SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES OF
NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA: A CASE STUDY OF THE TL' AZT'EN
NATION
By
Bipasha Baruah
M.A. Journalism and Communication, Pune, India, 1994

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
m

Environmental Studies

c Bipasha Baruah, 1998
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
December 1998
All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or

·- RAR .'

J

,__._.._ _~!!!(1.-~·-'·"' ·

Abstract
The primary purpose of this study is to investigate and identify major factors that
impede or facilitate the sustainable development of rural First Nations communities of
northern British Columbia, through a case study of the Tl'azt'en Nation. By understanding
the nature and magnitude of the threats and opportunities facing the community, this study
attempted to develop a list of indicators that will enable the community to monitor progress
toward the achievement of goals identified by the community. A variety of sources of
information were used to develop the case study. Prominent among these is a series of five
focus groups and seven semi-structured interviews held in the community as well as other
sources of information such as government documents, community profiles, economic
development plans, health assessment reports and annual general assembly meetings.
Community consultation was the most integral aspect of the research. Focus group and
interview participants were asked to identify community goals and relevant indicators. These
indicators were then evaluated using an iterative process of elimination by applying
established selection criteria to arrive at a final list of 45 indicators. Limitations and
constraints associated with the use of community development indicators are discussed. The
study indicates the need to develop reliable and valid monitoring tools for individual
communities.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract. ........ ... ...... .. .. ..... .. ...... ....... ....................... ............. ..... ................ ... ......... .......... ............ .ii
Table of Contents ................................................. .... ............. .............................. ..... ... ........ .. ... .iii
List ofFigures and Tables .... ............... ............. ............. .... ........ .................. ...... .. .............. .... ... vi
Acknowledgement. .................................. .... ........ ........ ............. .. ...... ... ............ ...... .......... ........ vii
Preface ... ......... .. .... .. ............................... .......... ... ...... ....... .... ................... .... ................... ........ .viii
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction: Purpose of Study .......... ....... ...... .... .... ........ ................. ......... ............ .... .... ....... 1
1.2 Some Remarks on Selection of Case Study Community .. .............. .... ...... ...... ..................... 3
1.3 Objectives ... .... .. ....... ... ..... ..... .......... ..... ... ........... ................. ... ............ ....... ........ ...... ... .. ........ 4
1.4 Methods ................................. .... ........ ....... .. .......... ....... .. ..................... ............. ... ......... ....... .. 5
1.5 Limitations ofStudy .............................................. ............. .... .... ... ..... .... .......... ............ ... .... 5
1.6 Organization of Study ............. ... .. .. .............. ........... ...... .. ... ...... ................... ........ ........ ..... .. .. 6
Chapter Two: Background Information and Description ofTI'azt'en Nation
2.1 Introduction........ .... ... ... ..... ..... ..... ... ........ ..... ............................ ........................... ...... .... ...... ..8
2.2 Description of Community
History: Pre and Post-European Contact.. ............... .......... ...... ................. ... .. .... .......... .. 8
Present Day Tl'azt'en Nation ........ .......... ........................... .... ........ .......... ................... . 11
2.3 Sustainability Issues .......................................... ....... ... ............. .. ..... ... .... .................... .... ... .13
2.4 Summary ..... .... ......... ..... ... ........... ..... ... .... ..................... ............ .... .......... ...... ......... ..... .. ...... 14
2.5 Map ofTl'azt'en Nation ................ ... .............. ......... ....... .................. ...... ............. ..... ......... 15
Chapter Three: Literature Review
3.1 Introduction ..................... ... ........ ...... .. .... ................. .... ... ......... .... ..... ... ................ ...... ...... ... 16
3.2 Key Issues in Aboriginal Communities .... ........... ... ........ .......... ..... ..... .... ....... .... .... .......... .. 16
1. Control of Governance and Political Development ...... ................ ...... ........ ... ....... ..17
Tl'azt'en Political Initiative .... ...................... ..... ............... ...... ..... ... .......... ....... IS
2. Control of Education ................ ...... ....... ....... .... ..... ........ ......... ......... .... ..................... 18
Tl'azt'en Education ......................... .... ..................... ...................................... .. 20
3. Control of Lands and Resources ............................................. .... ............ .... ..... ... ..... 22
Co-management and Joint Venturing ... ...................... ................ ........ ...... .... .. .23
Tl'azt' en Initiative for Land and Resource Management ... ... ............ .... ........ .25
4. Health and Healing .. ......... .... .... ...... .......... ...... .. ....... ............ ....................... ..... ........ 27
Community Health Initiatives ............................ ........ ............. ............ ...... .... ..29
5. Cultural Development. .... ........ ......................................... ...... ................. ... .............. 31
Tl'azt'en Community Effort ..................................... ...... ................. ...... .... ...... 33
3.3 Summary........................................................................ .... ........... ............. ... .. ........... .... .... 34

lll

Chapter Four: Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Basis of Study
4.1 Introduction ..................... .................................. .................................. ....... ........... ..... .. ... ... 36
Identification of Key Elements of Sustainable Development .......... ........... ............ .... 37
Characteristics of Sustainability ...................................................................... 39
Definition ofTerms ........ ... .... ..... ...... ..... ...... ........ ................... ........ ................ ..40
Choice of Appropriate Framework............................................................................. .42
4.2 Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation: The Role oflndicators .................................... .44
The Concept ofindicators ..... ........ ............ .... ......... ........ ........ ................ .... ........ ........ ..44
Definition of Indicator Selection Criteria... ........ ................ ............. .... ... .... .... ... ... ...... .46
Limitations of Indicator Use .. ......................... ........ ........ ..................... .... ... .......... ....... 48
4.3 Examples and Brief Descriptions oflndicator Systems Developed for Aboriginal
Communities ....................... .......... ........ ...... ........... ..... .... ... ... ...... ................ .... .......... ... 49
4.4 Summary ...................................... ... ..................... .. ............. ... ....... ..... ........................ .... .... 57
Chapter Five: Methods
5.1 Introduction............. ............ .. ......... .... ........ ............. .... ................ ........... ...... ..... ................. 59
5.2 Data Collection.................................................... ............. .... .................... ..... .... ....... ......... 60
General Description ofMethods ........... ... ..... ...... ... ... ......... .... .... ........................... ....... 60
Focus Groups ............................................................................................................... 61
Interviews ................ ............ ........................ ....... .......................... ... .... .... .... ......... ..... .. 63
Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Groups and Interviews ......... ...... ................ 64
Observations .................... .............................. ............... .......... .. ............ ......... ........... ... 68
Feedback ..... .... .... ..... .... ... ....... ........ .... .... ......... ........ ............ .... ............... ......... .. ........... 68
Case Study ..... .......... ..... ..... ........ ........ ........ ........... ...... ........ ............ .... ....... ... .......... ..... 69
5.3 Summary... .. .......................................................... ................. ......... ....... ................. .......... .70
Chapter Six: Results and Discussion
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 72
6.2 Data Analysis ................................................................. .......... .............. ........ ......... ........... 72
Table 1: Initial List oflndicators for Tl'azt'en Nation ................................................ 74
Table 2: Indicators Identified from Literature ..... ............. ............................... .... ... ..... 77
Notes for Sustainability Indicator Evaluation Matrix ........................................... ....... 78
Sustainability Indicator Evaluation Matrix ............ .............. .................... ........... .... ..... 79
Table 3: Final List oflndicators for Tl'azt' en Nation ............................................. .... 82
6.3 Final Round of Community Consultation.......................................................................... 85
6.4 Discussion and Interpretation............................................................................................ 85
Primary Issues
Alcohol and Substance Abuse .................................................................................... 86
Communal Unity and Vision .... .................... .... .................. ................... .... ... ............... 90
Secondary Issues
Education ...... ...... ....... .... ..... ............. .... ............ .... ......................... .... ............... ..... ....... 91
Housing ........................................................................................................................ 94
Health ...... .............................. ............................ .......... ...... ............ .... ....... ... ... ..... ......... 94
IV

Employment. ........................ ...... ... ............ ................. ............ ...... ..... ................... ..... ... 96
Recreation and Service Facilities ................................................................................. 98
Community Leadership ........ ..... ..................... .......... ...... ... .......... ..... ... .......... ..... .......... 99
Community Participation....................... .... ................ ........................ ................. ....... 100
Language and Culture .................................................... .... .. .. .... ...... .... ........ .......... .... 101
Natural Environment and Historical Heritage ........................................................... 102
Road Conditions and Transportation......................................................................... 102
Crime and Violence ................................................................................................... 102
Community Motivation, Morale, Empowerment. ... ... ... ... .... .... ..................... ............ 103
6.5 Comparison with Issues Identified by Literature ............................................................. 104
6.6 Summary .................. .. ........ ....... ............ ... ......... ..... ...... ........................ ................. ...... ..... 107

Chapter Seven: Recommendations and Conclusions
7.1 Introduction ............................................................ ........ ............................... ........ ........... 109
7.2 Implications for Tl'azt' en Nation .................................................................................... 110
Community Dialogue and Participation...... .............. ................ .... ........................ .... .110
Providing Information for Treaty Negotiations and Land Claims .. ........... .... ........... 111
Creation ofNew Institutions and Reorganization of Old Institutions .......... .......... .. .l11
Support for Community Administrators and Policymakers ....................................... 112
7.3 Recommendations for Future Research ................... ........ ... ....... ... ...... ........ .......... ...... .. ... 112
7.4 Indicators and Survey Data.............................................................................................. 115
7.5 Summary and Conclusions .............................................................................................. 116
Bibliography .. .. ........ .................... ....................... ..... .... .. .. .... ......... .... .......................... .... ....... 121
Appendix .................................. .. ............... ....................................... ....... ...................... ....... .. 128

v

List of Figures

Map ofTl'azt'en Nation ............................. ................ ........ .... ........................... .. ... ................. l5
Characteristics of Sustainability...................................................... .... ......... .. .... .... ................. 39
List of Tables

Table 1: Initial List oflndicators for T1' azt' en Nation ............................................................ 74
Table 2: Indicators Identified from Literature ......................................................................... 77
Sustainability Indicator Evaluation Matrix ................. ......... .......................... ...... ........ ............ 79
Table 3: Final List oflndicators for Tl'azt'en Nation .............................................................82

Vl

Acknowledgments
This study could not have been completed without the cooperation and patience of the
Tl'azt'enne who volunteered their time and knowledge during public information meetings,
focus groups, interviews and feedback sessions. I am especially grateful to Umit Kiziltan for
taking the time to accommodate the research in his hectic schedule.
A number of people contributed significantly to the development and completion of
this study. I am indebted to Dr. Orland Wilkerson and Dr. Leslie King for invaluable advice,
encouragement and guidance. I am also grateful to Dr. Alex Michalos and Dr. John Curry for
their time, comments and support.
Dr. Wilkerson's ace editing skills were much appreciated and taught me more about
editing than journalism school did. His excellent understanding of my study more than
compensated for his occasional tendency to preach! I'll remember the "sermons" for a long
time to come!
A special thanks to Carol Nissila for the fine winter driving, wonderful company, and
impromptu renditions of Jann Arden songs. She made "sense" the many times I wondered
aloud about whether I was closer to the moon or New York City as we thundered along on
gravel roads to Tache.
A final word of thanks to my friend, Joy, for suffering my company, albeit
grudgingly, on my darkest days.

Vll

Preface

A number of factors guided my decision to base this thesis on the Tl'azt'en Nation
(pronounced Klassten Nation). During my second semester as a graduate student at the
University of Northern British Columbia, Dr. Leslie King informed us that she had been
contacted by Umit Kiziltan, the Research and Development Officer of the Tl'azt'en Nation
regarding the possibility of the university doing some collaborative work for the community.
At about the same time, I was enrolled in a course taught by Dr. King entitled Cultural and
Social Perspectives of Environmental Science along with another graduate student, Gina
Layte. Umit identified areas in which the community would appreciate research work so that
Gina and I could choose individual projects. Gina chose to document industrial activity in the
area since the beginning ofthe twentieth century. \My
me to choose to trace the history of a ~
second World War, and that ~

~ in community sustainability le<!

mine that operated in the area during the

dumped mercury tailings into one of the lakes within the

traditional territory of the Aboriginal community. I chose to document the physical, social,
and economic impacts of the mercury poisoning that was discovered in Pinchi Lake during
the mid-1970s. Subsequently, we made several trips to the community to attend discussions
and to collect relevant information. What endeared the community to me the most was the
interest and enthusiasm its members displayed for its well being. Elders, administrators,
teachers, social workers, youth leaders, trappers, hunters, and fishers alike, expressed concern
about the future and survival of the community. The fact that the community had progressed
to Stage 4 of the Treaty Negotiations at that point in time may have whetted its citizens'
appetites for information about development and empowerment. The Band Office was
Vlll

consistently supportive, courteous and approving of our efforts to generate ideas and action in
the community. When we finally presented the results of our study to the community, we
were surprised and happy about the large number of people who cared about what we were
doing. As well, I was incredibly impressed and challenged by the extremely sophisticated
queries addressed to us by members of the community. It reinforced to us that the community
was extremely astute and perceptive about the connections and ramifications between the
social, ecological and economic dimensions of the natural and built environments that
sustained them.
In the following semester, I succeeded in cajoling my group of four students
including Gina to prepare an ethnography ofthe education system ofthe Tl'azt'en Nation as
partial fulfilment of a course in environmental planning. My reasons for doing so were not
entirely selfless because I was beginning to find the idea of developing my thesis around the
community increasingly appealing. Therefore, I attempted to generate as much information
about the community as possible in the event of my deciding to return to do more work in the
area.
Introduction to Community Sustainability Auditing Project and Rationale for Study
The Community Sustainability Auditing Project undertaken by the Sustainable
Communities initiative at the University of Victoria suited my interests because it was based
on the premise that resource based communities are faced with many challenges that threaten
their viability and survival. It acknowledges that the challenges may be economic, ecological,
or social in nature and arise due to changes occurring in the community, region, country or
world. It asserts that in order to be able to survive and sustain themselves through the
IX

changes, communities needed information and understanding about both the nature of the
challenges, and the resources that were available to meet them. The project has three major
objectives. These are to:
1. Generate an understanding ofthe nature and magnitude ofthe threats and opportunities
influencing the development of the community;
2. Develop a system of indicators that can identify and measure the threats and opportunities;
and
3. Develop a method by which audits can be conducted periodically to assess how the
community is doing in achieving its goals and/or managing its problems.
The major deliverable of the project is a workbook that will allow the community to
assess itself and set objectives for the future. This directly supports the major objective of the
project which is to develop a method by which communities can ascertain their prospects for
the future and manage changes, if necessary.
These objectives meshed well with my interest in community development.
Additionally, they lend themselves well to the Tl'azt'en Nation as one of the case study
communities. The fact that we had already established direct contact and communication
with the community also influenced my decision to choose it as the case study community.

X

Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction: Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate and identify major factors that inhibit or
promote sustainable development in a rural Aboriginal community in northern British
Columbia. It developed a set of indicators that can be used to assess sustainability at the
community level. It did this through a case study of the Carrier community of the Stuart Lake
watershed, specifically the members ofthe Stuart-Trembleur Lake Band called the Tl'azt'en
Nation.
In the past few decades, much research has been done to improve our understanding

of important issues in indigenous communities across North America. As a result, researchers
have identified several problems that remain unsolved in these communities such as
unemployment, welfare dependency, alcohol and substance abuse, family disintegration,
child neglect and abuse, housing shortages for low income families, and crime and juvenile
delinquency (Boldt, 1993; Furniss, 1994; Mail, 1989; Shkilnyk, 1985; Zitzow, 1990).
Although these problems shed some light on the issues faced by Aboriginal communities,
they may not provide adequate insight into the concerns and needs of indigenous people.
Additionally, studies of social pathologies themselves do not provide us with reliable
indicators of the stresses that constitute threats, or have the potential to constitute threats, to
the sustainable development of different Aboriginal communities.
In recent decades there has been a renaissance of traditional systems of natural
resource management and traditional environmental knowledge in many countries around the

1

world. The concept of sustainable development, as defined during the 1980s, meshed well
with ~

concepts of equity and careful husbandry of natural resources.
Much effort has also been made to improve our understanding of the measurement

and assessment of sustainable development. These efforts include state of the environment
reporting, environmental and social impact analyses, economic impact analysis, and
ecological "footprint" analysis (Carley, 1981; Environment Canada, 1991; Hammond eta!,

--

1995; Wackemagel eta!, 1993). Most of this research suggests that sustainable development,

-

-

or sustainability, must be achieved at the community and regional level where people live,
work and interact with each other and with nature .

.....___-

It is generally accepted that sustainable development can be measured by three broad
categories of indicators,

~

economic, environmental and social. Economic indicators of

human well-being have been integrated into frameworks of sustainability in many different
ways at the national and local levels. Although the social and environmental indicators
movements also enjoyed considerable attention during the 1960s and 1970s, in many ways
they have continued to be the poor relations of economic indicators. One reason for this is
that unlike economic indicators, environmental and social indicators draw on varied
interdisciplinary concepts that are often expressed in different ways and diverse units by
people in different disciplines. Nevertheless, the challenge of developing reliable social and
environmental indicators has been taken up by many governments, research institutes and
community organizations around the world.
A comprehensive system of indicators that incorporates economic, social and
environmental factors is desirable. Although it is theoretically possible to construct such a
2

system, in practice it is almost impossible to get agreement on the elements and appropriate
evaluation of such a system (Michalos, 1997). Part of the problem centres on the meaning of

t1L 1

sustainability. There are also many different views of the specific elements of sustainability

0
J

that should be considered while developing goals for its achievement. Such diverse views

~'

. h vana
. b'l'
. th e socia
. I, economic
. and environmenta
.
1
th e concept, coup1ed wit
I Ity m

(_0?0

circumstances of different communities, also suggest that a set of indicators designed to
measure progress in the achievement of one community's goals may not necessarily be
appropriate for measuring progress in another community.
First Nations communities present all of the above mentioned challenges.
However, it has been suggested that, because traditional subsistence lifestyles formed the
very backbone of their culture and economy, the elements that preserve sustainability
continue to be especially closely linked and interactive in these communities. For Aboriginal
people, culture and environment form an integrated indivisible whole, and any part of the
whole may transmit change in the social and natural environment throughout the system
(Elias, 1991; Napoleon, 1992; Notzke, 1994; Stevenson, 1996).
1.2 Some Remarks on Community Selection

Apart from the willingness of the Tl'azt'en Nation to be involved in this research,
there were several reasons for selecting it as the case study community. It is hoped that this
study will not only provide the Tl'azt'en Nation with a practical tool in its development
efforts, but also provide other northern communities with an understanding of how to
develop indicators suited to their individual communities.

3

-

The Tl'azt'en Nation appears to have several characteristics in common with other
First Nations in northern British Columbia. Like other northern communities, the Tl'azt'en
Nation is a small community with a young and fast-growing population of appr9ximately

-f-

1,200 people of whom 51 per cent are below the age of 19 (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997). It
possesses very modest infrastructure by national standards and is geographically distant from
non-Aboriginal communities. Like most other northern Aboriginal communities, it is located
in a relatively pristine natural environment, and the community possesses a "mixed
economy" where incomes are derived from domestic production, wage labour, transfers and
enterprise (Elias, 1991 ). All needs are not met through traditional domestic production
activities like hunting, fishing and trapping. Cash incomes are earned through the sale of
labour, commodities and enterprise. Currently, enterprise and sale of commodities are minor
sources of income in Aboriginal communities, including the Tl'azt'en Nation. Wage labour is
more important, although employment opportunities usually cannot keep up with the growth
in the labour force. Other demographics such as average incomes, education levels, and
unemployment rates in Tl'azt'en Nation are comparable with other northern communities
(Hudson, 1983; Elias and Weinstein, 1992; Tl'azt'en Nation, 1998).
These and other similarities may make several aspects of the study relevant to other
northern communities.

