COMPLEX TRAUMA AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATORS
by

Christine Jackson
B.S.W, University ofNorthem British Columbia, 2007

PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTERS EDUCATION
IN
COUNSELLING

UNIVERSITY of NORTHERN
BRITISH COLUMBIA
LIBRARY
Prince George, B.C.

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
April2013
© Christine Jackson, 2013

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Abstract

Despite society' s efforts to protect children from harm, many undergo profoundly
distressing life experiences that powerfully affect their development and functioning. There is
sufficient evidence documenting that psychological trauma in childhood is widespread. The
intent of this project was to create a manual to increase educators ' understanding of complex
trauma by including information about developmental trauma, the impact on children, and
intervention strategies. Moreover, it will foster educators' affective and intellectual awareness
and capacity to support children and families impacted by complex trauma in early care and
learning environments.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ......... ............................................. ... ..................... ........ ......... .. .... .... .... ..... ...... ........ ........... ii
Table of Contents ............. ........ ......................................................... ... .... .. .. ....... .......... ... ........ ... ... iii
List of Tables ..... .... .. .............................. .. ..................... ....... ............ ........................... .. ............... viii
Acknowledgement ........ ...... ... .. ........ ... .. ...... ... ....... .......................... ............. ... ..... .... .... .. ... ..... ........ ix
Introduction ........... ....... ... .... .. .. .... ... ........................... ...... ... .. ....... .... ....................... .................. ....... 1
Personal Location ........ .... ............... .. ....... ..... .......... .... ..... ............. .... ... ............... .. .......... ............ . 2
Significance of Topic ........... .......... .... ...... ....... ... ........... .. ......... ....... ..... ................. ... ....... ..... .. ..... 4
Rationale and Purpose ............. ......... .... ..... ... ... .... ... ... ....... .. .... ....... ........ ........ ... ........ ... .... ...... .. .. .. 6
Literature Review ....................... ...... ... ... ........ .. .... ........... ............... ... ...... ...... ..... ........ .. .. ...... ........... 9
Learning Theory and Complex Trauma Learning ............ ... .. .................. ........ ...... ... ...... .... ......... 9
Complex Trauma and Learning ...... ........ ... ..... ... ... .................. ...... ........... .. ........ .. ..... ...... .. ......... 12
Manual Overview ..................... ... .... ... .. ............. .. ..... ......... ........... ........ .......... .... ....... .. ....... ........... 14
Chapter 1: What is Complex Trauma? ........ ... ... ..... ........ ..... ........ ........ .. ......... .... .......... .. .. .. .. ... ..... 16
Defining Developmental Trauma Disorder .. .... ...... ... ....... ........... .. .... .. ..... ......... ... ... .. .... .... .. ...... 16
Impact of Complex Trauma on Development.. .... .... ... .... .. ..... ....... ... .... ..... ... .... ... ........ .. .. ..... ..... 19
What Role Can Early Childhood Educators Play? .................. .. ......... .. ....... .......... .. .. ... ..... ..... ... 25
Chapter 2: Attachment ... .. .. .. .............. .. ...... ................ ....... .... .. ... ........ .... .. .... .... .. ... .. ........... ........... 27
What is Attachment? ........... ...... ....... ... .. .. .......... ............ ......... ..... ...... ... ............. .... ..... .... ... ..... .. . 27
The Purpose of Attachment .... ... .... .. .... ... ...... ..... .... .. ............ ............ .. ................ .... .. ... .... ... ... .. ... 28
Attachment Styles ....... ... ..... ..... ... .. .... .. ... ..... ... ......... ... .................................... ..... .... ... .... ........ ... 30
Case Scenario ..... .. .... ............ ... ........... ..... ..... ................ .... .. .... ........ ...... ...... ........ .... .............. ..... 3 5
Questions for Reflection ...... .... ......... ... .............. .. ............ .. .......... ......... ..... .. ...... ....... ................ . 36

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Discussion Points ...... ..... .. ........... .... ... .......................... .... ... ... ........... ......... ... .......... ............ ...... 36
Attachment and Trauma ... ........ ... ......................... ..... ... ............ .... ............................................. 3 7
Case Study .... .... .................. ..... ........ ........................ .. ........ .. .... .................. ........ .. ...... .... ............ 38
Questions for Reflection ....... ................................ ...... .... .. ................... ..... ................................. 39
Role of Early Childhood Educators ......................................................................................... . 39
Chapter 3- The Developing Brain and Trauma ...... ..................................................................... 42
General Structure of the Brain ............. ............ ................ ..... .. ....... ... .... ............... .... ...... ....... .. .. 44
The Brain Stem .......................................................................................................................... 44
Limbic System ........................................................................................................................... 44
Cortex and Neocortex ....... ........ .. ............. .... .............................. .... ... ........ ................ ..... ............ 46
Neurobiology and Trauma ........... ............................ ...... ................. ........ ........... .. ..................... 47
Stress and Memory .. ............ ...... ........... .. ...................... ................ .......... .............................. ..... 49
Memory .... .. ...................... ..... .... .... ... ... ....... ... ...... ................. ....... .... ...... ... .... ................ .......... ... 50
Chapter 4: How does Trauma Impact a Child's Development? ................................................... 52
Emotions .................................................................................................................................... 54
Social and Behavioural. ............................................................................................................. 55
Cognition ........................ ........ .............. ................................. ................................. ... ....... ......... 57
Chapter 5: "If You're Sad and You Know It" ... ........................... ............. ....................... ............ 60
Emotions and the Brain ............................................................................................................. 61
Role of Attachment ................................................................................................................... 61
Role of Self-Regulation ......................... .. ................. ......................................... .......... .............. 63
Role of Affect Regulation ................... ...... ..... .............................. ....................................... ..... . 64
Other Skill Enhancing Activities .................. .................. ....... ......... .......... .... .... ........................ 66
'Take Space.' ........... ........................ ........ .... ..... ......... .. ................. ......... ............. ..... ..... .. .. ..... 66

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Feeling Thermometer .. .. .. ..... .......... .......................................................... .............. ............ .. . 66
Grounding Activities ............................. ....... ...... .. .. ..... ... ......... ... ........ ....................... ............ 66
3-2-1 Sensory Grounding ...................................................................................................... 66
Mindfulness ........................................................................................................................... 67
Mindful walking .............. ......... .... ................ .... ............ .... ...................... ...... .... ...... ............... 67
The Raisin Meditation ........ ... .......... .......... .... ....... .......................... .. ...... .......... ..................... 67
Comfort Boxes ....................................................................................................................... 68
Emotional Literacy ............... .... ....... ... ........ ... ........................................................................ 68
Books ......................................................... ............................................................................ 68
The Role of Early Childhood Educators ............ .... ......... ...... ............ ........................................ 69
Chapter 6: A Different Perspective on Guidance ...... ... .. ..... ................................................... ...... 70
Possible Reasons for the Behaviour. ........................ ........ ... ......... .................... .... ... ... ............... 71
Attachment Framework ............................................................................................................. 75
Role of the Early Childhood Educator ...................................................................................... 75
Tips and Strategies for the Early Childhood Educator.. ............................................................ 76
A void Talking at the Child .................................................................................................... 76
Create Safety ........... .... ..... ... ....................... ........ .. ....... ....................... ... ..... .......... .................. 76
Attunement. ............................ ... ...... ...... ... .... .. ....... ...... ........... ... ... .......... ........................... ... . 76
Opportunity for Recovery ........ ... ...... .......................... .. .............. .... ...... .... ... .. ........... ..... ... ..... 77
Routine and Predictability ........... ... .... ....... ...... ........... .. ........... ........... .. ................. ........... ..... 77
Assist with the Management of Arousal.. ........ .............. ........... ............................ .... ... .......... 78
Chapter 7: The "Resilience Factor" ... ... .................... ........ ..... .. ... ....................... ........................... 80
A Resilience Perspective ......................... ..... .... ....... ..................... ........... ................. ..... ... ........ . 80
Secure Attachment as a Protective Factor.. ...................... ....... .. .. ........ ... ........... ... ....... .... .......... 81

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Adversity and Risk Factors .. .. ..... .............................. ................ ........ ... ... ............... ....... ... ......... 82
Resilience and Childhood Trauma ................................................................................. ... ........ 83
The Role of the Early Childhood Educator in Promoting Resilience ....................................... 83
Case Scenario ... ............ .... .... ......... .... .......... .... .... .. ................... .... .............. ..... ....... ................ .. . 84
Questions for Reflection ........... ... ..... ..... ..... .. ... ... .... ...................... .. ........... .. ... ........ .. ......... ........ 85
Discussion Points ...................................................................................................................... 85
Promoting Resilience ...... .. ............... .... .... ............ ............................ .... .. .. ............ ....... ... ........... 85
Strong One-on-One Relationships ......................................................................................... 86
Create Stable and Predictable Schedules and Routines .... ........ .. ................. .......................... 86
Track Behavioural Cues ...... ......... ............. .. ........ ..... ........ ... .............. .................. .. ................ 86
Be an Emotionally Literate Educator .................................................................................... 86
Be an Interpreter .................................................................................................................... 86
Create Safe Spaces ................................................................................................................. 87
Be a Resilient Thinker ........................................................................................................... 87
Promote Classroom Well-Being .... ..................... .... .............. .. .. ............... .. ..... ............ .... ....... 87
Connect Children to Sensory Relaxation Activities in Nature .............. ............... ............. .... 88
Adopt a Classroom Pet .... ..... .. .................... ........ .. ............... ...... .... .... ..... ................ ....... ... ..... 88
Chapter 8: Don't Forget About Yourself! ...... .......... ..... .. ........ ............... ......... ................. ............ 90
What is Involved with Caring? ................ ....... .. ...... .. ...... ............. ........... ........ ... .......... .. ..... .. ..... 90
Signs ofVicarious Trauma .... .... ... ... ......... ... ................. ... .. ...... ... ...... .... ...... ... ....... ... ..... ... .......... 92
Taking Care ..... ........... ...... ....... .. ..... ... .... ........ ... ... ....................................... ............. ........ ....... ... 93
Stress Management ............... ...... .................. ............................................................................ 94
Supervision and Mentoring ...... ...... ................................. .......................................................... 95
A Moment for Reflection .. .... ..... .... ... ................ ... .... .......... ............ .............. .... ...... ..... .............. 95

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More Self-Care Ideas .. ... ... .. ........ ... ................ .... ... .... ... .... .......... .. ..... .... ..... ... ....... .. ............... .... 95
Take stock- What' s on your plate? ..... ... .. ........... ................... .... .. .. ... ... ..... .... ............. .. ..... .... . 95
Start a Self-Care Idea Collection ................. ............... .... ........................ .. ......... ..... ..... ... ....... 96
Have a transition from work to home ............................... .......... ..... .............. .. ... ... ........ .. .... .. 96
Concluding Thoughts ... .... .... ........ .. ... ...................... ........................ .................................. ............ 98
References .. ......... .. ........ ... ..... .......... ... ... ... ........................... ... ..... .. ... .. ...... ..... ...... .. ... ..... .. ... ........... 99

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Acknowledgement
This project would not have come to fruition without the encouragement, support,
patience, and dedication of many individuals. Thank you to my supervisor Linda O'Neill, whose
dedication, expertise, and encouragement helped make this project a reality. Thank you to my
committee members Corinne Koehn and Clarie Johnson for your patience, expertise, and
guidance.
Along the way many family members, friends, and colleagues offered inspiration,
support, time, and understanding. Thank you for being who you are and for always being there
forme.
To the children who have touched my life. They have shared their wisdom, their strength,
and their compassion. Without their stories, struggles, and heartache this project would not have
been created.
To my partner Ken, thank you for believing in me, for holding down the fort, and for
reminding me that life is not just about school and work activities, but so much more!

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Introduction

Many children, infants, toddlers, and preschoolers have been exposed to domestic
violence, child abuse and neglect, accidents, natural disasters, and war and are living with the
effects of trauma. Young children are vulnerable, in the short and long term, to experiencing
adverse outcomes from these traumatic experiences because they are undergoing a rapid
developmental period, have limited coping skills, and are strongly dependent on their primary
caregivers to protect them physically and emotionally. Brom, Pat-Horencyzk, and Ford (2009)
suggest that children who have been exposed to trauma have almost twice the rate of psychiatric
disorders as those not exposed, particularly in the presentation of anxiety and depressive
disorders.
Although millions of young children experience trauma every year, it is a population that
has been largely neglected until recently (De Young, Kenardy, & Cobham, 2011). Some
children, who are adversely impacted, show incredible resilience in overcoming their initial
stress or trauma and get back on their developmental trajectory. Others seem to alternate between
periods of resilient recovery and periods of recurrent distress and dysfunction. Still, other
children never seem to fully overcome the impact of psychological trauma and instead develop
chronic psychological, behavioural, and medical problems that may persist for the rest of their
lives, possibly becoming more extensive and severe over time (Brom et al. , 2009). Young
children affected by trauma can be found in childcare centres, family childcare settings, Head
Start Programs, and other early intervention programs. The relationships that children build and
the care they receive in quality early childhood programs can instil the strength needed to cope
with these traumatic experiences.

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This manual provides early childhood educators with knowledge on complex trauma, an
understanding of the impact of trauma on children ' s development ages two to five, and various
intervention strategies. Moreover, it fosters educators' affective and intellectual awareness and
capacity to support children and families impacted by complex trauma in early care and learning
environments.

Personal Location
Many years ago a set of siblings, Kevin and Jason, entered my life. I was still in the early
stages of my early childhood career and what I had learned up to that point was no match for
these two children. They were fluent in profanity, had wickedly-accurate throwing arms, and
conspired well together. Kevin and Jason attended full days with few breaks from the centre.
The time spent with these boys, and others during that same year, was very difficult, and many
times I contemplated my career choice. What I did not know at the time was how that year
marked the beginning of my search for another way of being as an educator.
During the first few years of my career, I learned some classroom management and
guidance techniques, such as the necessity of providing clear guidelines and, in some instances,
time-outs, from teachers with far more experience than me. It seemed that with each technique I
tried I gained more and more control over the children in my care, or at least the illusion of
control. I thought if the boys were given a bit more guidance and experienced some
consequences they would become less stubborn and less overwhelming. If I tried harder, became
sterner, used more behaviour modification techniques, maybe I could be the one to change the
behaviour. If they wouldn ' t sit still I would help them be still, or if they hurt children during the
day they sometimes missed out on outdoor play, or other experiences, even though that was

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probably exactly what they needed. As their troubling behaviour escalated, my colleagues and I
seemed to increase the consequences. As one might guess, the boys' behaviour only became
more intense. I knew my approach was not working for any of us. I didn ' t know why, or what
else I could do, and was left exasperated most days.
Looking back on my time with the children that year, I realize I was not being the
educator I wanted to be. I was in constant power struggles with the children and trying to stay
one step ahead of them at all times. This was exhausting, frustrating, and disappointing. After
this difficult time in my career, I began to wonder in a deeper way about what I wanted for the
children and myself, often asking the question, "Is this how I want to practice to be?" I knew it
was time to make some changes in my practice, but I had no idea how or with what to replace the
old strategies.
I have had the honour of being in the field of early childhood education for 24 years.
Sadly, Kevin and Jason are not the only children that I have met with what would be called
"challenging" behaviours. I witnessed their struggles, heard them be labelled as "bad kids," and
saw their teachers roll their eyes and sigh with disappointment upon seeing the child(ren) walk
through the doors in the morning. I realized that there had to be another way. I also knew that I
was not the only person who had struggled with understanding, supporting, and advocating for
these children. Early Childhood Educators often feel underappreciated, overworked, and under
resourced, especially, when they have children like Kevin and Jason in their programs. Seeing
the children and the educators struggle over the years, I felt my mind and heart grow heavy.
My time in the field of early childhood education has been one of growth, both personally and
professionally. Personally, I have grown into a compassionate, understanding, and determined

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educator and advocate. Professionally, my philosophy has become defined, shaped, and
strengthened by my desire to find the "best" in others and to give a voice to those who may not
otherwise be heard.
Significance of Topic
The field of complex trauma has grown with a deepened appreciation for the magnitude
of the problem. Over the past two decades, this expanded information offers hope to children,
families, early childhood educators, and other human service professionals as we learn
specialized techniques for supporting this population (De Young et al. , 2011). Children and
families can successfully manage traumatic experiences with the support from early childhood
professionals and others who understand children and trauma, and have the skills to support
children and families.
Early childhood educators have met children who have experienced traumatic events,
have lived in high-stress environments, or who are currently in a high-stress environment. A
three- year-old girl bites a boy, breaking the skin, because he brushed against the girl in the
process of sitting down in circle. A four-year-old boy clears off the shelves then pushes the
shelves over because he was asked to put his toys away before going outdoors. And another boy
sobs for a long period of time upon being dropped off that morning and is inconsolable. The
three-year-old girl has often had to fend for herself in a family with a history of violence. She is
hypersensitive to perceived threat and too quick to react when someone intrudes. For the fouryear-old boy, experience has taught him that he is on his own. His high adrenaline and cortisol
levels leave his body in a state of high alert and ready for action, suppressing the higher level
brain functions that may have helped him to remember to use his language to express his

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feelings, or to ask for assistance from an adult. The boy who sobs for a long time is fearful that
the separation may be permanent because he has been removed from the care of his biological
mother, and no one has shared with him what is happening, nor have they acknowledged his
wornes.
Loss of ability to modulate the intensity of feelings and impulses is possibly the most farreaching effect of trauma and neglect (van der Kolk, 1994). This inability to adjust these intense
emotions gives rise to a range of behaviours that are best understood as attempts at selfregulation. Some of these behaviours include aggression against others, self-destructive
behaviour, eating disorders, and substance abuse. Children who have been traumatized often
have difficulties developing the capacity to express specific and "differentiated emotions"
(Koplow, 2007; van der Kolk, 1994). Their difficulty with putting feelings into words interferes
with their capacity to regulate their experience - to calm themselves, to soothe themselves, to
interact in appropriate ways with other people, and to learn from their behaviour, which
promotes acting out.
Without understanding these children's early experiences and how these early
experiences impact their developing brains and overall development, educators may
unknowingly trigger and escalate the children's behaviours or leave them feeling alone, silenced,
or judged. Those with difficult and challenging behaviours do not bring out the best in peers or
adults, resulting in poor connections and struggling relationships. When children and adults react
to the behaviours of such children in a rejecting, stigmatizing, or punitive manner, they reinforce
a negative self-image that is in the process of forming. Unfortunately, the result can be that the
children who need us to be emotionally attached are the same children who are the most skilled

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at pushing us away. Researchers, like van der Kolk (2005), suggest that affective dysregulation
can be lessened by safe attachments with caregivers. This type of attachment plays a critical role
in helping children develop a capacity to regulate physiological arousal (van der Kolk, 2005 , p.
406).
Complex trauma is a term used to describe the problems of children' s exposure to
multiple or prolonged traumatic events and the impact of this exposure on their development.
Typically, this type of trauma involves the simultaneous or sequential occurrence of child
maltreatment, including psychological maltreatment, neglect, physical and sexual abuse and
domestic violence that is chronic, begins in early childhood, and often occurs within the primary
caregiving system. Exposure to these types of traumatic experiences can result in emotional
dysregulation, loss of safety, and the ability to detect or respond to danger cues. In the longer
term, it may result in setting off a chain of events leading to subsequent or repeated trauma
exposure in adolescence and adulthood (National Child Traumatic Stress Network, n.d.).

