
weekly; however
single sessions
may be beneficial

Sand
Tray/Box
Figurines
Water
Camera

Letter
Writing

Sandplay

8+

8+

Mood Disorders
Phobias
Relationship Issues
Sexual/Physical
Abuse

Letters from
Counsellor

Additional artistic
materials as needed

Directed:
Narratives/Stories
Non-Directed:
Self-Exploration/
Awareness

Note. Examples provided do not represent breadth of possibilities.

Picture and Writing Journals
Picture and writing journals are a means of helping young clients record aspects of their
lives, giving them the opportunity to reflect on what is important and meaningful to them (Allan,
1988). The simple act of recording something validates the experience for the child, which can
be therapeutic in and of itself. This exercise appropriately focuses on the child's imagination as
the source of reality, allowing his/her inner world to be rendered through drawings elicited by
either questions or contexts (Allan, 1988; Allan & Bertoia, 1992).

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Counsellors typically distinguish between diaries, recordings of chronological events
usually intended to remain private, and journals, commentaries on personal events, thoughts, and
feelings usually intended to be shared in some way (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). Journals can
become very important vehicles for developing children's expressive skills for both visual and
verbal languages, as well as for developing and maintaining a rich interior life. From a
counselling perspective, journals offer a means of communication in which clients can indirectly
communicate to the therapist the particulars of their circumstance as well as how they are
surviving in the world (Allan, 1988).

Serial drawing is a similar therapeutic technique to that of picture journals that many
Jungian therapists use when working with children (Green & Hebert, 2006). The client makes
serial drawings every week in the presence of the counsellor who then analyzes them together as
a whole (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). When talking about drawings and/or paintings, Jung (1959, as
cited in Allan & Bertoia, 1992) emphasized the importance of viewing them in series over
numerous occasions rather than analyzing only one or two pictures at a time. According to
Jungian psychotherapists, when a child draws in the presence of the therapist on a regular basis
the healing potential is activated and the counsellor gains a clearer and more accurate view of the
client's unconscious workings (Allan & Bertoia, 1992).
From a Jungian perspective, the drawings and writings that children create encourages
inner emotional and symbolic development. Journaling also provides a sense of free choice that
provides an expression and outlet for the child's unique sense of self (Allan, 1988). This process
allows clients to move from deep within themselves to an outward or public expression of their
inner reality (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). The use of diaries would not foster the aforementioned
development since they do not involve the sharing of one's inner world with someone else.

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According to Jungian theory, using journals that require both inner and outer expression activates
the archetype of the Self, which in tum sets in motion the inner drive of growth and development
(Allan, 1988).
Method
Picture/writing journals usually involve seeing a child alone, preferably once a week, for
anywhere from 20-30 minutes and asking him/her to either draw a picture or write something.
The counsellor' s verbal and non-verbal behaviours are critically important to implementing this
intervention. Most importantly, the therapist must believe that the exercise will help the child and
that the activity has psychological benefits (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). The counsellor's primary
role is to provide an environment that reflects unconditional positive regard, helps establish trust,
and enables the child to draw and talk freely and openly. As children vary so widely in their
styles of communication and interaction, the counsellor must be flexible. The time that the
counsellor and child spend together joumaling should be thought of as special time that occurs in
a safe and protected space (Allan, 1988).
Generally speaking, the therapist should follow the child' s direction, mirroring and/or
reflecting his/her current emotional and mental state (Allan, 1988). Throughout, as well as at the
end of each session, counsellors have the opportunity to either ask questions or make comments
about the child's journal. The following are a list of sample questions that counsellors can use to
facilitate interaction and/or a more in depth analysis of the child' s work: Can you tell me what is
going on in the picture? Does your picture tell a story? Does the picture have a title? What went
on in this story before this picture? What happens next? Practitioners should keep in mind that
the child's picture journal is not simply a drawing- it is an opportunity for the child to work
through their inner representations, issues, and conflicts (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). It is often

78
useful to alternate between painful and/or difficult experiences and more joyful and pleasurable
ones (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). Allan (1988) believes that it is better to start with a more negative
experience and end the session with a more positive suggestion or topic.
Materials

Allan (1988) feels that booklets (7 ~-by-9-inch) in which the top half of the page is blank
and the bottom half is lined, offer children the most room for creativity and expression for it
enables them to both draw and add sentences to their journal entries if they choose. Although
white paper and pencils are the only requirements, therapists should feel comfortable bringing in
other artistic materials as well. However, with such a short session time, some counsellors prefer
to keep crayons, rulers, and erasers out of view. Allan and Bertoia (1992) have noticed that
crayons seem to detract from the process as the child will spend a good deal of time shading or
colouring their drawings. Although colouring and shading can have therapeutic value in and of
themselves, in such a brief counselling context such activities might prove counterproductive.
However, if a child asks for crayons or an eraser, they should be provided.
Directed Activities

These refer to questions or sentence stems that the counsellor offers to the child, which
helps the client to focus on his/her inner world and emotional life (Allan, 1988). Suggestions of
general topics include "draw/write about a time when you felt happy ... sad ... fearful.. .mad," et
cetera. Counsellors may need to incorporate seasonal themes and activities, such as
Thanksgiving or Halloween, in order for the child to be more forthcoming about his/her thoughts
and emotions. Other directed activities include topics such as "things I like doing, things that are
hard for me, when I have a problem I, things I wish for, if! were invisible, my favourite dream,
my worst dream," and so on.