1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:
1. To identify major factors that may impact the sustainable development of rural Aboriginal
communities in northern British Columbia through a case study of the Tl'azt'en Nation.
4

2. To understand the nature and magnitude of the threats and opportunities influencing the
sustainable development of the community.
3. To identify indicators that measure impact on sustainability with the help of the above
mentioned information.
4. To establish selection criteria that will facilitate the evaluation of selected indicators.

1.4 Methods
This study employed case study methodology to achieve its objectives. Focus groups
and semi-structured interviews comprised the major methods of data collection and
community consultation. Additionally, a range of documents such as community profiles,
health assessment reports, and physical development plans as well as observations were used
as supplementary sources of information.

1.5 Limitations of Study
There are certain limitations that are inherent in the methodology chosen for this
study. Most of these are intrinsic to focus groups and interviews and include the following:
biases created as a result of power differences among focus group participants; the
requirement for trust and open communication; poor ability to produce statistical data;
creation of researcher biases; and limited generalizability of study results. These limitations
will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter Five.
Another limitation of the study is that it is time- and situation-specific. All systems of
indicators need re-evaluation and updating as a community's sustainability goals evolve, as
better data become available, and as there are advances in scientific knowledge concerning

5

the validity of selected indicators. Issues that were very prominent in the community at the
time the research was being conducted may become less important as new issues emerge.

1.6 Organization of Study
The thesis is structured in the following manner. Chapter Two provides a description
of the community, including information about its history, general geographical
characteristics, demographics, services and institutions.
Chapter Three includes an extensive literature review that identifies and describes the
major factors that impact the sustainable development of First Nations communities. The
current situation in the Tl'azt'en Nation with regard to the issues identified by the literature is
also discussed.
Chapter Four introduces the concept of indicators. It begins with a description of the
major conceptual stages in the development of sustainability indicators. It includes the
identification and definition of key elements of sustainability, the identification of target
audience and the associated purpose for which indicators will be used, the choice of
appropriate framework, and the establishment of indicator selection criteria. Indicator
systems developed for Native communities are also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter Five incorporates a detailed description of how data were collected. It
includes a discussion of focus groups, interviews, case studies, feedback mechanisms, and
limitations of study.
Chapter Six reports the findings of the study. It also discusses and interprets the
significance of issues identified as important to the well-being ofthe community. As well, it
6

compares the findings from the case study with those discovered through the literature review
of key issues in Aboriginal communities across Canada.
Chapter Seven discusses recommendations based on the results of the study.
Additionally, it provides an indication of the areas in which future research is required and
desirable. It finally summarizes the study's findings and conclusions.

7

Chapter Two: Background Information and Description ofTI'azt'en Nation
2.1 Introduction
An attempt to develop an indicator framework for a community should be preceded
by a general understanding of its geographic, demographic, economic and historical
characteristics. This chapter will provide a general description of the Tl'azt'en Nation.

2.2 Description of the community
History: Pre- and Post-European Contact
The Tl' azt' enne is one of the many tribes that make up the Dakelh, which means

------

"people who travel on the water." The Tl'azt'enne are known to non-Aboriginal people as the
Carrier, a term which may refer to an old custom of packing a spouse's cremated remains for
a year in a small pouch (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997).
Oral history suggests that prior to colonization the Carrier of British Columbia's
Central Interior were primarily hunters and fishers. Woodland caribou, deer, elk and black
bear were hunted extensively throughout the sub-boreal forest for their meat and hides.
~1

was fished in the Skeena and Fraser rivers, and surplus was traded with the Sekani

and the Cree. Hides, moccasins, dried meat and berries were exchanged with their

?

neighbours for eulachon products and salmon.

Abundant food sources allowed the Carrier to live in extended family groups in semipermanent dwellings called pit houses. Carrier children were taught to be flexible in their
roles and skilful in a wide range of activities. Both men and women were trained to hunt,
fish, and rear children, and people of either sex were eligible to be healers, shamans and
political leaders.
8

The Carrier did differ from other hunter-gatherer societies in the area in one
significant aspect. They ~ ~

balhats, or potlatch system, which is a hierarchical form

of governance originally practised by the Northwest Coast Peoples. History suggests that the
Carrier did so in order to be able to halt dissension and warfare in their territory. The balhats

-

-

~

-

-

were organized around matrilineal exogamous clans and formed the core of society. All
economic, social, judicial and spiritual activities revolved around the system. Disputes
between clans, discipline for serious infractions, transfer of property as well as transfer of
hereditary names and status within clans were all done through the balhats. All important life
events were validated there. It was also where people repaid debts and favours and
recognized heroic and humanitarian behaviour. The songs and dances of each of the clans
helped to keep the oral history alive. Many elders believe that the Carrier would not have
survived without the balhats (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997).
The earliest documentation of ~

contact> in the central interior of northern
KONIClv'\

British Columbia goes back to the early nineteenth century. The process

~

education and "civilization" of the First Nations was im:e_lemented by the Canadian
government in 1842 but did not reach the Tl'azt'enne until1892 (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997).
Like other Aboriginal children, many Tl' azt' enne were placed in boarding schools run by
missionaries, the most prominent one being the residential school at Lejac. Residents recall
being separated from family for periods that lasted from ten months to six years. There is

-----

evidence that the community was also very severely impacted by diseases such as small pox.
As well, Tl' azt' enne oral history suggests that the community may have faced starvation in

--

1855 due to failure of the Fraser River salmon run.

9

¥

In compliance with the ~

Act o:LL8.76, Tl'azt'enne were placed on reserves in the

early years of the twentieth century. The Indian Act concerned itself with three areas of

--------

legislation: namely, land, membership and local government. It sought to consolidate all
previous Indian legislation, to define Indian status, and to appoint a Superintendent whose
duties included general administrative powers over Indian affairs. In 1884, the Act was
amended to outlaw ceremonies such as the Potlatch. Like other Aboriginal communities, the
Tl'azt'enne suffered cultural and religious losses due to the amendment.
Other social changes were introduced to the community by the Church and
government agencies. People were urged to live in single houses or immediate family units
instead of joint families, and incentives were introduced for people to abandon traditional

- ----

occupations in favour of wage employment.
...~

In 1920, the Federal Government passed Bi1113, the British Columbia Indian Lands

Settlement Act. This bill implemented the Mckenna-Mcbride recommendations, which,
contrary to the provisions of the Indian Act, allowed reductions in the size of reserve lands.
Tl'azt'enne reserves were reduced by about fifty percent (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997).

-

-

In 1959, the Department oflndian and Northern Affairs (DIAND) amalgamated five

bands in the Stuart and Trembleur Lake area. The five bands included Tache, Binche
(Pinchi), Yekooche (Portage), Kuz Che (Grand Rapids) and Dzitlain' li (Middle River). The
name of the band was changed to Tl'azt'en Nation in 1988, a change that reflected the tribal
name, Tl'azt'enne. In 1994, Yekooche, located on the Nancut Reserve, separated from the
Tl'azt'en Nation.

10

The years between 1910 and the early 1970s witnessed the opening up ofTl'azt'en
territory due to the construction of a logging road. People began to spend more time in Tache,
as services like electricity and telephones became available, and it gradually became a
permanent community instead of a seasonal residence. The Stuart Trembleur Lake Band
Office was established in the early 1970s, and services that were previously provided by
DIAND became locally accessible for the first time. The Balhats system was reinstituted,
and Tl'azt'enne renewed the process of governing their political and economic affairs
through an elected Chief and Council system.

Present Day Tl'azt'en Nation
The traditional territory of this community extended over a large area in northern
British Columbia. Today the Tl'azt'en Nation is comprised of forty-nine registered Indian
'----------

--------

Reserve Lands, spread over approximately 6,650 square kilometres. It is located in north
central British Columbia and is approximately two hundred and fifty kilometres northwest of
Prince George and fifty kilometres northwest ofFort St. James. Most band members living
on reserve reside on the Tache, Middle River and Pinchi reserves, which are accessible by
gravel road (Please see Map on page 15).
The majority of the on-reserve population resides in Tache. Accordin to the 1996
census

~ ~ the Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs, there are approximately 1,281

Tl'azt'enne, ofwhom about 641 members live on-reserve and 640 live off-reserve. The
population figures for Tache, Binche and Middle River are 501, 110, and 30 respectively.
Kuz Che is occupied seasonally. There are 150 dwellings on-reserve and approximately 50
new housing units are expected to be built over the next 5 years (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997).
11

The services available to the community include fire protection through a volunteer fire

- --·--

--

department which protects only the Tache reserve, police protection through an RCMP

..._____

detachment in Fort St. James, postal services, medical services through the health and
nursing station in Fort St. James, social services administered by the Band, and education
provided through the Eugene Joseph School and the Tache Education Centre. A total of 378
Tl ' azt'enne are enrolled in educational institutions in British Columbia and other parts of
Canada. Of these, 70 attend provincial institutions, 26 are enrolled in private schools and
another 282 attend the local education institutions on the reserve. The community is served
by BC Hydro and BC Tel. ~

-- -

is provided to Tache through the lake intake,

reservoir and distribution system. Portage is served by one well, reservoir and distribution
system. Pinchi also has access to a well and distribution system. Pinchi, Tache and Portage

rely on community collection and disposal of sewage to a lagoon (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1990).

--

Major economic activities ofthe Tl'azt'en Nation include the operation of a logging
company

~ ~ a forest products company called Teesle . and a cabinet

shop. These three enterprises, which are owned and run entirely by the Band, provide the
majority of employment on the reserve. In addition, the community supports a number of
other commercial enterprises such as a grocery store, laundromat, cottage lots, cement plant,

--

45 lakeshore lease lots, and arts and crafts. Other facilities available on-reserve include eight

-

teacherages, a band office, community hall, and fire hall.

A large number of the band members also continue to carry out traditional economic

-

activities such as trapping, hunting, and fishing for a major part of their livelihood.

12

r ; , : :e families hold "keyohs" or traplines, which have been passed down from on:
generation to the next.

\

At the present time, the Tl'azt'en Nation contributes approximately twenty million
dollars annually to the economy ofBritish Columbia's central interior from its formal and
informal economic ventures (Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997).
2.3 Sustainability Issues
Traditional Carrier lifestyles and culture stress principles that are today identified as
essential characteristics of sustainable development. These include traditional practices of
community self-reliance, equity of governance, equity of access to resources needed for
living, wise use of natural resources, and preservation of the quality of the natural
environment. The dispossession and culture of dependence experienced by Aboriginal people
centuries later appear to have their roots in the planned disruption of the elements that
traditionally strengthened Aboriginal life such as family structures, ways of life, and social
and political institutions.
In recent years, the Tl'azt'en Nation has struggled to achieve control over its
economic, political, social and environmental circumstances through the negotiation of land
claims. There has also been a renaissance of language and culture in the community and a
general awareness and recognition among its members that the preservation and perpetuation
of some ofthe elements oftraditional Carrier culture may steer the community towards a
sustainable future. Therefore, the greatest challenge for the community may lie in bringing
together sound practices of the past with the constraints and realities of the present in a
manner that allows the community to flourish in the most desirable manner.
13

2.4 Summary

The Tl'azt'enne is one of the tribes that make up the Dakelh or the Carrier. Prior to
colonization, the Carrier were primarily hunters, fishers and gatherers who lived in extended
family groups and occasionally traded surplus products with their Sekani and Cree
neighbours. They were governed by a hierarchical form of government called the Balhats, or

---

potlatch system around which all economic, social, judicial, and spiritual activities revolved.
The early nineteenth century marks the earliest documentation of European contact with the
Carrier. Tl'azt'enne were placed on reserves in the early years of the twentieth century. The
amalgamation of five bands in the area in 1959 ed to the creation of the Stuart-Trembleur
Lake Band. It was renamed in'-.......__
198Sas the Tl'azt'en Nation and is currently comprised of
forty-nine registered Indian Reserve Lands spread over approximately 6,650 square
kilometres. The community has access to all important services and amenities. Major
economic activities include the operation of a logging company, a forest products company,
and a cabinet shop. Many band members also continue to carry out traditional economic
activities such as trapping, hunting, and fishing. The traditional way of life ofthe Carrier
people stressed principles that are today widely accepted to be characteristic elements of
sustainable development. The greatest challenge for Tl'azt'enne may lie in integrating
traditional Carrier practices with the limitations of present circumstances to ensure a stable
and sustainable future for the community.

14

Tl'azt'en Nation

•Middle River

~

• Grand Rapids

..

~- - ~

\ 7-26
!_

~

~.

'}_

\r'•
~

~
~

\

~-

\

• Tache

• Pinchi

• Fort St. James

Source: Fort St. James Forest District Recreation Map

15

~

lc':l.

\ .._..11

"\

l ';(

\

~~

Chapter Three: Literature Review
3.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature related to the major issues and concerns that
currently face First Nations communities across the country. Such a review not only provides
an understanding of the issues themselves, but also allows for a comparison between the
characteristics or trends illustrated by the literature and those generated from the study
community. This can serve several purposes and is especially helpful in providing an
indication of the generalizability or adaptability of the indicator framework that the study
aims to develop, to other communities.
This chapter will identify and elaborate upon the major factors that may impact the
sustainable development ofNative communities. The current situation in the Tl'azt'en Nation
with regard to the issues identified by the literature review will also be discussed.

3.2 Key Issues in Aboriginal Communities
A review of the literature suggests that the following five issues are key current
concerns in Aboriginal communities in Canada: control of governance and politica!_
development; control of education; control oflands and resources; health and healing; and
cultural development. Because they appear to be "common threads" that influence the
development of First Nations communities across Canada, it is expected that they will
provide some indication of the issues that may be relevant to the case study community. They
may also provide the basis for generating relevant indicators for the case study community.

16

f

~

J
1. Control of Governance and Political Development

Most Aboriginal communities stress that they cannot grow sustainably unless they

-

have control oftheir own futures. Most Aboriginal people speak of self-government as a

-

vehicle to restore Native identities and cultures as well as to heal communities and revitalize
traditional governing structures (Boldt, 1993; Notzke, 1994). The Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples heard similar views expressed by Native communities throughout
Canada. Almost all communities link past government policies to current social, economic
and political problems in their communities. Self-government has therefore been identified as
a key factor that has the potential to promote sustainable development in Native

-

*

communities.
Aboriginal people have made major gains in the past two decades towards achieving

greater control over their affairs. Self government and a more involved position in Canadian
political culture will help Aboriginal communities direct their own futures and maintain their
own security (Boldt, 1993). The critical question, however, is where the balance of power can
best be achieved on the scale of power sharing. A single point ofbalance is hard to imagine
even in theory. Different Aboriginal communities have different histories, cultures, land
bases, and different positions in the natural environment. Their political needs and ambitions
differ too. In spite of this, the balance of power has been gradually moving in favour of
Aboriginal people's interests. Many communities have undertaken successful grassroots
initiatives, made excellent use of all available opportunities, and in some cases won legislated
change.

17

Tl'azt'en Political Initiative
The Tl'azt'en Nation has also made significant advances in the area of treat
negotiations. The community is currently in Stage 4 of the Treaty Negotiation Process. As
part of this stage the Carrier Sekani Tribal Council, the Ministry of Indian Affairs and
Northern Development, and the Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs in British Columbia are
negotiating an Agreement-In-Principle which will form the basis of the treaty. This is a
critical stage because it requires the community to specifically describe its needs and wants in
all areas of concern such as health, welfare programs, education, housing, economic
development, traplines and the protection, conservation and ownership of natural resources.

2. Control of Education
Control over education has been a pressing priority of Aboriginal communities for
decades. This is not surprising because the destiny of a people is intricately bound to the way
its children are educated. Education also facilitates the transmission of culture from one
generation to the next. Education shapes the language and pathways of thinking, the contours
of character and values, the social skills and creative potential of the individual. It also
determines the productive skills of a people (Haig-Brown, 1995 ; Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples, 1996).
For more than twenty five years, Aboriginal people have been articulating their goals
for Aboriginal education. They want education to prepare them to participate fully in the
economic life of their communities and in Canadian society. Part of the vision is to develop
children and youth as Aboriginal citizens who are linguistically and culturally competent to
assume the responsibilities of their nations (Nyce, 1990).
18

The following is a compendium of educational recommendations made by the Royal
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples in 1996 :
•

Aboriginal control of education;

•

School courses in Aboriginal studies, including history, language and culture;

•

Training and hiring of more Aboriginal teachers;

•

Inclusion of Aboriginal parents, elders, and educators in the education of Aboriginal
children;

•

Special support programs for Aboriginal students, for example, counselling,
substance abuse education, remedial education, and retention programs;

•

Funding of support services for students in post-secondary studies;

•

Aboriginal language instruction from pre-school to post-secondary education;

•

Resolution of federal, provincial and territorial jurisdictional conflicts over
responsibilities, or recognition by the federal government of its funding responsibility
for education;

•

Training Aboriginal adults for teaching, para-professional and administrative
positions in education; and

•

More emphasis on pre-school and kindergarten education.
Native communities stress that current education policies fail to realize their goals

(Armstrong eta!, 1990; Nyce, 1990). The majority of Aboriginal youth do not complete high
school. They leave the school system not only without the requisite skills for employment,
but also without the language and cultural knowledge of their people. The human cost ofthis
failing is huge and manifests itself in hundreds of unsolved problems like economic
19

dependency·, low self-esteem and self-worth, poor self-identity, substance and alcohol abuse,
and a host of other social pathologies (Fry, 1970; Shkilnyk, 1985; Furniss, 1994; Moran,
1994). It is generally accepted by Aboriginal people across the country that higher levels of
education among its members will greatly enhance the ability to steer the development of
their communities.
Several Aboriginal communities have developed educational programs that meet their
own needs. In the area of early childhood education, a number of communities across British
Columbia have introduced initiatives to provide wholesome environments and programs. For
example, the Spallumcheen First Nations community initiated the Splats'in Daycare Centre
in 1991. The program was based upon a model of Aboriginal education from New Zealand
that used an extended family model where elders and children participated in everyday
activities (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1996). The environment in the
Splats'in Daycare reflected the traditional rhythm of Shuswap life and social relationships,
and children easily absorbed the Shuswap language due to exposure. Other successful
community-controlled programs have effectively introduced children to culture, language and
education. As well, they have attempted to promote health, nutrition, social support
programs, and parental involvement. Several communities such as the Mohawk, Nisga'a, and
Dene also developed sophisticated culturally sensitive curricula and had them provincially
accredited.