Rationale and Purpose
Early Childhood Education encompasses children from infancy to preschool (0-5 years),
the age period that is widely considered the most vulnerable and crucial stage in a person ' s life.
This is also the time when childhood trauma is significant because terrifying experiences during
this age period may have their most profound effects on the developing child. The central
nervous system and cognitive functions have not fully matured, leading to the possibility of
global impairment that may be manifested in adulthood psychopathological conditions (van der
Kolk, 1994). In spite of the growing evidence regarding effects of trauma on the developing
child, there is little information provided to Early Childhood Educators, despite the important

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role they play in the lives of children who have been impacted by trauma. For example, this topic
is briefly discussed in the Early Childhood Education curriculum, taught at the local college, and
has only recently become a topic explored in workshops and conferences. During my time as a
Bachelor of Social Work student, the topic of early childhood traumatology was given a brief
mention throughout the two year program. It was not until my Masters of Education in
Counselling that this topic was given the time and expertise it deserved, ultimately, inspiring me
to respond with the creation of this manual for Early Childhood Educators. Courtois and Gold
(2009) confirm my experience saying that "despite the establishment of a solid base of scientific
literature on trauma and the growing attunement of society and the media to the adverse
psychological and societal impact of traumatic events this area has yet to be incorporated into
core curriculum of graduate training in psychology and other professions" (p.l 0). As a result,
only a small number of students across human services, criminal justice, public health, medical
and behavioural sciences, and education receive any formal training in this vital area. The vast
majority of professionals interested in developing expertise in this area must fmd a way to
accomplish it on their own after their formal education is completed. These individuals often rely
on their own selection of reading material, specialized conferences, and continuing education to
further knowledge and skills.
The growing field of trauma counselling presents important literature and techniques for
Early Childhood Educators. This manual provides the reader with another perspective or an
affirmation of his or her current practice. Instead of seeing the child ' s behaviour, I want readers
to see the whole child and to remember each child comes to an early childhood program with his
or her own story. Our role as Early Childhood Educators is to learn their stories. This manual

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assists educators in learning, and understanding, the important and necessary stories that children
bring. It may also be used to gain insight into the children in educators' care, to find strategies to
implement in child care programs, and to develop in-services. Complex trauma is a sensitive
topic. With that in mind, some adults have their own traumatic histories and may learn new
material in different ways. Along with an overview of adult learning theory, I explore some key
factors to be considered when presenting material of a sensitive nature.

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Literature Review
Teaching Complex Trauma
In recent years greater emphasis has been placed on education and training in the field of

trauma and trauma psychology. As this movement unfolds, researchers suggest it will be
necessary to integrate basic trauma knowledge in undergraduate and graduate psychology
programs and to develop education and training modules (Courtois & Gold, 2009). Traditionally,
the courses have been an add-on that is not embedded in the rest of the curriculum. Courtois and
Gold (2009) feel an inclusive approach would be more effective because the research and skills
could be transferred to multiple learning experiences such as clinical training courses, practicum,
internships, and in research training. In addition to the inclusion of general material, a variety of
topics could be offered as specializations such as trauma theory, trauma and its effect across the
lifespan, risk and resilience factors, attachment and relational trauma, trauma memory and
cognition, cultural competency in trauma, child abuse and the developmental impact to name a
few (Courtois & Gold, 2009).

Adult Learning Theory
Adult learning theory referred to as andragogy, the art and science of helping adults learn,
has a long rich history that has shaped the understanding of adult learning and continues to be a
strong force, guiding the way adults learn. The notion of learning refers to a wide variety of
changes in an individual caused by experience. Learners enter the learning environment with
varying experience, backgrounds, and expectations, and the contexts within which learning takes
place have subsequently changed (Akiba & Aikins, 2010).

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Much of the adult learning theory comes from the organizational development field (OD)
where the focus on learning theory is seen as a way of providing employees with tools needed to
perform well in the workplace. OD practitioners coined the term andragogy to recognize the
needs and features of this distinct learning population and to separate adult learning theory from
traditional pedagogy (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011 ). Building upon theories from organizational
development, four principles characterizing adult learners were identified: (1) they are selfdirected, take responsibility for their own actions, and oppose information that is arbitrarily
imposed upon them; (2) they have experience; (3) they are ready to learn and, therefore, more
likely to engage in the learning process. Lastly, they tend to be task-motivated and are more
likely to want to cooperate with the teacher as they proceed through their learning process
(Kenner & Weinerman, 2011, p. 92).
This manual provides early childhood educators with the knowledge and tools effective
in supporting children who may have experienced an event they are reacting to as traumatic. It is
my belief that educators who read this manual will bring their personal and professional
experiences to it. Therefore, I want people to know that their existing knowledge and experiences
are invaluable to the work they do: this manual is a vehicle that affirms that knowledge and
builds on existing knowledge and skills.
Another characteristic of andragogy of adult learning is their orientation to learning
(Holyoke & Larson, 2009). Adult learners often want to see how their knowledge can be applied
to their lives whether it is improving their job performance, coming up with creative ideas for
their workplace, or devising ideas about how to handle family situations. Holyoke and Larson
(2009) suggest adding flexibility in course requirements to help the learner fmd ways to apply

11

knowledge to personal situations. When others share their real life applications of the content,
others may be invited to think of how the same knowledge could be applied to their own
situations.

Time Considerations
Crisis and general feelings of hopelessness drive people, in some instances, to look for a
quick fix and, in other instances, to glean information about how to develop a long term plan for
themselves, the child(ren), and the program. Time is fleeting for many front line practitioners, so
they want to get the most relevant and practical information in the shortest period of time. To
achieve this, people scan the material they have gathered and focus on the areas with the most
relevancy. Early childhood educators are no exception as they have limited work time to read
lengthy manuals and books; often they use their personal time to find that little tidbit of
information to lessen the feelings of hopelessness and ineffectiveness often experienced in this
work. This is a manual, so the material may be best understood by reviewing it in its entirety;
however, I want people to know the manual has flexibility. People may browse the sections and
focus on the pertinent knowledge and skills.

Culturally Responsive Teaching
As mentioned earlier, the material may also be used to develop workshops or in-services.
Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (1995) offer facilitators some elements of culturally responsive
teaching for consideration. The first element is inclusion, supporting the learner in feeling
respected and connected to others so they know they are key contributors. Everyone comes to a
new learning experience with knowledge. Facilitators can draw upon this knowledge through the
use of discussions and open-ended questions. The next element is the creation of a favourable

12

environment, intended to increase the likelihood that the learner will want to learn and fmd
relevance in the topic in order to make it applicable to individual life situations. When facilitators
use the knowledge of the group, people feel valued, increasing the likelihood they will continue
to contribute to the learning process. It is important to view the individual ' s experiences as an
asset.
Cultural competency is an area for facilitators to place emphasis on (Courtois & Gold,
2009). The impact and experience of trauma, as well as response to, is largely influenced by the
unique perspective of culture, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age, and disability status of
the individual encountering the traumatic event, as well as the personal characteristics and
previous history of the individual (Brown, 2008). Learners should be oriented to the importance
of these factors in forming a working alliance and "understanding perceptual and experiential
frameworks through which survivors make sense of and react to the trauma"
(Brown, 2008 , p. 17).

Complex Trauma and Learning
Creating safety is paramount for participants in trauma-focused training. Studying this
topic may elicit strong emotional reactions among those who have experienced traumatic events
and those who have not. The material may also cause discomfort and anxiety. Therefore, the
onus is on the facilitator to help learners recognize, accept, and manage their reactions to the
material being presented and discussed. Without safety, learners are unlikely to share difficulties
and the self-questioning that inevitably arises. These types of reactions are common; expressing
and addressing them is accepted. Recognizing and acknowledging one ' s own responses is an
essential component of supporting individuals with a trauma history (Courtois & Gold, 2009).

13

Thus, research suggests using a relational framework may be the most effective approach when
developing in-services or curricula (Courtois & Gold, 2009, p.l5). This perspective, among other
suggestions, asks facilitators to model humanness, openness, and to acknowledge their own
struggles with the stressors of working with individuals impacted by trauma. Doing so supports
learners in gaining the knowledge and resilience needed to engage with traumatized individuals
with compassion and appreciation for what they have been through.
The creation and promotion of safety provides a space for people to discuss the power
and privilege of the facilitator and the learners. This requires the facilitator to not only be
knowledgeable about trauma in children and adults, but also to have skills in addressing
perceptions of trauma, stigma, and the dynamics of power.
Another issue important for facilitators to understand is that feeling comfortable and
knowledgeable in this area is a developmental process (Courtois & Gold, 2009). Some learners
will understand the literature and research at an intellectual level; however, it is also necessary to
comprehend trauma and its impact on an experiential level (Courtois & Gold, 2009, p.l7). When
preparing the material, facilitators need to ensure that there is a balance between literature and
research, scenarios and/or group discussion so individuals can share their personal experiences. I
have attempted to provide such balance in the organization of material for early childhood
educators on complex trauma. The information from the literature provided me with a framework
for the development of this manual.

14

Manual Overview
Many children have had their lives changed forever due to multiple traumatic events that
are interpersonal in nature. Kaffman (2009) suggests childhood exposure to an interpersonal
traumatic stressor is extremely common and has been described as a silent epidemic. Worldwide,
approximately one third of children are estimated to experience physical abuse; approximately,
one in four girls and one in five boys experience sexual victimization (Anda et al. , 1999).
Without question, these statistics prove that these children are in early childhood
programs. Some will be noticeably struggling through their days, and others will struggle in
silence. This manual provides early childhood educators with some current knowledge of
complex trauma so they can respond to children living with complex trauma with understanding
and compassion.
The manual is divided into sections: it may be read like a book or it may be used as a
quick reference for readers who want to go directly to the section that covers a topic that is most
pressing in the moment. Chapter One provides the reader with a definition of complex trauma,
outlines the impact complex trauma has on young children, and discusses the important role
early childhood educators have in the lives of these children. Chapter Two looks briefly at the
theory of attachment and the vital role strong attachments have in children ' s development. It also
examines the impact of trauma on attachment styles and suggests how early childhood educators
can become strong attachment figures in children ' s lives. Chapter Three provides an overview of
neurobiology and the relationship between neurobiology and trauma. Chapter Four discusses the
significant impact of complex trauma on children ' s overall development, specifically the areas of
emotional competence, social and behavioural competence, and cognitive competence. Chapter

15

Five examines emotions, trauma, and attachment relationships in more detail and includes a few
programming ideas that can be used one-on-one or in groups to build capacity within the
children. Chapter Six invites the reader to consider children ' s behaviour through a traumainformed lens and offers alternative ways of viewing traditional guidance approaches. This
chapter emphasizes empowerment and hope. Chapter Seven reminds readers of children ' s
capacity for resilience and the opportunity early childhood educators have to nourish children ' s
resilience. Lastly, Chapter Eight reminds educators that caring, supporting, and understanding
children with complex trauma histories take its toll on people' s minds, bodies, and spirits. In this
chapter, early childhood educators are reminded take care of themselves. The chapter ends with a
few practical and creative ways to achieve and maintain well-being and balance.
Early childhood educators play a significant role in the lives of children and families on a
daily basis. I hope this manual provides early childhood educators with knowledge and tools to
continue doing this incredibly important job.

16

Chapter 1: What is Complex Trauma?
Despite society' s efforts to protect children from harm , many undergo profoundly
distressing life experiences that powerfully affect their development and functioning. There is
sufficient evidence documenting that psychological trauma in childhood is widespread (Layne et
al. , 2011). Courtois and Gold (2009) point to the lack of training concerning trauma in graduate
education in psychology, social work, and other professions despite the fact that in recent years
there has been greater emphasis placed on education and training in trauma psychology. Along
with this identified lack of trauma training at the graduate level is a gap in certificate and
diploma programs such as Early Childhood Education. In addition, as more and more educators
become aware of the far reaching adverse consequence of childhood trauma-informed workforce
has become apparent. A great place to start is in an Early Childhood Education setting. These
settings may be a part of a positive environment for children who are living with complex
trauma, and their caregivers should be a part of the trauma-informed workforce.
Defining Developmental Trauma Disorder
Trauma is an experience in which powerful and dangerous events overwhelm a person ' s
capacity to cope. When children are traumatized, they are experiencing reactions to the trauma
that affect their ability to function. Trauma is often considered an exceptional experience, an
experience that is powerful, shocking, and extraordinary with a highly unusual occurrence
(Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves, 2005). Everyone has the ability to cope with stress and
trauma; however, children ' s ability is limited for a number of reasons. First, they have developed
fewer coping skills, or strategies, than adults. Next, a child' s age, developmental stage, and
temperament affect the child ' s ability to manage overwhelming experiences (Fitzgerald-Rice &

17

McAlister-Groves, 2005 , p. 4). For example, a young child who is temperamentally more fearful
may have a harder time coping with trauma than a child who is older and less anxious. Children
also have to rely on their caregivers' ability to help them cope with the event or experience. If
those people, or other familiar adults, are unavailable or unable to help the child, the child is
more likely to be overwhelmed by the traumatic event (s) (Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves,
2005, p.4).
The traumatic stress field has adopted the terms "complex trauma" or "developmental
trauma disorder" to describe people ' s experiences with multiple and/or chronic prolonged
developmentally adverse traumatic events, most often of an interpersonal nature (within a child ' s
caregiving system) and early life onset (between birth and five years of age) (Courtois & Gold,
2009; van der Kolk, 2005). In contrast to complex trauma, acute trauma is often referred to as a
single traumatic event, such as a serious motor vehicle accident, that overpowers the child' s
ability to cope (Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves, 2005). Generally speaking, complex
trauma occurs within the child ' s caregiving system and may include physical, emotional, and
educational neglect and maltreatment. This disorder is marked by a wide range of challenges
including difficulties involving cognitive, affective, somatic, behavioural, relationship, and selfattributional issues (Courtois & Gold, 2009; van der Kolk, 2005). (See Table 1).
Between 1995 and 1997, the Kaiser Permanente and Center for Disease Control (CDC)
conducted a study led by Dr. Anda, with CDC, and Dr. Felitti, with Kaiser Permanente, where
over 17,000 patients voluntarily participated in routine health screening. The intent of the study
was to determine the relationship between childhood maltreatment and family stress (referred to
as "adverse childhood experiences") and later outcomes in childhood.

18

Table 1
Developmental Trauma Disorder

A. Exposure
- Multiple or chronic exposure to one or more forms of developmentally adverse interpersonal
trauma(eg, abandonment, betrayal, physical assaults, sexual assaults, threats to bodily
integrity, coercive practices, emotional abuse, witnessing violence and death)
- Subjective experience (eg, rage, betrayal, fear, resignation, defeat, shame)
B. Triggered Pattern of Repeated Dysregulation in Response to Trauma Cues
Dysregulation (high or low) in presence of cues. Changes persist and do not return to baseline;
not reduced in intensity by conscious awareness.
- Affective
- Somatic (eg, physiological, motoric, medical)
Behavioural ( eg, re-enactment or cutting)
- Cognitive (eg, thinking that it is happening again, confusion, dissociation, depersonalization)
- Relational (eg, clinging, oppositional, distrustful, compliant)
- Self-attribution (eg, self-hate, blame)
C. Persistently Altered Attributions and Expectancies
- Negative self-attribution
- Distrust of protective caregivers
- Loss of expectancy of protection of others
- Loss of trust in social agencies to protect
- Lack of recourse to social justice/retribution
- Inevitability of future victimization
D. Functional Impairment
- Educational
- Familial
- Peer
- Legal
- Vocational
(van der Kolk, 2005 , p. 404).
The results show overwhelming proof of the health, social, and economic impacts resulting from
childhood trauma. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study is one of the largest studies
conducted that examines the linkage between child maltreatment and later life health and wellbeing.
The study further demonstrated that adverse childhood experiences are more common
than previously thought and are powerful predictors of later adult health. For example, the results

19

found a significant relationship between adverse childhood experiences and depression, drug and
alcohol misuse, sexual promiscuity, domestic violence, and obesity. The study also highlighted
the greater number of adverse experiences, the more likely the person was to experience cancer,
heart disease, stroke, diabetes, skeletal fractures, and liver disease (van der Kolk, 2005, p. 402).
Another important study supporting the need for understanding complex trauma is the
Canadian Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect (CIS) (Trocme et al., 2005).
The CIS study reported that the rate of substantiated maltreatment cases in Canada increased 125
percent from 2003. The ACE study and the CIS national child health survey provide evidence of
the long term consequences of untreated trauma and maltreatment (Felitti et al., 1998), which
furthers the need for an inquiry into complex trauma so early childhood educators, and others,
have a deeper understanding of the range of challenges these children experience.

