research
notes
BRITISH
No. 20

COLUMBIA

FOREST

SERVICE

VICTORIA, B.C.

MARKING OF SPRUCE
in the

FORT GEORGE FOREST DISTRICT
By
L. A. deGrace, E. W . Robinson, and J. H. G. Smith

RESEARCH DIVISION
R. H Spilsbury, Forester

B. C. Forest Service Research Notes are issued at irregular in tervals and distributed on the basis o f their individual
in terest. Therefore, i t may not be possible fo r persons or organizations to maintain complete f i l e s inasmuch as certain
numbers may pertain only to Forest Service problems and hence be issued only to Service personnel.

1952

T A B LE OF CONTENTS
Page
T H E BASIS O F M A R K I N G P R A C T I C E ________________________________

I

O r ig in a l F o r e s t _________________________________________________

1

E ff e c t of L o g g i n g _______________________________________________

I

D e v e lo p m e n t of C u to v e r A r e a s ________________________________

I

A S U G G E S T E D M A R K IN G R U L E ______________________________________

4

D i s c u s s i o n _______________________________________________________

4

M A R K IN G T E C H N IQ U E
A.

C r u i s e _______________________________________________________

8

B.

P la n of M a r k in g ____________________________________________

8

C.

C o n tr o l of M a r k in g _________________________________________ 10

D.

C o n tr o l o f L o g g i n g __________________________________________10

E.

A x e M a r k i n g ------------------------------------------------------------- 10

F.

S p ra y-gu n M a r k in g _________________________________________ 11

G.

C r e w __________________________________________________________11

H.

R e c o r d s ______________________________________________________ 11

I.

C o s t s _________________________________________________________ 12

S U M M A R Y __________________________________________________________________12

B I B L I O G R A P H Y ___________________________________________________________ 13

M A R K IN G O F S P R U C E IN T H E F O R T G E O R G E F O R E S T D IS T R IC T
T H E BASIS O F M A R K IN G P R A C T I C E
O v e r a p e r io d of f o r t y y e a r s , the loggin g, a d m in is tr a tiv e , and
r e s e a r c h e x p e r ie n c e in the N o r th e r n I n t e r i o r s p r u c e - b a ls a m f o r e s t has
in d ica ted c e r ta in c h a r a c t e r is t ic s and s ilv ic u lt u r a l r e s p o n s e s which a ffe c t
p o lic y in the type. A m o n g p ertin en t fa cts m a y be lis te d the fo llo w in g :
O r ig in a l F o r e s t (2)
1. M e rc h a n ta b le stands of s p r u c e - b a ls a m t y p ic a lly have an
a l l - a g e d stem d istribu tion, in which both spruce and
b a ls a m a r e r e p r e s e n te d by in c r e a s in g n um bers in the
lo w e r d ia m e t e r c la s s e s .
2. Spruce g e n e r a lly num ber J.2 5 - 175 stem s p e r a c r e and
b a ls a m 300-600 p e r a c r e through the r e g io n .
3. A p p r o x im a t e ly 50 spru ce p e r a c r e a r e o f s u fficien t s iz e
to lo g and 10-15 b a ls a m p e r a c r e a r e a lso o v e r 12 inches
d. b. h.
4. On the a v e r a g e 30-50 spru ce not usually cut a r e 6 inches
o r m o r e in d ia m e t e r .
E ffe c t of L o g g in g
1. L o g g in g does not red u ce fo r e s t e d a r e a s to a n o n -sto ck ed
condition but le a v e s r e s id u a l stands o f v a r y in g c o m p o s itio n
and d e n s ity .
2. L o g g in g dam age am ong n o n -m e rc h a n ta b le stem s of sp ru ce
and b a ls a m red u ces the poten tial r e s id u a l stand 30-75 p e r
cent by num ber (2) (3).
3. B a ls a m is s e ld o m an im p o rta n t p a r t o f the cut becau se of
l o w e r valu e, s m a lle r vo lu m e , tendency to d e fe c t, and
p o s s ib ly m a r k e t p r e ju d ic e .
D e v e lo p m e n t of C u to v e r A r e a s
1. G e n e r a lly , rep ro d u ctio n of spru ce is e x t r e m e l y slo w .
2. R e p ro d u c tio n of sp ru ce on burned o r o th e r w is e d evastated
f o r e s t land shows l it t le e vid en ce o f p r o v id in g e a r l y
r e s to c k in g .