Tl'azt'en Education
The Tl'azt'en Nation has made progress in the educational arena. Early childhood and
elementary education is provided in the reserve through the Eugene Joseph School that was
20

established in 1963. The reserve also established the Tache Educational Centre, which is
certified as a private post secondary institution. It assists in areas such as high school
upgrading, high school equivalency diplomas, trade school, post secondary programs, and
adult basic education. The drop-out rates of high school students pose a challenge to the
Tl'azt'enne. An average of only 6 students are expected to complete high school every year
(Finden, 1997). Another major concern is the large number of youth older than 19 who wish
to return to high school but are disadvantaged by the lack of support services available to
them. The community has battled with these problems for decades, but they are becoming
especially relevant in the 1990s because of the impending possibility of self-government.
The Tl'azt'en Nation has also attempted to incorporate a cultural component into
education by teaching Carrier language through the school and the educational centre. The
school also occasionally holds sessions on traditional skills such as hide preparation and fish
cleaning, which are taught by elders in the community. As well, in 1996 and 1997, a youth
programme was sponsored jointly by the Assembly ofFirst Nations, Human Resources
Canada, and the Tl'azt'en Nation. It enlisted young people in the community to learn
traditional skills and to perform community activities such as construction of a smokehouse
on the reserve (Mattess, 1997).
There is a fairly clear consensus among Aboriginal people that control over policy,
curriculum, and support services is necessary to create an educational experience that
reinforces the positive identity of Aboriginal students and enables them to succeed
academically. Cultural education is not seen as an alternative to academic and technical

21

education but rather as a necessary basis for self-esteem, which in turn enables children to
learn and become contributors to their own communities and the larger society.
3. Control of Lands and Resources

i

Aboriginal title and the need for adequate land and resources to support Aboriginal
populations have been a constant demand from coast to coast. Aboriginal laws, societies and
cultures are tied to the land in fundamental ways and so are Aboriginal political systems,
economies and spiritual beliefs. Major issues raised in this area relate to destruction of the
environment and the effects of major resource development projects. Other areas of concern
include the effects of industry on traditional activities like hunting, fishing, and trapping and
the effects of wage employment on these forms of employment. The issue of

~

resources also arises repeatedly in connection with the widespread recognition that
~

communities need the revenues from an expanded land and resource base in order

to sustain self-government. Most people believe that full self-government cannot be achieved
without a land-based, resource-based economy that is controlled by, and for the benefit of,
their communities (Boldt, 1993; Notzke, 1994).
The issue of control of lands and resources ties in directly with the issue of economic
development ofNative communities. For some communities, traditional economic activities
such as hunting, fishing, trapping and gathering are still a principal means of living. Stresses
on the traditional economy come from a variety of sources including the disruption of
traplines by logging and building ofhydrodams or lines, interference of animals and rivers by
mining and forest clear-cutting, impact of the animal rights movement, which has drastically
reduced the demand and price of furs, wildlife taken by sport hunters, and government

22

regulations and legislation about what can be hunted, trapped, or fished and where, when and
how such activities can be undertaken (Shapcott, 1989).
Control over the land base is seen as a significant prerequisite in achieving economic
development. The issue of control over lands and resources is strongly supported by Native
communities because of the exceptionally high rates of unemployment in many communities.
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was told of unemployment rates that are many
times the Canadian average, reaching 95 per cent in some communities. The Commission
also heard that Aboriginal people find themselves restricted to entry level, poorly paid jobs
despite their experience, and often their on-reserve experience is not recognized as a basis for
advancement. In turn, the poverty resulting from lack of adequately paid employment is
linked by Aboriginal people to the problems of overcrowded housing, the abuse of alcohol
and drugs, and crime.
In the area ofnatural resource management, co-management and joint venture
schemes between Aboriginal communities and governments or non-governmental
organizations have provided several opportunities for profitable and sustainable development.
Co-management and Joint Venturing
Lands and resources are critical for the development plans of Aboriginal communities
for several reasons. They provide supplies for domestic production, which has the potential to
be the continuing base of tradition and capital (Sharma, 1998). Aboriginal people have
devised strategies and implemented tactics for resource-based economic development. ~......
renewable resources co-management schemes have ~

~

a

~

of allocating control of

! esources between competing uses. Where non-renewable resources are involved, join!_
23

venture schemes have been examined as a possible control mechanism. Both mechanisms are
--------- .-designed to place a greater share of resources and benefits in the hands of Aboriginal people.
The fundamental difference between the two is that co-management does

~ depend_on_

ownership of the resource, while joint venturing demands acknowledgement of ownership.

--

Co-mana ement requires mutual recognition by all parties that each party has a legitimate
stake in the resource and, therefore, a legitimate role in its management. Joint

~

the other hand, bring together owners of resources, capital and knowledge, and levels of

---

participation depend on the value of what each co-venturer owns. Consequently, the focus of
co-management is the orderly use of resources and the continued survival and health of the
environment, while that of joint venturing is the orderly use of assets and the survival and
~

-

health of the joint venture enterprise.

-------

Pinkerton (1989) has identified co-management as a key element in new relationships
/

between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal institutions. In her analysis, Pinkerton sees seven
main functions of resource co-management. These include the following: data gathering and
analysis; making logistical harvesting decisions; making harvest allocation decisions;
protecting the health of the resource; enforcement of regulations; resource enhancement and
long-term planning; and broad policy decision making. The potential benefits of comanagement are extensive and very impressive, especially since they represent a real transfer

-----------

of decision-making power to Aboriginal people and are well within Canada's constitutional

--

framework. Also, they are less controversial and confrontational than violent assertions of

-

jurisdiction, and they offer greater opportunity to preserve local tradition and culture. Comanagement additionally offers an opportunity to merge tradition and science. Several co24

7f

management schemes set out by Aboriginal people have the merging of traditional and
scientific knowledge as a prime objective (Sharma, 1998).
Co-management agreements are not without difficulties. Pinkerton explains that these
agreements work best under specific conditions that may be difficult for Aboriginal
communities to meet. One of the difficulties arises because agreements are required to be
formal, legal and in force over a long term. This often places the technical aspect of
agreements in the hands of the non-Aboriginal institutions, thereby diluting the democratic
appeal of

-

~ ~ . Additionally, although it is ideal that all parties share the costs of

managing the agreement, most Aboriginal communities have difficulty fundin even a part of
the operations of a co-management agreement (Arctic Institute of North America et al.,

1

. ~ .~

agreements are known to work best where they are supported by

well-organized communities and when they involve logically defined areas such as
~ C?ften the territorial scope of a co-management agreement is too restricted to be

-

-

effective. Agreements are also best managed when the size of the government bureaucracy is
~·

Aboriginal communities, the large size and administrative complexity of the

Department oflndian and Northern Affairs alone can be a demotivating factor.
Tl'azt'en Initiatives for Land and Resource Management
Tl'azt'en Nation has explored the possibility of implementing partnerships for natural
resource management. One prominent venture in this area is the University ofNorthem
British Columbia's 14,000 hectare esearch forest established in 1997, which is managed
jointly by the university and Tl'azt'en Nation. It is intended to be a self-supporting operating

25

- --

forest that will provide economic opportunities for the local community and an outdoor

-

-laboratory for university researchers and students.

-

Many Tl'azt'enne are dependent on trapping, hunting and fishing for a large part of

their livelihood. Therefore, the community is understandably concerned about issues such as
land use patterns, trap lines or 'keyohs' , availability of wildlife, and the activities of logging
and mining companies that operate in the territory. The two most visible enterprises
undertaken by the Tl' azt' en Nation to exercise control over natural resources in the area are
the establishment in 1981 ofTanizul Timber Limited, a logging company, and Teeslee, a
forest products company. Both of these are operated and maintained by the Band and are the
largest employment providers in the area. British Columbia is the only province that has
made specific provisions for First Nations communities to gain access to Crown timber. The
Forest Act provides for woodlot licenses of up to 400 hectares to persons or bands as defined
by the Federal Indian Act. More than 15 First Nations have used this provision and combined
forested portions of their reserves with licensed Crown lands to permit a reasonable
allowable annual cut. In the small tenure situation, Tanizul Timber stands out as an
exception. To obtain the license, forest management on some 2,500 hectares ofTl'azt' en
Indian Reserve was combined with 49,000 hectares of Crown forest land (National
Aboriginal Forestry Association, 1995).
In 1997, Tanizul Timber was under a considerable amount of stress due to extremely
high stumpage rates imposed by the provincial government. The condition has been
aggravated by the weakening of the lumber market in British Columbia. John Marchal,
(1998) management forester for Tanizul Timber, argues that the situation where tenure
26

holders are forced to log at least 50 percent of the annual allowable cut while continuing to
pay the "exorbitant and often unaffordable stumpage rates," imposes economic stress not
only on the company, but also on the entire industry. The Teeslee

.! ~

~~

>f

which is fed largely by Tanizul Timber, was forced to close dolVll indefinitely in late January

---- --

1998. Marchal maintains that the situation is "politics and subsidy-driven" and hurtful to the

~

-

-

.

Other important resource management issues in the area include concern over the
restriction of fishing in Pinchi Lake, one of the largest lakes in the area, following the

'------

discovery _of very high levels of mercury in lake trout in the 1970s. The mercury mine owned
by Cominco began its operations in the area in the 1940s, released a large volume of mercury
tailings into Pinchi Lake and was subsequently shut down in the mid-1970s (Wheatley,
1979). The community is also acutely concerned about the fact that large volumes of timber
are removed by industry from their traditional territory every year. This especially troubles

\

the community since unemployment figures in the community continue to increase and more )
and more people seek social assistance with every passing year.

4. Health and Healing
Health, like education, is an area where institutions and services designed outside
Aboriginal communities touch on the everyday lives of Aboriginal people. As a result of the
revitalization of culture and traditions in recent years, attempts are being made to adapt
health services to Aboriginal ways. Native people are looking to their traditional teachings
for a holistic understanding of health that incorporates physical, mental, emotional and

27

\

spiritual well-being. However, they also recognize that immediate threats to personal and
community health need to be addressed (Napoleon, 1992).
Poor health among Aboriginal people appears to be directly related to poverty and
low morale. Fetal and infant death rates are considered to be important indicators of
underlying risk factors. The social and economic factors of poor housing, lack of sewage
disposal and potable water, and poor access to health services are also concerns in this area.
As well, poor health of pregnant and lactating women, adolescent pregnancies, inadequate
nutrition, lack of pre-natal care and adverse effects of drugs and alcohol are contributing
factors to community ill-health. These factors indicate that poor health is related to social and
economic circumstances. Substance abuse and addictions are also fairly widespread among
young children and youth. These pathologies, combined with the HIV and AIDS, are seen by
some as having the destructive potential of the epidemics that swept through Aboriginal
communities in the past.
Although women share the health concerns common to all Aboriginal people, the
issue that has been repeated and reinforced by women in communities across the country is
family violence. Researchers see family violence as part of mental health and social issues
that must be examined together. Aboriginal women in the North appear to be especially
constrained due to a lack of local shelters or protective services and the barriers of distance
and transportation preventing access to urban facilities.
Violence in Aboriginal communities is also not confined to assaults on women and
children. It often takes the form of violence turned inward. Suicides, accidents by
misadventure, alcohol and drugs are especially high among younger people (Fry, 1970;
Furniss, 1994; Shkilnyk, 1985; Tower, 1989). Absence of facilities for the care of elders in

28

surroundings familiar to them, lack of access to medical care in remote communities, and the
failure of health services to respond to past recommendations on the needs of Aboriginal
people with disabilities have also been observed.
In recent years, attempts have been made to increase the involvement of Aboriginal
people in professional and other decision-making roles in order to improve the range and
effectiveness of public health services. Critics ofthe health care system, however,
recommend that more is needed than simply increasing the volume of services available.
They suggest that, because Aboriginal people are especially closely linked to nature and its
elements, a holistic approach which encompasses emotional, mental, physical, spiritual,
social, cultural and sexual aspects needs to be developed (Royal Commission on Aboriginal
Peoples, 1996). It is generally agreed that it is best to adopt an approach to health care that
has the community's maximum involvement in the identification of needs, and the
development of preventative and remedial strategies.

Community Health Initiatives
In many areas, Aboriginal communities are taking charge of resolving their social
problems. Some communities have instituted "healing circles," allowing people to publicly
confront problems such as family violence and child abuse. A few communities have
established more permanent "healing lodges," such as Poundmaker's Lodge, a treatment
centre on the outskirts of Edmonton, which is run by the First Nations community (Eriksen,
1997).
Alcohol has been the bane of many Native communities, but determined action by
some groups has put an end to abuse in some communities. One example is the Shuswap of
Alkali Lake in British Columbia. In this community, a movement to sobriety was led by the

29

chief, Andy Chelsea, and his wife, Phyllis, after decades of apathy and child neglect caused
by heavy drinking. The programme had its fair share of teething troubles but gradually
attracted converts and in due course became highly successful. Bootleggers were charged
under the Indian Act, and the government assistance cheques were replaced with vouchers for
food and clothing so that the money could not be spent on alcohol. Within about ten years the
band achieved 95 per cent sobriety, and people began to improve their economic lot. New
houses were built, and cooperatives were organized for logging and agriculture. Attention
was also turned to reviving their language and culture through their school programmes.
Other bands have attempted to emulate their success, and a 1985 conference at Alkali Lake
attracted more than a thousand people from communities as distant as Quebec and Nova
Scotia. A film entitled The Honour of All: The Alkali Lake Band Story, based on the
community's successful programme, was produced by the band in collaboration with the
Four Worlds Development Project and has been distributed to many reserves across the
country.
The Tl'azt'en Nation has also made concerted efforts to promote health and healthy
lifestyles in the community. Most projects are geared towards reducing the disparity in health
indicators between the Tl'azt'enne and the general Canadian society. The Tl'azt'en Health
Society has developed several programmes to address the needs of specific groups in the
community such as elders, pre- and post-natal women, children with congenital drug and
alcohol effects. Most programmes are designed to prevent health-related problems in the
community including those resulting from substance abuse, family violence and sexual abuse
(Tl'azt'en Nation, 1995/1996).

30

5. Cultural Development
Many Indian communities are dismayed by the loss and threatened extinction of
traditions, knowledge, language and skills. The loss of culture is appalling in itself, but there
are several reasons why this loss is especially dismaying. First, Aboriginal ways are being
lost at a time when little is known about how local traditions may be useful in contemporary
society and conducive towards preserving ecological stability. Additionally, traditional ways
of life are being overwhelmed with many social pathologies. If one looks at the entire picture,
it is quite obvious that these are all dimensions of the same problem. Traditional Aboriginal
lifestyles are complex and involve biological, economic and social variables that strongly
impact each other. Loss of function, or absence, of any aspect of the system upsets the
balance and disturbs the functioning of the entire system (Elias, 1991 ).
It is generally accepted that revitalization of culture and traditions could provide

support to the sustainable development of Aboriginal communities. However, it is also well
recognized that the road to cultural development is not without difficulties. There are many
elements of mainstream Canadian society that may work to constrain and suppress
Aboriginal cultures. Negative factors such as racism, as well as trends to assimilation and
acculturation, tend to erode traditional ways, leaving Native communities vulnerable in
Canadian political and economic culture (Shkilnyk, 1985; York, 1992). In addition to such
external factors, there are factors within Native communities that obstruct cultural
development. Breakdown of relations between generations, as well as breakdown of relations
between genders, has been identified as a symptom and a cause of social pathologies (Mail,
1989; Tower, 1989). While these relationships collapse, so do the channels for
communicating important traditional knowledge.
31

The quality of relationships between elder and younger generations has been
identified as the key indicator of persistence of tradition. The underlying assumption is that,
for tradition to be communicated between generations, they must have good and frequent
relations. The Kaska Dena Council examined this matter when doing their land claims
research (Elias, 1991 ). They discovered that young people who wanted to learn harvesting
skills from their elders, for example, had plenty of opportunity to do so. What created greater
concern was the apparent decline in the numbers of young people who wanted to learn
traditional skills. Over time, Aboriginal communities have begun to involve themselves in
many business enterprises. These initiatives have begun to entice young people away from
the traplines and hunting camps and into industrial employment. Consequently, Aboriginal
youth increasingly possess social and economic interests and objectives that challenge or
compete with those of their parents.
The research conducted by the Kaska Dena Council also revealed major social
pathologies in the younger generation reported as absent or insignificant by the elder
generation during the latter's formative years (Elias, 1991). These include drug abuse, family
abuse, suicide and running away. It appears that in the past young people learned their values
and were disciplined within the extended family. In the recent past, adolescents tended to be
immersed not in the family but in the institutions of larger society. Although all Aboriginal
communities have not been severely hit by industrial change, parallel forms of economic and
political change have led to social problems in other communities as well.
The change in kinship structures and relationships between younger and elder
generations also results in different competing interests within the same generation in the

32

community. Scrimshaw (1985) sees contemporary Aboriginal communities as comprising
four divisions of interest:
I think of traditional Natives as those persons who adhere to the lifestyles and cultural values of the
"old ways." For them, the demands and expectations of modem industrial society conflict with their
traditional values such as family and community obligations.
Transitional Natives maintain many of their traditional values and priorities, but at the same
time, want to be part of modem society. They are tom between the demands of participating in the
wage economy, on the one hand, and the expectations of their families, friends and communities on
the other. As a result of this, transitional Natives often fmd it difficult to live comfortably with this
dichotomy.
Natives who function well in their traditional cultural environment and in the modem
industrial society are what I refer to as bicultural. They have reconciled their traditional beliefs with
those of the non-Native culture.
In this model there is one other group of Natives. These are what I refer to as Assimilated
Natives. Assimilated Natives are those Natives who have either lost or rejected their traditional culture
and attempt to live entirely within the framework of modem society's values (39).

Division of interest appears to obstruct development of Aboriginal communities in two major
ways. First, non-Aboriginal people and institutions have traditionally exploited division as a
means to control Native communities. The government, for example, may shape policy and
programs to serve the needs of those most aligned with its own ideas of the future.
Additionally, division of interests may promote the division of effort and direction in
communities.
The eradication of Aboriginal languages was one prong of the overall attempt to erase
Aboriginal cultures. Everyday use of many Aboriginal languages diminished substantially
with the rise of schooling in English and French. Inuktitut, Ojibwa, and Cree are considered
by linguists to be the most robust languages today (Royal Commission on Aboriginal
Peoples, 1996).

Tl'azt'en Community Effort
In the Tl'azt'en Nation, attempts have been made to keep the Carrier language alive.
The Eugene Joseph School offers Carrier language as an alternative to French. The Tl'azt'en
33

Nation is also the proud owner of the first Dakelh Syllabics true type font to be developed
(Tl'azt'en Nation, 1997). The efforts of the community led to the development of a software
package that made the first system of writing the Dakelh language, developed in the late
1800s, accessible to everyone.
One of the major problems facing language education is the lack of recognition
afforded by educators at all levels to elders and other fluent speakers to teach in the school
system. Although Aboriginal language teacher certification programmes have been
established by a number of universities, it is uncertain that they have increased elder access to
the classroom. Another major barrier to language education is the fact that the continued
vitality of Aboriginal education requires individual and family commitment to use the
language in all forms of communication such as newsletters, radio, television, public events,
ceremonies, and most importantly, in everyday life.
There are many other obstacles to cultural development that operate at the social
rather than at the technical or legal levels. Such constraints lead to economic and political
powerlessness, which are in themselves identified as causes of social pathologies.
3.3 Summary

This chapter focussed on the identification and discussion of the major issues in
modem First Nations communities across Canada. Five areas were identified as significant to
the sustainable development of Aboriginal communities:f ontrol of

~~ political

'*

development geared towards self-determination control of education directed towards
enhancing opportunity and encompassing cultural systems of knowledge; ~

control of

lands and resources with a focus on increasing employment and self-sufficiency in Native
34

~

communities, incorporating traditional management practices, and exploring possibilities for
I

co-management and joint venturing; health and healing with an emphasis on reducing
disparities between Aboriginal communities and the general Canadian society, and
developing culturally relevant holistic practices to deal with the gamut of physical, mental,
social, economic and environmental factors that constitute health; cultural development with
a focus on preserving and developing language skills as well as diverse cultural heritages.
The literature review was conducted with the dual purpose of learning more about the
issues themselves and also generating the information base that would allow for a
comparison between trends illustrated by the literature and those revealed by research
conducted in the case study community. Upon completion of the literature review, it was
expected that indicators related to political development, educational standards and
curriculum, natural resource management, levels of employment and dependence, community
health, language development, and cultural preservation and renaissance would be generated
from the case study conducted in the Tl'azt'en Nation.