Impact of Complex Trauma on Development
Clinicians have struggled for several decades in deciding how to organize, or defme, the
"complex behaviours, emotions, and neurobiological sequelae of childhood trauma" (van der
Kolk, 2005, p. 403). Children are often given the label ofPost-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
because the DSM-IV includes a diagnosis for adult onset trauma. The literature, however,
suggests this is no longer an appropriate fit because a majority of the traumatized children do not
meet the diagnostic criteria for PTSD as it does not capture the number of exposures over critical
developmental periods (p. 403). Additionally, the developmental effects of childhood trauma, for
example, problems with self-regulation, aggression against self and others, problems with
attention and dissociation, physical problems, difficulties in self-concept, and the capacity to
negotiate acceptable interpersonal unexpected relationships are excluded (p. 403).

20

Table 2
The Impact of Traumatic Events Dep end On
A. The Child
Age
Developmental stage
Temperament
Developmental delay
History of emotional or behavioural problems
B. The Traumatic Event
Acute trauma
Chronic Trauma
Intensity
Child ' s proximity to traumatic event
Injury to the primary caregiver
Loss of the primary caregiver
Extent of physical injury to child
C. The Social Environment
Availability of the parent or other primary caregiver as a support to the child
Ability of the parent or other primary caregiver to help the child cope
Level of family stress and coping ability prior to traumatic event
Ability of the family to cope with current stressors
Family routines and stability
Availability of social supports in the community
(Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves, 2005, p. 10)
In addition to the trauma factors listed in table 2, trauma also presents differently
depending on the nature and frequency of the trauma. Terr (1991) proposes that childhood
traumas can be categorized into Type I or Type II traumas. Type I refers to acute single incident
events (i .e. an event that is "out of the blue" such as a traumatic accident or a natural disaster, a
single episode of abuse or assault, witnessing violence) and Type II refers to complex or
repetitive trauma such as ongoing abuse, domestic violence, war or genocide. Reactions to Type
I traumas are more likely to fit the cluster ofPTSD symptoms; however, Type II traumas are
more closely related to the cluster of difficulties related to complex trauma (van der Kolk, 2005).

21

It is important to remember that every child who is exposed to a traumatic event will have

a unique experience. Variables such as the type of traumatic event, the child ' s age, and his or her
developmental stage will influence how powerful and dangerous the traumatic event feels to the
child. The meaning ascribed by the child to the event and the way in which the child responds to
and copes with the event(s) will be highly influenced by the child' s caregiving environment and
the availability of social supports such as the presence of risk and protective factors (FitzgeraldRice & McAlister-Groves, 2005).
The presence of risk and protective factors within a child' s family and community greatly
influence a child ' s reaction to a traumatic event. Risk factors increase vulnerability to
experiencing trauma after a traumatic event and are accumulative in nature. The risk of poor life
outcomes rises sharply as the number of risk factors increase. Protective factors decrease the
likelihood that a person will experience severe and enduring trauma reactions and are
accumulative in nature. Many protective factors are simply the reverse of a risk factor. Risk
factors, such as a lack of support from neighbours or extended family, increase the chances that a
powerful, dangerous experience will overwhelm the child ' s capacity to cope. On the other hand,
protective factors, such as a stable home environment, can help a child successfully cope with an
adverse experience. The adult-child relationship is the most crucial protective or risk factor for
children exposed to traumatic events. Table 3 outlines a number of possible risk and protective
factors and are not intended to be in cause-effect or relationship order.
Children who live with complex trauma have likely been exposed to an environment
marked with multiple and chronic stressors, often with the caregiving system intended to be the
child ' s primary source of safety and stability. The cumulative influence of these experiences is

22

seen on immediate and long-term behavioural, functional, and mental health outcomes. There is
growing consensus that early-onset and chronic trauma results in an array of vulnerabilities
across seven areas of functioning (Aideus, 2007; Cook et al., 2005; Perry, 2002).
Table 3
Risk and Protective Factors
A. Risk Factors
- Trauma (exposure to violence and/or abuse and/or neglect and/or experience of early loss)
- Poverty with associated chronic and episodic crises and stressors
- Community risk
- Lack of prenatal care and/or poor prenatal nutrition
- Prenatal substance abuse/or substance abuse during pregnancy
- Teenage parenthood
- Parental mental illness
- Parental criminality
- Parents who have not experienced nurturing parenting
- Large family size (more than four children)
- Marital discord
- Poor temperamental fit between caregiver and child
B. Protective Factors
- Warm, caring, nurturing, contextually and experientially rich, stimulating environment that
provides opportunity for sensory experience and promotes attachment to caregiver
- Stability, security, and structure; low distress
- Safe community
- Good prenatal care
- Close bond with primary caregiver who need not be biological parent
- Parental competence/education
- Supportive grandparents/supportive siblings
- Supportive teachers/ successful school experiences
- Parents with good parenting skills
- Small family size (less than four children)
- Family harmony
- Personal characteristics of child: low emotionality; active, alert, high vigor, drive
sociability; easy, engaging temperament (affectionate, cuddly); self-help skills; above
average intelligence (language and problem-solving skills)
(Werner & Smith, 1989)
The first area is attachment: the child experiences uncertainty about the reliability and
predictability of the world; social isolation; distrust and suspicion; interpersonal difficulties such
as conflict with parents/caregivers, siblings, peers, and teachers; difficulty attuning to the
emotional state of others; and misunderstanding and misinterpretation social cues (Cook et al.,

23

2005; Kaplow, 2007). The second domain is biology: the child experiences symptoms such as
sensory processing issues manifested as hypersensitivity to physical contact; analgesia (absence
of sensitivity to pain); upper body weakness; problems with coordination, balance, body tone;
sensitivity to sounds, tastes and smells; various somatic illnesses manifested as headaches,
stomachaches, and limb pain; and increased medical problems (Aideus, 2007; Cook et al. , 2005).
The third domain includes affect or emotional regulation: difficulty de-escalating; chronic and
pervasive depressed mood or sense of emptiness; chronic preoccupation with suicide; difficulty
describing feelings and internal experience; and explosive anger or inhibited anger (Aideus,
2007). Dissociation is the fourth domain: distinct alterations in states of consciousness, amnesia,
depersonalization and de-realization (Cook et al. , 2005). The fifth is behavioral control: poor
modulation of impulses, self-destructive behaviors (self-injury), aggressive behavior, sleep
disturbances, eating disorders, substance abuse, difficulty understanding and complying with
rules, and oppositional behaviors or excessive compliance (p.392). The sixth domain is
cognition: difficulty in attention regulation and executive functioning, problems focusing on and
completing tasks, difficulty planning and anticipating events, learning difficulties, and problems
with language development (p. 392). The seventh domain is self-concept: lack of continuous and
predictable sense of self, low self-esteem, feelings of shame and guilt, generalized sense of being
ineffective in dealing with the environment, and belief that one has been permanently damaged
by the trauma (Cook et al., 2005; van der Kolk, 2005).
Much has been written about child growth and development in the early years. While the
developmental theories may vary, no one can deny the transformational process young children
go through during their developmental journey. Given a supportive and nurturing environment,

24

the healthy child's developmental agenda will unfold, achieving predictable milestones. The
early childhood education community has grown to respect the child's developmental process
and has advocated to structure early childhood education programs in accordance with the
child's developmental agenda. Such knowledge guides early childhood professionals and helps
the educator from imposing expectations that are at odds with the developmental tasks of each
age group.
Despite having a strong operational understanding of child development, an early
childhood educator will come across children who seem ill-equipped to follow her/his own
developmental agenda. "Many essential ego functions seem out of sync or qualitatively different
from those of other children" (Koplow, 2007, p. 4). In a case like this, "The child's internal
disorganization spills over the classroom like a geyser, threatening to drown the child, and
others, compelling the educators to act swiftly to stop the flow" (Koplow, 2007, p. 5). The
educator may have little to no knowledge of the child's experiences which would provide insight
to his or her puzzling developmental status. The child's psychosocial history may include
disruptions, deprivations, and traumas that the educators have no knowledge of. Perry (2002)
suggests traumatic experiences can have a profound impact on the development of the child,
possibly altering his or her physical, emotional, cognitive, social, and spiritual development.
Moreover, Perry (2002) reminds us that traumatic events in childhood "increase the risk for a
host of social (i.e. teenage pregnancy, anti-social behaviour), neuropsychiatric (i.e. posttraumatic stress disorder, conduct disorders), and physical health problems such as heart disease
and asthma" (Perry, 2002, p. 2).

25

The responsibility of educating young children is rewarding and challenging, but the
emotional toll on educators can be enormous. Initially, an educator may feel empathetic toward
the child yet exasperated as she/he struggles to contain the child ' s difficult behaviours and to
follow her/his "idiosyncratic developmental path" (Koplow, 2007, p. 4). The frightening and sad
tales that fill the child's psychosical history may provide the educator with insight into the
child ' s experiences or environmental reality and may leave the teacher at a loss as to how to
proceed with the job of facilitating the child ' s development. The educator may ask her/him self,
"How does it happen that difficult experiences can seize or change the developmental process of
a young child?" "What role can I play?" These questions, and others, are important for educators
to explore because understanding the development of young children and the impact of
experiences, both positive and negative, on the child, family, and educators is an essential part of
an early childhood educator' s work with young children and their families/caregivers.

What Role Can Early Childhood Educators Play?
The response of the child's social support system is perhaps the most important factor in
determining the child outcomes and is "more important than objective elements of victimization"
(Cook et al. , 2005 , p. 395). These supports strongly mitigate the development of further trauma
symptoms and enhance a child ' s capacity to resolve the symptom. Caregiver support is a critical
mediating factor in determining how children adapt to victimization. There are three main factors
in a caregiver's response to a child' s trauma: believing and validating the child' s experience,
tolerating the child ' s affect, and managing the caregivers' own emotional response (Cook et al.,
2005, p. 395).

26

When a caregiver denies the child 's experiences, the child is forced to act as if the trauma
did not occur. The child also learns he or she cannot trust the primary caregiver and does not
learn to use language to deal with adversity. Cook et al. (2005) suggest that it is not the caregiver
distress per se that is necessarily detrimental to the child. Instead, when the caregiver's distress
overrides or diverts attention away from the needs of the child, the child is adversely affected (p.
395). Children may respond to their caregiver's distress by avoiding or suppressing their own
feelings or behaviours, by avoiding the caregiver altogether, or by becoming "parentified" and
attempting to reduce the distress of the caregiver (van der Kolk, 2005).
Sometimes, children who have been traumatized rekindle painful memories or feelings in
the caregiver. Caregivers who have had impaired relationships with attachment figures in their
own lives are especially vulnerable to problems in caring for children. Those with histories of
childhood complex trauma may avoid experiencing their own emotions, which may make it
difficult for them to respond appropriately to their child ' s emotional state. The caregiver, or
educator, may interpret the child ' s behavioural response to trauma as a personal threat rather
than as a re-enactment of what happened to the child or a "behavioural representation of what the
child cannot express verbally" (Cook et al., 2005 , p. 396).

27

Chapter 2: Attachment
What is Attachment?
Attachment describes a reciprocal process whereby an emotional connection develops
between the infant and the caregiver. This two-way process develops over time, and there is an
expectation, on the infant's behalf, of care and protection. It can be described as a pattern of
emotional and behavioural interactions where infants express a need for attention, comfort,
support, or security. A caregiver's ability to perceive, interpret, and react promptly to the infant's
need and attention in tum influences the quality of the attachment relationship. Attachment
research is a field of developmental psychology that examines how patterns of communication
between parent and child shape the development of the child in various domains, such as the
social, emotional, and cognitive areas (Siegel & Hartzell, 2004).
Attachment influences the child's physical, cognitive, and psychological development
becoming the basis for the development of trust vs mistrust. Infants are pre-programmed
to engage their caregiver with innate behaviours such as looking, smiling, crying, and
clinging; often referred to as attachment behaviours (Siegel & Hartzell, 2004, p.5).
The need for human beings to be attached to someone who can provide them with safety
and reassurance when they are frightened, anxious, or tired was first introduced by John Bowlby,
the originator of Attachment Theory, and later by Mary Ainsworth (Purnell, 2004; Sroufe, 2005).
The work of these early pioneers highlighted the factors that promote secure attachments such as
experiences through facial expressions and eye contact, emotional attunement, and play.
Bowlby's Theory of Attachment provided a biological basis for understanding close, protective
relationships. A central innovation of this theory is the recognition that a child's desire for

28

proximity to his or her mother is a "biological drive which has been selected in evolution, rather
than a behaviour which is learned to satisfy other biological drives such as hunger" (Maunder &
Hunter, 2001, p. 557). If maintaining proximity is a fundamental need, attachment behaviour can
be understood as a set of tactics, or strategies, that have been learned to achieve optimal
proximity. An infant, defenseless on his or her own, maintains proximity to her or his mother via
a complex system of communications and behaviours, which increases the infant' s chances of
survival (Maunder & Hunter, 2001 , p. 557). Attachment behaviours can be smiling, vocalizing,
crying, and approaching. The evolutionary benefit of the attachment system is that it motivates
the infant to seek proximity to the parent, especially at times of distress, thus increasing the
infant' s chances of survival (Siegel & Hartzell, 2004).
Attachment theory is a theory about close interpersonal relationships. It is a theory that
helps us understand the nature of relationships between children and those who have the
responsibility of caring for them. It informs our understanding of how these early relationships
influence later psychological development (Rolfe, 2004). And, most importantly, for early
childhood educators, it is a theory that provides guidelines for caregiving interactions and
relationships that nurture children's optimal psychological growth and well-being.
The Purpose of Attachment
Those who study attachment believe that children's first relationships, especially with
their parents or other primary caregivers, address two basic needs. First, the physical presence of
the parent/caregivers can reduce a child ' s fears when in new or difficult situations so the child
can explore his or her environment confidently and manage stress that may come with such
exploration (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Secondly, attachment relationships strengthen a child's

29

sense of competence and efficacy. The adult' s reliable and consistent response to the child
strengthens the child ' s awareness of being able to influence others and affect the world (p. 236).
Fraley and Shaver (2000) believe the attachment system essentially "asks" the following
fundamental question:
"Is the attachment figure nearby, accessible, and attentive? If the child perceives the
answer to this question to be ' yes,' he or she feels loved, secure, and confident, and,
behaviourally, is likely to explore his or her environment, play with others, and be
sociable. If, however, the child perceives the answer to this question to be ' no,' the child
experiences anxiety and, behaviourally, is likely to exhibit attachment behaviours ranging
from simple visual searching on the low extreme to active following and vocal signalling
on the other" (Fraley & Shaver, 2000, p. 136 ).
Children learn about themselves, how to regulate emotions, and how they can expect the
world of people to be through early relationships. Attachment theorists use the term " internal
working model" (Rolfe, 2004, p. 8). Essentially, an internal working model is the child' s mental
representation, or a blueprint, of how to handle present and future relationships. As children
interact with others, they build up a view of themselves and form expectations about how others
will respond (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000; van der Kolk, 2005). A child ' s internal working model
is defined by the "internalization of the affective and cognitive characteristics of their primary
relationships" (van der Kolk, 2005 , p. 402). If they experience being responded to in a caring,
sensitive, consistent, and reliable way, then they develop a view of the world as generally a safe
place to be where generally people can be trusted. They also develop a view of themselves as
loved and lovable, a critical foundation of healthy self-acceptance and self-esteem (Rolfe, 2004).

30

In contrast, children whose attachment figures are insensitive, harsh, or unpredictable, or
are psychologically unavailable, cannot develop the same trust. Instead, these children must
develop strategies, "psychological defences such as avoidance or ambivalence to cope with
rejection or uncertainty" (Rolfe, 2004, p.8). These experiences make children feel vulnerable,
inadequate, and unloved. At the extreme, children who experience abusive, neglectful attachment
figures, or who have attachment relationships severely disrupted by separations, particularly
between six months and between three and five years, such as multiple foster-care placements,
may have a view of themselves as unlovable. Early patterns of attachment affect the quality of
information processing throughout life (van der Kolk, 2005).

Attachment Styles
Infants can be reliably classified in attachment typology based on Ainsworth's
standardized Strange Situation in which the infant is presented with stressful situations that
include the presence of a stranger, separation of the infant from his or her primary caregiver, and
reunion (Maunder & Hunter, 2001). Infant-caregiver interactions as well as the child's response
to separations, reunions, and the unfamiliar adult are observed and recorded. As a result of the
assessment Ainsworth identified in the Strange Situation procedure, infants in the secure
category use the attachment figure as a secure base for exploration, show some distress on
separation, but are easily soothed by the attachment figure on her/his return and become settled
in to play fairly easily. Those in the resistant/ambivalent category are generally very distressed
on separation and have difficulty settling upon reunion, sometimes showing angry, resistant
behaviour mixed with contact-seeking to the attachment figure (Maunder & Hunter, 2001,
p.557). This attachment style may be the result of interrupted or inconsistent parental care.