3. G e n e r a lly , r e s id u a l sp ru ce stem s show high s u r v iv a l
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s and g r o w r a p id ly fo llo w in g r e l e a s e f r o m
su p p ressio n (5).
4. An exam in ation of lo g g e d lands has in d icated g ro w th and
d e v elo p m en t, on the a v e r a g e , which w i l l only y ie ld second
cuts in a p p r o x im a te ly 100 y e a r s (5).
5. C ro p t r e e s f o r the second cut w i l l develop f r o m the
r e s id u a l stand a ft e r the f i r s t cut; v e r y fe w w i l l be f r o m
subsequent re p ro d u c tio n .
6. The length of cutting c y c le depends on the quantity and
qu ality of stand r e s e r v e d at the tim e of lo g g in g .
7. Som e a r e a s , on which b e t t e r - t h a n - a v e r a g e r e s id u a l stands
w e r e reta in ed , have been r e - l o g g e d p r o fit a b ly 30 y e a r s
a fte r the f i r s t cut (5).
8. Wind dam a ge is s e v e r e in re s id u a l stands in the y e a r s
i m m e d ia t e ly a fte r lo g g in g but tends to ta p er o ff at an
e a r l y date (5).
F o r e s t m an a gem en t has r e c o g n iz e d the n atu ral c h a r a c t e r is t ic s
o f s p r u c e - b a ls a m f o r e s t by d ir e c t in g p o lic y tow ards reten tion of healthy
r e s id u a l stands which w i l l p r o v id e re a s o n a b ly e a r ly cuts. In g e n e r a l
p r a c t ic e the F o r e s t S e r v i c e has esta b lis h e d d i a m e t e r - l i m i t cutting, and
each t i m b e r - s a l e c o n tr a c t contains p r o h ib ito r y cla u s e s a im ed at red u ction
o f dam age in the n o n -m e rc h a n ta b le d ia m e te r c la s s e s .
F u r th e r study o f the m ethod o f m anaging such stands is e s s e n tia l.
A t the p r e s e n t tim e t h e r e a r e in s u ffic ie n t data to say with a ssu ra n ce w h eth er
the reten tion of r e s id u a l stands is e n t ir e ly ju s tifie d o r not. P r o b a b ly
much uncertainty has a r is e n b ecau se o p e r a to r s and f o r e s t r y fi e l d men
a r e f a m i l i a r with the ap p ea ra n ce o f c u to v e r a re a s im m e d ia t e ly a ft e r
lo g g in g but s e ld o m see the l o n g - t e r m r e s u lt. A f t e r lo g g in g is c o m p le te d
stands look v e r y r a g g e d . In the f i r s t y e a r s a c o n s id e r a b le amount of
wind dam age to b a ls a m and d e fe c t iv e spru ce adds to the confusion.
Im m e d ia te oc u la r e s t im a te s m a y be quite p r e ju d ic e d . O b s e rv a tio n s of
stands 10-30 y e a r s a ft e r lo g g in g have in dicated the t r u e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
R e m a in in g t r e e s a r e w in d fir m . C ro w n s of l a r g e r t r e e s have d e v e lo p e d
s y m m e tr y , and s m a l l e r t r e e s have c lo s e d a ll but the l a r g e r , r a g g e d
openings. A r e a s have r e - a s s u m e d a fo r e s t e d ap p earan ce and a second
cut can be v is u a liz e d in a n o t - t o o - r e m o t e fu tu re. U n fortu n ately two
fe w o f these o ld e r r e s id u a l stands have been exam in ed .
P o g u e foxind
that 25 y e a r s a fte r lo g g in g , on the a v e r a g e , stands contained 140 spru ce

stem s p e r a c r e , a p p r o x im a t e ly 45 of which w e r e 6 inches d . b . h . o r o v e r (5),
A t the A l e z a L a k e F o r e s t E x p e r im e n t Station, a r e c e n t exam in ation of
s om e 400 a c r e s lo g g e d f r o m 1919 to 1926, in dicated 162 sp ru ce p e r a c r e
w ith an a v e r a g e of 56 sp ru ce stem s 8 inches o r o v e r at d . b . h . C u rre n t
d ia m e t e r grow th was in the v ic in it y of 2 inches p e r decade, which su ggests
that in 20 y e a r s m o s t o f these l a r g e r spru ce would be w e l l o v e r 12 inches
d . b . h . and the stand m e rc h a n ta b le .
S im ila r o r b e tte r re s u lts a r e p o s s ib le in m o s t s p r u c e - b a ls a m
stands p r o v id e d an adequate r e s e r v e is reta in ed a ft e r lo g g in g . W h e re
dam age is kept within re a s o n a b le lim it s (under 35 p e r cent of total number
of s te m s ), a 1 4 - in c h -d ia m e te r l i m i t usually w ill le a v e su fficien t t r e e s .
U nfortunately, v e r y f e w a r e a s have u n ifo rm f o r e s t c o v e r and cutting to
d ia m e t e r lim it s accentuates natural ten d en cies tow a rd s la r g e , s p a r s e ly
stocked openings in p la c e s , and o v e r l y dense patches of t im b e r in o th e r s .
In su cceedin g cuts the l o g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t w i l l be tow a rd s l e s s and le s s
u n ifo r m ity . T h is r e t r o g r e s s i v e m o v e m e n t can be c o n tr o lle d through
s e l e c t i v e m a rk in g . T h e d ia m e te r l i m i t is not d is c a r d e d but b e c o m e s
f l e x i b l e . D ense p o rtio n s can be cut to lo w e r d ia m e te r s w h ile the l i m i t
can be r a is e d in m o r e open stands. The method is in te n s iv e , r e q u ir in g
the m a rk in g o f a ll t r e e s to be cut, but a llo w s c h o ic e s in t e r m s o f t r e e
v ig o u r and poten tial g ro w th . The m a r k e r can e lim in a te u n d esirab le
t r e e s and im p r o v e the stand during h a r v e s t.
In the F o r t G e o r g e D is t r ic t two main v a r ia tio n s of the s p ru c e b a ls a m type o c c u r . Young, dense, th rifty , but r e l a t i v e l y e v e n - a g e d stands,
usually the r e s u lt of f i r e , a r e found in many a r e a s . T h e y a r e c h a r a c t e r iz e d
by a f a i r l y e v e n - a g e d s te m d istrib u tion with lim it e d u n d e rs to ry . O r d in a r y
d i a m e t e r - l i m i t cutting to 11 inches d . b . h . p rod u ces appalling r e s u lts .
L a r g e open spaces a r e c r e a t e d . D ense patches of 6-11-inch spru ce a r e
le ft to stagnate. W in d fa ll is s e r io u s . The p r o je c t e d d ev e lo p m e n t cannot
help but be u n s a tis fa c to r y . W h e r e m a rk in g has been done in such stands
re s u lts a r e m o r e s a t is fa c t o r y . W in d fa ll is red u ced and a m o r e u n ifo rm
stocking a c h ie v e d . A l a r g e num ber of 6 - 18-inch spru ce r e m a in s as
g ro w in g stock.