35

Chapter Four: Theoretical Basis of Study and Conceptual Framework
4.1 Introduction
Communities in different parts of the world have attempted to design conceptual
frameworks for indicators that would enable them to monitor progress toward community
goals (Alberta Round Table on Environment and Economy, 1994; Fraser Basin Management
Program, 1995; Jacksonville Community Council, 1992; Local Government Management
Board, 1993; Ontario Round Table on Environment and Economy, 1995). Alternately, some
communities "borrow" systems of indicators from other communities and compare
themselves to "model" communities in terms of comparative statistics and success or failure
to move toward identified goals (Findlay, 1988; Wackemagel eta/, 1993; York University,
1990).
Regardless of the manner in which frameworks of indicators are developed, they have
been used for a variety of purposes. These include the following : predicting future social
trends; providing visibility to social problems and inequities; facilitating long range planning
and control over social problems; balancing assessment of social conditions against economic
·assessment; evaluating and prioritizing public policy and programmes; indicating future
research areas; providing information for policymakers, implementors, and evaluators;
improving understanding of social dynamics and strata; stimulating new policies and
programmes; providing "barriers against irrevocable mistakes"; developing a "climate of
continuous self-correction"; providing inspection opportunities for government decision
making; and creating a pool of knowledge that all sectors of society can access (Michalos,
1980).

36

This chapter describes and discusses the theoretical concepts and ideas related to
indicators and sustainable development that will influence the development of the study.
Identification of key elements of sustainable development
In order to be able to identify and develop indicators of sustainable development, it is
important to define and discuss the elements or characteristics of sustainability that will
provide a basis for the development of a framework.
The literature provides many definitions of sustainable development and related
concepts. The term itself originated in the 1970s and was first promoted widely with the
publication of the World Conservation Strategy in 1980. It was popularized even more by the
Brundtland report, Our Common Future in 1987, and elaborated upon in major documents
like Caring for the Earth (1991) and Agenda 21 (1992). Two frequently used definitions in
recent years are those in Our Common Future and in Caring for the Earth. The former
document states that "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (43).
Caring for the Earth defines sustainable development as "Improving the quality ofhuman

----

--

life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems" (211 ). Numerous
other definitions and discussions of the term provided by research institutes, governments,
community organizations, academics, and planners also establish it as a vital and valid
guiding principle for development practices of the future. Despite the popularity of the term
in policy-making and policy research not only at the international levels but also at the
national and local levels, the practical application of the concept remained somewhat
nebulous. Efforts have been made in recent years to clarify the operational meaning of the
37

term. Most of these efforts have been met with questions about the measurement of the
concept and the translation of the concept into action at different levels of implementation
(IUCN, 1995). The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has explored ideas for practical
application of sustainable development. These include facilitating its monitoring through
report cards on global progress that factor in economic, environmental and social indicators,
sustainability indexes such as the one developed for European cities, conservation strategies,
environmental action plans and local Agenda 21s. The British Columbia Round Table on the
Environment and Economy (1994) attempted to address the issue of operationalizing
sustainable development by adapting the following eight principles previously developed by
the World Conservation Union: limiting human impact on the living world to stay within its
carrying capacity; preserving and protecting the environment through the conservation of life
support systems, biological diversity and renewable resources; minimizing depletion of nonrenewable resources; promoting long-term economic development through diversification
and more efficient use of resources; meeting basic needs and aiming for a fair distribution of
the benefits and costs of resource use and environmental protection; providing a system of
proactive, participatory, long-term decision-making and governance; and promoting values
that support sustainability through information and education.
Operational guidelines and frameworks developed or adopted by most other
organizations, communities and governments also uphold the principles described above and
highlight the connections between environment, economics and society. The figure on the
following page attempts to incorporate the most widely accepted dimensions of the concept
of sustainable development.
38

Characteristics of Sustainability
lntergenerational
Equity

Geographical Equity
1 - - - Community
..___ _ _ _ _ _____.
Self-Reliance
lntragenerational
Social Equity

Equity in
Governance

t

Access to Services

& Public Facilities

Public Participation

Renewable
Resource Use
Non-Renewable
Carrying Capacity
Soil Pollution
Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Solid Waste

Waste Generation
Economic
Diwrsity

Satisfaction of
Basic Human Needs
Food
Water
Shelter
Energy
Clothing
Individual
Well-Being
Health
Education
Income
Personal Safety
Leisure
Aesthetics

Biological

Cultural

Source: Adapted from the United Kingdom' s Local Government Management Board (1993)

This figure is perceived to be a useful starting point for communities attempting to develop
their own philosophy of sustainable development and their specific sustainability goals.
For the purposes of the study, a framework adapted from the United Kingdom's
Local Government Management Board was chosen over several others to depict the elements
that comprise sustainability and the relationship between them for several reasons. First, it
appears to interpret sustainability in a manner that is meaningful to the general public. It does
this by addressing sustainability not only as a state of maintaining conditions necessary for
survival, but also as a complex of activities and processes that challenge the ability of a
39

community to adapt to dynamic internal and external conditions. It includes issues like basic
human needs, education, governance, and individual well-being that enables a community to
not only maintain its health and identity but also to exercise control over its destiny. The
inclusion of the concepts of inter-generational equity and geographical equity or the impacts
of a community outside its recognized boundaries are other reasons for selecting this
framework. Additionally, the major elements of equity, carrying capacity and diversity
appeared to lend themselves well to the development of a reasonably comprehensive goalbased indicator framework for any human community since it addresses all the major
concerns that people have about their own well-being and that of their community and natural
environment. The concept of the goal-based framework and its relevance to this study will be
discussed later in this chapter.

Definition of Terms
•

The concept of intergenerational equity refers to equity among different generations
and acknowledges that the needs of future generations are as important as the needs of
the current generation.

•

The concept of intra-generational equity refers to equity within a generation and has
two components: social equity and geographical equity (Maclaren, 1996).

•

Social equity refers to equity in the quality oflives of people. It takes into account
basic human needs such as food, water, shelter, clothing and energy. In the context of
sustainability, social equity also means the expansion of equity to include aspects
such as more equitable distribution of income, elimination of discrimination, and
other indexes that promote individual well-being namely health, education, personal
40

safety, leisure, etc. (Maclaren, 1996). Another important aspect of social equity is
equity in governance. This includes concepts such as access to public facilities and
services, self-determination, and access to governance through participation in
community-based decision making.
•

The term "geographical equity" was coined in 1995 by Haughton and Hunter. It
draws attention to the undesirability of achieving either economic growth or a higher
quality of life in one community at the expense of environmental degradation in
another. Therefore, the concept suggests that sustainable communities should support
sustainable development globally by minimizing contribution to global ecological,

-

economic and social problems. The practical application of this concept would

--

support increased capacity for self-reliance in individual communities by minimizing
consumption of imported resources and also minimizing waste generation within the
community as much as realistically possible.
•

Carrying capacity is a concept that has created much controversy. It is classically
defined as the number or weight of animals of a single or mixed population that can
be supported permanently on a given area (Sharkey, 1970). It has also been defined in
many other ways by ecologists and economists. For the purposes of this study, Rees '
(1992) definition appears most appropriate. He defined it as "the maximum rate of
resource consumption and waste discharge that can be sustained indefinitely in a
given region without progressively impairing the functional integrity and productive
activity of relevant ecosystems." It includes depletion rates of renewable as well as

41

non-renewable resources. It also includes volume of solid waste generated by a
community and the amount and types of pollution of soil, water and air.
•

The concept of diversity refers to both economic, cultural and biological aspects.
Economic and cultural diversity of a community increases its ability to adapt to
change and thereby contributes to sustainable development. The biological diversity
of the area provides stability and adaptive ability to the ecosystems that support life.

Choice of appropriate framework
An implicit objective of this study is to encourage community ownership of the

indicators by developing a set of indicators that are understood by the community and
presented in such a manner that people who played a vital role in its development can see
how their own activities and decisions can influence the trends illustrated by the indicator.
Therefore, the major audience for the study is individual members of the community as well
as local planners and policy makers. Individuals are encouraged to use the indicators to
educate themselves about important sustainability trends and to assess their own actions in
terms of how they can affect these trends.
The literature suggests that five general types of frameworks are most commonly
used. These are as follows: domain-based frameworks (based on key dimensions of
sustainability namely environment, economy and society), goal-based frameworks (based on
sustainability goals such as meeting basic human needs, social well-being, economic
prosperity, participation in governance, etc.), sectoral frameworks (based on sectoral
responsibilities of local governments such as housing, welfare, recreation, transportation,
economic development, etc.), causal frameworks (emphasizing causal relationships among

42

the indicators like human health, air quality and pollution reduction), and issue-based
frameworks (based on popular current issues in the community such as crime and public
safety, employment, industrial pollution, etc.). A sixth type of framework is called a
combination framework because it uses two or more of the frameworks described above
(Maclaren, 1996).
Each of these frameworks has its relative advantages. For the purpose of this study, a
framework based on goals identified by the case study community was chosen. The
advantage of a goal-based framework is that it reduces the number of indicators that need to
be considered to those relating to specified sustainability goals. Additionally, it permits the
evaluation of whether indicators are showing movement towards or away from sustainability.
A goal-based framework appears to afford easy understandability and popular appeal. A goalbased framework also appears to be the most appropriate framework to encourage
community ownership of the indicator system.

An issue-based framework was considered but rejected because, although it can be
appealing, understandable and media-friendly, it may lack structure and comprehensiveness.
In the context of the Tl'azt'en Nation, an issue-based framework may more heavily
emphasize short-term, discrete concerns that arise in the community from time to time
instead of broad-based long-term goals that may serve as tools to steer its future
development. As well, issue-based frameworks may be unable to provide any explicit links to
sustainability that other frameworks can provide.
A domain-based framework was rejected, although it is integrative and ensures
effective coverage of the three dimensions of sustainability, because the categorization of
43

environment, economy and society appears too familiar and overdone to help people develop
any fresh perspectives.
A sectoral framework is appropriate when the target audience is municipal
governments because the sectors can be tied to individual government departments thereby
making accountability for specific problems or positive results, easy to determine. The
sectoral framework was rejected because the major audience for this study is not municipal
departments and also because although it compartmentalizes indicators into specific areas of
governmental responsibility, it does not potentially show linkages across different areas.
A causal framework has the distinct advantage of being able to suggest why certain
indicators are rising or falling and also of suggesting whether or not policy interventions are
having an impact. The main difficulty with this type of framework is that the distinction
between economic or social stressors and economic or social conditions is not as apparent or
as simple as those between human stressors (for eg. automobile use) and environmental
conditions (air quality) that these frameworks were developed primarily for.
4.2 Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation of Development
It is important to base the fundamental aspects of a study on sound ideas in theory.

The following section will introduce the reader to the concept of indicators and their uses and
role in the study.
The Concept of Indicators
While different communities may share similar approaches toward development, each
community will have its own priorities among a set of common goals. The goals that a
community most aspires to will depend on its priorities. Regardless of what the goal is, it is

44

ideal that the elements built into the goal be capable of measurement. Therefore, things must
be discovered which, if measured, will show whether or not change is moving in the direction
set in the community's priorities. Serious efforts have been made to construct relevant and
usable tools for measuring the rate and direction of change toward community goals. These
tools are collectively termed indicators.
Like sustainability, indicators have been defined in many different ways and from
many different perspectives. Rossi and Gilmartin (1980) define indicators as "repeated
measures of the same phenomena over time ...the time series allowing the identification of
long term trends, periodic change, and fluctuations in rates of change." Along the same lines,
the Jacksonville Community Council (1992) describes indicators as "bits of information that
reflect the status of larger systems. They are a way of seeing the big picture by looking at the
smaller piece of it. They tell us which direction a system is going: up or down, forward or
backward, getting better or worse or staying the same."
There are other definitions that acknowledge the ability of indicators to monitor and
predict trends. Konkin (1991) defines an indicator as "a summary measure, a tool for
monitoring change, which carries with it a degree of implied causality." This definition is
important because it emphasizes linkages between different causes and effects.
Hodge (1994) offers another broad definition when he defines an indicator as "a
measurable descriptor, quantitative or qualitative, of normative interest which facilitates
assessment of the past, current, or future state or performance of system constituent parts,
controls or feedback loops as well as the system as a whole." This definition acknowledges

45

that indicators are normative and can be used to measure progress toward or away from a
desired state.
Michalos (1980) uses the term "social indicator" to designate statistics that are
supposed to have significance for the quality of life, while a "social report" describes an
organized set of social indicators. He points out that indicators can be objective such as
statistics related to health, education, law enforcement, and economics. They can also be
subjective when the indicator property involved is a personal feeling, attitude, preference,
opinion, perception, judgement or belief.
One area of agreement among all definitions is that indicators represent events that
are much more complex than the indicators themselves would suggest. Therefore, the term
"indicator" should be taken literally in the sense that it only provides an indication of
conditions or problems (Whorton and Morgan, 1975).
The ability to identify which indicator or set of indicators to use in a particular
development context demands that the researcher or planner have a framework of
understanding, or a theory, which allows him or her to firmly tie a particular indicator to the
events the plan will help shape.
Definition of indicator selection criteria
A suitable framework is not the only requirement for developing a set of indicators. A
set of selection criteria must also be defined to facilitate the process. Commonly used criteria
for indicator selection can be found in the literature on environmental indicators, social
indicators, urban indicators and sustainability indicators. Keeping in mind the major audience
and the purpose of this study, the following criteria will be used to evaluate both the

46

indicators identified through the process of community consultation and those identified from
the literature and deemed suitable for issues that were recognized as important but for which
no indicators were identified.
1. Validity: the indicator should reflect something fundamental to the short-term or

long-term economic, social or ecological health of the community. To qualify as a
suitable indicator, there must be a high degree of correspondence between what is
actually measured and what the researcher intends to measure. In other words, the
indicator must be a clear, explicit, and generally accepted measure of the phenomenon
to be measured. For example, the number of people who volunteer time for
community activities is a clearer and more generally accepted measure of community
pride, empowerment, and motivation than the number of houses in the community
that have untended lawns. The latter indicator may not be a valid measure of
community pride for several reasons including the fact that people who do take a lot
of pride in their community and are actively involved in it, may just be too busy to
tend their lawns!

2. Understandability: the indicator should be easily understood by members of the
community, and there should be no debate about its meaning.

3. Measurability: the indicator should be statistically measurable or measurable in
terms of presence or absence.

4. Data Availability: a practical form of data collection should either already exist or
be possible.

47

5. Reliability: it should be possible to collect data for the same indicator in the same
manner and under the same conditions from year to year so that comparisons will be
valid.

6. Responsiveness: The indicator should be sensitive to an improvement or
deterioration in the condition it targets.

7. Attractive to the media: The indicator should be appealing for use by the local
media.

Limitations of Indicator Use
While discussing indicators and their applications, it is important to discuss what they
can and cannot do. The major limitation of indicators is that they cannot cause change by
themselves since they are merely measurements that reflect trends and patterns in community
conditions. For indicators to be useful, they must not only be explicable within the context of
community systems, but must also be compatible with respect to spatial and time frames . As
an example, using monthly arrest data collected by the RCMP for its jurisdictional areas to
explain drug use data collected annually by public health for public health areas may not
meet the requirement that data share a common spatial resolution. This type of problem is
quite common in community indicator analysis (Gruenwald et al., 1997).
Another important consideration is that available community data are most often
generated for reasons unrelated to the research needs of specific objectives set by different
researchers. Therefore, they must not be taken at face value, but instead must be critically
scrutinized since ill-considered use of indicators can lead to the appearance of change where
none really exists or alternately, it may fail to detect change when it occurs. A common
48

example is the use of arrest records as indicators of criminal activity. While it is important
not to confuse arrests with the underlying problem of crime, it is important to remember that
arrest records are used by law enforcement agencies, among other things, to evaluate the
performance of field officers. Therefore, while arrest records reflect the objective of law
enforcement, which is to prevent criminal activity, they may not be the best indicators of the
amount of actual criminal activity taking place during any period of time since this can be
influenced by other factors such as the ability of criminals to conceal crime from police, the
ability of police to detect crime, the discretionary decisions of police in making arrests, and
funding and power resource allocations within police departments during that time. Similar
problems may arise in the interpretation of other community indicators like hospital
admissions, school drop-out rates, or sale of alcoholic beverages.
4.3 Examples of Indicator Systems Developed for Aboriginal Communities
Development of any kind implies change in people's lives. Therefore, for planning to
be effective, communities must discover measures of change that are appropriate for their
history, present circumstances, and future vision. Elias (1991) notes that there are few
measuring tools tailored specifically for observing change in Aboriginal communities
because most information produced in Canada is appropriate for mainstream Canadian
communities. In 1988, a Task Force representing Indian, Metis, and Inuit organizations
submitted a report to the Minister of State for Small Business and Tourism and mentioned
the lack of well-grounded measures of change as a major impediment to development
(Notzke, 1994). It stressed that without such measures it was difficult to determine the
effectiveness of different strategies:
49

Monitoring and evaluation are important aspects of any development project. Such projects are the
basic instruments of intervention in development, and monitoring and evaluation are crucial to
understanding the results of these interventions. Monitoring and evaluation are to do with
measurement, judgement and analysis and are critical in terms of ensuring that any development is
indeed moving towards and accomplishing its intended objectives (263).

The task of developing appropriate indicators for Aboriginal communities is
especially daunting if useful information is difficult or costly to obtain and if the relationship
between different phenomena and particular indicators is not clear. The following examples
of indicators illustrate these constraints and the efforts made to overcome them.
In 1972, Wood attempted to devise a system of indicators that would allow accurate
monitoring of change in northern Canada. Wood identified three uses for social indicators.
These were to examine the performance of government programs in terms of whether they
were meeting the programs' set objectives; to assess the impact of oil and gas exploration on
local sociocultural systems; and to establish a tool that could be used by Aboriginal people to
evaluate the effects of decisions made outside the North which had impacts on their
communities. In order to assess commitment to Canadian national identity, Wood chose to
measure elements of political participation such as voter turnout rates and participation in
political action groups. He assumed that citizens committed to nationalism would show high
levels of active involvement in their national institutions. Therefore, a measure of behaviour
within those institutions is an indicator of commitment to Canadian national identity.
Wood also used the criminal conviction statistic as an indicator of quality of life.
Wood based this indicator on his finding that over a succession of years the number of
convictions in the North had been much higher than in the south. He elaborated:
A number of interpretations can be placed on this data. It might be argued that residents of the
Northwest territories are undergoing a period of adjustment as white and indigenous cultural values

50

clash. It may be that the legal system is at fault; that Eskimos and Indians don' t understand the law;
that they lack proper counsel. It may be that northern judges and magistrates are harsher in the
application of the law than are their southern counterparts. It may be that social and economic
disadvantage have driven the indigenous Northerner into criminal activity (17).