31

Maunder and Hunter (200 1) suggest infants learn that turning to their attachment figure
for security will be intermittently reinforced. While, on the other hand, the need to be vigilant for
the presence and loss of the other is more strongly reinforced. Proximity, once obtained, is often
not soothing, resulting in persistent anxiety. Those in the avoidant category show little contactseeking either before or after separation, minimal sharing of affect with the attachment figure,
often little distress during separation, and marked avoidance (ignoring, moving away, gaze
avoidance) during reunion (Rolfe, 2004, p. 28). Eventually the child learns that seeking comfort
or closeness through crying and clinging is pointless.
A fourth category, termed "disorganized or disoriented," has been more recently
identified by Main and Hesse ( 1990). Infants who fall under this category show confused,
contradictory behaviours in the presence of their attachment figure, particularly during the
reunion episodes. There may be signs of fear because there is a history of frightening behaviour
on the part of the attachment figure. Main and Hesse (1990) note that these frightened behaviours
may be subtle and not necessarily overt.
A secure attachment pattern is thought to be the result of receptive, sensitive care giving.
The caregiver responds in a deliberate way to the infant's cues, providing both stimulation and
nurturing. The caregiver is a protective source of "mutual regulation" which is accomplished
through mirroring the child ' s responses, including facial expressions, tone, and excitement or
calm, and the child eventually develops the ability to self-regulate (Aideuis, 2007).
Consequently, infants are able to internalize regulation strategies offered to them by their
caregivers and learn to communicate and interpret nonverbal signals. If a satisfactory attunement
takes place between the caregiver and infant, this experience will translate into a sense of

32

security for the child, and the child' s internal working model will be that of a caregiver who is
responsive in time of trouble (De Zulueta, 2006). This type of mental representation provides a
sense of safety and security which provides the infant with the confidence to explore and interact
with the world knowing a significant caregiver will read the infant's affect accurately and will
provide physical comfort and reassurance when needed. The child ultimately seeks proximity to
his or her adult because the adult is viewed as a "safe haven" or someone who "has their back."
These infants will "feel confident and capable of empathising with others, thereby forming good
attachments and will learn to trust both what they feel and how they understand the world" (De
Zulueta, 2004, p.5). In the case of traumatic stress, this type of responsive caregiving provides
the child with a supportive environment in which to recover from and make sense of the
overwhelming experience and helps the child restore a sense of safety and control (Purnell, 2004;
van der Kolk, 2005). Secure attachment is essential to the foundation of a child ' s development
and is the cornerstone for emotional regulation. The basic attachment need for a secure base is so
strong that a child will always attempt to develop an attachment with his or her caregiver(s),
usually a parent(s), regardless of how the caregiver(s) respond to the attempts (Rolfe, 2004).
Unfortunately, caregivers are not always effective at consistently providing attunement or
able to modulate a child ' s response when under distress. Insecure attachments develop when
infants do not have a mental representation of a responsive caregiver in times of need, such as
when they feel fearful or in need. As a result, these children have trouble relying on others to
help them and are unable to regulate their emotional states by themselves. Consequently, they
experience "excessive anxiety, anger, and longings to be taken care of' (van der Kolk, 2005 , p.
403). Consequently, infants and young children develop organized strategies of maintaining the

33

attachment relationship in order to survive (De Zulueta, 2004). Three types of insecure
attachment behaviour have been recognized using the Strange Situation - resistant or anxious,
avoidant, and, later, disorganized which was discovered by Main and Hesse (1990).
When a caregiver fails to respond to the infant' s needs sensitively and with attunement,
then the child will adapt his or her behaviours and develop what Ainsworth called an Anxious, or
Resistant attachment (Purnell, 2004). Anxious attachment is demonstrated when an infant works
hard to make his or her presence known to the inconsistent caregiver so they are not ignored.
However, once they have the attention of their caregiver, they do not sustain contact long enough
to become settled. This leads to a clinging, angry behaviour and, according to Sroufe (2005), this
attachment style may lead to anxiety disorders in the future (p.361).
Avoidant children learn to maintain their proximity to their rejecting parent by "acting as
if the parent does not matter, but when separated their heart rate increases betraying their fear"
(De Zulueta, 2006, p. 6). This attachment style is associated with the experience of indifferent or
rejecting caregiving, with infants learning that to "make the relationship work" they must
minimize their attachment bids since these generally evoke angry rejection by the caregiver
(Sroufe, 2005 , p.358). The infants view the attachment figure as unavailable, and they attempt to
cope with the attachment related distress by themselves. Because of these strategies, "avoidant
children may appear precociously independent and emotionally autonomous" (Rolfe, 2004,
p.36). Rolfe (2004) notes the child may lean away from, or put a toy between his or her body and
that of the attachment figure if picked up. This infant may even appear to prefer a stranger over
the attachment figure, tend to repress negative emotions, and have difficulty relating to peers
(Siegel & Hartzell, 2004; Sroufe, 2004).

34

A fourth attachment style, Disorganized, was identified in the 1980s by Main and
Solomon. In cases where caregivers are both terrifying and the only source of comfort in the
face of terror, no organized strategy can be developed by the child (Rolfe, 2004). Children within
this attachment category display an unpredictable response in relation to their caregivers because
the caregivers become the source of fear and exhibit unpredictable behaviours and responses.
The frightening behaviour may be subtle and not necessarily overt. This attachment style is
usually seen in children who have been abused by their attachment figures, who have suffered
major attachment disruptions, such as multiple foster placements, and/or multiple failed
reunifications following removal from parental care due to protective concerns, or whose
attachment figures are themselves overwhelmed by previous attachment related losses and whose
caregiving behaviour is usually characterized as being "frightened" (De Zulueta, 2004). The
disorganized behaviours shown by the child not only are incoherent but they also expose the
unresolvable stress and anxiety that the child experiences in response to the attachment figure
(Rolfe, 2004).This leads to contradictory attachment tendencies, for example, the child feels
afraid and wants to approach the caregiver for comfort, but that person at the same time is the
source ofthe child's fear.
Research in this area has demonstrated that it is not the quantity of attachment behaviour
displayed that is important in understanding attachment relationships (how much the infant
approaches the attachment figure and how long proximity is maintained), but how these
behaviours are organized (when the infant is most likely to approach the attachment figure and
under what circumstances closeness is maintained) (Rolfe, 2004).

35

Case Scenario
Samantha, Abigail's caregiver, recorded the following observation of her behaviours over
the first few hours one morning at the childcare centre. As you read her description, think about
the material covered thus far, particularly what constitutes attachment behaviour in the child and
the conditions under which this behaviour are most likely to be elicited.

Abigail, who is one year of age, comes into the centre in the arms of her mom, Anna.
Anna appears frustrated and more rushed than usual. She comments that the family had a late
night and slept in. Consequently, she had to wake Abigail, breakfast was a disaster, and now she
is running late for work. And, she wonders if Abigail is not feeling well.
Abigail appears quieter than usual and resists going into my arms when her mom begins
to leave, something that I have not observed for a while. Abigail cries loudly when her mom
leaves, again an unusual occurrence, and she takes longer than normal to settle.
During the morning she seems to relax, but three aspects of her behaviour are worth
noting. First, she appeared far more sensitive than usual to the coming and going of adults in the
room. When the door opens, she often notices and looks, carefully checking out who it is. She
seems more aware of minor disruptions to routine, such as when an unfamiliar adult comes in to
talk to one of the caregivers. Additionally, she is more "clingy " than usual, following me
around, wanting to be held, and shows distress when I leave the room for my break. My
colleague Shannon comments that Abigail did not want anything to do with her while I was gone,
despite her attempts to hold her and comfort her. Thirdly, Abigail does not seem interested in
play activities today. It is as if her need for my comfort and reassurance is getting in the way of
her exploration and enjoyment of the toys and activities around her.

36

At around I 0 am, Abigail's mom phones the centre and asks to speak to me. She is in
tears and anxious to know how Abigail is doing. She says on days like today she just wants to
forget about work and be with her daughter. In all, Anna calls the centre three times before
lunch (Rolfe, 2004, p. 37).
Questions for Reflection
•

Which behaviours in Abigail may be considered attachment behaviours?

•

Why is Abigail fmding it more difficult to separate from her mom this morning?

•

Why do you believe she is more "clingy" and watching the door more than normal?

•

What do you think contributes to Abigail not settling for the other caregiver, Shannon?

•

What is influencing Abigail ' s lack of exploration in the room?

•

How should Samantha, the caregiver, respond to Abigail today? What does she need?

Discussion Points
Samantha's observations of Abigail are consistent with a heightening of Abigail's
attachment needs. She may be more tired than usual or, as her mom suspects, may not be feeling
well. Abigail may also be unsettled by events at home in the morning. Under these
circumstances, attachment theory would predict that Abigail may be more anxious about
separation from her mom, and Anna more anxious about separation from Abigail.
Abigail's initial reluctance to go to Samantha, her distress at the departure of her mom,
and the time it took to settle make sense from an attachment perspective. Abigail's need for the
closeness of her mom as her primary caregiver is a normal, secure response. In the absence of
her mom, Abigail's need for nearness and the reassuring presence of Samantha as her main
attachment figure at the centre is also a normal, secure response.

37

Abigail's rejection of attempts by caregivers other than Samantha to settle her and her
sensitivity to change show that Samantha needs to be more conscious of and sensitive to
Abigail ' s' needs today. They show how important Samantha is to Abigail ' s feelings of security
at the childcare centre and the secure nature of the emerging relationship between the two of
them. Abigail needs frequent cuddles, gentle talking and touching, and careful attention to
routines.
Anna also needs extra comfort today. Attachment theory reminds us that it is natural for
primary attachment figures to be more concerned about their child if he or she is unwell or
unsettled . Given the circumstances, Anna' s response does not mean she is unhappy with the
centre, dissatisfied with the carer, or questioning Samantha' s ability to look after Abigail. She is
just seeking reassurance and making contact with her child in the only way possible for her at
this time.

Attachment and Trauma
Attachment is one of the seven domains impacted by complex trauma. It is clear that the
parent-child relationship is the most crucial risk or protective factor for children exposed to
traumatic events. The lack of capacity for emotional self-regulation is probably the most striking
feature of some traumatized children (Streek-Fischer & van der Kolk, 2000). The caregiverinfant bond serves to not only meet the biologically instinctual drive for infants to maintain
physical proximity to caregivers to maintain physical comfort in order to sustain life, but also
serves the second purpose of regulating emotional distress (De Zulueta, 2004). Children who
have a secure attachment to their parents demonstrate greater resilience following traumatic
events because parents with securely attached children appear to provide their children with

--------------------- -- - -

38

inner resources that enhance their coping abilities when confronted with a traumatic event and,
most importantly, regulate their emotional distress or state (Brom et aL , 2009). According to
Main and Hesse (1990), these resources are tied to "internal representations that may involve
optimism, self-reliance, a sense of self-worth, trust in others, and the ability to form relationships
and cooperate with others" (Brom et aL, 2009, p. 83).
When a child develops an insecure attachment style with the primary care figure, the
child experiences uncertainty about the reliability and predictability of the world because the
adult who is suppose to "have their back" is unreliable, untrustworthy, and at times frightening.
When the attachment figure is not present to modulate the child's emotions, especially when
highly aroused due to fear or uncertainty, the child develops an internal working model that says
adults cannot be trusted and I am not lovable or worthy of their love and attention. Eventually,
this may lead to interpersonal difficulties such as conflict with parents/caregivers, siblings, peers,
and teachers; difficulty attuning to the emotional state of others; misunderstanding and
misinterpretation social cues: and uncertainty about the reliability and predictability of the world
(Aideus, 2007).
Case Study

For this case study, think about the categories of attachment discussed and consider how
you might apply the material presented to the following scenario.
Four year old He/ina is playing happily with three of her friends in the outside play area
of her preschool. They are laughing and making zooming noises as they ride their bikes around
and around on the path. Unexpectedly, He/ina and one of her friends collide. He/ina bumps her
knee and gets scared. She starts to cry and, looking around, sees her teacher Steven standing not

39

far away. She calls out to Steven, and then runs to his side. He talks calmly to her and gently
rubs her knee. Within a few moments, He/ina wipes away her tears and begins to smile. Steven
helps her back on her bike, and she is off again, calling out to her friends.
Questions for Reflection
•

What behaviours shown by Helina specifically indicate the security of her relationship
with Steven?

•

If this was an avoidant relationship, what would you expect Helina to do when she gets
scared?

•

If this was a resistant relationship, what would you expect Helina to do when she gets
scared?

•

What behaviours, shown by Steven, are consistent with the development of a secure
relationship?

Role of Early Childhood Educators
Early childhood educators play a special significance as caregiving figures and can
support secure attachments with the children in their care. Educators can fulfill this role, even if
the children have one or more secure attachments within their family. For children with insecure
attachment experiences, the role of the early childhood educator in the development of resilience
is even more crucial. Rolfe (2004) suggests children can move from less positive to more
positive internal working models if the quality of their caregiving becomes more sensitive and
responsive, or they have opportunities to experience this kind of care for the first time with their
childcare providers (p. 83). Naturally, this is not an automatic outcome, particularly if children
have experienced severe attachment related trauma. Children whose emotional needs have been

40

ignored or rejected may hide their feelings or refuse comfort. This can be confusing or even
alienating to a responsive, sensitive educator (p. 83).
Early attachments are important not only as indicators of the caregiver-child relationship,
but also for their significant effects on other aspects of the child ' s functioning. They appear to
have the most consistent and enduring influence on young children ' s social and emotional
development, although they also foster the exploratory behaviour that is so vital to early learning
(Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Therefore, it is necessary for early childhood educators, and
managers, to ensure consistency in staffing, attunement, and responsiveness by the educators for
children who have, or are, experiencing a trauma. Children who consistently experience
nurturing and responsive caregiving are more likely to explore their environment through play,
using their caregivers as a secure base. Through this type of approach, the educator develops a
deeper understanding of each child and is able to anticipate his or her needs, thus making it
easier to meet these needs in a group environment. In this way, children will develop social
competence and be attuned to the emotions of others (Colmer, Rutherford, & Ebert, 2011).
Being responsive to, sensitive to, and consistent with children requires a high level of
commitment, self-understanding, and self-awareness. As we have seen from an attachment
perspective, and later a resilience perspective, the balance of supports and stress in our lives and
our own history of early attachment relationships can each impact on the quality of relationships
that we develop. Educators each bring their own relationship patterns and internal models of
attachment to their work with young children. The quality of the earliest relationship with
children depends on the educator' s capacity to be emotionally available, consistent, sensitive and
responsive. When educators provide a combination of warm, responsive, positive interactions, as

41

well as continuity and consistency, they are facilitating the development of a secure relationship.
This secure base, or relationship, develops a child's sense of connection and belonging, thus
providing a foundation on which children can build future relationships.

42

Chapter 3 - The Developing Brain and Trauma
Childhood is a unique period of progressive physical, cognitive, behavioural, and
emotional development. Paralleling these developmental stages are changes in brain
development (Malchiodi, 2008; Perry, Pollard, Blakley, Baker, & Vigilante, 1995). The last
decade has witnessed an impressive expansion of our knowledge of the brain (Malchiodi, 2008).
A greater understanding of the neurodevelopmental process has come together with progress in
understanding the connection between exposure to trauma and the emotional, behavioural, and
cognitive difficulties exhibited by some children. This knowledge has resulted in recognition that
trauma reactions are both physiological and psychological experiences (Perry et al., 1995;
Streeck-Fischer & van der Kolk, 2005).
Developmental experiences determine the organizational and functional status of the
mature brain. The impact of traumatic experiences is best discussed in context of the basic
principles of neurodevelopment. The human brain is an amazingly complex organ composed of
over 100 billion neurons (Perry et al. , 1995). The brain is organized into systems to sense,
process, store, perceive, and act on information from the external environment (e.g. visual,
tactile, olfactory, and auditory) and the internal environment (signals associated with hunger);
these complex systems work together to ensure the survival of the species (Perry et al. , 1995;
Siegel, 1999).
Neural pathways, the major working unit of the brain, are activated by direct experiences.
Though experience shapes both the activity and strength of neuronal connections, early
experience may also be crucial in organizing the way brain structures develop (Siegel, 1999). For
example, traumatic experiences at the beginning of life may have profound effects on the deeper

43

structures of the brain which are responsible for basic regulatory capacities and equip the brain to
respond to stress later in life (Siegel, 1999, p. 13). Common, everyday experiences also shape
brain structure; however, early in life, interpersonal relationships are a primary source of the
experience that shapes how a child ' s brain functions throughout life. Siegel (1999) posits
relationships have a dominant influence on the brain because the "circuits responsible for social
perception are the same or as tightly linked to those that integrate important functions controlling
the creation of meaning, the regulation of bodily states, the modulation of emotion, the
organization of memory and the capacity for interpersonal relationships" (Siegel, 1999, p. 21).
Siegel ' s (1999) assertions suggest that interpersonal experiences play a significant role in
determining the development of brain structure early in life and the ongoing emergence of brain
functions throughout the lifespan.
In 2009, the Centre on the Developing Child launched a collaboration with the Interactive
Media Division of the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California to
create the Brain Hero. The clip illustrates how brain architecture is built early in life and through
experiences; unfortunately, this early brain architecture can be derailed by serious adversity early
in life. The clip portrays how actions taken by parents, educators, policymakers, and others can
affect positive life outcomes for the child and the community
(http://www. youtube.corn/watch ?v=s31 HdBeB gg4).
As this clip underscores, children may experience serious adverse experiences, impacting
the architecture of the brain. Fortunately, with awareness and knowledge, steps can be taken to
mitigate the impact of traumatic experiences. Educators can support children who have been
traumatized by having working knowledge of the physiology of trauma, understanding how the

44

brain is organized, and knowing how the body and mind react to traumatic events (Malchiodi,
2008; Perry et al, 1995).

General Structure of the Brain
The brain develops in a sequential and hierarchical fashion - from less complex
(brainstem) to most complex (limbic and cortical areas). These areas develop, organize, and
become fully functional at different times during childhood (Perry et al. , 1995). The human brain
is often described as consisting of three parts: the brain stem, the limbic system, and the cortex.

The Brain Stem. The brain stem, the first area to develop, is responsible for regulating
basic functions such as reflexes, the cardiovascular system, and arousal. The cerebellum,
connected to the brain stem, is responsible for coordinating motor, emotional, and cognitive
functioning. Together these areas are often referred to as the "reptilian brain" because they
function like the brain of reptiles (Malchiodi, 2008).