o

The m o s t com m on , and, in t e r m s of p r e s e n t u tiliza tio n , the
m o s t p ro d u c tiv e v a r ia tio n o f s p r u c e -b a ls a m , is the o ld e r, m a tu re type.
On the A l e z a L a k e F o r e s t E x p e r im e n t Station and through much of the
F o r t G e o r g e D is t r ic t , this f o r e s t type is c h a r a c t e r iz e d by l a r g e r , o ld e r
t r e e s being r e p l a c e d f r o m b e lo w as they succumb to natural h a z a rd s .
Although the u n d e rs to ry v a r i e s it is g e n e r a lly w e l l d evelo p ed , g iv in g the
f o r e s t a som ew h at a l l - a g e d c h a r a c t e r . R e s id u a l stands have a m o r e
r a g g e d a p p earan ce than those f r o m you n ger stands b ecau se of the sup­
p r e s s e d nature of the u n d e r s to r y . M a rk in g p re s e n ts a p r o b le m because
c h o ic e in t e r m s of th r ifty t r e e s is lim ite d , and any l a r g e t r e e s le f t a re

w in dth row and d is e a s e r i s k s . D i a m e t e r - l i m i t cutting in the p ast has shown
the usual d e fe c ts in t e r m s of l a r g e openings and dense patches of s m a l l ­
s iz e d m a t e r i a l . T o c o n v e r t o ld e r stands to th r ifty g r o w in g f o r e s t is a
m a jo r p r o b le m . O ld e r c u to v e r a r e a s indicate that the su p p ressed u n d e r­
s t o r y w i l l resp on d s u r p r is in g ly w e l l to r e le a s e and the o b je c t of m a rk in g
should be to re ta in a w e l l - s p a c e d f o r e s t r e g a r d le s s of the som ew hat
rough ap p ea ra n ce of r e s id u a l t r e e s . N a tu r a lly so m e l a r g e r t r e e s o f the
m ain canopy w i l l r e m a in and c o n s id e r a b le c a r e is n e c e s s a r y in th e ir
c h o ic e . M a rk in g is b e tte r than a r ig id d ia m e te r l i m i t in th ese stands.
On the w h ole, s p r u c e - b a ls a m m a y be w e ll- a d a p t e d to a
m a rk in g p r o c e d u r e , and F o r e s t S e r v i c e p o lic y is to c a r e fu lly extend
the p r a c t ic e in the ty p e . The p r e s e n t p a p er aim s at su ggestin g a s i l v i ­
cu ltu ra l background f o r m a rk in g, a s e r i e s of n o n - a r b it r a r y guide ru les,
and an outline of in fo r m a tio n which is c u r r e n tly a v a ila b le on p r a c t ic a l
technique.
A S U G G E S T E D M A R K IN G R U L E
A c tu a l m a rk in g p r o c e d u r e must of n e c e s s it y be g o v e r n e d by
the c h a r a c te r of the in d ivid u a l stand. It is p o s s ib le , h o w e v e r , to outline
a ru le of s ta n d -im p r o v e m e n t s e le c tio n which is g e n e r a lly a p p licab le, but
which m ay be m o d ifie d in d e ta il to suit lo c a l con dition s. The fo llo w in g
apply to the sp ru ce e le m e n ts o f the stand:
1. M a rk

a ll d e fe c t iv e t r e e s f o r fa llin g ;

2. M a rk

l a r g e r t r e e s w h e r e p o s s ib le ;

3. L e a v e th r ift y t r e e s ;
4. A i m at le a v in g a u n ifo r m ly spaced r e s id u a l stand;
5. M a rk s u ffic ie n t vo lu m e to p r o v id e the o p e r a to r with an
eco n o m ic o p e ra tio n .
D iscu ssion
1. M a rk
a ll d e fe c t iv e t r e e s f o r fa llin g . A l l d e fe c t iv e t r e e s
should be fe lle d , and lo g g e d w h e r e the y ie ld is one h alf of g r o s s s c a le .
D e fe c t iv e t r e e s con tribu te lit t le to the gro w th of the fo r e s t , occupy
valu a b le g ro w in g space, and m a y cause genetic d e t e r io r a t io n . I f
le f t standing they a r e lia b le to in s e c t attack. R ottin g w ood of f e l l e d
t r e e s , in tim e , p r o v id e s a g e rm in a tio n m ediu m f o r sp ru ce. T r e e s to
be cut include those showing ev id e n c e of ro t o r in s e c t attack (conk,
w o o d p e c k e r holes, p itch exudation, s c a le d bark, e t c . ) . T r e e s with