If any of these interpretations is correct, then the criminal conviction statistic could be used
as a social indicator. As an example, if it could be shown that the high rates of criminal
convictions were the results of inadequacies in the judicial system, then development
strategies could be aimed at establishing an Aboriginal judicial system. On the other hand, if
the rate of criminal convictions was associated with economic circumstances, then the
statistic could serve to indicate the effectiveness of economic development strategies. The
effectiveness of either of these strategies would be indicated by a decline in the rate of
criminal convictions.
Determining that a particular statistic or set of statistics adequately represents chains
of causes and effect can be a challenging task. The limited data available for analytical
purposes make it all the more difficult. Building systems of social indicators has progressed
since attempts made during the 1960s and 1970s. The more advanced systems of indicators
that exist today tend to rely on specially produced data.
Research commissioned by the Department oflndian Affairs and Northern
Development (DIAND) provides an example of a relatively sophisticated system of social
indicators built from specially produced data. A study was conducted in 1977 and 1984 to
describe the quality of on-reserve housing (Elias, 1991 ). The resulting data were used to
study the quality and availability ofhousing in terms of physical condition, the number of
persons per room of housing, access to water and sewage disposal, source of heat, and other

51

objective criteria. The study also requested people to give their own evaluation of the housing
they occupied. The department used the data to identify housing needs and to set regional
targets for construction and renovation. Researchers used the data to evaluate the quality of
life experienced by the Indian communities. The housing data provided a system of indicators
of quality of life.
This system of indicators appears to be a more reliable measure of quality of life than
those based solely on household incomes or levels of employment because of the
incorporation of, and equal weight given to, the subjective component, namely the level of
occupant satisfaction with housing. Income and employment are also often powerful
measures of well-being, but simply tracking change in the level of employment or average
income will not give decision makers adequate understanding of results. A large volume of
research identifies at least 13 possibilities as domains of life that have an important impact on
the quality of one's life. These include health, finances, job, family, friends, living partner,
education, recreation, housing, transportation, government services, human-made and natural
environments. The same studies also specifically mention unsatisfactory housing and
associated elements as a major motivation for migration and alternately, satisfactory housing,
neighbourhood and community as a major reason for not wanting to move (Kirschenbaum,
1983; Roseman, 1977; Shulman and Drass, 1979; Speare, 1974; Williams and McMillen,
1980; as cited by Michalos, 1980). Common sense assumptions also connect data about
housing to quality of life. Most people appreciate the close link between the two. If people
live in substandard, crowded, under serviced and uncomfortable housing, it appears likely

52

that they do not enjoy a high quality oflife. Over time, an improvement or decline in any of
these conditions signifies changing quality of life.
In spite of the logic of the above mentioned indicators, the researchers who conducted
the study suggest that the results be considered tentative. They propose a program of research
revolving around case studies of communities to test their approach more thoroughly. The
recommended case studies would concentrate on community events and dynamics. They
would also include a close examination of each community's economic base, education
patterns, demographics, mobility patterns, political and administrative institutions, cultural
context, lifestyles, health status and other major events such as land claims, natural
catastrophes and so on. The case studies would more strongly confirm quality of housing as
an indicator of quality of life. Although satisfaction with housing has been described as
having strong predictive strength in defining satisfaction with quality of life (Michalos,
1998), it will be extremely difficult for a group of outside researchers to create a system of
indicators by linking all the pieces. This handicap reinforces the importance of local
production of information in combination with technical research methods.
An example of a more complex system of indicators is provided by the result of

research conducted for DIAND by the faculty and students of the University of Saskatchewan
(Bone and Green, 1984). In the early 1980s, construction ofthe Norman Wells Oilfield
Expansion and Pipeline Project began in the Mackenzie valley. The geographers from the
neighbouring university ran a program to monitor the effects of the project on the region. The
program began before the constructive phase and continued after. The researchers expected
the continuity of data to allow a close measure of ongoing change caused by the project. The
53

program studied and compared Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities and measured
change over time. Most of the data were produced by two questionnaire-based field surveys.
One survey targeted households and gathered detailed information about population
characteristics, northern residency, labour force change, household incomes, local shopping
patterns, trapping, consumption of food harvested from hunting and gathering, perceptions
about development, as well as perceived positive and negative impacts. The other survey
which targeted businesses, was much simpler and only required information about the
general nature of the business and the number of employees.
The broad range of questions included in the surveys provided the potential for
monitoring several dimensions of change. The researchers used the data to study trends in
employment, income, migration patterns, attitudes toward development and use of renewable
and non-renewable resources, etc.
This seemingly meticulous monitoring is also not without flaws when the major
audience is the local community. First, the research strategy relies on relatively sophisticated
statistical techniques and high levels oftechnical skill (Bone and Green, 1984). Also, it
requires considerable rewriting of the results for common understanding. Both constraints
have the potential to render the system of indicators unsuitable for the ordinary, day-to-day
experience, making it more suitable for advisors and consultants rather than local decision
makers. Also, when the approach is so technically demanding, often very few local observers
and data producers can be used. This creates the dual disadvantage of increasing the cost of
operation and eliminating the possibility of local people providing qualitative "anecdotal"
data to compliment the quantitative data. Another major limitation of the study is the poorly
54

developed cultural component. Culture is measured almost exclusively by the measure of
traditional food in people's diet, the value of which does not appear in the calculation of
household income, and all forms of domestic production are ignored. Nevertheless, this study
did have the potential to perceive important changes in Aboriginal communities because of
the continued monitoring effort. However, it may have overlooked the possibility that
Aboriginal people might experience negative effects of change which are not revealed by
their research tools but are nonetheless present in their experiences.
Other more sensitive systems of indicators have been devised in the recent past such
as the Mackenzie Environmental Monitoring Project undertaken by the working group of
Indian, Metis, and Inuit thinkers in collaboration with consulting scientists. The objective of
the project was to "identify and recommend those research and monitoring activities which
are considered necessary for the responsible management of a phased development of the
Mackenzie region hydrocarbons, through the administration of the relevant legislation
administered by the funding agencies" (Notzke 1994). The strategy conceived ofmerging
traditional and innovative knowledge with systems of understanding.
The working group met in several brainstorming sessions to elicit the contents of
tradition and innovation. The group included Indian, Inuit and Metis who were very well
informed about local knowledge as well as wildlife biologists, a geographer, an
anthropologist, an economist, and a number of government administrators. The group
decided to use qualitative data based mostly on personal experience and reinforced by wellknown and accepted bodies of scholarly knowledge linked by theoretical explanations of
behaviour patterns unique to the Mackenzie region. A general theoretical model of northern
55

household economies was constructed. This model perceived renewable resource harvesting
(a major part of which is the harvest of country food) to be a powerful indicator of wellbeing. The group agreed that a precise measure of harvesting activities would reveal a
northern Aboriginal community's general quality oflife. The group also proposed a set of
hypothesis about the nature of major relationships between traditional and industrial culture
in the North. Each statement was scrutinised and discussed in the light of scientific
information available from the consultants and practical knowledge available from
Aboriginal participants.
The working group recommended four key indicators of the effects of wage
employment on harvesting activities. This system perceived wage employment as the
independent variable. The dependent variables were the levels of effort expended at
harvesting, the level of accomplished harvesting, and the patterns of mutual aid, sharing and
cooperation. Only the independent variable was deemed as being capable of being expressed
in terms of available quantifiable data. The other variables required close study at the
community level by observers well versed in the history and the culture of the people of the
Mackenzie region.
The approach taken by the Mackenzie Environmental Monitoring Project is far more
informative for people making decisions at the community level than are simple statistics.
However, even these examples do not fully illustrate how intricate and involved the
measuring of sustainability can become.

56

4.4 Summary

This chapter provides an introduction to the conceptual basis of indicator study. It
provides a discussion of the major conceptual stages in the development of sustainability
indicators. The key characteristics of sustainability are identified as intra- and intergenerational equity, carrying capacity, and biological and economic diversity. The case study
community as well as local planners and administrators are identified as the major audience
for the study. A goal-based framework that allows the community itself to identify the
relevant goals is chosen for the study over other types of frameworks because of its
conciseness, ability to monitor trends, easy understandability, and popular appeal. The
indicator selection criteria for the study are established as being the following: validity,
understandability, measurability, data availability, reliability, responsiveness and
attractiveness to the media.
The second half of the chapter discusses the need for tools that can assess, monitor,
and evaluate development. The absence of well-grounded measures of change appropriate for
the history, present circumstances and future vision of First Nations communities is identified
as a major impediment to their development by many Indian, Metis and Inuit organizations.
Efforts have been made to develop usable tools called indicators that are capable of
measuring the rate and direction of change toward community goals. Attempts have also been
made to develop indicator systems specifically for Aboriginal communities. Examples
include systems developed by Scott Wood in 1972 to monitor change in northern Canada,
systems developed by DIAND in 1977 and 1984 from specially produced housing data,
systems developed by DIAND and the University of Saskatchewan in the early 1980s during
57

the construction of the Norman Wells Oilfield Expansion and Pipeline Project, and systems
developed by the Mackenzie Environmental Monitoring Project in the late 1980s for the
management and development of the Mackenzie region hydrocarbons.
The examples of indicator systems developed for Aboriginal communities draw
attention to the many ways in which available information or specially produced data can be
used to perform a variety of functions such as evaluating needs, monitoring change and
establishing targets or goals. The shortcomings of each of the systems seem to stress the
importance of programmes ofresearch that revolve around case studies incorporating the
social, economic and environmental dynamics of individual communities for a more
comprehensive coverage and understanding of community issues. They also draw attention to
the importance of the community itselfbeing centrally involved in producing local
information and monitoring change over time. Despite their deficiencies, these attempts at
developing indicator systems for Aboriginal communities shed more light on the types of
issues that may be encountered in the case study ofTl'azt'en Nation. These include concerns
about living conditions, criminal activity, local economic development, traditional
occupations and subsistence lifestyles.

58

Chapter Five: Methods
5.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a description of how the case study data were collected. It also
includes a description of feedback mechanisms that were built into the study and some of its
limitations.

J<
Community consultation is the most integral part of this study. Local knowledge and
systems of understanding play a very important role in functions such as determining goals
and assessing needs. Because it is the community that will have to live with the consequences
of achieving or not achieving goals, it seems logical that its members should play the central
role in defining the goals. Likewise, evaluation and assessment efforts should seek to
emphasize local involvement even if exogenous sources and technical innovations help to
produce and organize information.
There are several ways of discovering what people want for their futures. Selfevaluation and standard evaluation are the most usual ways. Self-evaluation involves asking
people to assess themselves and their lives and then to decide what they want in the future.
This approach was used by the Lethbridge Aboriginal Women's Group in its study of family
violence. Members of violent families were assembled to discuss their existing
circumstances, to identify the pathological aspects of those conditions, and then to describe
favourable alternatives. These alternatives were then taken as goals for human resource
development strategies (Elias, 1991 ).
Standard evaluation involves comparing some aspects of a people's life with some
standard taken to represent a minimally adequate one or alternately with a standard that is
59

considered an ideal one. The Indian Association of Alberta explicitly rejected this approach
in its child welfare needs assessment and argued that standards are often set in keeping with
non-Aboriginal concepts of adequacy. They stressed that if standards are to be set, they must
be created within the context of Aboriginal communities and refer explicitly to local
circumstances (Elias, 1991 ).
Developing a framework of community goals and devising measures to monitor
progress requires a deep knowledge of local social, cultural and environmental history. While
standards can be constructed from generalized knowledge, it is important for them to be part
of local culture because imposed standards will be alien to a greater or lesser extent. History
has shown that Aboriginal people reject evaluation of their lives in terms of non-Aboriginal
cultures. The standard against which a people's well-being may be measured is variable, and
different communities will inevitably have different standards by which they assess
themselves (Notzke, 1994). This underlines the importance of having the population itself
decide on appropriate goals and the measures with which to reach them.
5.2 Data Collection
General Description of Methods
The first stage involved undertaking literature reviews to serve two major purposes.
The first was to generate information from published studies about major current issues in
Aboriginal communities. This provided a list of key contemporary issues that may impact the
sustainable development ofNative communities across Canada. The search was also
extended to discover examples of indicator systems developed for Aboriginal systems with
an emphasis on identifying the major strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and constraints

60

associated with them. Another search of the literature was conducted to document the theory
behind the concept of sustainability as well as the concept of indicators including definitions,
characteristics, audiences, and other aspects related to the conceptual development of the
study.
The second stage involved planning focus groups and interviews in the community.
This involved designing the relevant questions to address and identifying key individuals in
the community to address questions to.
Several visits were made to the community, and discussions and presentations were
held in order to enlist cooperation for the project as well as to inform the community about
the nature of research that would be conducted in the community. The objectives of the study
and the proposed research methods were discussed, and the Band Council offered its support
for the successful completion of the project.
Community consultation was an integral part of the research. Focus groups and
interviews offered an effective method of generating information and were conducted in the
community at various stages. The major objective of community consultation was to gain an
understanding of major issues in the community as well as to identify community goals and
the constraints, challenges and opportunities that exist in their fulfilment. The participants
were asked to identify sets of indicators that would enable the community to monitor
progress toward communally identified goals.

Focus Groups
A series of five focus groups was conducted in the community. The groups were
planned to provide an adequate representation of the community. The first group was
61

comprised of eight women, all of whom were enrolled in an early childhood programme at
the Tache Educational Centre. The participants of the second group were seven young men
employed at the Teeslee mill. The third group included eight individuals who comprise the
community's education society. Two Tl'azt'enne elders were part of this group. The fourth
focus group was formed by seven members ofthe community's health staff including social
workers and nurses. The fifth group included seven youth from the community who were
either part of the community's summer youth programme or employed at the local saw mill.
Each group was asked to respond to the following questions:
1. What are the things you like most about the community you live in?
2. What are the things you like least about the community you live in?
3. What are the things that you would most like to see happen in your community in the next
ten years?
4. What can the community do to achieve these goals?
or (as a clarifying question)
What opportunities exist in the community for the fulfilment of its goals?
5. What are the major barriers that the community faces or could face in the fulfilment of
these goals?
6. What indicators can the group identify that would best measure progress toward the
achievement of identified community goals?
or (as a clarifying question)
What kinds of information would enable the community to monitor success or failure in the
achievement of these goals?

62

7. Is this information already available to the community?

Interviews
In addition to focus groups, seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with
individuals who were unavailable to attend focus groups or were more amenable to personal
interviews. Participants were asked to respond to the general focus group questions.
Four of the interviewees hold major decision making positions in the community in
areas such as research and development, education, Band administration, natural resource
management and saw mill management. In addition to the general questions, interviewees
were also asked to provide specific information relevant to their professional duties in the
community. The interviews also provided an excellent forum for discovering the validity of
some of the legal, administrative and educational information provided by focus group
participants. This was a very useful exercise because it was discovered that a number of ideas
that were presented as facts in the focus groups were in fact just "wishful thinking". The best
example to illustrate this is the mention made by several of the focus group participants that a
by-law had been passed a few years ago declaring Tl'azt'en Nation a dry reserve meaning a
reserve in which there is no bootlegging allowed and no alcohol can be purchased even for
personal consumption. Separate interviews conducted with two community members who
hold senior positions with the Band administration confirmed that although a BC Resolution
had been passed a few years ago that it should be a dry reserve, it had never been
implemented so there was no by-law of that nature in effect.
Additionally, because it was felt that the village at Middle River was not represented
in the focus groups, three additional interviews were held in it to specifically discuss the
63

issues relevant to this isolated satellite community of the Tl'azt'en Nation. Two of the
interviewees were elders who had spent their entire lives in the community.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Groups and Interviews
While deciding to use focus groups as a major research method, it is important to be
aware of their advantages, disadvantages, and appropriateness for a particular kind of
research. There are several reasons why focus groups may be an especially desirable research
method for the proposed study.
Focus groups create a situation where groups of peers can express their perspectives.
Morgan and Krueger (1993) note that having the security ofbeing among others who share
many of their feelings and experiences provides participants with a basis for sharing their
views. Thus, when conducted in a non-threatening and amiable environment, focus groups
may be especially helpful for working with people who have historically had limited power
and influence. However, it is important to protect against the risk associated with first
empowering people to express their views and then ignoring them. It is the researcher' s
responsibility to acknowledge and show tolerance for a wide range of perspectives.
Additionally, focus groups offer a way to bridge the gap between the researchers and
their target audiences. Researchers often discover that their language and logic are very
different from the people that they are trying to serve. Because the interaction in focus groups
can provide a clear view of how others think and talk, they are a powerful means of exposing
researchers to the circumstances of their audiences.
Because focus groups are primarily based on asking open-ended questions, they offer
the researchers the advantage of being able to examine human needs, motivations, and
64

actions to a degree more complex than is available with other methods such as telephone
surveys. Additionally, information derived from focus groups can be combined with casual
observations, secondary data and other sources to provide better understanding of complex
Issues.
In addition to allowing researchers to learn more about the range of opinions or

experiences that exist, focus groups provide the opportunity to learn more about the degree of
consensus on a topic.
Finally, focus groups can offer a research method that is respectful and not
condescending to the target population. The friendly setting of focus groups is often the
major advantage over other methods of obtaining information such as surveys where the
participant may not trust the researcher's intentions. By creating and sustaining an
atmosphere that promotes meaningful interaction, focus groups convey a humane sensitivity,
a willingness to listen without being defensive, and a respect for opposing views that is
beneficial, especially in emotionally charged environments (Morgan, 1993).
Employing focus groups to generate information about a community is not without
disadvantages. The first disadvantage arises from the fact that, like most qualitative research,
focus groups are based on trust and open communication. Therefore, to be successful it is as
important for the target population to provide the researcher with truthful information as it is
for the researcher to be respectful, tolerant and considerate of the target audience. In the
context of this study, one of the major limitations may be that the researcher would only have
access to information about those aspects of community life that the participants are willing
to discuss in a focus group or interview situation. Issues that may have been equally
65

important, but were considered too personal or controversial to discuss are not mentioned in
the study.
The second disadvantage stems from the fact that there is often a tendency in
discussions for certain people to be especially influential, while the rest of the group tends to
continually defer to him or her. Such a power differential can occur in focus groups even
when care is taken to bring together people of equal social, financial, educational standing in
the community. Sometimes this happens because a certain person is particularly loud or
verbose. At other times, the imbalance is created due to other reasons such as age, gender,
and social norms. Whatever the case, when this happens the opinions and ideas can get
skewed in one direction, and it is up to the researcher to ensure that everyone in the group has
adequate opportunity to air individual ideas.
Another disadvantage of focus groups is the fact that by themselves they are
incapable of producing statistical data. Therefore, focus groups are not appropriate when
statistical data are required. Because the major objectives of this thesis are

There is one final serious disadvantage of using focus groups that needs to be
addressed. This arises when the target group is unaware that the primary purpose of focus
groups, especially in the academic arena, is to collect qualitative data to answer research
questions. Unfortunately, the term "focus group" is often inappropriately applied to other
purposes such as resolving conflict, building consensus, increasing communication, changing
attitudes, and making decisions. This is particularly true when one is working with
communities or organizations that have a very broad idea of what "research" is. To avoid

66

misconceptions about what the research seeks to do, it is very important for the researcher to
be explicit that focus groups are primarily data collection devices for answering research
questions. Morgan and Krueger (1993) support this view when they write "The best match
between researchers' and participants' interests happens when they share the same goals:
Providing useful information" (13).
In addition to focus groups, a series of interviews was also conducted in the
community. The literature suggests that the use of semi-structured interviews can be
appropriate and effective. The interaction between a researcher and the respondent in
interviewing sessions not only enables the researcher to gain insight about the issues, but it
also provides the opportunity to refine the research question and analysis as the research
progresses (Li, 1981). Additionally, Jackson (1988) and Babbie (1995) suggest that the good
rapport built up during the interview makes repeated interviews possible, if required. When
combined with focus groups, interviews offer the advantage of allowing participants to
discuss issues or air opinions that they may have been unwilling to share in the group
situation.
Nevertheless, there are problems with using interviews. Semi-structured interviews
are more complex and difficult to analyse because each interview is unique depending on the
participant and the manner in which the conversation develops. This affords the researcher
less control over the "steering" process. Like focus groups, interviews are often
unquantifiable and statistical analysis can be quite restricted. As well, sometimes the manner
in which questions are asked can create a subtle bias in the answer obtained (Babbie, 1995).