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Using narratives. A useful narrative-type strategy would be to tum the child's favourite

archetypal figure into a character of a story that could either be drawn or written down. Such a
story could also be co-constructed with the therapist. Possible questions could include: what do
you like about this character; what don't you like; who in your life is like this character; if you
could change something about them, what would it be; if this character could talk to you right
now, what would they say? When exploring archetypal qualities, it is usually better to allow
children to come up with their own descriptions first, only offering suggestions if they are unable
to come up with any themselves; however, in such cases it could be beneficial to let the child
express archetypal qualities through a different medium such as painting or sculpting.
Asking children what they want to be when they grow up can be another powerful tool
for accessing their archetypal and/or unconscious forces. In addition to their intended future
occupation, asking children who there favourite character is, or what storybook they like the
most, are other ways of accessing their unique energetic patterns of influence. Almost anything
that has symbolic meaning can be used to uncover a child's unconscious world, since these
forces are essentially symbols of the unconscious.
Working with dreams. In order to determine the prevalence of a particular archetype, it

may be useful to ask the child how often he/she thinks about that particular symbol or if it has
consistently appeared in his/her dreams . Doing so would help to eliminate the possibility of
arriving at a false positive in terms of the child's archetypal influences. Client's answers could
relate more to parental or societal pressures than to the child's own inner workings. For example,
responses based on appearance or recent trends may not be indicative of true archetypal forces.
Using journals to record and explore dreams can be a useful directed activity. According
to Garfield (1984), children dream significantly more than adults, with the former spending

80
approximately nine hours per night dreaming, while the latter about only four. A disturbing
cultural trend is that children are encouraged to dismiss their dreams as unimportant and
nonsensical, and so unworthy of exploration. This minimalization reduces the amount children
remember while also negating the value derived from working with their dreams (Allan, 1988).
This is where Jungian psychotherapy can prove especially useful for lung (1961) believed that
dreams are messages from the unconscious realm of feelings to the conscious mind. Dreams tend
to deal with people's emotions and symbolic life and are intrinsically related to people's mental
and emotional health.
Although dreams are neither "good" nor "bad" in the conventional sense, frightening or
recurring ones affect many children negatively. Often because of adult downplaying, children
repress these images until the power of the dream screams for attention (Garfield, 1984). An
effective way for counsellors to help their child clients gain a better understanding of their
dreams and to support those who are experiencing bad ones is to establish a program of dream
journal activities. According to Allan and Bertoia (1992), younger children may need to write
only a sentence or two and then illustrate the dream as a method of retaining its essence. With
older children (Grade 4 and up), more emphasis is initially placed on recording the dream; later
on the child can incorporate different aspects and/or illustrate certain segments as needed.
For children who have difficulty remembering their dreams, practitioners can instruct
their clients to do any of the following: (1) while falling asleep, think to yourself, "I am going to
dream and remember it," (2) keep a tape recorder or dream journal beside the bed and record
whatever you can remember immediately upon wakening, or (3) ingest certain foods that have
been known to increase the frequency and length of dreaming, such as a glass of warm milk
(Garfield, 1984). Luckily, the simple act of recording dreams validates their significance, which

81
in tum seems to stimulate increased incidence of remembering (Allan, 1988). The message to the
psyche is that the person' s dreams are important and that he/she is paying attention. This open
line of communication in tum allows for more opportunities for making sense of the messages
from one's unconscious, and hopefully learning from them.
Non-Directed Activities
While most Jungian therapists advocate letting the child work in their journals as they
wish to complement more directive activities, it is perfectly acceptable to only use non-directed
activities as the sole means of joumaling (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). During non-directed
activities, the counsellor focuses on working with the moment-by-moment emotional processes
that unfold during the session, rather than a specific topic. The purpose of non-directed activities
is to help the child connect to their inner world so that they can draw or write on a genuine aspect
of their life. Some children will readily respond to this type of activity, while others will voice
that they do not know what to do. For the latter, it is up to the practitioner to decide the best
course of action or question/comment to make. Reflecting the child' s current emotional or
mental state, using encouragement or positive reinforcement, or initiating non-directed activities
at a different time of day are some of the options available to counsellors to work with children
having trouble expressing themselves in this way (Allan, 1988; Allan & Bertoia, 1992).
Some children come to their session and begin drawing or writing even before the
counsellor has had a chance to instigate an activity. These children readily respond to the
counsellor's presence and therapeutic environment and seem to know what they want or need to
journal almost immediately (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). These particular children begin
psychological work right away and, in the early stages at least, need the counsellor only as a
witness to their works of art. It is important to use a non-directive approach with these children

82
because they are already connected to their own curative process and intuitively know what they
need to do and what they need to draw/write.