9

e x c e s s iv e c ro o k , e x c e s s iv e lean, fo r k s , o r other w eaken in g d e f o r m it ie s
should be r e m o v e d . W h e r e p o s s ib le only th rifty t r e e s with clean, sm ooth
stem s of good f o r m should be le f t to p r o v id e a m a x im u m in c r e m e n t in
t e r m s of h ig h -g r a d e lu m b e r . H o w e v e r , as the o b je c t of m a rk in g is
m a tu rity s e le c tio n , it should not r e s u lt m e r e l y in a sa n ita ry cutting.
2. M a rk l a r g e r t r e e s w h e r e p o s s ib le . Only the v ig o r o u s
t r e e s l a r g e r than the f l e x ib le d ia m e te r l i m i t should be le ft, and then only
to m e e t stocking and spacing r e q u ir e m e n t s . L a r g e r t r e e s have a h igh er
in cid en ce of hidden d e fe c t (advanced d eca y), and a r e m o r e su scep tib le
to in s e c t attack (4) (6), and w in dth row . G e n e r a lly it is npt d e s ir a b le to
re ta in spruce o v e r 20 o r 22 inches d . b . h . , because they constitute a p o o r
r is k o v e r the length of the f i r s t c u t t in g - c y c le . M a rk in g in ten sity w i l l
v a r y with stocking, age, and d ia m e te r -d is tr ib u tio n .
3. L e a v e th r ift y t r e e s . F i e l d e s tim a te of th r ift depends
l a r g e l y on the opinion of the m a r k e r . G row th of f o r m e r l y s u p p ressed
t r e e s can be ex p ected to in c r e a s e in an e v e n ly - s p a c e d r e s id u a l stand,
but g r e a t e r grow th w i l l be obtained f r o m those which a r e in a c u r r e n tly
t h r ifty condition. G ro w th v ig o u r is ev id e n c e d by length and width o f l i v e
crow n , p osition of the t r e e in the c ro w n canopy, and by g e n e r a l ap pearance.
It is the m a r k e r 's a im to reta in as many th r ifty t r e e s as p o s s ib le , and in
choosing them he m ay be a s s is te d by a n u m e r ic a l a s s e s s m e n t of c e r ta in
p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e fo llo w in g s y s te m of t r e e ra tin g is r e ­
com m en ded:

Rating

V a r ia b le

C ro w n P o s it io n

Dominant or
open grow n

C o -d o m in a n t

In te r m e d ia te
o r o v e rto p p e d

3

2

I

2/3 o r o v e r

1/3 to 2/3

3

2

V alu e
Len gth of l iv e
c row n
V a lu e
T r e e V ig o u r
V a lu e

M ed iu m

Good
3

2

U n d er l/3

I
Poor
I

C ro w n p o s itio n is based on the 1944 d efinition o f the S o c ie ty of
A m erica n F o r e s te r s .
L en gth of l i v e c ro w n is the r a tio of length o f c ro w n to to ta l height
of t r e e . L o p s id e d o r r a g g e d c ro w n s a r e sh orten ed to th e ir e q u iv a ­
lent in s y m m e t r i c a l shape.
V ig o u r is a g e n e r a l a p p ra is a l of the t r e e ; its f o lia g e in t e r m s of
v o lu m e , density, c o lo u r, and s iz e ; its branching in t e r m s of r e c e n t
grow th ; and its trunk in t e r m s of bark c o lo u r, bark su rfa c e , and
v is ib le d e fe c t such as c a tfa c e , f i r e s c a r s , sunscalds, etc.
The th re e d e g r e e s o f v ig o u r used in the above rating m a y be
m o r e c o m p le t e ly d efin ed by the m a r k e r 's e x p e r ie n c e . The fo llo w in g
d e s c r ip tio n s have been used by two m a rk in g p a r tie s in the F o r t G e o r g e
D is t r ic t :
V ig o u r 3 - -g o o d sp ru ce, usually dominant, with dense w e ll- d e v e l o p e d
c ro w n s , usually pointed, long and dark g r e e n fo lia g e , long and
luxuriant tw ig grow th, and tight bark in young t r e e s .
V ig o u r 2 - - m e d iu m spru ce, usually codominant, with thin o r o n e ­
sided c ro w n s . L a c k s in d ication of th rifty g row th .
V ig o u r l - - p o o r spru ce, usually overto p p ed , with m a r k e d ly p o o r
c ro w n s , slow t e r m in a l grow th, s p a rs e o r y e llo w in g fo lia g e , m ay
have trunk o r c ro w n d e f o r m i t i e s .
The m a r k e r w i l l not use his t r e e - r a t i n g s y s te m on e v e r y
t r e e . Many ch o ic e s a r e obviou s. In many other c a s e s d e c is io n on
b o r d e r lin e , " c u t - o r - l e a v e " t r e e s , o r the s e le c tio n o f a lte r n a tiv e s m ay
be a s s is te d by a quick but o r d e r l y a p p r a is a l and to ta llin g o f n u m e r ic a l
v a lu e s . T w o t r e e s of v e r y s i m i l a r m erch an tab le vo lu m e m ight have
d iffe r e n t ra tin gs, p erh aps 7 and 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y . Both m a y be c o n s id e r e d
re a s o n a b le r is k s , but in the i n t e r e s t of an im p r o v e d re s id u a l stand the
h ig h e r ra tin g is of c o u r s e the b e tte r ch o ic e as a " l e a v e " t r e e . W o lf
t r e e s , although ra te d as 9, should be cut as a stand im p r o v e m e n t
m easure.
A p p lic a tio n of the f o r e g o in g ru le is g e n e r a l. I t m ay, with
m o d ifica tio n , be ap p lied in any stand in which it is f e a s ib le to m a rk .
M a rk in g is p r a c t ic a l w h e r e d ia m e te r d istribu tion and num ber of t r e e s
w i l l p r o v id e (a) a s a t is fa c t o r y re s id u a l stand, and (b) an eco n o m ic cut
f o r the l o g g e r .