Limbic System. The limbic system includes a group of structures that form a ring around
the brain stem: the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. Often referred to as the
"emotional brain," the limbic system is the source of urges, needs, and feelings. Some ofthe
primary functions include self-preservation, the fight or flight response, and implicit memory
(Malchiodi, 2008). It also contains a variety of structures important for understanding an
individual's response to trauma and acts like a bypass system, allowing for quick emergency
responses. VanderKolk (2003) notes that this system fine tunes the regulatory functions of the
hypothalamus and brain stem and serves as a filter that determines what sensory input is relevant
for further mental processing (p. 304). The thalamus is a structure at the centre of the brain, just
above the brain stem, acting as a relay station for incoming stimuli and "allows for the senses to

45

be used in combination" (Creeden, 2009, p. 262). The hypothalamus lies just below the thalamus
to maintain homeostasis and to exchange information between the brain and body (van der Kolk,
2003).
The amygdala starts functioning almost immediately after birth, monitors incoming
stimuli for possible threats, and stores information about the threatening stimuli. It also serves to
deactivate the threat when danger is detected; in essence, it becomes the child ' s smoke alarm
(Creeden, 2009). The amygdala has close back and forth communications with the areas of the
brain involved in attention, memory, planning, and behaviour control. Animal studies indicate
that when the amygdala is hyperstimulated there is a "hypersensitization of the fear-stress
circuits of the brain and changes the animal ' s behaviour to look more like an animal version of
posttraumatic stress disorder" (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p.213). Shonkoff and Phillips (2000)
describe hypersensitization as if the fear circuits were being locked in the "on" mode and having
difficulty turning off (p. 213). The fearful experience, or memory, activates the stress response
systems and elevates the levels of different stress chemicals circulating through the body. One
such chemical is cortisol, a steroid hormone that plays many roles in stress physiology,
suppressing the immune system, physical growth, inhibiting reproductive hormones, and
affecting many aspects of brain functioning, including memory (primarily how memories are
processed and stored) and emotions (Siegel, 1999). The release of cortisol initiates autonomic
responses such as increased heart rate and blood pressure and defense reactions like fight-orflight-or freeze (van der Kolk, 2003).
Persistently high cortisol levels can be especially damaging in children. When stress
continues over days, weeks, or years, many of their developing systems are ' arrested', sometimes

46

causing permanent damage . "Unusually high cortisol levels form constant stress slow physical
growth, delay sexual maturity and can slow the growth of brain cells" (Stroud, 2002, p. 428).
The hippocampus serves as a hub for memory and learning and appears to be involved in
the processing of all conscious memory (Creeden, 2009). Unfortunately, the hippocampus, which
puts danger in special context, matures only gradually over the first five years of life, making it
difficult for children to identify and organize the nature of threat (van der Kolk, 2003). Vander
Kolk (2003) suggests there is good evidence that early abuse and neglect significantly affect the
maturation of the hippocampus, which makes children with such histories vulnerable to
misinterpretation of sensory input in the direction of danger and threat (p.294).
Cortex and Neocortex. The third region of the brain is the cortex and neocortex, or the
"thinking brain." This is where reasoning, communication, and planning occur. This region gives
people the capacity for language, consciousness, and the ability to think, but also to think about
thoughts (meta cognition), behaviour, and emotions (Malchiodi, 2008). The prefrontal cortex is
responsible for executive functioning, including making choices between right and wrong or
good and bad and mediating conflicting thoughts and governing social controls such as
suppressing emotional or sexual urges (Creeden, 2009). "Typically, as humans develop, the
prefrontal cortex exerts control in regulating limbic and brain stem responses" (Creeden, 2009, p.
262). VanderKolk (2003) suggests "for children to learn from experience means the incoming
input must be registered in consciousness compared with what the child already knows, and
evaluated for an appropriate response" (van der Kolk, 2003 , p. 297). This process proves to be
difficult for some children because they cannot integrate the experience into the explicit memory
and end up keeping it a sensory or emotional memory instead of a memory with a narrative.

47

Neurobiology and Trauma
Levine and Kline ' s (2007) statement that "Trauma is in the nervous system- not in the
event" (p. 4) points out the individual nature of responses to stress. When stress is intense,
severe, or prolonged, the neuronal makeup of the person is affected (Cook, Ciorciari, Varker, &
Devilly, 2009), so much so that their stress tolerance is near its breaking point at all times,
particularly for young children who have not yet accumulated a history of security or
homeostasis (Perry et al., 1995).
Exposure to recurrent or prolonged trauma, especially when the onset occurs during early
childhood, "can cause neurobiological changes such as alterations in the volume and activity
levels of major brain structures such as the corpus callosum and the limbic system" (Brom et al. ,
2009, p.184). The limbic system is developed so that the child responds to cues of danger, but
the neocortex is not yet developed enough to determine whether the cue represents actual danger
or not (Norton, Ferriegel, & Norton, 2011). When a child experiences an initial threat, an alarm
system is activated. This system increases activity in the sympathetic nervous system: increased
heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and a sense of hypervigilance, and other stress response
systems in the brain may occur (Perry et al. , 1995). When the alarm system is activated, children
cannot access the neocortex, which is responsible for reasoning, language, and brain regulation.
Consequently, children often cannot describe what is happening for them or make logical sense
of their immediate experience. Instead, their response is fight, flight, or freeze. The activation of
the sympathetic nervous system also releases hormones that interfere with normal growth and
development of the brain; the impact depends on the windows of vulnerability for each region.
Early in life, the brain is adaptable and the flexible (due to plasticity), allowing the brain to make

48

the necessary modifications in development so the individual can cope with the stress or trauma
he or she may encounter throughout life. If the brain stem and the limbic system develop in a less
optimal fashion, the development of all other regions will be impacted.
If children are exposed to unmanageable stress and an adult does not take over the
function of modulating the child' s arousal, the child will be unable to organize and categorize
experiences in a coherent fashion (van der Kolk, 2005). Unlike adults, children do not have the
option to move away or protect themselves; they depend on their caregivers for their survival.
Being left to their own devices leaves traumatized children with deficits in emotional selfregulation. This results in problems with self-regulation, uncertainty about the reliability and
predictability of others, aggression against others, problems with attention and dissociation,
physical problems, difficulties in self-concept, and the capacity to negotiate satisfactory
interpersonal relationships (van der Kolk, 2005). These trauma reactions are believed to occur
when the responses of the limbic system used to mobilize oneself in the face of personal threat is
not utilized in a helpful way (Malchiodi, 2008). Perry and colleagues (1995) suggest that
adaptive physiological responses to traumatic experiences become a central feature of how brain
structure and function are organized when individuals endure repeated trauma and trauma cues in
childhood (p. 278). Everyday stressors that may not have elicited any responses now elicit
exaggerated responses such as hyperactivity and over sensitivity because the child feels as if he
or she is in a persisting state of fear (p.279) . Consequently, people tend to observe maladaptive
emotional, behavioural, and cognitive problems embedded in the child being adaptive to the
traumatic event.

49

Stress and Memory
The term stress is used by psychologists, physiologists, and the lay public and means
different things to each (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). For this manual, stress refers to the "set of
changes in the body and brain that are set into motion when there are overwhelming threats to
physical or psychological well-being" (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 212). Stress can have
dramatic effects on health and development. When the body is under stress, the physiology of
stress produces a shift in the body' s priorities. The degree of stress a person experiences is
directly related to the effect on memory; according to Siegel (1999), "small amounts of stress
have a neutral effect on memory, moderate amounts facilitate memory, and large amounts impair
memory" (p. 50). The effect of stress appears to be mediated by the characteristics of
neuroendocrine responses " involving the immediate transient effects of glucocortiods such as
cortisol, known as stress hormones" (Siegel, 1999, p. 50).
The body' s response to stress is partially mediated through the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HP A) axis, which is activated in times of stress in a set of feedback loops involving
glucocortiods (Goldfinch, 2009). The HPA axis allows the individual to respond to a stressor,
and then resume normal control again. Animal studies have shown that early stress has a
significant and long-lasting effect on the regulation ofthe HPA axis; further, these long-lasting
effects also occur in adults who have histories of child abuse (Goldfinch, 2009; Teicher et al. ,
2003). The HPA axis along with the hippocampus, amygdala, and frontal cortex are vulnerable
to the effects of early stress and trauma.
The hippocampus, vital for learning and memory storage and retrieval, is sensitive to the
impact of stress and has been shown to be damaged by high levels of glucocortoids produced in

50

stress (Teicher et al., 2003). Being in chronic arousal, the amygdala becomes more sensitive so
that it is ready for any future threats. This area plays a crucial role in triggering the flight, fight,
or freeze response. This means the child is primed to react to danger in any situation and is likely
to be hypervigilant, perceiving threat before one exists (Goldfinch, 2009). The changes to the
hippocampus and the amygdala together with the alteration to the HP A axis may lead to
emotional and behavioural dysregulation, and to a feeling of a lack of safety (Teicher et al.,
2003).
The prefrontal cortex may be the most delayed development of any brain region (Teicher
et al. , 2003). Teicher et al. (2003) propose that, early in its development, stress can exert a
widespread effect, but as the prefrontal cortex matures, "response to stress becomes more
restrictive due to the inhibitory influence of the prefrontal cortex on other regions of the brain"
(p. 225).

Memory
When trying to understand the brain and traumatic events, it is important to know how
memory is stored. There are two types of memory - explicit and implicit. Explicit, also referred
to as autobiographical, is the conscious memory and is made up of facts, concepts, and ideas. It
gives a person access to language to describe what one is thinking and feeling. Moreover, it
allows the processing of information, reasoning, and meaning that helps individuals defme and
make sense of experiences (Malchiodi, 2008). Implicit memory, on the other hand, is sensory
and emotional and is connected to the body' s learned memories. These are memories outside
one' s conscious awareness and are unable to be verbally recalled but may still be expressed in
behaviour. Riding a bike is a good example of implicit memory (De Young et al., 2011 ). In

51

implicit memory there is no language. It is what we see, hear, smell, touch, and taste, and these
sensations become the " implicit containers" of that experience (De Young et al. , 2011, p. 10) .
Around the age of 18-24 months, autobiographical memory develops as children begin to
develop an understanding of self (Creeden, 2009; De Young et al. , 2011 ). Memories are
organized as events that happened to "me" and are more likely to become more stable and
durable. It is likely that memories prior to 18 months will be remembered in later childhood or
adulthood due to infantile amnesia (De Young et al, 2011 , p. 240).
In trauma, the left hemisphere of the brain that is responsible for explicit memories is less

active than the right hemisphere (Williams, 2006). Most of the implicit memories that are
experienced as emotional sensations are mediated by the right hemisphere and information in
this hemisphere is not analytical or reasoned (p. 320). Language is a function of explicit memory
and is not generally accessible to survivors after a distressing event. Children who have
experienced a traumatic event are especially challenged because the Broca' s area of the brain, a
section of the brain that controls language, is affected making it difficult to recount the trauma
narrative (Malchiodi, 2008). Consequently, trauma is stored as somatic sensations and images
and not readily available for communication through language; therefore, the mode of
communication becomes nonverbal (p.l 0). A child ' s trauma history then may be established, or
understood, from dreams, bodily responses, sensory experiences, fears and play (Terr, 1988).

52

Chapter 4: How does Trauma Impact a Child's Development?
It is critical to society that children become competent, caring adults. Thus, it is important
for educators to share a stake in the development of competence and in understanding the
processes that undermine it. Far too often, children's development is deeply and profoundly
impacted by traumatic events. Traumatic events at any age are difficult and for young children
they are uniquely distressing because they are undergoing a rapid period of emotional and
physiological development, have limited coping skills, and are dependent on their significant
carers to protect them physically and emotionally. The impact of potential traumatic events on a
child's development varies depending on the developmental stage at which the child experiences
the trauma. Cohen and Scheeringa (2009) have reported that traumas which occur during early
childhood may have even greater ramifications for developmental trajectories than traumas that
occur in later adolescence.
Early interpersonal trauma can have a profound impact on young children's emotional,
cognitive, and physical functions, and their ongoing development. In fact, early interpersonal
traumas are recognized as a frequent cause of children's emotional and cognitive difficulties in
childcare programs, schools, and at home (De Young et al. , 2011). Its impact can be so diverse
and multifaceted that at times early childhood educators, counsellors, and/or teachers "may feel
like 'the king's horses and the king's men' are unable to 'put' these children ' back together
again'; overwhelmed by the child's difficulties such as poor social skills, aggression, defiant and
impulsive or destructive behaviour, and overall poorer developmental outcomes" (Goldfinch,
2009, p. 284).

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Learning and trauma responses are mediated by, and alter, important neural systems in
the brain. The brain mediates hundreds of important functions ranging from heart rate regulation,
to appetite, to motor movement, to thinking, creating, and developing relationships with self and
others. To ensure survivability, the human brain is wired to respond to threat. Traumatic events
may impact the child ' s functioning in domains of feeling, behaving, and thinking. If a child feels
threatened, he or she is not thinking as much about what is happening next or in the future, nor,
does the child focus on words used by others or his or her own language to express needs, wants,
and desires. Rather, he or she focuses attention on what appears to be the threat-related signals in
the environment. Perry (2002) proposes children move along an arousal continuum when feeling
threatened. The further along the child is on the arousal continuum the less capable he or she will
be of learning or retrieving cognitive content; in essence, fear can destroy the capacity for
learning (Perry, 2002, p. 277).
The symptoms of early trauma directly impact how a child learns about the world and
him or herself. Two types of responses experienced as a result of trauma are hyper-arousal and
detachment; both impact learning. During a perceived threat, a child becomes hyper-aroused as
he or she is focused on surviving the threat. In this state, children are less capable of
concentrating, more anxious, and more attentive to non-verbal cues such as tone of voice, body
posture, and facial expressions (Perry et al. , 1995). In some instances, if the person is feeling
hyper-vigilant, due to feelings of anxiety, these cues may be misinterpreted and other
developmental tasks may be impacted (van der Kolk, 2005). VanderKolk (1995) describes how
a child ' s detachment is expressed in the body as the "shutting down" of sensations, so the body
can protect itself from trauma. Withdrawal or detachment also reduces a child ' s ability to engage

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with the world and, therefore, the ability to learn emotional, social, and cognitive information,
and to practise skills (van der Kolk, 1995, p. 295). These adaptive changes in the child's thoughts
and behaviours are well-suited to sense, perceive, and act upon danger in a threatening
environment; however, these "survival tactics" do not serve the child when the environment
changes (i.e. childcare centre, or peer relationships) (Perry, 2006, p. 24). For young children
experiencing a complex trauma, the resulting impact on the brain is connected to a variety of
developmental outcomes - difficulties in emotional and social regulation, cognitive challenges
(such as poor concentration), and sometimes behaviour problems.
Emotions

Traumatized children are often disconnected from their own emotional experience. More
specifically, they may lack awareness of how their body feels and are unable to connect those
states to specific experiences and emotions. Internalized emotion in response to daily experience
may be biased toward negative affect states such as shame, self-blame, and isolation. This
reflects the child 's internalization of responsibility for his or her own traumatic exposures
(Kinniburgh, Blaustein, & Spinazzola, 2005). The disconnection from their own emotional
experience makes it difficult to interpret emotions, or cues, expressed by others and they may
misinterpret them as potential danger cues or as negative emotions such as anger or blame
(Kinniburgh, Blaustein, & Spinazzola, 2005, p. 427). Because the child has difficulty expressing
emotions, the emotions they do experience may be either constricted or explosive and, following
these intense emotional states, the children may have difficulty calming down. These emotional
challenges may also trigger social and behavioural challenges as well.

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Social and Behavioural

By the time children reach the preschool years it is generally expected that they will
respond to frustration without aggression, to cope with high arousal, while at the same time be
spontaneous and exuberant in their play. A major developmental task for this age group is the
ability to engage in positive interactions with peers and develop satisfying peer relationships.
Children with trauma histories tend to have problems with reading social cues and difficulty
adapting their behavioural arousal to appropriate social demands (van der Kolk, 2003). As a
result, they are often out of tune with others and unable to regulate their emotions in a
predictable fashion, so they scare other children away and lack consistent playmates.
Avoidance may be another behaviour observed in a traumatized child. The child may try
to avoid any exposure to things, situations, or people that remind him or her of the traumatic
event (Liebermann & Knorr, 2007). A child who has experienced an interpersonal trauma may
have reminders regularly in his or her life; therefore, the impact may be more pervasive. For
example, if a child is repeatedly frightened at home by violence, scapegoating, blame, and
criticism, then the reminders of the trauma may be as common as any authority figure, or any
interpersonal situation (Goldfinch, 2009). In other words, any person could be perceived as a
possible threat. A child in this situation may appear withdrawn and avoid joining other children
in play or refuse to join group activities (Liebermann & Knorr, 2007). Again, this type of
avoidance may appear to be without triggers. A voidance of social settings or new situations may
also show in reluctance to separate from a caregiver at the childcare setting, even though there is
no obvious problem in the program.

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Many traumatized children are perpetually on guard or hyper-vigilant. They are anxious,
wary, and preoocupied with monitoring the environment for potential sources of injury or loss
(Liebermann & Knorr, 2007). Hyper-vigilant children are frequently assumed to have deficits in
attention, but they cannot afford to abandon their "watch" in order to ensure survival (Koplow,
2007, p. 179). In this way, hyper-vigilant children are deprived of essential play, learning, and
social interactions because they must stay alert to their external surroundings.
Hyper-arousal can lead to a child reacting suddenly to a perceived threat with a fight,
flight, or freeze response such as leaving an area quickly or attempting to take control of the
situation because he or she does not trust the adults in the environment. Initially, this response
has adaptive value (e.g. freeze response may allow time to work out how to respond to the
threat). Unfortunately, these attempts to take control are generally maladaptive and present as
aggression, oppositional behaviour, or defiance (Streek-Fischer & van der Kolk, 2004). If the
child continues to use these adaptive strategies, they can become maladaptive strategies (Perry et
al., 1995). The complicating factor is that even a neutral event may appear as a threat because the
child is hyper-vigilant leading the educator to believe there was no identifiable threat to trigger
the outburst. The event, or trigger, may have been a simple and usual event in the classroom such
as an instruction, a comment, or an attempt to redirect the child ' s behaviour (Koplow, 2007). For
example, traumatized children are often hypersensitive to peripheral auditory stimuli, and may be
easily frightened by loud or unexpected sounds. For example, when the older furnace in the
centre comes on unexpectedly, and rather loudly, a traumatized child may tense with fear each
time the furnace turns on, something that goes largely unnoticed by the other children in the
room.