67

This can happen even when the researcher has no intention whatsoever of "leading the
witness."
Observations
In addition to focus groups and interviews, a small amount of information about the
community was generated by observing members of the community during the course of the
research conducted in the Tl'azt'en Nation. The focus groups, interviews, information
sessions as well as other formal and informal meetings organized with members of the
community provided many opportunities for making personal observations that are described
in certain places in the thesis.
Feedback
Several feedback sessions were organized with the community during the course of
the research. They were facilitated by the community resource person who was employed on
the Community Sustainability Auditing Project on the basis of her community membership
and knowledge oflocal circumstances to assist in the research conducted in the Tl'azt'en
Nation. With her help, a steering committee was formed within the community to provide
advice and feedback on the research conducted in the community. Community members were
selected to be part of the committee on the basis of their involvement in, and knowledge of,
the community's administrative, political, social, and environmental problems. Care was
taken to include individuals capable of providing information about the most prominent
issues in the community
such as treaty negotiations, housing, drug and alcohol abuse, child welfare, health, natural
resource management, and education.

68

Copies of the focus group summary were distributed to members of the steering
committee. A meeting was organized to invite comments from the members. The major
purpose of incorporating feedback sessions into the research design was to confirm the
validity and credibility of information obtained from the focus groups. As well, it provided
an opportunity for members to raise any questions or concerns about the focus group
findings, in particular, and the research process, in general.

Case Study
A case study is defined by Yin (1984) as "an empirical enquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence
are used." There are several reasons for designing this research as a case study. One of the
major advantages, as evident from the definition, is that a case study offers the flexibility of
allowing for the utilization of a variety of sources of information and techniques such as
documents, interviews, surveys, focus groups, and personal ·observations. Yin (1984) writes
" ... the case study's unique strength is its ability to deal with a full variety of evidencedocuments, artifacts, interviews, and observations." This advantage is especially relevant
when one is conducting exploratory research that does not necessitate following stringent
research methods. Case study literature supports that case study strategy may be used most
effectively to explain, describe, or explore real life situations that have no clear, single set of
outcomes (Patton, 1980; Cronback et al., 1981; Guba and Lincoln, 1981; Yin, 1984).
Additionally, the broad range of information that a case study brings together may facilitate
the generation of hypotheses for future research that may be conducted in the community.

69

For the same reason, case study research appears to afford better scope for generalization of
study results than any other research method. The wide range of information gathered in a
case study also allows for frameworks, such as the one developed in this study, to be tested
for appropriateness and validity.
The relatively small size of the Tl'azt'en Nation makes a case study especially
feasible because it allows for a more thorough investigation and understanding of its issues,
problems and opportunities . A case study would provide planners and researchers interested
in conducting similar work with a more detailed conceptual framework and insight to
develop theory as well as to generate ideas and action.
While discussing the advantages of employing case study methodology to conduct
this research, it is important to acknowledge a major limitation. Although it is very desirable
that the indicator framework developed as a result of this study be applicable to other
northern communities, the extrapolation of results to other northern communities may be
limited since different communities will present different sets of circumstances and local
conditions. Nevertheless, it is expected that the case study will at the very least provide other
communities interested in developing their own frameworks with the "brass tacks" of how to
develop basic methodologies on which to base their studies. It may also provide useful
background information that will enable other communities to develop certain hypotheses on
which to base their research
5.3 Summary
The information required for the completion of the study was collected in several
different ways. A literature review served the dual purpose of discovering important current
70

issues in Aboriginal communities and providing descriptions of indicator systems developed
in the past. Community consultation was vital to the research. Focus groups and interviews
were conducted to generate information about the community in addition to other sources
such as government documents, community profiles, economic development plans, health
assessment reports, and annual general assembly minutes. The focus groups and interviews )
served to provide an understanding of the major issues in the community, as well as to
identify community goals and the constraints, challenges and opportunities that exist in
fulfilling them. The participants were asked to identify sets of indicators that would enable
the community to assess progress toward community goals.

71

Chapter Six: Results and Discussion
6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings of the research. It describes how data collected for
the study were analysed. It presents the results of the study, namely, the final list of 45
indicators developed for the Tl'azt'en Nation. This chapter also discusses and interprets the
significance of issues identified as primary and secondary to the well-being of the community
by the focus group and interview participants. Additionally, it compares the findings from
the case study with those discovered through the literature review of key issues in Aboriginal
communities across Canada. It attempts to provide insight or explanations about why the
disparities between the findings of the case study and the literature may exist.

6.2 Data Analysis
Upon completion of the field research, all focus groups and interviews were
transcribed using standard recording and transcribing equipment. The transcriptions were
then used to prepare a summary of the focus group and interview proceedings. Because the
questions addressed to the research participants were designed in a linear sequence that
progressed from general issues about the community to the identification of goals,
opportunities and indicators, it was logical to summarize the focus groups and interviews in
the same sequence.
Subsequently, the summary was used to develop a table that documented the
community's goals and a list of the possible indicators that could be used to monitor
movement toward or away from the desired goal. At this point, a number of areas were
discovered which were considered important by the community, but for which no indicators
72

had been identified. An example of this is the identification of the goal to preserve natural
and historical heritage of the community. In such cases, possible indicators were identified
by the researcher with the help of relevant literature. Case studies that involved the
development and application of indicators were studied to provide suitable tentative
indicators.
Table 1 documents goals and possible indicators that were identified by the
community during focus groups and interviews. Table 2 incorporates possible indicators
identified from literature for a goal that was identified through community consultation, but
for which no indicators had been identified by the community. At this stage, the literature
was reviewed for a set of evaluation criteria to facilitate the indicator selection process. Of
the ten criteria identified, seven were deemed appropriate for the purposes of this study.
These are validity, understandability, measurability, data availability, reliability,
responsiveness, and attractiveness to the media. All indicators were evaluated through an
iterative process of elimination by applying the selection criteria. The Sustainability Indicator
Evaluation Matrix following Table 2 illustrates how the selection criteria are applied to the
indicators identified for the community. Table 3 (page 79) presents the final list of indicators
for the Tl'azt'en Nation after application of indicator evaluation criteria. The indicators that
appear in the initial list of indicators but do not appear in the final list of indicators were
eliminated because of their failure to meet one or more of the 4 mandatory criteria namely
validity, measurability, reliability and responsiveness. All evaluation was done in
consultation with the community steering committee.

73

Table 1: Initial List of Indicators for Tl'azt'en Nation
Long-Term Goals for Tl'azt'en Nation
To reduce alcohol and substance abuse in the
community.

Possible Indicators
1. Percent of alcohol- and drug-related deaths
in the community.
2. Percent ofF AS, FAE children in the
community.
3. Percent of babies born with F AS.
4. Percent of community members in
detoxification programmes.

To raise levels of education in the
community.

1. Percent ofTl'azt'enne high school
graduates.
2. Number ofTl'azt'enne college graduates as
a percent of high school graduates.
3. Number ofTl'azt'enne university
graduates as a percent of high school
graduates.
4. Percent of people completing Adult Basic
Education courses from the Tache
Educational Centre.
5. Percent of students completing skill
development and university courses from the
Tache Educational Centre.
6. Percent of people attending educational
support groups and workshops.

To ensure adequate housing for all
Tl'azt'enne.

1. Percent ofhouseholds on the waiting list
for housing.
2.Percent of housing units built per year.
3. Average number of people per housing
unit.
4. Average household size.
5. Average age ofhouses.

To promote good health and healthier
lifestyles in the community.

1. Average life expectancy at birth.
2. Percent ofHIV positive people in the
community.
3. Infant mortality rate.
4. Percent of teenage pregnancies.
5. Percent of people suffering from
respiratory illnesses (asthma, pneumonia).

74

Table 1: Initial List oflndicators for Tl'azt'en Nation (contd.)
6. Percent of people suffering from diabetes.
7. Percent of people suffering from outbreaks
of water-borne diseases.
8. Attendance figures at pre and post-natal
classes as a percent of pregnant women or
new mothers.
To ensure adequate employment for all
Tl'azt'enne.

1. Community unemployment rate.
2. Social assistance dependency rate.
3. Unemployment insurance dependency rate.

To promote community economic
development and diversification.

1. Number of self-employed people in the
community as percent of labour force.
2. Percent of entrepreneurial business
ventures in the community.
3. Number of Band-owned businesses in the
community as a percent of all businesses.

To enhance community capacity for
participation and decision making.

1. Attendance figures at Annual General
Assembly as percent of adults in community.
2. Percent attendance figures at community
potlatches.

To preserve natural environment and
historical heritage of community.

No indicators identified.

To promote preservation of culture and
language.

1. Percent of people involved in traditional
activities like trapping, hunting, fishing, berry
picking, etc.
2. Percent of people who speak, read and
write Carrier.
3. Percent of children in Carrier language
classes.
4. Percent of eligible elders involved in
teaching traditional skills.
5. Percent of youth learning traditional skills.

To increase Tl'azt'enne representation in
local employment.

1. Percent ofTl'azt'enne employed by the

Band, school, research and development,
educational centre, health, finance, mills.
75

Table 1: Initial List oflndicators for Tl'azt'en Nation (contd.)
To reduce the incidence of crime and violence
in the community.

1. Percent of community members serving
prison sentences.
2. Percent of charges laid against community
members for violent crimes (murder,
attempted murder, domestic violence, child
abuse, sexual abuse)
3. Rates ofvandalism and break-and-enter.
4. Percent of juvenile offenders in the
community.

To improve basic community infrastructure
and access to public services and facilities.

! .Frequency of snow removal during winter.
2. Frequency of road ploughing during the
year.
3. Percent of deaths caused by poor road
conditions.
4. Percent of non-fatal accidents caused by
poor road conditions.
5. Availability of car pool services to Fort St.
James.
6. Availability of public transit to Fort St.
James.

To improve community access to recreational
and leisure services.

1. Number and types ofrecreational facilities
available in the community.
2. Percent of people making use of
recreational facilities.
3. Number of community events organized
every year.
4. Percent attendance figures at community
events.
5. Percent of community events discontinued
due to poor attendance.

To generate a higher sense of community
pride, empowerment and motivation.

1. Percent of people who volunteer time for
community activities.
2. Percent of tended lawns in the community.
3. Percent ofhouses with garbage piled up
outside.

76

Table 2: Indicators Identified from Literature
Goal
To preserve the natural and historical heritage
ofthe community.

77

Possible Indicators (identified from
literature)
1. Size and number of protected areas.
2. Ratio of successful forest regeneration to
harvest rate.
3. Number of endangered species (plants and
animals) in the art?a.
4. Number of vulnerable species (plants and
animals) in the area.
5. Species health (births, survival rates,
deformities, etc.)
6. Concentration of contaminants in water
(mercury, DDT, etc.)
7. Concentration of contaminants in the
tissues ofbirds, fish, wildlife and humans .
8. Rates of soil erosion.
9. Loss of wildlife habitats.

Indicator Evaluation Criteria
1 =Validity
2 =Understandability
3 = Measurability
4 = Data Availability
5 = Reliability
6 = Responsiveness
7 = Attractive to the media
./ indicates that the indicator meets the criterion as defined.
? indicates that it is questionable whether the indicator meets the criterion as defined.
Validity is the most important factor in determining whether an indicator will be
retained or discarded. If an indicator does not reflect something fundamental to the long-term
economic, social or ecological health of the community, it will not be considered for the
indicator framework, even if it meets the other criteria.
In addition to being valid, an indicator must also meet the criteria of measurability,
reliability, and responsiveness to be part of the final framework of indicators.
The remaining three criteria, namely understandability, data availability, and attractiveness to
the media, are desirable, but not mandatory because it is possible to address these limitations
in several ways. For example, if the link between the indicator and the phenomenon it is
developed to monitor is not explicitly clear, a simple rewriting of results can make it
understandable.
Similarly, while it is desirable that the relevant data be readily accessible, data
availability should not be a long-term constraint since ways of generating information may be
developed over time. Exploring different sources and information sharing programmes
between communities may make data more easily available and also reduce collection costs.

78

Sustainability Indicator Evaluation Matrix
Goals

Potential Indicators

General Selection Criteria
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Reduction
of alcohol
and
substance
abuse

1. Percent of alcohol- and drug-related deaths in the
community.
2. Percent ofFAS, FAE children in the community.
3. Percent of babies born with FAS.
4.Percent of community members in detoxification
programmes.

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I
.I
?

.I
.I
?

?
?
.I

?
?
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
?

./

Higher
educational
levels

l.Percent ofTl'azt'enne high school graduates.
2. Percent ofTl'azt'enne college graduates.
3. Percent ofTl'azt'enne university graduates.
4. Percent of people completing Adult Basic
Education courses from the Tache Educational
Centre.
5. Percent of students completing skill development
and university courses at the Tache Educational
Centre.
6. Percent of people attending educational support
groups and workshops.

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I
?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

./

?

?

.I

.I

.I

?

?

?

Adequate
housing

1. Percent of households on the waiting list for
housing.
2. Percent of housing units built per year.
3. Average number of people per housing unit.
4. Average age ofhouses.
5. Average household size.

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I
.I
?
?

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
?
?
.I

.I
.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
?
?

?
?
?
?

Promotion
of better
health

1. Average life expectancy at birth.
2. Percent ofHIV positive people in the community.
3. Infant mortality rate.
4. Percent of teenage pregnancies.
5. Percent of people suffering from respiratory
illnesses (pneumonia, asthma, bronchitis)
6. Percent of people suffering from diabetes.
7. Percent of people suffering from outbreaks of
water-borne diseases.
8. Attendance figures at pre- and post-natal classes
as percent of pregnant women or new mothers.

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
?
.I
.I
?

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I
./
.I
?

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
?

.I
?

.I
?

.I
.I

?
?

?

.I

.I

.I

./

?

?

79

./

?
.I

./

./

.I
?

./

?
.I

.I
?

?

./
./

?

Goals

Potential Indicators

General Selection Criteria

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Maximize
employment

1. Community unemployment rate.
2. Social assistance dependency rate.
3. Unemployment insurance dependency rate.

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
?
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

Promotion
of
community
economic
growth and
diversity.

1. Percent of self-employed people in the
community.
2. Percent of entrepreneurial business ventures in
the community.
3. Percent of Band-owned businesses in the
community as a percent of all businesses.

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

Enhance
community
capacity for
participation
and decision
making.

1. Percent attendance figures at Annual General
Assembly.
2. Per cent attendance figures at community
potlatches.

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

?

?

.I

?

Preservation
of natural
environment
and
historical
heritage

1. Size and number of protected areas.
2. Ratio of successful forest regeneration to harvest
rate.
3. Number of endangered plant and animal species
4. Number of vulnerable plant and animal species.
5. Species health (births, survival rates,
deformities).
6. Concentration of contaminants in water
(mercury, DDT, etc.)
7. Concentration of contaminants in the tissues of
birds, fish, wildlife and humans.
8. Rates of soil erosion.
9. Loss of wildlife habitats.

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

?
?

.I
.I
.I

.I
?
.I

.I
?
?

?
?
?

.I
.I
?

.I
.I
.I

.I
?
.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

?
?

?
?

.I
.I

.I
.I

?
.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

?

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I
?

.I
.I

.I
.I

?
?

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

?

Preservation
of language
and culture.

! .Percent of people involved in traditional activities
like hunting, fishing, trapping, berry picking.
2. Percent of adults who speak, read and write
Carrier.
3. Percent of children in Carrier language classes.
4. Percent of eligible elders involved in teaching
traditional skills.
5. Percent of youth learning traditional skills.

80

Goals

Potential Indicators

General Selection Criteria
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Increase
community
representation in
employment

1. Number ofTl'azt'enne employed by the school,
research and development, education centre, health,
fmance, administration, Tanizul, Teeslee, and the
cabinet shop, as a percent of all employees.

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

Reduce
incidence of
crime and
violence in
the
community.

1. Percent of community members serving prison
sentences.
2. Percent of charges laid against community
members for violent crimes.
3. Percent of cases of vandalism and break-andenter.
4. Percent of juvenile offenders in the community.

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

.I
.I
.I

?
?
.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

?

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I

.I
.I

.I
.I

?
.I

.I

.I

.I

.I
.I

?
?

?
?

Improve
basic
community
infrastructure
and access
to public
services and
facilities .

1. Frequency of snow removal during the winter.
2. Frequency of road plowing during the year.
3. Percent of deaths caused by poor road
conditions.
4. Percent of non-fatal road accidents caused by
poor road conditions.
5. Availability of car pool services to Fort St.
James.
6. Availability of public transit to Fort St. James.

Improve
community
access to
recreational
and leisure
services.

1. Number and types of recreational facilities
available in the community.
2. Percent of people making use of recreational
facilities.
3. Number of community events organized every
year.
4. Percent attendance figures at community events.
5. Percent of community events discontinued due to
poor attendance.

Enhance
community
pride,
empowerment, and
motivation.

1. Percent of people who volunteer time for
community activities.
2.Percent of tended lawns in the community.
3 .Percent of houses with garbage piled up outside.

81

.I
?
.I
.I
.I
?
?

.I
.I

?
?
?
?

.I
.I

.I
.I

.I

.I

.I

?
?

.I
.I

?
?

Table 3: Final List oflndicators for Tl'azt'en Nation
Long-Term Goals for Tl'azt'en Nation

Recommended Indicators

To reduce alcohol and substance abuse in the
community.
To raise levels of education in the
community.

1. Percent of alcohol- and drug-related deaths
in the community.
1. Percent ofTl' azt' enne high school

graduates.
2. Number ofTl'azt'enne college graduates as
a percent of high school graduates.
3. Number ofTl'azt'enne university
graduates as a percent of high school
graduates.
4. Percent of people completing Adult Basic
Education courses from the Tache
Educational Centre.
5. Percent of students completing skill
development and university courses from the
Tache Educational Centre.
1. Percent of households on the waiting list----for housing.
)
2. Number of housing units built per year.
/
3. Average number of people per housing
J
unit.

To ensure adequate housing for all
Tl'azt'enne.