Letter Writing
Letters from the Counsellor
The majority of children enjoy getting mail, and many will happily send it in anticipation
of a response. Therefore, an effective supplemental technique for counsellors is the use of notes
and letters. Ideally, the counsellor will see the child face to face on every encounter; however, if
the child or therapist happens to miss a session, a brief note or letter can keep the therapeutic
bond alive (Allan, 1988). A personalized memo from the counsellor can become quite special to
a young recipient. A little sketch or cartoon, especially if it is of a theme that has come up in
previous sessions, can fortify the bond when the client needs it the most. When appointments
have been unavoidably missed, or when things have taken a turn for the worst, a note entitled
"I've been thinking of you" can mean a lot.
Letter writing also keeps the counsellor in touch with clients whose crises are not of high
priority but who still require needed support or just a reminder that they are still valued (Sperry,
2001). Using letters as a therapeutic tool works especially well when the counsellor becomes
unexpectedly ill, the child relocates to a different city or school, or when there has not been
sufficient time to resolve issues that have come up during a session (Allan & Bertoia, 1992).
Using letters in this way also has preventative value in that the client's additional or unforeseen
stressors can be curtailed through open communication and the maintenance of the therapeutic
relationship (Allan, 1988).
When writing letters and/or memos to clients, there are some considerations of which
counsellors should be aware. The first is that whatever is included should not reflect any

83
confidential or private information. It is also important to use language that the child is likely to
understand without adult translation (Allan, 1988). Printing rather than writing can be very
important for both the primary-aged and learning-disabled children. Cliche or judgmental terms
such as "Good for you," or "I'm proud of you for scoring so high on your test" can have a
negative effect, which is less easily rectified than in face-to-face sessions (Allan & Bertoia,
1992). It is also prudent that counsellors not make any "promises" in writing, especially for
appointments or other situations that are difficult to guarantee.

Letters from Children
Similar to journaling, children can write letters either based on promptings from the
therapist or entirely on their own accord. Children sometimes write spontaneously to their
counsellors whenever they feel the need to externalize a pain, concern, or worry, or to simply let
the counsellor know that a session is desired (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). Most child clients
appreciate the fact that they can write to their counsellors and that any information contained
within their letter will remain secure and confidential.
When children are currently going through, or have gone through, a difficult period in
their lives it can be helpful to ask them to write about it by putting their feelings into words.
Writing helps them to externalize their pain in a safe and protected space, which can relieve
some of the current emotional impact and allow them to integrate their pain into their conscious
awareness (Allan, 1988). Writing letters is also beneficial when communication between two
parties is impossible or unnecessary, or when there is a need to vent certain emotions in order to
regain stability (Allan, 1988; Allan & Bertoia, 1992). In these instances, the child is informed
ahead of time that the letter will not be sent, which helps to facilitate more open expression of
feelings. One of the greatest benefits to having clients write letters is that they realize that

84
whenever they are alone or struggling, they can always take out a piece of paper and write it out.
Although letter writing can work with children as young as 8 years old (Langer, 1986), older
children often enjoy this activity more as some may find picture journals too childish.
Writing letters to and from an archetype is a useful exercise that has been employed
successfully with adults (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). In the first letter, the child writes as him or
herself and includes in it what they would like to say to that particular archetype. At some later
point, they write a letter to themselves as if they were the archetype in question. The first letter
may end up being comprised of more questions or wanderings about who the archetype is and/or
what influence it has had in the child' s life, whereas the second could take on the form of advice
from the archetype and/or reassurance of the archetype's role. It is important to not
overemphasize the imaginative aspect of the archetypal character for it could detract from the
validity and/or belief in the importance of the client's unconscious forces.

Sandplay Therapy
The exterior appearance is a replica of inner desire.

-JANE ROBERTS

Sandplay Therapy is based on the premise that our own unconscious is comprised of
symbols and/or representations that can be accessed through corresponding ones in the physical
world (Kalff, 2003). The symbols that we are attracted to or repulsed by, for example, are said to
be communications from the deepest parts of our psyche (Mandelbaum, 2006). Therefore,
Sandplay can be seen as a bridge between our outer and inner world, the connection of which
allows for healing and fosters congruence in one's personality. In other words, the inner world of
the client is explored by creating representation in the outer, which facilitates healing. Sandplay
also opens the client to his or her own inner guidance and direction by expanding self-knowledge
and exploring personal mythology (Pearson & Nolan, 2004). It is an ideal therapy to use with

85

children not only because it sees the exploration of a child's inner world as an exciting
adventure, but also because it provides a language for the expression of disowned and buried
feelings. Sandplay gives children the space to find the best within themselves, while at the same
time allowing them to integrate any disowned parts of their psyche (Kalff, 2003).
The Process