4. A i m at le a v in g a u n ifo rm ly spaced re s id u a l stand. The
o b je c t of m a rk in g is to le a v e a healthy, w e ll- s p a c e d stand of sp ru ce.
W ith p r e s e n t u tiliz a tio n standards, 30-50 stem s p e r a c r e w i l l p r o v id e
su ffic ie n t c rop t r e e s f o r the next cut. A t le a s t 40-50 m o r e a r e r e ­
q u ire d to supply r e c r u it s f o r the su cceeding cut. T o a llo w f o r m o r t a lit y
and lo s s in vo lu m e f r o m d ecay, windthrow , and oth er causes it is r e ­
co m m en d ed that a p p r o x im a te ly 100 spru ce p e r a c r e ranging in d ia m e te r
f r o m 2-14 inches d . b . h . be reta in ed on cu to v e r a r e a s . I f 30-50 of these
stem s a r e o v e r 6 inches d . b . h . the length of the c u ttin g - c y c le w i l l
approach 40 y e a r s . A n abundance of l a r g e r d ia m e t e r s w i l l shorten the
c y c le ; a m a jo r it y of s m a l l e r s iz e s w i l l lengthen it . I f the supply of
p o ten tia l re s id u a l m a t e r i a l does not e x is t the su ggested standard must
be a lt e r e d o r another cutting m ethod be used. In this connection it
must be r e m e m b e r e d that, even with c a r e fu l loggin g, a p o rtio n of the
unm arked (re s id u a l) stand w i l l be dam aged o r d e s tr o y e d . The re s id u a l
stand m ay be red u ced by one th ird to one h alf through lo g g in g da m a ge.
F o r b est d e v e lo p m e n t of f o r m and in c re m e n t, spacing should
be as u n ifo rm as p o s s ib le . C a r e le s s n e s s in m a rk in g the f i r s t cut can
c r e a t e p r o b le m s in openings which a r e d iffic u lt to c o r r e c t o v e r two o r
m o r e cutting c y c l e s . A s a g e n e r a l ru le re s id u a l spruce stem s (2 inches
d . b . h . and o v e r ) should not be c l o s e r than 15 n or fa r t h e r than 25 fe e t
f r o m each o th er. A d h e r e n c e to this suggestion w i l l depend on f ie ld
conditions e n t ir e ly .
In the in t e r e s t of stand im p r o v e m e n t it is u rg e d that the r e ­
m o v a l o f b a lsa m be en co u ra ged w h e r e p o s s ib le . T his s p e c ie s , at
m a tu rity o r when g r o w in g under su p p ression is fr e q u e n tly d e fe c t iv e and
cannot m ake s a t is fa c t o r y g row th . The p r e s e n c e of b a lsam , e s p e c ia lly
w h e r e it is not lo gged , w i l l in c r e a s e w in d fa ll and dela y d ev e lo p m e n t of
r e s id u a l sp ru ce. S m a lle r b a ls a m p r o v id e c e rta in advantages in branch
pruning and the d e v e lo p m e n t of good f o r m in the r e s id u a l stand, but
they a r e usually outgrow n in the long run by the sp ru ce.
5. M a rk su ffic ie n t vo lu m e to p r o v id e the o p e r a t o r with an
econ om ic o p e ra tio n . T h e ra tio of cut to le a v e m a y v a r y w ith the stand
and with p r e v a ilin g eco n o m ic conditions in any lo c a lit y . W h e re lo g g in g
c o sts a r e low , 4 ,0 0 0 -6 ,0 0 0 f . b . m . p e r a c r e m ight p r o v id e am p le r e ­
turn to the o p e r a t o r . W h e re lo g g in g is e x p en sive h igh er v o lu m e s a r e
n e c e s s a r y to w a r r a n t u tiliz a tio n . Som e m a rk in g in younger stands has
been on a 60 p e r cent vo lu m e cut of t r e e s 12 inches d . b . h . and o v e r .
A r e c e n t m a rk in g p r o j e c t in the o ld e r f o r e s t a llo w e d 60 p e r cent vo lu m e
cut on the sam e b a s is . Som e f o r e s t e r s , m a in ly b ecau se o f wind lo s s
in re s id u a l stands, a r e fa v o u rin g lig h t e r cuts in the m atu re f o r e s t s .
F i f t y to s ix ty p e r cent r e s e r v e d v o lu m e is p r o v id in g a m o r e s a t is fa c t o r y
r e s id u a l stand. L i g h t e r cuts a ls o tend to tr a n s fe r l a r g e r a r e a s f r o m

a static condition into g ro w in g f o r e s t . G e n e r a lly a r e s e r v e a p p r o x i­
m ating 40 p e r cent of the m erch a n ta b le vo lu m e o r one h a lf to two thirds
of total spru ce stem s w i l l s a tis fy s ilv ic u lt u r a l r e q u ir e m e n t s .
M A R K IN G T E C H N IQ U E
A m o s t s a t is fa c t o r y m a rk in g technique w i l l be d e te rm in e d
by the ind ivid u al stand and e x p e r ie n c e of the c r e w s . The fo llo w in g
su ggestion s have been t r ie d and have w o rk e d s u c c e s s fu lly . M o d i f i c a ­
tion m ay p r o v e n e c e s s a r y in d e ta il but p ro b a b ly not in the g e n e r a l out­
lin e of m ethod.
A.