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Routine experience may be viewed as potentially threatening for traumatized children
and may mobilize stress responses when other children feel safe and comfortable. Children may
become anxious, "frozen in their tracks", scream, refuse to participate, begin to cry or try to
hurry through or run away from the situation they fmd threatening. One such routine is rest time.
Hyper-arousal responses may make rest time difficult for these children who may not be able to
relax and go to sleep. Since children often rely on a high activity level to fend off intrusions of
traumatic memories or affects, the inactivity required at rest time is often untenable, and children
tend to act out or resist the routine in some way. Without being able to move around, traumatized
children may feel too vulnerable. Because rest time tends to be dark in many centres and
sometimes the educator may not be easily seen by the child, the child may feel alone and
unprotected.
Numbing or withdrawal could show as a child "zoning out" during play time,
conversations, or group times. This type of withdrawal leads to reduced engagement with the
world around or to a stubborn refusal to cooperate, which can lead to non-compliance.
Depending on how the situation is handled, a child ' s withdrawal could lead to a confrontation,
which could result in the child feeling threatened or at risk again."

Cognition
Young children ' s cognitive development is intricately connected with their social and
emotional functioning. Traumatic experiences can derail the child' s readiness to Jearn, either
temporarily or for the long term, through such mechanisms as hyper-vigilance, constriction of
exploration, aggression towards others, and generalized fears (van der Kolk, 2005).

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Secure children' s cognitive development is enhanced because they are better able to
exploit opportunities for exploration and learning. Often this is because they can achieve, and
maintain, feelings of security in new situations. These children tend to be more cooperative,
approach tasks more enthusiastically, show less negative affect, and persist at tasks over a longer
period oftime (Rolfe, 2004). Rolfe (2004) believes this has to do with their enhanced ability to
self-regulate their emotional state (p.135).
Insecurely attached children, however, are less able to deal with arousal because of their
histories and may become anxious, which is unhelpful to their learning (Rolfe, 2004). Highly
aroused children may be more distracted, fearful, and/or less relaxed around other people, thus
possibly compromising their ability to perform cognitive tasks. Cook et al. , (2005) suggest
children who have experienced trauma demonstrate impaired cognitive functioning by late
infancy, signifying that the emotional and sensory deprivation often associated with neglect is
detrimental to cognitive development. Impaired cognitive functioning may be in expressive and
receptive language development as well as deficits in overall IQ (p. 395). Henry, Sloan, and
Black-Pond (2007) state that preschool aged children impacted by complex trauma have delays
with grammar and vocabulary, comprehension, conversational skills, receptive and expressive
syntactic skills, and are less flexible and creative in problem-solving tasks than children who
have not been traumatized (p.l 00).
In some instances memory impairment may occur as a result of a traumatic event. For
children who have experienced a single traumatic event, or life threatening event, a common
symptom is re-experiencing the traumatic event. However, a child who has been exposed to
chronic trauma is not as likely to have sudden intrusive memories, flashbacks or intolerable,

59

intrusive thoughts or images (Terr, 1991). More likely, these children will experience sleep
disturbances, such as nightmares, engage in repetitive play, or spend large periods of time by
themselves (Goldfinch, 2004). Any type of memory impairment will affect the child ' s
intellectual functioning, or the ability to perform in the present, or the ability to think of the
future (Cook et al., 2005). A coping mechanism may be numbing or avoiding reminders of the
event(s). In doing so, the child may guard him or herself against the overwhelming feelings of
helplessness that are generally the core experiences of traumatizing situations (van der Kolk,
1994).
It can be easy to push aside children with challenging life histories. However, children

with complex trauma histories desperately need to be understood in the context of the trauma.
When time is taken to understand how a child has experienced the traumatic event, educators are
in a much better place to meet the child ' s needs. Supporting traumatized children does require
time, heartache, and patience, but it is worthwhile. With a multifaceted approach, educators find
it is possible to achieve what used to be referred to as impossible and "put Humpty together"
again, allowing the traumatized child to grow and develop a strong healthy self (Goldfmch,
2009, p. 297).

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Chapter 5: "If You're Sad and You Know It"

"Ifyou 're happy and you know it, clap your hands,
Ifyou 're happy and you know it, clap your hands,
Ifyou 're happy and you know it, and y ou really want to show it
Ifyou 're happy and you know it, clap your hands"
-Children 's Song
Early childhood educators will recognize the song above. It is a song familiar from our
own childhoods, received as enthusiastically by the current generation of children as it was years
ago. Yet, if we end the song here, we risk neglecting many of the children sitting before us
whose predominant affects are not happiness but sadness, anger, fear, worry, etc. If we envision
childhood as a carefree, joyful time, we may be denying the experiential and emotional realties
of many children who enter our childcare programs each day.
Van der Kolk, (2005) and others have found that emotional dysregulation is the most far
reaching effect of children ' s trauma (Aideus, 2007; Perry, 1995). Cook et al. , (2005) confirm this
by identifying that complex trauma often results in a loss of the child ' s core capacities for selfregulation and interpersonal relatedness (p. 390). This loss in capacity can result in lifelong
problems that place the child at risk for further trauma exposure and cumulative impairment (e.g.
psychiatric and addictive disorders, chronic medical problems, vocational, and family problems)
(Cook et al. , 2005, p.390). Moreover, Cook and colleagues propose these problems may extend
from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood.

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Emotions and the Brain
Psychologists and neuroscientists have long debated about the interactions between our
thinking brain, the neocortex, and our emotional brain. Let us look at each and examine the
interplay between the two. The cortex is involved in the processing of emotions; it helps evaluate
a potentially threatening situation, and to look before we leap. The limbic system has been found
to be the centre of emotional processing, specifically, the hippocampus and the amygdala
(Goldfinch, 2009). Both appear to help keep emotionally laden events stored in our long term
memory. Researchers have concluded that emotional experiences are experienced when three
actions take place: activation of the amygdala, activation of the arousal system, and bodily
feedback such as heart-pounding (Foran, 2009; Perry et al, 1995; van der Kolk, 2005).

Role of Attachment
Early relationships provide "the relational contexts in which children develop their
earliest psychological representations of self, other, and self in relation to others" (Cook et al.,
2005). The interactions between a primary caregiver and child are necessary regulatory
experiences, ones that assist a child in dealing with stress and proceeding through development
(Foran, 2009). Repeated interactions with a responsive caregiver support secure attachments and
help young children's brains organize sensory functioning and represent their social world (Perry
et al., 1995). The child's developmental stage at the time ofthe trauma clearly influences the
adaptive responses available (Siegel, 1999). During the first years of life, young children lack the
coping capacities to regulate strong emotion and are, therefore, strongly reliant on their primary
caregivers to assist with affect regulation during times of distress. Children who are securely
attached are more likely to develop systems that enable them to effectively regulate emotional

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arousal. For example, when a securely attached child is confronted with uncertainty or something
uncomfortable, the child will seek out others to assist in the regulation of the emotional arousal
being experienced. In times of trauma then, securely attached children, who have had a history of
responsive and sensitive caregiving, are more likely to seek out the responsive and sensitive
caregiver for protection and care who acts as a buffer against the trauma.
On the other hand, when attempts to seek assistance from an adult are unsuccessful, a
flood of stress hormones overtake the child ' s self-regulatory system producing toxic effects.
Often the toxic effects impair the child' s ability to adapt to future stressors, limit development of
vocabulary, and may cause the child to appear out of sync with peers or be inattentive to them
(Kinniburgh et al. , 2005). The child may also have a high level of activity that appears random
and disoriented as he/she moves around the room and shows low tolerance when faced with a
challenge (Koplow, 2007). Trauma can overwhelm the child ' s affect regulation mechanisms,
and because they have not learned how to collaborate with others when in a difficult position, the
child does not know how to seek comfort from another adult. This scenario places the child at an
even greater risk for negative outcomes following traumas because they are less likely to have, or
be able to engage in, emotionally supportive relationships that can help them process and cope
with the overwhelming emotions they experience (De Young, p. 242).
Educators can be part of an important caregiving relationship that fosters healthy
development. To ensure educators achieve this type of relationship, Kinniburgh and colleagues
(2005) offer a number of suggestions. First, they suggest that educators create rituals and
routines so the child can have predictability in the day, thus creating an important safety net
wherein all development can be strengthened. Educators also need to be present and in tune with

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the child so when they observe the child struggling with a peer relationship, a new situation, or a
difficult task they can provide " in-the-moment" regulation skills. Being in tune with the child
increases the likelihood that educators will notice the child ' s little, and big, successes during the
day. They also need to spend time both one-on-one and in groups identifying and labelling, both
verbal and nonverbal affect. With these new skills, the child will begin to cope better with his or
her own affect and pick up on others' affect cues, ultimately leading to the development and
strengthening of peer relationships.

Role of Self-Regulation
Self-regulation is the child's ability to identify, modulate, and express his or her internal
experience. Impaired regulation is a key feature among children exposed to complex trauma
(Arvidson et al. , 2011). Often the stresses of the traumatic event overwhelm the limited coping
skills available to the developing child. The caregiving system serves as an external regulation
and when it is absent children are unable to regulate emotions, they disconnect from their
feelings, or they use unhealthy, maladaptive coping skills. The goal is to support children in
building a vocabulary for their emotional experience and to understand the connection between
emotions and precipitating events. This offers the child opportunities to practise tuning in,
tolerating emotions and stress, and managing their bodies and emotions.
Creative expression can become a way to connect with feelings and rehearse positive
experiences of safety. Some children may fmd reliefthrough cuddly toys (tactile), some through
brightly coloured materials (visual), and others may respond positively to dance or movement
(kinaesthetic) or by making or listening to music (auditory). For other children, a teacher may
use a more directive approach in order to help the child have a positive experience through self-

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expression. For example, the teacher may create a safe place for an animal and encourages the
child to use a box or other materials to join in on making a place where the animal feels safe.
Through this imaginative play, the child is caretaking the animal by constructing a safe place for
it (Malchiodi, 2008).

Role of Affect Regulation
Affect regulation is a complex process that involves adapting and managing feeling
states, physical arousal, cognitions, and behavioural responses (Foran, 2009). Developing the
ability to manage behaviour and feelings, that is, emotional regulation is critical for a child' s
mental and physical health. Healthy emotional regulation is connected with higher academic
achievement, lower levels of negative emotionality, higher levels of empathy, and higher levels
of social competence (Foran, 2009, p. 52).
VanderKolk (2005) claims that the one main outcome of trauma is a child feeling out of
control and alienated from his or her body and from the world. Differentiating between states of
arousal can prove to be difficult for educators, yet the reduction of arousal or hyper-arousal in
young children is essential for children ' s growth and development. For this reason, caregivers
want to offer multiple opportunities, and modalities, for regulation of emotions. Additionally,
educators want to increase the child ' s familiarity with, and sense of mastery over, his or her body
(Goldfinch, 2009). One way this can be achieved is through a variety of sensory-focused
activities that can occur inside or outside, one-on-one, or in a group. (See Table 4).
Educators need to keep in mind that traumatized children need to be assured of safety in
order to develop a sense of mastery. Therefore, educators need to plan a structured approach to
calming down after each activity (Kinniburg et al. , 2005). Without a structured opportunity to

65

calm down, transitions after physical activity may provoke oppositional outbursts or anxietydriven refusal to cooperate (Goldfmch, 2009). Songs, guided imagery, mindfulness activities,
yoga, and stories are some examples of calming transitional activities.
Table 4
Affect Modulation Activities for Children 3-5
Upregulation

Downregulation

" I Spy" games

Deep slowing breathing

"The Hokey Pokey"
Twirling like a top

Yoga for Kids
Mirroring game:
Child and caregiver
Face each other and move
Slowly

Alternating States
Bubble Blowing: small bubbles requires
fast breathing. Big bubbles requires slow
breathing
Rolling cars at different speeds
"Red Light, Green Light"

(Avirdeson et al., 2011 , p.43)

Fortunately, there is hope. Attachment research indicates that one significant adult can
make a difference in the lives of children who have experienced complex trauma (Lieberman &
Knorr, 2007; Perry et al. , 1995; van der Kolk, 2005). Affirming the value of children ' s diverse
affects is empowering. Children who have experienced complex trauma need to experience their
own affective expressions as understood, mirrored, and valued before they will be able to take in
affective information from others. Research shows that without experiencing this fundamental
form of communication, which stimulates the development of multiple synaptic connections in
the children ' s brain, children may have difficulty moving toward more sophisticated form of
communication and learning (Koplow, 2007; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Early childhood
educators can be the mirror for these children.

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Other Skill Enhancing Activities
'Take Space.' Educators can teach a child to take space when they are feeling
overwhelmed, uncertain, or stressed. Initially this may require the educator to be direct and clear
if the child is caught up in a negative cycle, or are so aroused that they are simply engaged in a
battle of the wills. When a child is aroused, a calm adult or a non-reactive adult can become a
tool to help prevent further escalation in the child. Educators can create space in the both the
indoor and outdoor environment for children to "retreat".
Feeling Thermometer. Children' s feelings can escalate very quickly and often
unconsciously. For some children introducing the feeling thermometer can help them become intune with what is happening in their bodies. At first, this requires the presence and consistency of
the teacher because she or he will bring the child's attention to what they are observing by
showing the child where on the thermometer they may be at that moment, describing what they
are seeing in the child' s behaviour, and discussing strategies for lowering the child ' s number on
the thermometer. Often breathing is effective. In time, the teacher may take a less directive
approach because the child is regulating his or her own behaviour.
Grounding Activities. Time to calm the mind and body is critical for a child who is
often in a chronic state of fight, flight, or freeze. Grounding activities can be just what a child
needs to feel soothed because they teach children how to attend to the here and now.

3-2-1 Sensory Grounding. Educators can ask the child describe to you three objects in
their immediate environment. Then ask them to describe three sounds. Follow this up by giving
them three objects to feel. Then repeat, this time asking them to describe two objects, two
sounds. Give them two objects to feel, and then repeat all of the steps with one item. Remember,

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due to the fact that for many children, memories of the traumatic event are sensorimotor
memories, you want to have a sense of what sounds, textures, sights may trigger feelings,
behaviours, and thoughts in the child. Often children cannot verbally express this to you, so use
your keen observational skills.
Mindfulness . Children can be taught to pay attention to those things in the present
moment that they never noticed through mindfulness. The process involves attending to the
external environment such as sights, sounds, and smells, as well as to internal bodily sensations,
thoughts and feelings. Siegel (1999) hypothesizes that mindfulness is a process of internal
attunement that forms a secure self-relationship. Mindfulness activities can promote internal
attunement that promotes neural integration in the brain impacting the same brain structures that
are developed by a secure attachment with a caregiver.
Mindful walking. Educators can invite children to move around the room as softly as
they can, as if walking on eggshells or on a delicate glass floor and telling them to be aware of
each movement they make-feeling the thigh muscle lift the leg and move it to the next position,
feeling the foot coming off the floor and setting it back down, feeling their hands and arms in
space. They might move faster or more slowly at times. They might focus on one leg for a few
steps, then the other leg. This activity can be used both inside and outside. Afterwards, the
educator should plan a short, calming story.
The Raisin Meditation . Read the following script in a slow, calm voice: "Bring your
attention to the raisin, observing it carefully as if you had never seen one before. Pick up one
raisin and feel its texture between your fmgers and notice its colors. Be aware of any thoughts
you might be having about the raisin. Note any thoughts or feelings of liking or disliking raisins

68

if they come up while you are looking at it. Then lift the raisin to your nose and smell it for a
while and finally, with awareness, bring it to your lips, being aware of the arm moving the hand
to position it correctly and of your mouth salivating as the mind and body anticipate eating. Take
the raisin into your mouth and chew it slowly, experiencing the actual taste of the raisin. Hold it
in your mouth. When you feel ready to swallow, watch the impulse to swallow as it comes up, so
that even that is experienced consciously. When you are ready, pick up the second raisin and
repeat this process, with a new raisin, as if it is now the first raisin you have ever seen (as cited in
Hooker & Foder, 2008, p.86).
Comfort Boxes. These boxes can help a child manage overwhelming feelings to create

safety and in time, using the box can become an effective strategy to replace the previously used
maladaptive ones. With the child, fmd items that provide the child with comfort. Some items you
may choose without the input of the child because through observation of the child you will have
noticed items the child has been using for comfort; focus on the five senses. Place the items in a
box of the child ' s choosing and in a location of his or her choosing. When the child is struggling
with modulating him or herself, encourage the child to use his or her comfort box.
Emotional Literacy. Remember the song at the beginning of the chapter, If You ' re

Happy and You Know it? Happy and excited are not emotions always familiar to traumatized
children. So as not to exclude other children, ensure the environment and the curriculum reflects
a broad range of emotional states.

Books. One way a broad range of emotional states can be taught to traumatized children
is through books. Choose books that expand children' s emotional vocabulary and provide them
with ways to cope with overwhelming events and feelings. Here are a few to help you get started:

69

When Sophie Gets Really Angry; My Mouth is a Volcano; Go Away Big Green Monster; Glad
Monster Sad Monster; If You're a Monster and You know It; The Invisible String; David's Place;
Lots of Feelings; Courage; and Take the Time: Mindfulness for Kids.
The Role of Early Childhood Educators
The need to regulate emotions in children's trauma recovery is paramount (Herman,
1997). Failure to self-regulate affect has been connected with later diagnosis of mental health
issues such as psychosis, borderline personality, and substance misuse. In contrast, developing or
repairing emotional regulation brings great rewards for the child and the ability to self-regulate
predicts high social competence, high academic scores, and low levels of negative emotions.