There really are no "rules" in Sandplay apart from respect for the materials and that the
child is always correct in terms of his/her choices and arrangements (Pearson & Nolan, 2004).
Therefore, children are given free reign over the majority of the Sandplay process. The few
directions that are given are done so at the beginning of the session in order to inspire the child
and to offer him/her a template from which to work. While the child is choosing and arranging
the sand and/or figurines, it is important that the practitioner drops all he/she knows about
him/her. If the therapist has any expectations or assumptions about what the child will do or
choose, the counsellor can subconsciously limit the client's spontaneity and creativity (Kalff,
2003).
It is also important that the counsellor brings to the session a deep sense of presence and

focus, both of which helps to support the child's here-and-now awareness (Pearson & Nolan,
2004). In Sandplay, the therapist does not interpret for the child based on the premise that
meaning has no real lasting value if it does not come directly from the child (Mandelbaum,
2006). Therefore, counsellors attempt to remain as neutral as possible-essentially becoming a
witnessing presence along which the child can safely explore his or her inner world.
As the child engages in the Sandplay, there are numerous things practitioners should look
out for. Counsellors should notice which objects were chosen and how (Kalff, 2003). For
example, did the child display a strong positive or negative charge towards a particular symbol?

86
Did he/she take a while to think about his/her decisions or did he/she grab it instinctively?
Depending on which, this could give an indication as to which aspects of the child ' s unconscious
are more or less prominent and which ones need to be brought into awareness. Other symbolrelated observations include the placements of the objects themselves. For example, is there one
that dominates the scene or is hidden from view? Are there any that appear to be in a relationship
or power-struggle? Of course the meaning behind the symbols should also be considered. In
doing so, however, it is important to distinguish between three meaning perspectives or
orientations: (1) what they mean to me the therapist, (2) what they might mean to the child, and
(3) their traditional and/or collective meanings (Pearson & Nolan, 2004). Doing so helps to
prevent projection of any personal reactions and assumptions onto the client.
It is important to observe the client's overall energy when engaged in Sandplay. For

example, are the child's placements forceful and aggressive or lethargic and hesitant?
Practitioners are also encouraged to watch for changes in the child's posture, expression, and
mood as the story unfolds. More importantly, counsellors should pay attention to and record any
emerging themes that may arise---the finding of which may serve as the basis for future work
(e.g. attachment issues, parental relationships, other archetypal patterns, etc.).

Supporting Integration
The integration of the child's psyche is one of the primary goals of Sandplay Therapy
(Mandelbaum, 2006), and doing so requires maintaining the humble and respectful attitude
outlined above. Rather than interpreting for the child, clinicians should encourage the expression
of the child's story through gentle probes. Using questions like "I wonder where he/she came
from?" or "I wonder what that animal would say if it could speak?" encourages the child to come
up with his/her own meaning and interpretations. Practitioners could also encourage the client to

87
speak to each object or character and even create a dialogue between them, or even possibly with
the child him- or herself. Another useful question to ask is what the child sees in the objects (i.e. ,
their qualities, traits, possible relationships between, etc.). A valuable exercise to do following
Sandplay is to relate those qualities that the child has identified to the child him- or herself. No
matter what emerges during the course of Sandplay- including painful or negative emotionsits full expression is encouraged and its reality fully accepted (Kaliff, 2003).

Concluding Sandplay
One of the most important things to do when completing Sandplay is to reinforce any
energy that the child has either explored or gained (Pearson & Nolan, 2004). To reinforce such
energies, practitioners can recommend constructive activities or homework that the child can
complete in between the next session. The type of homework assigned would depend on the
presenting issue and the clinician's expertise. Taking a picture of the completed sandtray and
giving it to the child can help him/her remember and/or draw upon the energies that were
acquired or explored during the session (Pearson & Nolan, 2004). Taking photographs of the
sandtrays also helps to keep track of themes and recurring symbols throughout therapy. If themes
have been identified, the counsellor can ask the child to read or watch similarly themed fairy
tales or movies. The practitioner could also ask the child to write down the story he/she just
completed and then read it to a loved one. Again, this would help to imprint the acquired
symbols/energies, while also serving to increase personal responsibility and self-esteem.
As counsellors, whenever a Sandplay session is completed, it is important to ask oneself
the following three questions: ( 1) has the action led to integration (i.e., has the exploration been
usefully incorporated into the child's sense of self)? (2) has the play been complete in itself(i.e.,
are there any actions or components of the play that the child still needs to complete for

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integration to occur)? and (3) does it require any further analysis or discussion (i.e., resolution
may have already taken place with nothing more required; Pearson & Nolan, 2004)? Asking
these questions allows the counsellor to spot any "holes" that may prevent the child from
achieving his/her fullest potential for growth and integration. It also prevents any unnecessary
analytical-and possibly damaging-interpretations. Although Sandplay Therapy can be
challenging, it can also be extremely rewarding for the child. The unleashing of repressed
energies that occurs in Sandplay, as well as in other Jungian therapies, serves both children's
personal development and future learning.