C R U IS E

In o r d e r that the plan of m a rk in g m ay be given p r o p e r
attention and an alysis it is e s s e n tia l that it be based on an a ccu ra te
c r u is e . Such a c r u is e should be m ade by the strip o r p lot method,
p r e f e r a b l y in conjunction with a e r i a l photographs i f a v a ila b le . T r e e s
12 inch es d . b . h . and o v e r should be e s tim a te d by a 10 p e r cent c r u is e .
T r e e s f r o m 0. 1 at b r e a s t height up to and including the 10 inch d . b . h .
c la s s m ay be c r u is e d at any in ten sity which w ill p r o v id e a f a i r e s tim a te
o f s m a lle r m a t e r ia l. On a d m in is tr a tiv e m a rk in g p r o je c t s a on e-ten th chain strip within the m erch a n ta b le t i m b e r - c r u i s e strip has been c o n ­
s id e r e d adequate and has p ro v e n quite rap id . On e x p e r im e n ta l p r o je c t s
a m o r e in te n s iv e c r u is e is a d v is a b le .
W h e r e o n e - t e n t h - a c r e c i r c u l a r plots (radius 37.2 fe e t) a r e
e m p lo y e d t r e e s 12 in ch es d . b . h . and o v e r m a y be ta llie d on the whole
plot, and the s m a lle r c la s s e s on a fr a c tio n only. The p o s itio n of the
fr a c tio n should be the sam e in c o n s e c u tiv e p lo ts . W h e re a e r i a l p h oto­
graphs a r e used adequate sa m p les m ust be taken in v a rio u s types to
ensure p r o p e r c o v e r a g e e ith e r by the p lo t o r strip m ethod.
A dequ ate a s s e s s m e n t of a stand fo r m a rk in g planning is
p o s s ib le without including the c r u is e t r e e s b e lo w the 2-in ch d . b . h .
c l a s s . T h e s e t r e e s usually do not fig u r e in the second cut and a r e
p a r t ic u la r ly d iffic u lt to t a lly . T h e i r im p o rta n c e should not be u n d er­
valued and they m ay be c ru is e d , p ro b a b ly by a quadrant method, if
the in fo rm a tio n has a b e a r in g on im m e d ia te m anagem ent plans.
B.

P L A N O F M A R K IN G

F r o m the c r u is e data a stand and stock table is d e v e lo p e d
to in dicate the d istrib u tio n of m erch a n ta b le t r e e s p e r a c r e by d ia m e te r
and b o a r d - fo o t v o lu m e . T a b le 1 is c o m p ile d fo r spru ce on a p o rtio n of
the A l e z a L a k e F o r e s t E x p e r im e n t Station.

T A B L E 1- -Spruce Stand and Stock T a b le
(B r it is h C o lu m b ia L o g S cale)

D .B .H .
C la s s
inches

N u m b er
of t r e e s

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28

17.0
23.0
22.0
13.8
12.8
8.0
7. 1
7.8
8 .0
3.5
1.9
0 .8
0 .4
0 .5

T o ta ls

126. 6

V o lu m e
per tree
f . b . m.

T o ta l
vo lu m e
f . b. m .

C u m u la tive
vo lu m e *
f . b. m .

-

_

_

-

-

-

20
40
90
155
230
305
395
480
600
725
905

276
512
720
1, 100
1, 794
2, 440
1, 383
912
480
290
453

10, 360
10,084
9, 572
8, 852
7, 752
5, 958
3, 518
2, 135
1, 223
743
453

-

10,360

-

* C u m u lative vo lu m e to ta ls a r e f r o m the l a r g e s t to s m a lle s t d ia m e te r
c la s s e s .

A s s u m in g that 60 p e r cent of the total m erch a n ta b le vo lu m e
w i l l a llo w an eco n o m ic cut and r e s e r v e a s a t is fa c t o r y r e s id u a l stand it
b e c o m e s evident f r o m the above co m p ila tio n that an o r d in a r y d ia m e te r
l i m i t should be set at 1 7 in ch es. A l l t r e e s o v e r this s iz e w i l l p r o v id e
a p p r o x im a te ly 6,000 f . b . m . of o p e ra tio n a l v o lu m e . In m a rk in g , h o w ­
e v e r , th e r e is no r i g i d d ia m e te r l i m i t . T h e n om in al l i m i t is a guide
f o r in ten sity of m a rk in g but a llo w s the f l e x i b i l i t y n e c e s s a r y to d evelo p
u n ifo rm spacing, e lim in a te u n d esira b le t r e e s , and r e s e r v e th r ifty
in d iv id u a ls . T r e e s 18 inches d . b . h . and o v e r m a y be le f t i f they a r e
v ig o r o u s and f u l f i l l a spacing r e q u ir e m e n t in the r e s id u a l stand, and
other t r e e s to th e ir eq u ivalen t vo lu m e cut f r o m s m a lle r d ia m e t e r s d e ­
pending on the s p e c ific n e c e s s it ie s and o b je c tiv e s of any p a r t ic u la r
p r o je c t .

c.