1. Average life expectancy at birth.
2. Percent ofHIV positive people in the
community.
3. Infant mortality rate.
4.Percent of people suffering from diabetes.

To promote good health and healthier
lifestyles in the community.

1. Community unemployment rate.
loyment insurance dependency rate.

~ · Unem

To ensure adequate employment for all
Tl'azt' enne.

!: Percent of self-employed people in the

community.
2. Percent of entrepreneurial business
ventures in the community.
3. Number of Band-owned businesses in the
community.

To promote community economic
development and diversification.

82

Table 3: Final List of Indicators for Tl'azt'en Nation (contd.)
To enhance community capacity for
participation and decision making.

1. Attendance figures at Annual General
Assembly as percent of adults in community.

To preserve natural environment and
historical heritage of community.

1. Size and number of protected areas.
2. Ratio of successful forest regeneration to
harvest rate.
3. Number of endangered species (plants and
animals) in the area.
4. Concentration of contaminants in water
(mercury, DDT, etc.)
5. Concentration of contaminants in the
~
tissues ofbirds, fish,

\

I

I

\\

v

To promote preservation of culture and
language.

1. Percent of people involved in traditional
activities like trapping, hunting, fishing, berry
picking, etc.
2. Percent of people who speak, read and
write Carrier.
3. Percent of children in Carrier language
classes.
4. Percent of eligible elders involved in
teaching traditional skills.
5. Percent of youth learning traditional skills.

To increase Tl'azt'enne representation in
local employment.

1. Number ofTl'azt'enne employed by the
school, research and development,
educational centre, health, finance,
administration, Tanizul, Teeslee, and the
cabinet shop as a percent of total number of
employees.

To reduce the incidence of crime and violence
in the community.

1. Percent of community members serving
prison sentences.
2. Percent of charges laid for violent crimes in
the community (murder, domestic violence,
child abuse, sexual abuse).
3. Percent of cases of vandalism and breakand-enter.

83

I

I

~-----------------------------------------

..

4. Percent of juvenile offenders in the
community.
To improve basic community infrastructure
and access to public services and facilities.

!.Frequency of snow removal during winter.
2. Frequency of road plowing during the year.
3 .Percent of deaths caused by poor road
conditions.
4. Percent of non-fatal accidents caused by
poor road conditions.
5. Availability of car pool services to Fort St.
James.
6. Availability of public transit to Fort St.
James.

To improve community access to recreational
and leisure services.

1. Number and types of recreational facilities
available in the community.
2. Percent of people making use of
recreational facilities.
3. Percent attendance figures at community
events.
4. Percent of community events discontinued
due to poor attendance.

To generate a higher sense of community
pride, empowerment and motivation.

1. Percent of people who volunteer time for
community activities.

84

6.3 Final Round of Community Consultation

Following the application of the selection criteria to the indicators selected by the
community and the generation of a list of 45 indicators, a meeting was held with the
community steering committee. Committee members were requested to rank the 45
indicators as being of high-, medium-, or low-priority in the context of the Tl'azt'en Nation.
Members were requested to use their perceptions of the issue as well as any specialized
knowledge of the community to decide whether an issue, and therefore, the collection of
information of the relevant indicator should be ofhigh, medium, or low priority to the
community. As well, members were requested to provide comments on the indicators and
also to suggest other indicators that may better represent critical issues in the community.
This stage of consultation was incorporated into the study to explore the possibility of
eliminating certain indicators from the final framework if they were perceived to be of low
priority by more than 50 percent of the committee. However, no indicator was dropped from
the final framework because there were none identified as being of low priority by more than
2 of the 8 people who ranked the indicators. Also, no additional comments or suggestions
were offered by the committee about the indicator framework. Therefore, the list of 45
indicators generated after application of the selection criteria was accepted as the final
framework of indicators for the Tl'azt'en Nation.

6.4 Discussion and Interpretation
The results of this study were derived primarily through community consultation in
the case study community, the Tl'azt'en Nation. Therefore, they are primarily reflective of
perspectives held by members of that community. Nevertheless, it was found that they
85

confirm the prominence of several issues identified by the literature review while
simultaneously challenging the importance of other issues. The focus groups and interviews
in Tl'azt'en Nation drew attention to the existence of some "core" issues that are ofutmost
importance to the community. This set of issues was perceived to be important enough to
determine not only the community's general well-being, but also its basic prospects for longterm survival. A larger number of other issues were identified as being of importance to the
future of the community, but not vital for its existence. It was generally felt that, while most
issues discussed in the focus groups were very important to the sustainable development of
the community, a large number of them were overshadowed by the pervasive and consuming
nature of a few of the problems. The issues identified as primary are those that were raised
and discussed in all focus groups and interviews regardless of the professional, academic or
sociocultural backgrounds of the participants. The issues described as secondary are those
that were raised intermittently by participants in several groups and interviews, but not
consistently discussed in all sessions of consultation.

Primary Issues
Alcohol and Substance Abuse
The rampant and abusive use of alcohol in the community, along with the associated
social, psychological, health and economic problems, was mentioned by all the groups that
participated in the research as the issue of utmost priority. The misuse and overuse of
prescription, as well as over-the-counter drugs, were also discussed at length. Participants
expressed concern and distress about community elders indulging in these behaviours
because of the influence it had on youth and children. One community health worker

86

mentioned that there were cases of children as young as eight years of age being addicted to
various kinds of narcotic and prescription drugs.
Most participants agreed that these pathologies have worsened over the years. The
industrial development in the area in the last couple of decades made better jobs available to
community members. Larger disposable incomes may have made it possible for people to
spend more resources on alcohol and drugs.
Opinion on solutions to control drug and alcohol abuse was varied. There were those
who were convinced that a complete ban on alcohol in the community, namely being
declared a "dry" reserve, was the only way to deal with the problem. There were others who
believed that such enforcement would only create a new set of problems because it would
force severely addicted people to come up with ways of illegally procuring alcohol or
narcotics. They suggested that better educational and awareness programmes in the
community would be more effective in dealing with the problem since ultimately it was
entirely up to the individual to make the necessary change. This group was of the opinion that
a 50% reduction in the number of alcoholics and drug addicts in the community over the next
10 years would be the ideal situation. However, those supporting a "dry reserve" were
adamant that such a situation would not be of much help since it would only be a matter of
time before the numbers slowly grew larger, especially among the young who are more
susceptible to peer pressure and the "bad apple" effect. Therefore, this group contended that
strict and rigorous enforcement of a complete ban, coupled with better support and
rehabilitation services in the community, was the only answer. Most participants agreed that
a detoxification centre was urgently needed in the community. Currently, the people in the

87

community who want to enter rehabilitation programmes are forced to go to Fort St. James or
Prince George for treatment. Participants stressed that this system did not work well because
most people returned to the reserve and, inevitably, also returned to their old habits.
Participants suggested that the availability of these services on the reserve would enable
people to seek treatment within the home environment which would, in tum, set a good
example for other people to seek help. Also, it would impose a certain amount of social
pressure upon the patient to stay sober for longer, or for good, once treatment was officially
over.
The control of misuse and overuse of prescription and over-the-counter-drugs was
another goal identified by the group. Health workers who participated in the discussion
indicated that the recently developed system called Pharmanet, which bills pharmaceutical
purchases against a personal care number, has been moderately effective in regulating
purchases. However, the easy availability of the same medications on the street, as well as
human ingenuity in combining various seemingly innocuous pharmaceutical drugs, provides
users with a steady stream of potent and dangerous concoctions. Here too, most participants
agreed that it was up to the individual to make the changes. Several participants stressed that,
in addition to institutional control, it was equally important to address the psychology behind
the need to abuse alcohol and drugs. A community social worker made a forceful argument
when she commented: "What comes first? The chicken or the egg? The reasons why people
are drinking and doing drugs need to be addressed first."
Another member of the health staff expressed frustration about the scant attention
these issues received: "Our leadership leaves social issues and health at the bottom.
Sometimes I wonder. .. when we get all this land, who's going to live on it? Doesn't seem to

88

me like there'll be many people left if they keeping dropping like flies from drug and alcohol
abuse."
Participants also discussed the implications of children being placed in foster homes
because their parents are incapable of taking care of them due to alcohol or drug problems.
They described how parents do sometimes succeed in cleaning up and getting their children
back, but more often than not, lose their children again when they "fall off the wagon."As a
result, many Tl'azt'enne children end up with very unstable childhoods that perpetuate
themselves through troubled adult lives.
Additionally, participants expressed concern about the number of accidents and
deaths, especially among young people, due to drunk driving. A large number of participants
were acutely distressed about the large number of children born in the community with fetal
alcohol syndrome (F AS) as well as other congenital effects of alcohol and substance abuse.
They were equally concerned about the lack of support services in the community for people
who wanted to rid themselves of such addictions.
Participants attributed an overwhelming number of the community's problems,
including its pervasive sense of inertia and lack of motivation, to drugs and alcohol. They
blamed such addictions for ravaging the community in such a way that people stopped caring
about anything else. They asserted that such dependencies coupled with the easy option of
living off social assistance prevented people from making efficient use of available resources
and also from aspiring for better lives than the ones they are used to.
During the course of the focus groups and interviews, it was discovered that
participants were under the impression that there was a by-law in the community prohibiting
the use of alcohol. Participants expressed concern about the lack of enforcement of by-laws

89

related to drugs, alcohol, and vandalism. They identified it as the Chief-and-Council's duty
to enforce regulation, but at the same time concurred that it was more important for parents,
families and finally, individuals to take responsibility for enforcement rather than depend on
an administrative agency to do so. It was later discovered through interviews with
administrative officers that no such by-law exists in the community or existed in the past.

Communal Unity and Vision
The lack of long-term vision and unity in the community were the other issues that
emerged during all discussions. Participants stated that most people in the community led
isolated lives and seldom socialized except to drink. Participants stressed that a healthy
amount of social interaction was necessary for people to discuss their futures as well as the
future of the community. However, the motivation to create the occasions or forums within
which such interaction could take place was generally lacking in the community. The
participants said that the poor communication between community members was responsible
for the tendency to gossip, spread rumours, and focus excessively on negative aspects of the
community. The communal inertia or lack of motivation was deemed to be responsible for a
large number of its problems. Therefore, most of the participants agreed that any
sociocultural event that encouraged the generation of constructive ideas, opinions and debate
about the community and its future was invaluable to the community and should be
supported at all costs. "The people in this community are much more in need of emotional
help than financial or physical help. They need more healthy intellectual stimulation ... "
commented one participant.
While describing the lack of community unity as one of its major stumbling blocks,
participants were also quick to concede that the same community was capable of tremendous

90

cohesion and unity during crisis. Almost all participants agreed that the will to be productive
and useful to the community did exist. Unfortunately, it usually takes a major crisis or
tragedy to bring people in the community together for constructive action. Participants spoke
about the 1997 boat accident that claimed the lives of three men and described how the
community organized the volunteer search camp. They were proud and happy that even
people who were normally aloof and uncooperative participated in the search and willingly
volunteered to spend very long hours working. Many participants strongly believed that the
community could make considerable progress if that motivation could be created during
normal times. One focus group participant commented: "People can get together without a
pay check during tragic times. We need to sit around a table and provide more goals for
ourselves. Just keep going .... "

Secondary Issues
Education
Most participants agreed that educational levels were generally low in the community.
Therefore, the first educational priority was to get more students to complete high school.
Additionally, a large number of participants mentioned that better facilities were needed for
the education of older people and for people who want to re-enter high school. Special joboriented skill development programmes, as well as programmes that teach parenting and
counselling skills, were perceived to be lacking in the community. It was felt that such
education would help address the acute need for more support services in the community for
various groups of people with special needs including alcoholics, drug addicts, battered
women, and abused children. A large number of people expressed dissatisfaction with the
community leadership and stressed the need for the emergence of new role models from
91

among the younger generation in the community. They stated that it was vital that there be
better representation ofTl'azt'enne in different areas of employment within the community.
The participants wanted to see more Native people hold positions in the band office, school,
research and development, and education centre and argued that this could only be possible if
educational opportunities became more accessible to people.
A large number of participants agreed that a general high school level education
would motivate and empower people to seek employment and education in a variety of fields,
thereby diversifying the skills and abilities available in the community and also reducing the
need to look exclusively to the pulp and paper industry for employment.
There were other participants who remarked that the lack of motivation, among many
community members, to lead productive lives was a larger problem than the volume of
educational services. They were of the opinion that, although the educational services in the
community are not excellent, there is more than enough opportunity for every member in the
community to acquire a basic education. Many participants stressed the accessibility of the
education centre to all three communities that comprise the Tl'azt'en Nation as one of its
greatest strengths because it allowed residents to go to school without leaving the
community. The participants who were students at the Tache Education Centre indicated that
none of them would have had the opportunity to attend the University ofVictoria to study
early childhood education and that they were very fortunate to have the programme available
to them through the centre.
Middle River interviewees were very concerned about the absence of a permanent
school in that community. A teacher from the Eugene Joseph School at Tache visited the
community three times a week and taught classes in a one-room trailer. Consequently,

92

several thirteen- or fourteen-year-old children who lived with their families in Middle River
had levels of reading and writing that would be the norm for children in Grade 2 or 3.
While discussing his concerns about education in the Tl'azt'en Nation, Larry Finden,
principal of the Eugene Joseph School stated that problems existed at two or three different
levels because the current system was attempting to meet the needs of people between the
ages of approximately two and thirty. Additionally, Finden identified inadequate funding as a
major constraint. He explained that, although the Band received money from the DIA for
each child, the amount was not enough to meet the needs of the school. The large number of
children in the community with special needs made ends more difficult to meet. Finden
discussed how many children lack the discipline, goal-setting abilities, and time and deadline
orientation that are vital for success in the education system. He also explained that there is
not enough pressure to be at a certain level of education by a certain age and consequently,
many people in their twenties and thirties are quite happy to re-enter high school. Finden
comments that, although people realize the importance of getting a good education, they are
not able to set educational goals for themselves.
On a positive note, Finden mentions being impressed by the number of parents who
are interested in becoming involved in their children's education and in school activities. He
explains that most people in the community want their children to be successful academically
but often themselves lack the education to be of optimum help to their children. They have all
the right intentions but often lack a good understanding of "what it takes" to raise
academically successful, well-balanced children. With these observations in mind, Finden

93

remarks that the greatest educational need for children is the availability of constant wellfocused support from family.
Housing

There was a great deal of concern about housing in the community. Participants
wanted to see the problem of overcrowding addressed so that fewer families would be forced
to live together. As well, there was concern about the poor quality of houses, the lack of
adequate heating, plumbing facilities, and the number of houses in the community that were
condemned by the Department of Environmental Health but continued to be inhabited out of
necessity. Several people suggested the need for aggressive activism and media coverage to
improve housing conditions on the reserve. While discussing the issue ofhousing,
participants acknowledged that band administration faced severe financial constraints on
building houses and equipping them with the required amenities. They also mentioned that,
because houses were band-owned, there is no "pride of property," and many occupants fail to
maintain their homes in good condition.
The only group of people who expressed satisfaction with their housing was the
satellite community at Middle River, where all interviewees agreed that the quality of
housing had improved dramatically in the last couple of decades. One elderly participant in
Middle River mentioned that, even as early as ten years ago, people in the community could
not imagine having houses with heating and electricity.
Health

Health issues were frequently raised during the course of the consultation. Concern
was expressed about the high incidence of respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia, asthma

94

and bronchitis in the community. Problems with water quality and the frequent outbreak of
water-borne diseases were issues that were also frequently discussed. It was mentioned that
most people in the community purchased drinking water or had to boil lake water prior to
drinking. It was mentioned that this would not be necessary if a water treatment and
purification plant was established in the community. The need for a sewage disposal plant
was also identified. The present system of emptying solid waste into the community lagoon
was deemed undesirable and perceived to be the reason behind the frequent outbreaks of
water-borne diseases in the community.
Issues related to physical, mental and spiritual health were also discussed. Almost all
issues were in some way linked with the pathologies of alcohol, substance abuse, and poor
self-image.
There was a mixed response to the issue of violence in the community. The first focus
group, comprised solely of women of various ages, unanimously agreed that they knew of no
violence against women in the community. However, all the other groups mentioned that
there was a serious problem of violence in the community and that women and children were
most frequently the victims. When I mentioned this difference of opinion in the focus group

with youth, one young man sniggered and asked me to " .. stick around on a Saturday night
and see for yourself." Four groups expressed that it was very important for the community to
organize workshops and other programmes to help violent men with anger management. All
groups agreed to various levels of child abuse being present in the community but agreed that
most of it was as a result of alcohol and drug abuse. One woman recalled being at a party
where a group of intoxicated young men filled a young child's milk bottle with beer and
95

------------------~~~

-

~-

forced him to drink it. Then they stood around and laughed as he ran into walls and finally
collapsed on the floor. She said, "I don't think those guys were trying to be evil. They had
seen adults do stuff like that and thought it was ok to do it. They've had very bad upbringing;
that's the problem ... " The issue of violence highlighted how intricately interconnected social
issues are, and a large number of people agreed that while it would be possible to identify
isolated goals and suitable institutional mechanisms for individual issues, it would more
desirable to focus on improving general emotional and mental health of the community as a
long-term solution to these problems.
A number of participants were excited and optimistic about the health and wellness programs
being offered in the community. One participant discussed the relevance of these programs to
the community's future well-being:
Take the example of the early childhood education program. It is a very exciting thing. Just the fact
that women of all ages are learning about the importance of child care from conception onward is a
very important thing. The awareness that these women have is wonderful. Issues like FAS, and FAE,
are being addressed. Just the fact that babies and toddlers now have a better chance of leading healthy
lives than they did before is a big plus for the community especially since these people will lead us one
day.

Employment
There were different perspectives on the issue of employment opportunity. In three of
the five groups, it was mentioned that the community provided adequate economic
opportunity for people who had the requisite skills and were willing to work for wages.
Several people stressed that the jobs provided by Tanizul, Teeslee, and the Tl'azt'en Cabinet
Shop were major incentives for choosing to live in the community. Several participants were
pleased about being able to live and work in the same area and not having to travel large
distances to get to work. There were other participants who mentioned that the only available

96

jobs were in the mill and most unemployed people were inadequately trained for them. It was
also stated that a large number of mill jobs were rendered obsolete by the increasing use of a
variety of machinery. From these comments, it may perhaps be understood that the complaint
is not so much about the lack of employment as it is about the lack of variety in employment.
This observation was supported during the interviews in the community. One
participant expressed his frustration about the lack of economic enterprise in the community:

~

r :re is a great need to diversify. There are jobs right in the middle of the community, but someone
else is doing it. For example, snow clearing on Tache road is contracted out to some agency in
Vanderhoof. Why? We have a tree farm licence in Tl'azt'en Nation, but who logs it? People from Fort
St. James, not Tl'azt'en loggers. The actual logging that is done, the people who operate the machines,
people who hand-fold trees are not Tl'azt'en members; they're contractors from Fort St. James. I mean
how absurd can it get! Take the example of Eugene Joseph School. Not a single teacher is from this
community. There are all these jobs in the vicinity. People don't even need to go to Fort St. James.
There are grading jobs, road maintenance jobs, computer maintenance jobs. There is almost no selfemployment or entrepreneurship in the community. Basic economic enterprise is missing ....