Keeping Track of the Process
From a Jungian perspective, observing repetitious themes or patterns in the child's
creations is an important step in uncovering the workings of his/her unconscious (Allan, 1988).
Quite often, the child will pick up on one archetypal or symbolic theme and use it throughout
many of his/her drawings, writings, or sand tray scenes. The symbol is seldom used in a steadfast
or unchanging manor; rather, the image often undergoes change in its form and function (Allan
& Bertoia, 1992). There can also be movements or fluctuations between the positive and shadow

aspects of the same archetypal image. For example, when working with the Wise Old Man
archetype, the story or image may fluctuate between a male character who is helpful and
transformative to someone who is grandiose and egotistical. It is up to both the therapist and the
client to be willing to explore different variations of the archetype as well as be open to new or
alternate meanings.
When working with images and symbols, therapists should talk directly to the symbol as
if it were real (Allan, 1988). Turning the archetype or image into something purely fantastical or

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Table 2
Worksheet for Incorporating the Use ofArchetypes in Child Counselling
Archetype
Hero

Maiden

Wise Old Man

Medium
Comic
Book

Drawing

Letter

Qualities
Strong
Adventurous
Egotistical

Beautiful
Elegant
Vulnerable

Transforrnative
Helpful
Grandiose

Questions

Intent

Outcome

What sort of
adventures will this
Hero go on?

Establish
applicability

What makes a good
Hero?

Establish positive
qualities

Are you a maiden in
need of rescuing?

Determine
prevalence of
shadow

Child becomes
aware of
unconscious
motivations

If you could say
anything to this
archetype, what
would it be?

Open lines of
communication
between child and
archetype

lfyou could speak as
this archetype, what
would you say to
yourself?

Establish archetypal
influence

Child develops
personal
relationship with
archetype and
becomes familiar
with its influence

How would your
Maiden be rescued?

Child gains insight
into function of
archetype

Note. Examples provided do not represent breadth of possibilities.
imaginary could detract from the realness and/or usefulness of the intervention. In other words,
the symbol is used as a focusing device or vehicle through which further growth can occur. If
there are numerous symbols of pain, for example, the counsellor should select the one the child
seems most involved or identified with. When the counsellor accurately focuses in on the key
symbol or archetype, the child is usually willing to go ahead with additional creative projects
(Allan, 1988). The same focusing and extrapolation of archetypal themes can be used in all the
other therapeutic modalities mentioned herein. A worksheet (see Table 2) is provided as a tool
that practitioners can use to track the course of therapy when exploring children's archetypal
patterns using different mediums. It is suggestive in nature, with a few examples provided for
clarification. Tracking the child's archetypes in this way can facilitate the recognition of

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repetitious themes as well as clarify the counsellor's intent for using different mediums. No
matter what archetype or medium is used, it is the counsellor's genuine intent to explore the
child ' s inner world in a compassionate and humble manner that provides the catalyst for change
and growth.

General Considerations for Use with Children
Children's cognitive, emotional, and spiritual selves are qualitatively different from those
of adults, which means that counsellors cannot automatically apply the same rules or principles
of an approach to children. Fortunately, Jungian therapy is one of the easiest approaches to adapt
for use with children because the symbols and patterns of the unconscious are found at such a
primordial level. Young children often make vows to themselves and others to become scientists,
artists, doctors, and so on at a very early age-a fact that may be proof children have clearer
access to their unconscious patterns and impulses. Because Jung ( 1964, 1980) emphasized the
primacy of dreams, fantasies, and symbolic communication, and because children seem to be a
natural source of such phenomena, a Jungian approach to child therapy holds great promise.
Jungian therapy offers a valuable alternative to overly rationalistic therapeutic techniques
that have been developed for adults but simply transposed onto methods for treating children
(Allan, 1988). Focusing on the world of imagination as the primary source of disturbance as well
as healing (Allan & Bertoia, 1992), Jungian-based interventions offer children a plethora of
expressive avenues, figures, and symbols that can easily be incorporated into one's counselling
practice. When working with children's subconscious, the primary goal should be getting to
know the child's unconscious as children have yet to live through and experience the full breadth
of its contents. Applying Jungian theory to one's counselling practice is about learning to work

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with the symbolic energies of life as well as forming and keeping a window into the child's
internal world (Allan & Bertoia, 1992).
The Necessary Capacities and/or Developmental Stages section will attempt to delineate
the cognitive and emotional abilities necessary for children to participate and benefit from
Jungian interventions. It is suggested that these periods be used as guidelines only and that
practitioners would do best to rely on their own clinical judgment. It will be up to each clinician
to incorporate his or her own set of knowledge and beliefs regarding human development to infer
whether or not a technique is appropriate for a child. The mental/emotional/spiritual issues that
an intervention could be used for will also be included in the Appropriate Issues section. This
section will be suggestive in nature, as the clinical effectiveness of Jungian therapies on
childhood issues/disorders has yet to be established. Readers should be aware that the examples
given herein do not represent the full breadth of Jungian psychotherapy and that further resources
should be accessed as needed.
It is recommended that practitioners use personal discretion when attempting to treat

specific disorders or issues using an approach with which they have little experience. The
examples provided in the guide will be put forth as options that clinicians can either use with
clients or employ as models from which to generate their own ideas. As with any therapeutic
approach, a thorough assessment of the client's capacities and presenting issues is crucial in
determining whether or not he or she will benefit from the proposed intervention (Cortright,
1997; Lines, 2006; Sperry, 2001). Practitioners are encouraged to use only those modalities with
which they are comfortable and feel would benefit the client.
Another consideration when working with children is to be aware of the embarrassment
and ridicule they often face when discussing matters of spirituality (Schlarb, 2007). It is