C O N T R O L O F M A R K IN G

i.
S trip s and c o n tr o l m ethod. The a r e a to be m a r k e d is
s trip p ed with con ven ien t b a s e lin e s 10 o r 20 chains a p a rt in o r d e r that
the m a r k e r s can t r a v e l in c lo s e p a r a l l e l f r o m one lin e to an oth er. The
w o rk in g strip should be n a r r o w enough that the c r e w a r e w ithin sight o r
at le a s t sound of one another constantly and s u ffic ie n tly sh ort that d e ­
v ia tio n s of d ir e c tio n on one run a r e e a s ily c o r r e c t e d on the n ext. A
2 - 3-chain strip is usually w id e enough in s p r u c e - b a ls a m f o r e s t . T r e e s
a r e m a rk e d on the b ole at rig h t an gles to the line of t r a v e l and fa c in g
the unm arked a r e a in o r d e r that they m a y be seen as the w o r k p r o g r e s s e s .
A fu rth e r m a rk is p la c e d at the base of the t r e e b e lo w the point of cutting.
M a r k e r s a s s is t each o th er in cut o r le a v e d e c is io n s because the man at
the base of a t r e e is not a lw a ys in the b e s t p o sitio n to a s s e s s its p o te n ti­
a lit ie s . The c r e w should w o r k in a unit with the outside man constantly
checking the d ir e c tio n o f t r a v e l . The lo w e r m a rk m ay be used to i n ­
d icate the height at which the f a l l e r must cut the t r e e .
ii.
T a lly . T o maintain c o n tr o l o f the c u t - le a v e r a tio in any
p r o j e c t a ta lly is n e c e s s a r y . In e x p e r im e n ta l m a rk in g a ll m erch a n ta b le
t r e e s in both cut and le a v e c a t e g o r ie s a re r e c o r d e d . A t the end o f each
day t a l l i e s a r e to ta lle d to d e te r m in e any deviation f r o m the planned
d iv is io n o f c u t - a n d - le a v e v o lu m e . On the basis o f th ese r e c o r d s any
changes of in ten sity m a y be in trod u ced the fo llo w in g day. In a d m in is ­
t r a t iv e m a rk in g a s a m p le ta lly m a y su ffic e to re ta in vo lu m e c o n tr o l.
E v e r y tenth t r e e in c u t - a n d - le a v e c a t e g o r ie s m ay be r e c o r d e d , o r a ll
t r e e s m a y be ta llie d o v e r c e r ta in s p e c ifie d t i m e - p e r i o d s during the day.
T h is sam p lin g approach should p r o v id e n e c e s s a r y in fo rm a tio n f o r the
a r e a r e c o r d s , a check on the m a r k e r s , and a reduction in c o sts by i n ­
c r e a s in g the m a rk e d v o lu m e . In axe m a rk in g o r w h e re sam plin g w i l l
s u ffice each m a r k e r m a y make his own t a lly . W ith in e x p e r ie n c e d c r e w s ,
e s p e c ia lly w h e re paint guns a r e used, a ta lly man without fu rth e r duties
w i l l in c r e a s e a c c u r a c y and e ffic ie n c y .
D.

C O N T R O L O F L O G G IN G

The w o r k of the l o g g e r is c o n tr o lle d to a d e g r e e by m a rk in g .
H o w e v e r , c o - o p e r a t io n is n e c e s s a r y and d efin ite in stru ction s m ust be
given to fa llin g c r e w s . It is e s s e n tia l that freq u en t in sp ection s be made
to se e that in stru ction s a r e c a r r i e d out. A m in im u m o f one in sp ectio n
p e r month should be o r g a n iz e d on a ll m a rk e d s a le s . In sp ection s should
be o fte n e r when p o s s ib le o r con ven ien t.
E.

A X E M A R K IN G

A s in g le - b it t e d axe with an id e n tific a tio n m a rk on its head
is the usual to o l. T h e t r e e is b la z e d on the bole and a V notch is cut

into the b a s e . The two sides of the V a r e then stam ped using the head
of the a x e . The m a rk should be le f t showing on the stump a fte r f e llin g .
A x e m a rk in g is a strenous job r e q u ir in g c r e w - m e n of sound ph ysiqu e.
F.

S P R A Y - G U N M A R K IN G

A n y one o f a num ber of c o m m e r c i a l o il s p ra y guns w ith the
a p p ro x im a te s p e c ific a tio n s of A l e m i t e M o d e l 6121 m a y be used in this
type of m a rk in g . T h e s o lid o i l - s t r e a m n o z z le is b o re d to t h r e e - o n e hundredths of an inch a p e rtu re , but the gun r e q u ir e s no oth er m o d i f i ­
cation (1). A cheap paint diluted with k e r o s e n e o r g a s o lin e w i l l p r o v id e
a 2-5 in c h - d ia m e t e r blotch on the t r e e trunk which is r e a d ily v i s i b l e .
In the s p r u c e - b a ls a m f o r e s t a re d shingle stain has giv e n good re s u lts
with a lm o s t no c lo g g in g of the guns. A cheap black paint is r e p o r te d
to be e a s ily seen in the f o r e s t . Som e m in o r ex p e rim e n ta tio n with type
of paint and c o lo u r is p ro b a b ly a d v is a b le in any g iv e n lo c a lit y . S p ra y gun m a rk in g is le s s strenuous and p ro b a b ly ch eap er than axe m a rk in g .
G.

CREW

F o r axe m a rk in g a m in im u m c r e w of th re e is s a t is fa c t o r y .
The fo r e m a n is a m a r k e r and each man t a llie s his own t r e e s . P a in t is
m e s s y and, in s p ra y -g u n m a rk in g, it is a d v is a b le to add a t a lly man
who w i l l not handle a gun. I f w o r k is p r o g r e s s in g at a rapid pace a
fifth man to c a r r y paint and run c o m p a s s has p r o v e d v a lu a b le . Any
c r e w m ust be f a m i l i a r with the basic r e q u ir e m e n ts of m a rk in g and
should be giv e n adequate tra in in g . A t the conclusion of one m onth's
actual tra in in g and e x p e r ie n c e they should be e ffic ie n t. A s m a rk in g is
f a i r l y c a r e fu l and v e r y t im e -c o n s u m in g w o r k it w ould appear that its
o b je c t iv e would b e s t be a c h ie v e d by a s p e c ia liz e d c r e w . When s m a lle r
r a n g e r d is t r ic t s a r e p o s s ib le the ra n g e r m a y be able to do such w o r k
p r o v id e d the d is t r ic t s a r e s m a ll enough and the amount of m a rk in g r e ­
q u ire d does not in c r e a s e a b n o r m a lly .
H.