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Chapter 6: A Different Perspective on Guidance
Van der Kolk (2005) provides educators with an important reminder:
"When professionals are unaware of children's need to adjust to traumatizing
environments and expect that children should behave in accordance with adult
standards of self-determination and autonomous, rational choices, these
maladaptive behaviours tend to inspire revulsion and rejection. Ignorance of this
fact is likely to lead to labeling and stigmatizing children for behaviours that are
meant to ensure survival" (p. 404).
Early experience influence the way a child understands his/her place in the world and the
importance of his/her own actions. In a secure environment, children learn that the world is full
of predictable patterns and that their behaviour is significant and will have predictable
consequences. A toddler can be seen pulling books from the bookshelf, saying 'no' to himself,
each time showing that he has learned the predictable response from his primary caregiver or the
early childhood educator. Similarly, a four- year- old girl pushing another child knows an
educator will ask her to stop and to listen to the other child tell her that pushing hurts her. These
are examples of how a young child learns consequences for behaviour. This type of repetition, on
the educator's behalf, teaches the child that actions have significance.
If, in contrast, a four- year- old' s behaviour is met with unpredictable responses from
his/her mother, for example, laughter, ignoring, gently correcting, or yelling ineffectually, then
the world may be viewed as unpredictable, and the child will not learn his/her behaviour is
significant to others. If this response pattern is repeated over and over, "the child may have
difficulty with means-end thinking," which could lead to problems with problem-solving and

71

following guidelines in a childcare program (Goldfmch, 2009, p. 291). Traumatized children
tend to communicate what has happened, or is happening, to them not in words but by
responding to the world as a dangerous place and by activating the "neurobiologic systems"
geared for survival, even when they objectively are safe (van der Kolk, 2003 , p. 309).
These challenges, caused by inconsistent guidance, are made much more powerful if fear,
pain, or other traumatic emotions enter the situation. If the primary carer' s response is angry,
aggressive, or frightening, a stress reaction may be provoked in the child, leading to heightened
arousal. If the child ' s state of heightened arousal is not met with a predictable response from the
adult, the child may learn, or know, that those behaviours will not necessarily earn a response. In
this situation, the child will opt for the short-term predictable pleasure of the undesirable
behaviour and risk any consequences. This type of impulsive and short term behaviour is typical
oftraumatised children (Goldfinch, 2009).

Possible Reasons for the Behaviour
Studies of post-traumatic stress disorder and complex trauma have demonstrated that the
age at which a child experiences, the trauma, the frequency of traumatic exposure, and the
availability (or lack thereof) of caregivers as supportive resources all have a significant impact
on the extent of the psychological consequences experienced by the child (Creeden, 2009). These
consequences are exposed frequently through problems with self-regulation, aggression against
self and others, problems with attention and dissociation, difficulties with self-concept, and the
capacity to negotiate satisfactory interpersonal relationships (van der Kolk, 2003, p. 293). These
studies suggest that the neurobiological impact of trauma will not express itself through a fixed
set of cognitive, emotional, or behavioural difficulties, but rather along a continuum of structural

72

or functional neurological responses influenced by the developmental stage at which the child
experiences trauma and the availability of supportive resources provided by the primary
caregivers to the child (Creeden, 2009; Perry et al. , 1995; van der Kolk, 2003).
The human body and mind have sets of primitive, deeply ingrained physical and mental
responses to threat (e.g. fight, flight, or freeze) that in children look like challenging behaviours
or maladaptive strategies (Perry et al. , 1995). As stated previously, there are a number of
neurological changes that are initiated by stressful events. In the initial stages, an alarm reaction
is set off and the sympathetic nervous system is aroused, resulting in increased heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, an increase in muscle tone, and a sense ofhypervigilance (Perry et al.,
1995, p. 277). The limbic system then processes, regulates, and prioritizes all incoming sensory
information from the brain stem (e.g. the changes in the sympathetic nervous system). The
amygdala initiates bodily responses such as increased heart rate and activates the primitive
responses- fight, flight, or freeze. This level of defence responsiveness bypasses the cortex, or
the "thinking" part of the brain, allowing for immediate responses to the perceived threat (Perry
et al., 1995, p. 264). Perry et al. (1995) reminds us that infants and children are much less likely
to use a classic "fight or flight" response as it is not very practical ; however, in child care
environments, with children aged two to five, educators will, from time to time, see these
responses in childcare environments.
Childcare environments are full of stimuli that could be considered threatening through
the eyes, and mind, of a child with a complex trauma history. Such things as routines, guidelines,
environmental sounds, increased noise level, staff, changes in staff or staff schedules, children of
different stages and ages, social expectations, and separation from primary caregivers go

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unnoticed to most children, but to a child impacted by trauma at any time, for any reason, these
stimuli may feel threatening.
Confronted with a perceived threat, children shift to a hypervigilant mode, or are "onguard," so they can protect themsel ves in a moment' s notice. There is evolutionary value to this
tactic to ensure viability of the species; however, children also pay a significant cost. Some
consequences of this hypervigilant/hyperaroused state are "difficulties in affect regulation;
problems effectively learning from highly charged emotional situations; and applying the new
learning into future situations; decreased activation of the speech centre; social and relational
problems generated by inaccurately reading social cues; and attentional problems from scanning
the environment for threat while simultaneously dismissing information as unimportant when not
viewed as a threat or safety related" (Perry et al., 1995, p. 264).
In the fight mode of response, the child is likely to respond with an act of hostility

because the "thinking brain" has been bypassed in this heightened state. The child may hit the
other person, throw an item at the other person, chase the other person, or take something away
from the other person. In flight mode, the child may run away from the danger or run toward a
person or place for safety. For others, freezing, even when an escape is available, is the most
common response. The adaptive advantage of this response is clear. Freezing allows for better
sound localization and a keener visual observation or environmental scan for potential threat
(Perry et al., 1995, p. 279). The lack of movement is also a form of camouflage, reducing the
chance of attracting a predator (p. 279). For some, the freeze response buys them some time to
organize their feelings and thoughts and to figure out how they are going to respond to the
situation. In childcare settings, this behaviour is sometimes labelled as defiant. For example, the

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educator makes a request of the child to come and sit down for circle. The child acts as if they
have not heard the request or that they are refusing to follow the direction. The educator follows
up with the same directive or decides to physically guide the child to the circle area and asks the
child to sit with the group. Unknown to the educator, this approach often increases the child ' s
anxiety and leaves them feeling threatened and possibly out of control because both responses
provide further threat to the child resulting in further retreat; the child may "come out swinging"
as a way to reduce the anxiety (Perry et al. , 1995, p. 280).
Perry and colleagues (1995) state if the child is pushed too far and feels continually
terrorized, the freezing may result in dissociation. Simply stated, dissociation is disengaging
from stimulus in the external world and attending the stimuli in the internal world. Traumatized
infants and young children may daydream, avoid, have restricted affect, and sound robotic (p.
281).
A Shift in Practice
The pervading impact of behaviourist theory approaches means it is common for
educators to perceive children's behaviours negatively, as attention-seeking. In many busy early
childhood settings this may indeed be the only way some children will be noticed. Hoffman,
Marvin, Cooper, & Powell (2006) suggests children's behaviours are actually motivated by a
"desire for connection," whereas educators may view the behaviour as disruptive, attentionseeking, and unnecessary (p.l 020). In the field of complex trauma, researchers suggest educators
consider a new approach. Instead of working from a behaviouralist framework, educators might
consider shifting to an attachment framework.

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Attachment Framework
Working from an attachment model requires the educator to look more deeply into the
reason for behaviours (Rolfe, 2004). An attachment framework suggests it is important for the
child to develop trusting relationships in which the adult behaves consistently, accepting the
child at all times, while providing support to limit fear or stress response behaviours. It is
understood that while the educator' s relationship with the child is not intended to replace the
child ' s relationship with their primary caregivers the role of the educator is nevertheless one of
significance and can help the child learn new ways of relating (Kinniburg et al., 2005).

Role of the Early Childhood Educator
Attachment figures , by definition, potentially include all persons from whom a child
might reasonably expect care and protection from danger. Attachment figures also include those
who provide care, both physical and emotional, are continuous or consistent caregiving figures in
a child's life, and who have an emotional investment in the child (Rolfe, 2004). A primary
attachment system provides the security and safety necessary for children to master an array of
developmental tasks, or competencies, including the ability to self- regulate, develop positive
relationships, and acquire the cognitive skills relevant for learning (Rolfe, 2004, p. 220). Early
childhood professionals and settings potentially meet all of these criteria. Despite the quality of
attachments children have at home, educators are people to whom children can form securely
attached relationships. In the case of children with complex trauma histories, the role of the early
childhood educator is crucial in dramatically diminishing the alarm response by offering the
child a calm, empathetic response so they can benefit from what an attachment system can
provide (Kinniburgh et al. , 2005).

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Tips and Strategies for the Early Childhood Educator
Avoid Talking at the Child. When a child is feeling dysregulated, he or she is primarily
operating from the brain stem, the most primitive area of the brain that activates the child ' s
sympathetic nervous system and sensorimotor behaviours. When this area is 'in charge ' it is
difficult for the child to hear the educator' s attempt to talk and rationalize with the child. To be
successful with talking and rationalization the child has to access the neocortex and when the
child is under stress, this area of the brain is bypassed. Instead, give the child time and space to
settle his or her self, a process that often takes 20 minutes. To assist the child in calming, make
available materials the child finds soothing.
Create Safety. VanderKolk (2003) says educators, and parents, can help children deal
with stress and stressful environments by providing them with a physical sense of safety this may
include holding or rocking and by showing the child that when his or her own resources fail,
someone else is there to take over to re-establish a sense of safety and predictability. When these
soothing controls are not present, children are more likely to demonstrate difficulties with
cognition, impulse control, aggression, and emotion regulation (VanderKolk, 2003 , p. 311).
Young children need help focusing their attention away from trauma- related triggers and
on to those that provide a sense of mastery and pleasure: "Safety, predictability, and fun are
essential in establishing the capacity to observe what is going on to initiate physiological motoric
self-regulation" (van der Kolk, 2005 , p. 407).
Attunement. Attunement is part of building a secure relationship. The concentration is
on reading each other's cues and responding effectively. Children are more likely to respond to
attempts by the caregiver to shift them from a place of high internal stress with a higher tolerance

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to external stress when they can feel that the person "has their back" . Educators, on the other
hand, want to learn how to understand the child's behaviour in the context of the trauma history.
This can be difficult because they may not always know the history, or the family, or the
designate family, may not share the information with the childcare providers.
Another way for educators to achieve attunement is by serving as a mirror to the child,
reflecting back the child' s expressions and feelings. This approach assists the child with
developing a sense of both the "other" and the "self." This development will strengthen
children ' s emotional literacy and self-regulatory skills, over time increase tolerance levels, and
build the ever so important trusting relationship with an adult.

Opportunity for Recovery. After a child has felt, or perceived to be, threatened they
may want to recover when they feel safe. Children enjoy activities such as rocking (in a chair or
on the floor) , reading a quiet story on their own or with a caregiver, exploring a sensory activity
(such as water or rice), or being outside.

Routine and Predictability. For some children, lack of routine and predictability is
unsettling and, in some instances, triggers their defence systems to engage and protect.
Caregivers will want to strive to offer the child safety and predictability through routines,
expectations, and in their approaches to the child each day. If the child has lived in an
environment void of structure and routine, he or she may form a perception that the world is
unpredictable and dangerous. One of the key strategies an educator may try in order to restore a
sense of safety for a child involves implementing predictable daily routines that establish safety,
help children organize experience, and develop mastery (Arvidson et al., 2011). When young
children have structure in daily living with attention to predictable schedules and sequential

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tasks, they feel safer, decreasing their need to control their environment with problematic
behaviors (Cook et al., 2005). Pictographs, symbols and pictures, to represent the routine and the
choices of the day are helpful. When children are in a high arousal state, they are operating
primarily from the brain stem and, therefore, cannot complete higher order brain functions like
planning, problem solving, and communicating their needs and desires. This strategy gives them
a sense of mastery without asking them to necessarily perform these skills.

Assist with the Management of Arousal. Sometimes children fmd themselves in
difficult situations because they are unclear as to how to manage their arousal. When emotions
and behaviours are dysregulated children are more likely to have poor frustration tolerance, to
lose their temper easily, or to lose control when anxious. Caregivers can create fun opportunities
for children to practice modulating their emotional levels that will develop mastery in these areas
such as in a larger room, or outside, have the children line up at one end of the room with enough
space between them to move around comfortably and safely. Ask the children to travel to the
other side of the room emulating an animal that you call out, could be a bear, dinosaur, frog,
snail, snake, lion, etc. Once the children are to the other side choose another animal for them to
emulate. The idea in the animal selection is that you choose between animals that run, are big,
are loud, are small, are quiet, and are fast. In doing so, children are practising modulating
different levels of affect as they have fun emulating each animal while being successful in a
group expenence.
Another activity is bubble blowing. Through bubble blowing, children will learn how to alternate
between states of high and low activity and affect. The objective is for children to practice
blowing bubbles of different sizes. Ask the children to blow large bubbles, which require long,

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slow, breaths. Then ask the children to blow small bubbles, which require forceful quick breaths.
By alternating between these two states, children are learning how to go back and forth between
physical and emotional states by modulating their own breath (Arvidson et al., 2011).

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Chapter 7: The "Resilience Factor"
A Resilience Perspective
Intuitively, we know people who function well even though life has dealt them a difficult
hand and we also know people who appear unaffected even in the face of a major disaster or who
only show some minor reactions and function adequately afterwards (Brom et al., 2009).
Resilience is not static; it may vary over time and across developmental phases. For example, a
person's resilience status can change from resilience to nonresilience and vice versa (Afifi &
MacMillan, 2011). A resilience perspective prioritizes knowledge about developmental
experiences that have the potential to help the child (and later the adult) cope effectively with the
inevitable adversities that arise in life (Rolfe, 2004). Resilience has been defined as "the ability
to adapt effectively in the face of adversity and it is a mechanism or process that helps the
individual be resistant to stress" (Rolfe, 2004, p.73). Although none of us are born resilient, there
are some innate characteristics, including having an easy temperament, that seem to have a role
in facilitating resilience. Resilience develops as a result of particular kinds of interpersonal
experience, including those that promote high self-esteem, self-efficacy, optimism, and coping
skills during infancy and the childhood. Signs of emerging resilience are apparent early in life:
Six month olds who cry lustily to express hunger or protest strongly when
frustrated or angry, are developing a sense of their own agency and ability to
impact on their world. Two year olds who assert their independence with
confidence, who persist in the face of challenge, and who can tum to significant
adults for comfort and support when needed, are showing they have a developing
sense of trust in themselves and others. Four and five year olds who tackle new

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learning tasks with curiosity, wonder, and energy, and who explore new
relationships with confidence or challenge traditional gender-based roles during
play are showing optimisms at work (Rolfe, 2004, p. 74).
Secure Attachment as a Protective Factor

Broadly defined, protective factors are those that promote resilience. From the outset,
attachment theory linked the experience of secure attachment with the development of resilience
(Rolfe, 2004). Rolfe (2004) describes Bowlby's conclusion to his first volume of the attachment
trilogy by saying:
In his view, when the young child experiences supportive, encouraging, and

cooperative caregiving, high self worth, and expectations of the helpfulness of others
develop. Feelings of self-competence also grow because this kind of caregiving
enables the child to explore with confidence and respond effectively to the
environmental demands encountered (Rolfe, 2004, p. 75).
In the 1950s, a study to reveal a link between resilience and early relationships was

conducted on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. The sample consisted of 700 children and their
families and spanned over 40 years. Initially, the aim was to focus on the negative effects of risk
factors and to document the long term consequences of prenatal and perinatal stress on cognitive,
emotional, and physical development (Werner & Smith, 1992). However, over time, the
researchers became interested in a group, about one-third of the sample, who were classified as
high risk and yet developed into adults who were resilient. Werner (1989) defined resilient adults
as those who "Loved well, worked well and played well despite their exposure to multiple risk
factors over their childhood" (Werner, 1989, p. 4). What was present in these people's lives and

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missing from those who were not resilient? The first protective factor was that of childhood
temperament. The importance of an easy, outgoing temperament is that is appears to elicit
positive responses from others and thus facilitate early positive relationship experiences (Afifi &
MacMillan, 2011 ; Werner & Smith, 1992). Next, the individual had formed a close, positive
relationship with at least one family member, although not necessarily a parent, who knew the
child well and was committed to the child ' s well-being. Lastly, they had the opportunity to
connect with outside family supports that provided meaningful opportunities to be involved with
others (Werner & Smith 1992).

Adversity and Risk Factors
Adversity is present in all aspects of everyday life, from minor disappointments and
hassles through to major trauma. At some time or another most secure, autonomous and
optimistic children are faced with challenging events like the birth of a sibling, moving house, or
making the transition to a new childcare or school experience. Some children experience major
adversity, significant environmental risks, including poverty, abuse, neglect, violence, parental
substance misuse, natural disasters, or loss of loved ones. These may be short lived or chronic,
but they act to put the child ' s well-being at risk. Risk factors rarely occur as a single or isolated
stressful life event. More often, multiple risk factors are present and resilient children, by
definition, have better developmental outcomes under such challenging circumstances (MartinezTorteya, Bogat, von Eye, & Levendosky, 2009). There is always a shifting balance between
vulnerability and resilience depending on the extent to which risk and protective factors are
present. How well a child copes with adversity is largely determined by the nature of the stressor

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or trauma, low long it lasts, its intensity, and the nature and availability of supports at the time
(Rolfe, 2004).

Resilience and Childhood Trauma
At all ages, secure attachment can create resiliency and help buffer an individual against
the worst effects of trauma (Herman, 1992). Children learn how to be resilient in the face of
trauma by watching, and learning from, others process traumatic events. Without the relationship
or attachment that comes to symbolize "mutual relatedness," a person ' s ability to develop
resilience is challenged (Williams, 2006, p. 325).
Early childhood educators cannot erase the effects of trauma on children ' s individual
make-up, but they can become a positive mediating factor. By nurturing children ' s ability to
rebound from challenges, early childhood professionals can help children become resilient,
despite their early experience with trauma.
To become an effective "resilience factor" for children, educators must be aware of the
effects of trauma on children. Early childhood educators need to be alert to symptoms that
children may experience as a result of a traumatic event. With such knowledge, educators can
make specific adjustments in environments, routines, and care and guidance. If educators do so
with intentional and consistent effort, they can help traumatized children feel more trusting, safe,
secure, and helpful about life, despite their personal experience.

The Role of the Early Childhood Educator in Promoting Resilience
Masten and Osofsky (20 10) identify several key factors associated with resilience. These
are "connections to competent and caring adults in the family and community, cognitive and
self-regulations skills, positive views of self, and motivation to be effective in the environment"

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(p. 1036). Drawing on these factors, early childhood educators can promote resilience in three
main ways: (1) through secure relationships with children; (2) through the positive emotional,
social, and cognitive experiences they provide for children; and (3) through the support they
provide to others who are responsible for the child's care (i.e. parents and other family members)
(Rolfe 2004).