92
imperative that the child feels safe enough to discuss occurrences they might think are "out of the
ordinary." Practicing from a transpersonal orientation also requires that counsellors remain open
to new ways of thinking and be non-dogmatic about their practice. The counsellor's own
intuition plays a vital role in all decision-making processes, while knowledge and theoretical
principles are considered secondary (Cortright, 1997; Sperry, 2001).
When implementing interventions, it is important to remember that techniques are not
ends in themselves, but merely ways of accessing the self (Cortright, 1997). In other words,
techniques are only tools from which to bring about change and that without the active
engagement of both the counsellor and the client, techniques alone are ineffective. Each person
can enter his or her own inner world more easily in some ways than in others, which means that
techniques must be tailored to clients' capacities and preferences to these ways (Cortright, 1997).
When working with children from a transpersonal perspective, it is best to approach each child as
a unique and complex being. This does not mean that counsellors should disregard all prior
knowledge, but simply apply that knowledge to the child rather than vice versa.
Necessary Capacities and Developmental Stages

While this project is not one of examining childhood development, it is imperative that
clients possess certain capacities in order to benefit from the proposed intervention(s). Rather
than delineating the expected outcomes for each stage of development for multiple theories, I
will outline only those that are necessary for a child to participate in the interventions found
herein. Counsellors should keep in mind that the ability to participate in a therapeutic exercise
does not guarantee an amelioration of the client's issue. Rather than strictly adhering to only one
theory or stage of development, clinicians are encouraged to look at their clients from a broad
spectrum of perspectives and to rely primarily on their own clinical judgment and intuition.

93

Piagetian p erspective. From a Piagetian perspective, Jungian psychotherapy could be
applied to children as young as 7 years of age, as this is the time when children begin to use
symbols to represent objects (Piaget, 1966). Known as the Preoperational Stage, it marks the
beginning of children's ability to personify objects. The child is now better able to think about
things and events that are not immediately present. Piaget believed that children at this age are
prone to fantasy and have difficulty conceptualizing time. They are easily influenced by
daydreams and tend to assume that others see situations from their point of view. Counselling
children at this stage of development must take into account the child's vivid fantasies and
undeveloped sense of time. Although these particular developmental limitations could be seen as
a hurdle to therapy, one could also argue that they may facilitate the employment of Jungianstyle interventions by focusing in on the use of symbol and imagery.

Emotional awareness. The emotional life of the child is another important dimension that
counsellors should consider when applying Jungian therapy to children. Children who enter
treatment tend to have difficulty understanding, regulating, and expressing their feelings (Allan
& Bertoia, 1992). Harter and Buddin (1987) have found a stage-related increase in children's

awareness of emotions that could have bearing on the implementation of Jungian interventions.
They found that preschoolers were able to explain how two feelings occur one after the other, but
had difficulty describing the simultaneous occurrence ofthe same emotions. In contrast, 11- and
12-year-olds were able to understand simultaneous emotions, even when the feelings were
conflicting and directed at the same target.
As far as implications for counselling, practitioners must be especially cautious when
working with children under the age of 10 who are experiencing conflicting emotions toward
either the same or differing targets. With younger children, counsellors will most likely have to

94
deal with one emotion/theme/person at a time and progress at a much slower pace in order to
give their clients enough time to process what they are experiencing. As Wagner (2008) notes,
" [t]he 6-year-old who fails to acknowledge both pleasant and unpleasant emotions for a parent or
peer may do so, not because she is denying these feelings but because of her stage of emotional
development" (p. 22).
Moral development. Therapists may want to consider a child's level of moral

development before implementing therapy. Kohlberg (1976, as cited in Wagner, 2008) proposed
a cognitive-developmental model of moral reasoning and believed that people's motivation for
action progresses from external to internal controls. In order to work with children from a
Jungian perspective, it would probably be most effective if the client were either in the latter
stage ofLevel I (Preconventional) or in Level II (Conventional). Children in Stage 2 of Level I
(Individualism and Exchange) am usually between the ages of 10-12 and are beginning to think
for themselves and recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by
authority figures . From a Jungian perspective, these children have begun the process of
individuation and could potentially benefit from Jungian therapy if they are approached with
care. Children found in Level II (Conventional Stage) are usually entering their teens and have
an understanding of societal rules and expectations, which means that they may be better
equipped to work with archetypal imagery and symbols as these children would have a greater
"social lexicon" from which to draw.
Drawing and writing skills. Counsellors who use drawings in therapy must also consider

the child's drawing skills. According to Light and Barnes (1995), at about 4 years of age children
begin to draw "tadpoles," human figures that contain only a large head with lines attached for
arms and legs. This inability to draw more elaborate and/or complex human figures could