RECORDS

S im p le routine r e c o r d s should be kept f o r a ll m a rk in g .
S u m m a rie s of v o lu m e s and num ber of t r e e s in both cut and le a v e
c a t e g o r ie s as w e l l as totals should be re ta in e d on each t i m b e r - s a l e
f i l e . An ind ivid u al m a rk in g f i l e f o r each m a rk ed sa le should be set
up and should contain the c r u is e su m m a ry, ta lly sheets, w o r k sheets,
p r o g r e s s map, and c o s t f i g u r e s . I f the m a rk in g is to be done in stages
a p r o g r e s s map should be kept u p -to -d a te with data s u m m a r iz e d at the
c o m p le tio n of each s ta g e .

1.

COSTS

C o s t fig u r e s on m a rk in g in the F o r t G e o r g e F o r e s t D i s t r i c t
a r e som ew h at scanty and c o m p a ris o n s betw een axe and paint m a rk in g
a re not e n t ir e ly r e l i a b l e because labour and w ork in g conditions have
v a r ie d c o n s id e r a b ly on a r e l a t i v e l y fe w jo b s .
B a s e d on $ 1. 00 p e r man hour, $ 2. 00 p e r day board,
tra n s p o rta tio n at 10 cents a m ile , axe m a rk in g c o sts have ran ged b e ­
tw een 12 and 26 cents p e r M . f . b . m . m a rk e d volu m e, d e c r e a s in g as
v o lu m e p e r a c r e i n c r e a s e s , but within the a b o v e -m e n tio n e d ra n g e .
F o u r s p ra y -g u n m a rk in g p r o je c t s on the A l e z a L a k e F o r e s t
E x p e r im e n t Station show the c o sts tabulated below :
S p ray-G u n M a rk in g C o sts
Y ea r

1950
1950
1951
1951

Acreage

152
146
69
108

V o lu m e
M. f.b .m .

1, 863
1, 727
650
1, 519

A v e r a g e (W eigh ted )

Cost
P er Acre

P e r M . f . b. m .

$

$

2.22
2.01
2.41
2.21

0. 18
0. 17
0. 26
0. 16

2. 18

0. 18

SUMMARY
1.
A r e v i e w of the s ilv ic u lt u r a l facts r e la tin g to the m a n a g e ­
m ent of the s p r u c e - b a ls a m type suggests that p r e s e r v a t io n of good r e ­
sidual stands is e s s e n tia l f o r e a r l y second cuts. D i a m e t e r - l i m i t cu t­
ting has c e r ta in d isad van tages which m ay be o v e r c o m e when stands a r e
m a rk e d p r i o r to lo g g in g . M a rk in g w i l l p ro b a b ly d evelo p b e s t re s u lts
in you n ger stands but is d e s ir a b le and n e c e s s a r y in the m atu re type
w h e r e a healthy under s t o r y w a rra n ts the e x p e n s e . On account of
th e ir p r e v a le n c e o ld e r stands a r e the m a jo r p r o b le m . On the w hole
the s p r u c e - b a ls a m type m ay be w e l l adapted to a m a rk in g p r a c t ic e .
2.
A f l e x i b l e m a rk in g ru le is re c o m m e n d e d f o r u se. Its
m ain o b je c t iv e s a re : r e m o v a l o f a ll d e fe c t iv e s , r e m o v a l o f o ld e r,
l a r g e r t r e e s , r e s e r v a t io n of a th r ifty g ro w in g stock f o r future op eration ,
im p r o v e m e n t of spacing in the r e s id u a l stand, and p r o v is io n of an
e co n o m ic cut.

A n u m e r ic a l a s s e s s m e n t of th r ift is su ggested to a s s is t the
fi e l d o p e ra tio n o f m a rk in g .
3.
A m a rk in g technique based on e x p e r ie n c e in the F o r t
G e o r g e F o r e s t D i s t r i c t is outlined. Methods of c r u is e , fi e l d p r o c e d u r e ,
and r e c o r d keeping a r e r e c o m m e n d e d . C r e w and equipm ent a r e su ggested
with a v a ila b le in fo rm a tio n on c u r r e n t m a rk in g c o s t s .
B IB L IO G R A P H Y
1. B ratton , A . W . and
F e rg u s o n , R . H.

1945

U se of the sp ra y-gu n in
m a rk in g t im b e r . Jour.
F o r e s t r y 43:2:113-7.

2. d e G r a c e , L . A .

1950

T r e e length skidding and
its in flu en ce on r e s id u a l
stands in the F o r t G e o r g e
F o r e s t D is t r ic t . Unpub.
r e p . B . C . F o r e s t S e r v ic e ,
V ic to ria , B. C.

3. F r a s e r , A . R .

1949

T r e e length lo g g in g as a
s ilv ic u ltu r a l p r o b le m in the
u n even -a ged s p r u c e - b a ls a m
type of the P r i n c e G e o r g e
D is t r ic t . Unpub. r e p . B . C .
F o r e s t S e r v i c e , V ic t o r ia ,
B. C.

4. F r a s e r , A . R . and
A le x a n d e r , J. L .

1949

The d e v e lo p m e n t of the
s p r u c e - b a ls a m type in the
A l e z a L a k e E x p e r im e n ta l
F o r e s t , T e c h . Pub. T . 32
B. C . F o r e s t S e r v ic e ,
V ic t o r ia , B . C .

5. P o g u e , H . M .

1946

R e g e n e r a tio n and G ro w th of
W hite Spruce a fte r lo g g in g .
T e c h . P u b . T . 29, B . C.
F o r e s t S e r v ic e , V ic t o r ia ,
B. C.

6. W a ld ie , R . A .

1949

D eca y l o s s e s in w e s te r n
white sp ru ce in the U pper
F r a s e r R e g io n . I n t e r im
r e p o r t. L a b o r a t o r y o f F o r e s t
P a th o lo g y , (D om inion) Dept,
of A g r ic u lt u r e , V ic t o r ia ,
B. C.