Case Scenario
In this case scenario, we learn more about four- year- old Helina's background. As you

read her family circumstances, think about the material in this chapter and the potential
contribution of the early childhood educator' s role in promoting her resilience.
Steven, He/ina 's preschool teacher, has written the following note about He/ina and her
family:
He/ina is the fourth child in a family ofjive children. Two of He/ina's older siblings are
currently in foster care due to protective concerns around issues of environmental neglect in the
home and issues ofparental substance misuse and domestic violence. The remaining three
children, including He/ina, spend every alternate weekend in a respite placement requested by
their mother. He/ina 's parents separated two years ago, and He/ina rarely sees her father. The
family is well known to the Ministry of Children and Families Child Protection services.
He/ina and her younger sibling, aged two years, are required to attend a childcare
program as part of their current court orders. He/ina 's teachers at preschool have formed a
positive relationship with He/ina 's mom, Renee. At the beginning, during He/ina 's first year in
the three year old group, Renee was very reluctant to come in the classroom, and often someone
else picked He/ina up at the end of morning. Steven, He/ina's teacher, encouraged Renee to stay

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occasionally to see what Helina did during her time at preschool. Over time, she indicated an
interest in helping out once in a while preparing morning snack. Now, halfway through He/ina 's
four year old preschool year, Renee is a regular helper.
Renee now talks often to Steven and the other educators about He/ina's behaviour and
development. She identifies them as amongst her main parenting supports (Rolfe, 2004, p. 86).
Questions for Reflection
•

How does the preschool promote Helina's resilience?

•

What challenges confront Renee in becoming an active member of this early childhood
community?

•

How have the educators assisted and supported Renee?

•

What is the likely impact of preschool on Helina's resilience?

Discussion Points
In an earlier case scenario (Chapter 2) we saw how Helina' s behaviour shows security in

her relationship with Steven. Steven is directly contributing to Helina's resilience as a figure of
secure attachment. The case scenario in this chapter reveals another way Malcolm and his
colleagues are promoting He! ina's resilience by supporting her mother, and, through this, helping
Renee build a more positive relationship with her daughter (Rolfe, 2004).

Promoting Resilience
A child's resilience depends on a number of factors . For instance, children born with a
more flexible, social and easy temperament, and an optimistic attitude tend to bounce back from
adversity more effectively. Early childhood educators of course do not have control over these

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genetic factors, but there are other ways educators can influence a child' s ability to flourish,
despite vulnerability. Here are some strategies staff can apply to support all children ' s resilience.

Strong One-on-One Relationships . Let children know you are a safe, reliable, person to
turn to for help. Research shows that one consistent, supportive, attentive, and responsive person

in a child ' s life can go a long way toward building resilience (Afifi & MacMillan, 2011).

Create Stable and Predictable Schedules and Routines. Keep to a "no surprises"
schedule. Help anxious children anticipate what is coming next by providing warnings about
changes in staff or routine. In some instances, you may give them an opportunity to role play or
go through a "rehearsal" to prepare them for a field trip or an upcoming celebration .

Track Behavioural Cues. Keeping a diary to document any behavioural clues will assist
educators in finding any patterns that may exist. Once a pattern is identified staff can review the
observations and create a coordinated strategy to help the child and his or her family. Calm
responsive efforts to support all involved can promote greater emotional health through open
communication and constructive problem solving (Stephens, 2010). Throughout that responsive
process, children ' s resilience is fostered .

Be an Emotionally Literate Educator. Assist children in identifying emotions by
modeling a rich emotional vocabulary. This will help children learn how to express and act on
powerful emotions. You can do this by matching words with facial expressions. Introduce new
words to "name" feelings associated with anger such as frightened , anxious, mad, scared,
worried, afraid, or mad.

Be an Interpreter. Assist children in interpreting others ' emotions. Gently remind
children that everyone has feelings and rights. Being sensitive to others' emotions and then

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taking into account different perspectives is hard for young children; it is a high level thinking
skill. You can become an emotional coach for children by translating others ' body language. For
example, " Scott is crying because he is mad that someone grabbed his toy from him and he
wants it back." If a child becomes physical with a peer, model other ways that he/she may let the
other child know how they are feeling so they don't have to rely on physicality. When a child
uses his/her new skills comment on the child ' s respectful expression of anger: "I heard you and
Jenny arguing over the bike. It worked well when you let her know you would pass it to her
when you are finished ."
Create Safe Spaces. Affirm that everyone has equal rights to emotional and physical
safety in the classroom. Let the children see social justice put into action so they can observe and
see the positive outcomes that can come from conflict situations and how the staff is available to
everyone.
Be a Resilient Thinker. Adult modeling of resilient, accurate and flexible thinking is
crucial during the early years. We can model such thinking by talking out loud about our own
struggles and encounters with daily stress: "Whoops, I spilled the milk. I'll get a towel to wipe it
up." "Right now I feel frustrated because I can 't get the lid off the jar. I will try one more time
then I will ask Penny to help me." Talking out loud helps children see that situations of adversity
do not always have to last a long time (Pearson & Kordich Hall, 2006).
Promote Classroom Well-Being. Consider what can be done to promote classroom
well-being. One way is to consider how to reduce sound elements in the classroom. Stressed and
traumatized children can be overwhelmed by excessive and unexpected noises. They may have a
strong "startle reflex" that has a quicker trigger than the typical child ' s. Keeping the environment

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uncluttered, organized, also contributes to environment well-being. Create areas where children
can be with one another in a relaxed way. To assist with this, avoid having too much stimuli and
have fewer resources in the room at one time through periodic rotation. Traumatized children
often have trouble concentrating because they are vigilantly on the lookout, waiting for
something to happen. An uncluttered living and learning space helps them focus and maintain
calmness (Stephens, 201 0).
Connect Children to Sensory Relaxation Activities in Nature. Provide stress-relieving

activities, including sensory art materials, sand and water play, gardening, singing and dancing to
music, outdoor and nature play. Research shows nature can be soothing for children. The regular
cycle of seasons and all the sensory delights of varying seasons help build children ' s sense of
attachment and security. Evaluate your outdoor space for cozy retreats. A natural "green" retreat
is soothing. Use the natural elements in your outdoor space such as shady trees, tents, rocking
chairs, pillows, etc. Observe the child over time and consider what that child needs from his/her
outdoor space. Some children like fanciful spaces to play, to listen to wind chimes, or to hear the
trickle of a water fountain as a way to relax, while other children prefer places to take safe risks
such as climbing and jumping off of stumps, moving heavy rocks, and rough and tumble play
(Stephens, 2010).
Adopt a Classroom Pet. If you have time and space to care for them well, include a safe,

approachable pet in your classroom. Animals give children a sense ofunconditionallove and an
ear that listens patiently.

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Early childhood programs are often the first resource beyond the extended family that
children encounter. That puts educators in a pivotal position to reach out to children who have
experienced complex trauma and to support their resilience.

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Chapter 8: Don't Forget About Yourself!
"The expectation that we can be immersed in suffering and loss daily and not be touched by it is
as unrealistic as expecting to be able to walk through water without getting wet " (Remen, 1996)
What is Involved with Caring?
A primary task of early childhood educators is first and foremost to meet the physical and
emotional needs of the children. This can be an immensely rewarding experience, and it is this
contact with children that keeps many of us working in the field. Some educators call it a
"calling," a type of work that requires a unique and specialized skill set. However, this type of
work can also consist of stressful working environments, cynicism and negativity, dwindling
resources, and low job satisfaction.
Working with children who have been traumatized can be difficult for even the most
gifted and caring professionals. Exposure to tragic stories of children can shake an educator's
views and beliefs about the world and the people in it. The traumatic experience faced by a child
can trigger the same feelings of fear, anxiety, and hopelessness in the educator as in the child.
Exposure to traumatic stories can bring up long-buried emotions or memories from the
caregiver's childhood. These reactions are normal and can have a negative impact. It is very
important that educators take care of their own health and well-being, so they can thrive as
individuals and as professionals.
There are a number of terms, from various fields of counselling, that describe this
phenomenon. It has been described as burnout, vicarious traumatization, secondary
victimization, and secondary traumatic stress. A similar concept, "emotional contagion," is
defined as an affective process in which "an individual observing another person experiences

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emotional responses parallel to that person 's actual or anticipated emotions" (Miller, Stiff, &
Ellis, 1988, p. 254).
Most early childhood professionals would say "you know burnout when you feel it. "
Feelings of stress, exhaustion, and sadness are common feelings among those who provide early
care and learning to young children. Burnout is a very real and debilitating state that affects job
performance and health. It is a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by
long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation (Pines, Aronson & Kafry, 1988).
(See Table 5) Early childhood educators describe feelings of frustration, anger, and sadness.
They feel exhausted and have headaches, stomach upset, and muscle aches and pains. Those who
feel burned out just do not look forward to going to work most days. These negative feelings
persist over time.
Table 5
Possible Signs of Burnout
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Exhaustion, feeling depleted and "used up"
Feeling detached and/or emotionally numb and callous
Reduced sense of accomplishment, purpose and meaning connected to work
Negativity, cynicism, and blame
Self-doubt and feeling incompetent, overwhelmed or helpless
Decline in performance and productivity at work
Feeling unappreciated
Feeling "used" and angry
Increased impatience, irritability, and relationship conflicts
Mistrusting colleagues motives and actions
Adapted from Headington Institute (n.d.)
Early childhood educators who work with traumatized children are exposed to unique and

intense stressors that can have a strong impact in the caregiver' s physical and emotional wellbeing. These reactions to the work may be more than burnout. Experts have discovered that
caregivers who work with traumatized children can develop "vicarious traumatisation."

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Vicarious traumatisation described by Pearlman and Saakvitne, (1995) is a process
through which the person' s inner experience is negatively transformed through empathetic
engagement with the traumatized person ' s trauma material or "the negative effects of caring
about and caring for others" (p.31 ). Vicarious trauma unfolds over time and is not just a response
to one child, one story, or one situation. This process of change happens over time because
educators care about other people who have been hurt and feel committed or responsible to help
them. Some educators feel deeply and profoundly changed by working so closely with
traumatized children. Changes can be felt, and noticed, on a psychological, physical, and
spiritual level. An educator' s expectations may be too high resulting in feeling burdened,
overwhelmed, and hopeless. Their inner view of the world and the people in it becomes
disrupted and sometimes troubled. A key component of vicarious trauma is changes in the
educator' s concept or sense of his or her own spirituality, which can impact the way a person
sees the world and their deepest sense of meaning and hope (Pearlman & Courtois, 2005). This
deep transformation of the caregiver' s inner experience is a primary condition of vicarious
traumatisation (Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves, 2005). People begin to feel that their
beliefs in the world are shaken and they see the world in a troubling new way. Vicarious
traumatisation in the caregivers occurs when they have troubles coping with the story of the
trauma, just as the child has trouble coping with the trauma experience (p.48).

Signs of Vicarious Trauma
Working with traumatized children can be especially difficult for educators who have
their own traumatic life histories. These caregivers may be the most empathic and helpful to
children because they can understand what the child may be experience. However, they can also

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be at the greatest risk for this type of trauma if they lack the coping strategies and support to
manage their reactions. If an educator is identifying with a child's trauma history, he or she, may
be overwhelmed with feelings of sadness, anger, anxiety, and helplessness. (See Table 6).

Taking Care
Fortunately there are many ways educators can support and nurture themselves as
professionals caring for young children. The first step is recognizing that the best way educators
can care for children is to keep themselves mentally and physically healthy. Educators who are
used to caring for everyone else except themselves may have a hard time rethinking their
behaviour (Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves, 2005). If providers prioritize their self-care,
they are giving two gifts - one to themselves and one to the children in their care.
Table 6
Signs of Vicarious Trauma
Feelings

- Overwhelmed, exhausted, overloaded, burnt out
- Loss of pleasure, apathetic, depressed, despairing that anything can improve
- Overly emotionally involved with the client
- Experience bystander guilt, shame, self-doubt

Cognitions

- Preoccupied with thoughts of clients outside of work
- Loss of hope, pessimism, cynicism
-Question competence, self-worth, low job satisfaction

Behaviour

- High general distress level
- Difficulty maintaining professional boundaries

Organization - High job turnover
-Low morale
- Absenteeism
-Job Dissatisfaction
- Organizational contagion

(Meichedbaum, n.d., p. 5)

94

Stress Management
Bodies respond to stress in physical and emotional ways. When the mind sees threat in
the environment, it triggers a chemical reaction in the body that prepares it to deal with stress.
The brain tells the body to breathe faster, tense muscles, and get ready to run or defend itself.
This is the "wear and tear" of chronic stress - bodies in a chronic state of arousal without relief
(Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves, 2005, p.49). Chronic stress is related to physical illness
such as headaches, stomach problems, back aches, and even heart disease. Fortunately, the mind
is able to calm the stress response just as the mind can trigger it. The body can release chemicals
that counteract the stress response and return the body to a relaxed state (Fitzgerald-Rice &
McAlister-Groves, 2005, p. 49).

Peer Support and Creating a Climate of Respect
Positive connections with coworkers and support from colleagues can offer healthy
protection from job stress and trauma. Many early childhood professionals say that no one
understands the stress of working with young children better than other early childhood
educators. Trusted peers and coworkers can listen and empathize without judging. Professionals
who treat each other with respect and care model for children how healthy relationships work
(Fitzgerald-Rice & McAlister-Groves, 2005, p.49). Simple practices such as saying hello and
good bye, complimenting hard work, and listening can set a positive professional tone in a
program. It is critical that administrators, supervisors, and staff model the kinds of relationships
they wish to promote among families and children.

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Supervision and Mentoring
An essential component of quality early childhood programs is staff supervision that

meets the needs of professionals working with traumatized children and families. Fitzgerald-Rice
and McAlister-Groves (2005) highlight that educators are only beginning to see the importance
of quality supervision in the early education field. Quality supervision is process-oriented,
allowing the caregiver to reflect on her/his feelings and reactions related to the work in a safe
environment. This type of supervision focuses on processing the experiences of the educator
rather than instructing the person. The educator grows then as a professional and copes with
difficult feelings by talking, sharing, and reflecting with the supervisor or mentor. Supervisors
use the caregiver's experiences as teaching tools, assisting him or her in discovering solutions to
problems rather than just giving information and telling them what to do.

A Moment for Reflection

I.

What are three activities you do regularly, or enjoy doing, that can help you with burnout
or vicarious trauma?

2. Why do you think these activities help you in coping with vicarious trauma? Consider
how these activities can help counteract your risk factors for burnout or vicarious
trauma.
More Self-Care Ideas
Take stock- What's on your plate? To make changes and improvements you want to
figure out where the problem areas are. Start by taking a non-judgemental inventory of where
things are at in your life. Make a list of all the demands on your time and energy (work, family,
home, health, volunteering, other). Try to make this list as detailed as you can. For example,

96

under the work category, list the main stressors you see (long days, not taking a break in the day,
not having lunch, struggling with co-worker, struggling with a parent). Once you have the list,
take a look at it. What stands out? What factors are contributing to making your plate too full?
Life situations or things you have taken on? What would you like to change most? If you are
comfortable sharing this with a trusted friend or colleague, have a brainstorming discussion with
them on strategies and new ideas.

Start a Self-Care Idea Collection. This can be fun. You can do it with friends and at
work. With friends : Interview three friends on their favourite self-care strategies. Start making a
list even if they are not ideas that you would do/are able to afford at the moment. Something new
might emerge that you had not yet thought of. At work: If you are doing this at work, you could
even start a contest for the best self-care idea of the week or have a "self-care board" where
people post their favourite ideas. You could have a "5 minutes of self-care" session at each staff
meeting where someone is in charge of bringing a new self-care idea each week. Once you have
a really nice long list, pick three ideas that jump out at you. Make a commitment to
implementing these in your life within the next month. Ask a friend/colleague if they would
commit to supporting you (and you them) in maintaining your self-care goals. This could mean
that they go to the gym with you every Thursday, or that they e-mail you at lunch to remind you
to get out of your office. This is a wonderful way to stay on track and to validate your own
experiences by sharing them

Have a transition from work to home. Do you have a transition time between work and
home? Do you walk in the door to kids fighting and hanging from the curtains or do you walk
into a peaceful house? Do you have a transition process when you get home? Do you change

97

clothes? It is often said that one of the best strategies involves a transition ritual of some kind:
putting on cozy clothes when getting home and mindfully putting work clothes "away" as in
putting the day away as well, having a ten minute quiet period to shift gears, and going for a run.
Do you have a transition ritual? (Mathieu, 2007).

98

Concluding Thoughts
I wrote this manual to provide early childhood educators with knowledge on complex
trauma, with an understanding of the impact of trauma on children ' s development ages two to
five, and with some intervention strategies. Moreover, I endeavoured to foster educators '
affective and intellectual awareness and capacity to support children and families impacted by
complex trauma in early care and learning environments.
The manual explores what complex trauma is and its relationship with children's
development. By exploring attachment theory and the impact of trauma on attachment, I was
able to highlight the opportunity educators have to be strong attachment figures for the children
in their care. Children are resilient, and as the manual points out, despite the resilient capabilities
of children, trauma leaves an indelible mark on children ' s development. However, with
responsive and sensitive caregiving, children have the capacity to cope.
Early in the manual I shared my story of Jason and Kevin and the many challenges I
encountered professionally. Reflecting back, I feel it is imperative that I conclude this manual by
focusing on the gifts they gave to me. They taught me that life can be extremely and
unnecessarily hard for very young children. But despite that, with love, understanding, and
determination, their lives can be a little bit better. Instead of feeling burdened by these
relationships, I believe they added deep meaning to me professionally and personally.
The writing of this manual has been, in part, about reflecting on and rethinking practice
and the impact it will have on these children. My concluding wish is that every child whose life
has been impacted by complex trauma can experience being seen for who they are meant to be
and not for the limits placed upon them by traumatic experiences.

99

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