95
prevent the client and counsellor from working with archetypal images since characteristic or
distinguishing features would be difficult to represent. Children younger than 8 years also have
difficulty representing the three-dimensional world in a two-dimensional space (Light & Barnes,
1995). Doing so requires the ability to portray both distance and occlusion, which means using
picture journals involving scenes or complex interactions between figures would most likely not
be beneficial for children under the age of 8. Because the detail in children' s drawings often
contains information that is relevant to treatment, the less detail the picture contains, the less
information the client and counsellor have to work with. Practitioners often use the activities,
number and placement of people, and location of a picture as stimuli to facilitate a child's
disclosure of meaningful events (Wagner, 2008).
Of course writing ability should also be considered when implementing a Jungian journal
intervention. Langer (1986) found that even at age 8, children differentiated clearly between
story telling and exposition. At this age, children had a general repertoire of story-telling devices
available to them and were able to compose fairly complex narratives. Between 8 and 14, their
stories became richer and more elaborate; however there was little change in overall structure. It
would seem that by 8 years of age, most children are able to work with and understand stories or
other journaling techniques .
Symbolic sight. With all Jungian interventions, it is important for the client to be able to

evaluate things symbolically (Allan, 1988). A tremendous limitation of overly concrete thinking
is to view the contents of our unconscious as a literal reality (Harris, 2005). The ability to think
symbolically allows the client full freedom to explore his/her unconscious and/or inner
meanings. Ifthe child tends to think too literally, then he/she may be unable to benefit from
working with the content of his/her unconscious. According to Piaget (1966), children only gain

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the capacity to think abstractly once they reach the Formal Operational Stage, which usually
starts around the age of 12. This stage is characterized by the ability to think abstractly, reason
logically, and draw conclusions from the information available. Practitioners should keep in
mind, however, that Pia get's developmental theory is based on Aristotelian logic, which some
researchers believe may not be children's primary mode of reasoning (Levine, 1999). Metaphoric
logic, which is based on associative meanings, may be children's primary mode of deduction.
Such a mode may make children more adept at working with their unconscious as it would make
symbolic meanings more readily visible and less likely to be obscured by literal interpretations.
Applicability. For Sandplay-based interventions, all of the aforementioned developmental

stages and necessary capacities would still apply. However, this type of intervention may have
broader applicability, as it does not rely on children's drawing or writing skills. Sandplay would
even work with physically disabled children, as the counsellor could be involved in the
placement and movement of objects in the sandbox. Out of all the interventions mentioned in this
project, Sandplay is perhaps the easiest for children to take part in since the act of"playing" is an
archetypal force in and of itself (Mandelbaum, 2006).
Appropriate Issues

While psychodynamic approaches have been found effective for anxiety, depression,
personality disorders, and interpersonal problems (Crits-Christoph, 1992; McMain & Pos, 2007),
there has been limited research done on the effectiveness of Jungian psychotherapy on specific
childhood disorders. The only problem with citing research on the effectiveness of
psychodynamic therapy is that it represents a diverse range of techniques based on various
theoretical orientations, some of which include classical drive theory, objects relation theory, ego
psychology, analytical psychology, and individual psychology (Wagner, 2008). Even though

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Jungian psychotherapy is considered a psychodynamic approach, practitioners must proceed with
caution when applying psychodynamic techniques to children based on the above findings.
Although it is tempting to infer that children suffering from the same disorders would benefit
from psychodynamic therapy, children's qualitatively different modes of reasoning and levels of
cognitive/emotional development may prevent such an extrapolation.
One option open to practitioners is to rely upon the results of studies that have examined
the effectiveness of similar child therapy modalities, such as play therapy. In a meta-analytic
review of the effectiveness of play therapy, Bratton, Ray, Rhine, and Jones (2005) found that
play therapy is equally effective for boys and girls of all ages and for a wide range of outcome
measures. They found a medium to large effect size for play therapy in the treatment of
behaviour issues, social adjustment, personality, self-concept, anxiety, family functioning, and
development issues. However, the researchers noted that heterogeneous samples, broad age
ranges, incomplete data, and other factors made interpretation of the findings difficult. Further
analysis revealed that effects were more positive for humanistic than for non-humanistic
treatments.
While meta-analyses of the effectiveness of psychotherapy can be extremely valuable in
describing the larger picture, the question over whether evidence-based treatments (EBTs)
outperform usual care is both hotly debated and highly significant in its implications for those in
the mental health disciplines. Proponents of EBTs maintain that interventions that have been
tested and shown to work are more likely to be beneficial than interventions that have not been
tested empirically and/or have not been shown to work. However, those in the field have
expressed concern that the evidence supporting EBTs is flawed in important ways and that the
EBTs themselves may be so structured, preplanned, inflexible, and hard to individualize that they

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will be unable to match the potency and effectiveness of real-world clinical care by providers
who are not constrained by protocols listed in manuals (Weisz, Jensen-Doss, & Hawley, 2006). It
is therefore suggested that counsellors do not rely solely on meta-analytic reviews when
determining the best course of treatment to take with a child client.
Green (2006) found Jungian Analytical Play Therapy (JAPT) to be effective in treating
child sexual assault survivors. Green (2007) has also shown JAPT to be useful when dealing with
children experiencing crises. JAPT's treatment plan involves three steps: (1) counselling a child
50 minutes per week in a controlled, emotionally, and physically safe environment; (2)
conducting one filial or family play therapy session with a child's family or legal guardians every
3 weeks; and (3) consulting with a multidisciplinary team of school- and community-based
professionals to provide a holistic form of care (Green, 2008). Jungian therapists have also
reported anecdotal evidence of Jungian therapy being effective for childhood anxiety,
depression, as well as other forms of abuse (Allan, 1988; Allan & Bertoia, 1992).
Based on the above findings on the effectiveness of play therapy, as well as anecdotal
evidence from Jungian therapists, Jungian-style interventions could most likely be applied to a
wide variety of childhood issues and disorders, including sexual and/or physical abuse, anxiety
disorders, phobias, mood disorders such as depression and bipolarism, anger management,
antisocial behaviour, and family/relationship issues. Working directly with the symbolic and
archetypal content of the unconscious would also likely be beneficial for self-esteem building,
highlighting personal strengths and/or weaknesses, increasing self-awareness, and/or intuition
development.
From a Jungian viewpoint, working with children' s unconscious could be used to help
children develop or minimize any quality that is associated with a particular archetype. For

99
example, if the child is lacking personal strength or assertiveness, then working with the Hero
archetype could prove beneficial. Whatever archetype is used, counsellors should make sure that
it is related to the child in some fashion and is meaningful to him or her, otherwise the desired
archetypal qualities may not translate well to the child (Allan & Bertoia, 1992). In other words,
the archetypal lesson that the child is attempting to learn is more readily acquired if the pattern
comes from the child him- or herself.
Using Jungian counselling with children experiencing parental divorce and/or a death in
the family can also be beneficial as the family unit is one of the most primordial archetypes and
tends to be shattered when families are forced to separate (Hopcke, 1992). Although divorce can
often be in the best interest of the family, as far as less fighting and more harmonious
relationships are concerned, children rarely want their parents to separate and will often cling to
their original familial -archetypal pattern as a way of coping (Allan, 1988).
Using unsent letters works very well for bereavement issues since grief often involves the
need to complete unfinished business. The child writes the things that need to be said, such as
matters that he/she found upsetting, or possible anger over the person's death. The expression of
these negative aspects of the relationship often allow the child to tap into the pain of the loss and
eventually incorporate the experience into their sense of self (Allan, 1988). The following
excerpt is from a letter written by 12-year-old-girl, grieving the death of her grandparents who
died 8 years earlier (Allan & Bertoia, 1992):
Dear Granddad and Grandmom,
I miss both of you very much. I wish we could go back in time and
I could see you again. I remember all those lovely gifts and hugs
you gave me. I also can remember your lovely smiles. But it is still
a shock to me that you are all gone. Have many people visited your
graves? I hope they have. I guess it's time to say goodbye.
Love, Sara (p. 84)

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Unsuitable Uses

Childhood disorders that appear to involve a biological component, such as mental
retardation, learning disorders, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, communication skills
disorders, pervasive developmental disorders such as autism, or severe psychosis (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000) would not be effectively treated using solely a Jungian approach.
This is not to say that children suffering from the aforementioned conditions could not benefit in
some way from Jungian-style interventions; but because they need specialized and often multifactorial-based treatment, it is unlikely that Jungian therapy alone would be sufficient. In
addition, any child lacking the necessary mental, physical, or emotional capacities outlined in the
previous section would also not benefit from Jungian techniques and could even prove damaging
as such children lack the necessary capacities to process therapeutic change.

Conclusion
There are only two ways to live y our life. One is as though nothing is a miracle. The other is as though
everything is.

-ALBERT EfNSTEfN

The fact that the spiritual lives of children are only beginning to be acknowledged
necessitates a certain degree of humbleness on behalf of the reader. Even though substantial
research on this topic has been presented, practitioners must remain open to new findings as they
emerge, including alternate interpretations and beliefs. As counsellors, I feel our primary stance
should be one of not kno w ing, and that if we ever find ourselves closed off to the experiences of
another, or to our own, we have rendered ourselves ineffectual. Journeying alongside our clients
as they navigate through their spiritual landscapes requires not only faith in the unseen, but also a
deep reverence for life. This is especially true when working with the vulnerable child
population. Working with children often provides practitioners with numerous self-

101

transformative opportunities, the least of which can be a newfound respect and wonderment of
life. It could be said that seeing the world through the eyes of a child-or conversely through the
eyes of the soul-are in effect one in the same for both are in awe of it.

102
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