Participants were also concerned about the poor representation of Tl'azt'enne in
managerial positions within the community. They discussed how most positions of authority
were filled by non-Tl'azt'enne. Participants perceived this as a big constraint, especially since
it deprived young Tl'azt'enne of role models and careers to aspire to. Larry Finden, principal
of the Eugene Joseph School discussed the lack ofTl'azt'enne teachers in the schools. He
commented that it was challenging to even find adequately qualified First Nations teachers;
suitable candidates from Tl'azt'en Nation were almost impossible to find.
The issue of administrative capacity was frequently raised by administrators who
participated in the research. The dearth of well-trained people to hire for specific positions
combined with funding limitations were identified as the biggest administrative problems.
The lack of professionalism in some ofthe employees ofthe Tl'azt'en Nation was also

97

discussed as a stumbling block. Problems with attendance, work ethic and overall work
habits were identified by all participants who held administrative positions.
It was also stated that attracting qualified people to work for the Tl'azt'en Nation has

been difficult in the past. The last couple of years have been better because the general
downturn in the economy obliged people to accept employment anywhere. There are still
huge problems finding teachers for Middle River. These concerns were supported by the
Band's research and development department who mentioned that it was almost impossible
to find trained researchers from within the community. As a result, the community almost
inevitably had to depend on outside sources like university professors and graduate students
to conduct research work.

Recreation and Service Facilities
The absence of general recreation, shopping and service facilities was strongly felt.
Participants felt that services like stores, a gas station, and a restaurant were essential to the
economic well-being of the community because they would help redirect money into the
community and also stop people from spending too much time away from the community. It
was discussed that the lack of these facilities in the reserve caused money to be drained away

from the community. As an example, one participant mentioned that, since people spent a
considerable amount of time playing Bingo in Fort St. James, it may be a better idea to have a
bingo hall on-reserve. The potential for tourism development was also discussed by three of
the five groups.
The lack of public space in the community was frequently discussed. Gathering places such as
cultural centres, playgrounds as well as restaurants and coffee houses were perceived to be

98

very important for effective communication and social cohesion. One participant summed it
up when he said:
There are no places for people to get together. Now there's just in-house communication. This way
nobody's ideas about anything get challenged because at home hardly anyone is going to challenge
you. In a coffee house, the same idea would be challenged.

While the need for recreational facilities was addressed by all the groups, it was especially
stressed by the participating youth. A recreation centre with facilities for popular sports such
as basketball and floor hockey, as well as educational opportunities like computer training,
was considered very desirable by all groups.

Community Leadership
A large number of the participants expressed dissatisfaction with the quality of
leadership in the community. Several participants stressed that the youth in the community
needed role models. They also mentioned that some people who were currently in leadership

-

positions were not capable of being sound role models because they were often themselves

r

guilty of perpetuating pathologies that the community desperately needed to rid itself of.

_ __

Many participants were concerned that the band administration appeared to constantly be
__,,__

short of money. They expressed unhappiness with the band's financial management, and
several participants suggested that there may be some misappropriation of funds.
Several participants said that the average person in the community did not think very
highly of the band administration. There was not a very high sense of ownership toward it,
and most people seemed to think of it as an agency managing their funds for them. One
administrator felt that most people in the community just wanted to get as much out of the
Band as possible. He suggested that most people also thought the administration was unfair

99

and biased and that nepotism ran high. He admitted that nepotism and favouritism had
happened in the past, but things had been cleaned up with the adoption of the operating
principles of fairness, impartiality, fiscal responsibility, public participation, and transparency
in administration. In light of these principles, the Band has recently adopted policies
regarding issues such as employment criteria and dispute resolution. The band also recently
published a gazette with council and committee decisions. He was optimistic that such
measures would open up administration and render it more friendly, open and accessible. He
discussed several other initiatives that were being planned, while simultaneously mentioning
that, because work capacity was so low, everything moved at a slower pace. He also

r

expressed that, while transparency in governance and administration was very desirable, there
were costs associated with making things transparent. While the community is limited by
funding, attempts were being made to make more resources available for things like
publishing minutes of meetings and disseminating community research findings.

Community Participation
The need for better community participation was stressed by many participants. The
youth were particularly supportive of a treaty youth group that would enable them to
contribute their ideas to the treaty negotiation and land claims process. Most participants
agreed that in recent years much has been done to provide all members of the community
with opportunities to participate in the community's economic, social and political
development. This was perceived as being a very positive development because it boosted the
level of awareness in the community. One participant mentioned being proud of the progress
individual citizens in the community had made in informing and empowering themselves to
100

participate in important political processes: "There is a sense of wanting better, a higher
sense of self."
Language and Culture

A number of participants expressed anxiety and apprehension about the survival of
Carrier language and culture in the Tl'azt'en Nation. Many were distressed by the breakdown
of communication between and within different generations within the community. They
attributed lack of parenting skills among many people in the community to poor
communication between the generations.
The renaissance of Carrier language was deemed extremely important. There was
agreement among many participants that the community could do a lot for itself in the
preservation of language and culture. While agreeing that more adult language programmes,
newsletters, radio and television programmes in Carrier would be very useful, many
participants stressed that the everyday use of language in the community was what would be
most beneficial. Many participants mentioned speaking Carrier at home on a regular basis.
They supported the idea of instituting "Carrier only" days in the community. They were also
in favour of the community organizing itself to start cultural activities like feasts and dances.
They were especially supportive of events that allowed elders the opportunity to teach Carrier
as well as traditional activities like hide preparation, fish cleaning and moccasin making to
community members. Many participants were anxious that, although the Tl'azt'enne elders
were extremely knowledgable about traditional skills, their knowledge may not be passed on
to their children and grandchildren, who may have adopted lifestyles that obviated the
necessity to learn traditional survival and occupational skills. Additionally, many young
people were just unwilling to learn traditional skills and preferred to be associated with
101

professions and institutions of modern Western society. Therefore, it was felt that it was
important to develop formal or informal situations within the community to increase elder
access to younger generations ofTl'azt'enne.

Natural Environment and Historical Heritage
Many participants expressed concerns about the environment and also about the
preservation of the community's historical heritage. A number of them were distressed by the
extensive logging operations being carried out within traditional territories. Several
participants mentioned being apprehensive about the nature of herbicides and pesticides
being used in these areas. These participants mentioned being distrustful of the information
provided by the Ministry of Environment about the benign and non-toxic nature ofherbicides
and pesticides sprayed in these areas. A few participants supported their suspicions with
anecdotal information about declining availability of wildlife and fish, increasing incidence
of suspicious diseases and tumours in wildlife and fish, and skin infections in human beings.

Road Conditions and Transportation
Transportation problems and poor road conditions were frequently mentioned. Repair
and maintenance of plumbing, electricity and automobiles were extremely expensive
because help had to be brought in from, or people had to travel to, Fort St. James. Most

----

participants were in favour of the gravel road connecting the community to Fort St. James
being replaced by a paved road.

Crime and Violence

Most participants complained about the high levels of crime and violence in the
community. The poor relationship between the community and the RCMP was also
mentioned as a cause for concern.
102

Community Motivation, Morale, Empowerment
Improving community appearance through better landscaping and garbage collection
was identified as a worthy goal. It was felt that such activities were especially important to
foster a sense of ownership or community pride in the Tl'azt'enne.
Participants considered the large number of youth in the community to be a definite
asset. Approximately 51 per cent ofTla'zt'enne are between the ages of 15 and 24.
Participants remarked that the youth in the community had tremendous potential, but needed
proper guidance and role models to look up to.
It was also mentioned that community self-esteem and morale would be raised if

some money could be raised within the community for recreational activities, youth
programmes and youth employment.
Participants were divided about whether volunteer community clean-ups and
landscaping drives would attract any volunteers. Currently, clean-ups were organized
seasonally by the band administration and people were paid according to the number of bags
filled. It mostly provided young people between the ages of 15 and 25 with temporary
employment. Some people suggested that there were not enough people in the community
who were civic-minded enough to volunteer participation in such endeavours. However,
several people were certain that voluntary clean-ups as well as landscaping for the areas
surrounding the main buildings like the band office, school, education centre and fire hall,
could be organized periodically.
Additionally, participants commented that people were too dependent on the band
office and expected it to provide for all their needs. One participant who worked as a
receptionist at the band office recalls people phoning the office for everything from leaky
103

taps to fused light bulbs. She also mentioned that people wanted to be paid for even the most
trivial jobs and seldom showed up for any kind of volunteer work.
Participants were also concerned about what they called "brain drain" from the
community. They explained that people who did succeed in getting a good education and had
the potential to be assets to the community did not return to the reserve but chose to pursue
their careers elsewhere. They also added that the few who did return to work in the
community were soon driven out by the jealousy and antagonism they experienced there.
Participants attributed the existence of a large number of problems in the community
to the inability or lack of effort to communicate effectively between the younger and older
generations, between families, and even between parents and children. Participants stressed
that this failure to engage in meaningful conversation about important issues closed people's
minds to new ideas, alternatives and philosophies. "People here are too scared to try anything
new. They're too scared of taking risks, and they pass on this psychology to their children,"
commented one participant.
6.5 Comparison with Issues Identified by Literature Review

The problems of drug and alcohol abuse, presence of divided interests and visions, and
the breakdown of communication in Aboriginal communities are discussed in the literature as
being important variables determining the development of Aboriginal peoples' communities.
The literature perceived them to be as important as other social, economic, or political issues.
However, in the Tl'azt'en Nation it was generally agreed by research participants that those
issues were so important that, unless they were addressed, the community would be unable to
move on to other more important issues.

104

Similarly, issues such as control of education, heath and healing, and cultural
preservation, that were identified as primary issues by the literature review were perceived to
be of secondary importance by the case study community. Participants agreed that, while it is
very important to address issues related to education, health and cultural identity, the
community would only be able to achieve its fullest potential in those areas once the most
glaring problems were adequately and appropriately addressed.
It was also surprising that participants in the case study community rarely mentioned
issues related to control of governance and political development. The literature review
identified the quest for self-government and the settlement of land claims as the most
pressing priority of First Nations communities across Canada. These issues were discussed
infrequently during the focus groups and interviews. They were only mentioned a few times
in conjunction with other issues. A number of participants were actually sceptical that selfgovernment would be capable of improving the lives of Aboriginal people.
Issues related to the control oflands and resources were also not perceived to be as
important as they were in the literature review. While a large number of people expressed
concern about preservation of natural and historical heritage as well as activities like logging
and mining within the community's traditional territories, these issues were not considered
integral to the community's well-being. Concerns about environmental health and well-being
were also few and far between. One interview participant explained it by saying: "People are
not going to worry about the trees when they have to deal with alcohol and violence at
home."
There were other issues that were obviously important in the context of the case study
community but were not discussed in detail in the literature review. These include problems
105

with recreation and service facilities, transportation and access issues, dissatisfaction with
community leadership, poor community participation ability, low community morale and
poor motivation.
A number of explanations can be offered to explain the differences between findings
from the case study and those revealed by the literature review. One of them is that
consultation processes are sometimes limited to community officials and agencies who
present a more detached and comprehensive perspective of a community's problems and
concerns. However, at the grassroots level, more immediate issues may be raised and
perceived to be of greater importance since people are likely to feel more strongly about
issues that affect their day-to-day lives. This appears to be true for the Tl'azt'en Nation where
focus group participants expressed more concern for short-term issues while interview
participants tended to address a wider range of short-term and long-term concerns.
Another explanation for the differences between the case study findings and the
literature may be that some issues and problems are more typical for rural Aboriginal
communities of the North. Issues related to recreation, service facilities, transportation and
access appear to be more prominent in communities are that geographically more isolated
than others. Additionally access to services that cater to people with special needs such as the
elderly, victims of domestic violence, children with learning disabilities, and people with
alcohol and substance abuse problems are limited for rural Aboriginal communities. This was
discussed by research participants in the Tl'azt'en Nation and also stressed by the Royal
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.
A final explanation for the disparities between the case study and the literature review
may be the open-ended nature of the questions posed in the focus groups conducted in the
106

Tl'azt'en Nation. Close-ended questions about issues that the literature identifies as
important and relevant to the development of Aboriginal communities, may have elicited
different responses and different emphasis for the same issues. Nevertheless, it is doubtful
that such an approach would have generated responses significantly different from the ones
that were obtained as a result of this study. A number of participants agreed that while the
issues identified by the literature were important and needed to be addressed, the community
would only be able to do justice to those issues once its most glaring problems were urgently,
adequately and appropriately addressed.

6.6 Summary
This chapter describes how data collected for the study were analysed. It presents the
final list of 45 indicators identified for the case study community. It also discusses and
interprets the results generated from the study. Additionally, it compares the findings from
research in the community with the information generated from the literature review.
For each of the goals identified, 1 to 6 indicators were selected. The list includes
indicators such as percent of community members attending annual general assembly
meetings as a measure of community participation in decision making, percent of community
members suffering from diabetes as a measure oflevels of health and percent of children in
Carrier language classes as a measure of preservation of language and culture.
The focus groups and interviews conducted in the Tl'azt'en Nation drew attention to
the existence of core issues perceived to be important enough not only to influence its general
well-being, but also its very existence. The rampant abuse of alcohol and drugs and the lack
of communal unity and long-term vision were identified as the issues that most require
attention. Other concerns include general low levels of education in the community,
107

inadequate housing, poor levels of physical, mental and spiritual health, insufficient
employment, meagre recreation and service facilities, transportation and access issues,
uninspiring community leadership, poor community participation ability, loss of language
and culture, high levels of crime and violence, and low morale and motivation.
While a number of concerns voiced by the community have also been identified as
critical in the literature review, others appear to be especially prominent in the case study
community. At the other end of the spectrum, questions of self-government and political
development as well as the matters related to control of lands and resources were identified as
pressing priorities by the literature review, but not described as critical concerns by the
Tl'azt'en Nation. Explanations for the disparities explore the possibility that consultation
processes may fail to capture grassroots opinions and concerns which are different from those
presented by decisionmakers and representatives. Additionally, concerns about issues related
to recreation, services and access may be typical of geographically isolated rural Aboriginal
communities.

108

Chapter Seven: Recommendations and Conclusions
7.1 Introduction
First Nations communities across Canada are currently struggling to achieve control
over their futures through the control of governance in all important aspects of their lives.
While Aboriginal self-government has been presented as a vehicle to right the wrongs of an
unjust and imperialistic past, many Aboriginal communities are feeling the pressure of
problems that could seriously thwart their aspirations for self-determination.
In recent decades, there has been a general recognition that the solutions to local
problems are best developed through community-based grassroots initiatives that involve all
stakeholders. There has also been a growing focus on the collection of information about
important issues at the local or community level. Unfortunately, relatively little attention has
been directed to the development of methods by which First Nations communities can
monitor the trends revealed by its major concerns or problems. Most administrators and
researchers in Aboriginal communities are forced to rely on highly aggregated national or
provincial data for Aboriginal people. While this information may serve as good benchmarks
against which individual communities may assess themselves, they often do not meet the
needs of local policymakers. Consequently, the need to develop reliable and valid monitoring
tools linked to coherent theory is imperative ifthe concerns of individual communities are to
be addressed.
This chapter will discuss the implications of the findings from the case study
conducted in Tl'azt'en Nation, which attempted to address the above discussed gap by
providing the community with a framework of practical indicators. It will discuss
109

recommendations and suggest areas in which future academic research would be beneficial
and desirable. Additionally, it will discuss the role surveys can play in supplementing
information generated by indicators. Finally, it will elaborate upon the limitations and
constraints associated with the use of indicators to guide community development.
7.2 Implications for Tl'azt'en Nation
This study fulfilled an important role in the identification and assessment of different
issues in the community. It provided an opportunity to obtain a deeper understanding of the
opportunities and limitations that exist in the community. There can be several long-term and
short-term benefits from conducting this study.

Community Dialogue and Participation
The study created a forum where Tl'azt'enne could discuss and debate their concerns
about the future of the community. The focus groups offered community members the
opening to voice their opinions about community affairs. As well, they served as
"brainstorming" sessions for the identification of goals and the generation of ideas and
strategies that may help achieve desirable targets. A number of participants perceived the
community dialogue and involvement created by the research as very positive. They
discussed the possibilities and advantages of assuming positions of stewardship in organizing
similar panels within the community.
The process of verbalizing concerns and opinions may have the important
implication of enabling participants to recognize shared goals and visions. Besleme and
Mullin ( 1997) state that it is this process of open discussion that "provides meaning and
credibility to information in a way that ultimately influences action."
110

A number of participants also stated that the examination of matters relevant to the
community provided an important chance to ponder how to influence trends in the
community by monitoring and controlling individual behaviour. This aspect of the research
was especially inspiring since it was argued time and again during the research that many of
the community's pressing problems could only be solved at the individual level by
understanding and consciously influencing the factors that affect community well-being.

Providing Information for Treaty Negotiations and Land Claims Process
Because this research identified the community's most urgent needs, it may be
valuable to the land claims process. It may help the community make a stronger case about
its most pressing requirements during the process of negotiations. This may influence the
allocation of finances and other resources to the community. Several administrators discussed
the importance of conducting grassroots research that would provide the treaty negotiators
with "ammunition" to stake their claims to resources that were critical for the survival and
prosperity of the community.

Creation of New Institutions or Reorganization of Old Institutions
The research not only offered community members an opportunity to examine their
social, cultural, environmental and political circumstances, but it also allowed for the
prioritization of goals to suit local needs. This examination also resulted in an awareness of
the nature and magnitude of constraints that must be overcome for the realization of goals. It
may also support the creation of new institutions or administrative structures to deal with the
community's prominent problems. Tl'azt'en Nation has been open and receptive to the idea
of creating or restructuring administrative or supervisory structures. This is best documented
111

by the number of different panels and committees created within the community to deal with
specialized problems related to health, housing, education and environment.
Support for Community Administrators and Policymakers
The information generated from this study can be used in several ways by
policymakers and administrators. The data can be employed to set targets in specific areas
such as health, education, employment, crime, and community infrastructure. This could have
the potential of not only directing the sustainable development of the community but also of
establishing accountability in different administrative sectors. Institutionalizing a system of
publishing periodic reports of the indicators would provide the community with accurate and
reliable information about the outcomes of different programs and services in the community.
This will enable policymakers to keep track of whether the community's needs are being met
and whether there are new problems that need to be addressed or areas that require additional
attention.
7.3 Recommendations for Future Research

The findings from this research suggest differences between issues highlighted by the
literature as being very important in contemporary Aboriginal communities and those
identified by the case study community. While several explanations have been offered for
these discrepancies in the previous chapter, it may be worthwhile to initiate further research.
The premise that public consultation processes are often limited to decisionmakers and
community representatives can be examined further. The documents published by the Royal
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, for example, were compiled from a variety of sources
that included testimonies at the Commission's public hearings, briefs and submissions to the
112

Commission from groups and organizations, reports of the National Round Table on
Aboriginal issues, independent research conducted by various organizations, and a variety of
other commentaries. The actual levels of grassroots participation in such seemingly broadbased and representative consultation processes appear to be worthy of exploration. The
findings additionally support that community representatives present more detached, longterm and comprehensive concerns while people at the grassroots level dwell on short-term
issues that affect everyday living. It would be extremely interesting and informative to
discover if such premises are indeed valid.
Additionally, the results from this research draw attention to the need for expanded
governance, planning and management models or case studies that the community can follow
to steer its development in all major areas of concern. These models should replace the
current somewhat narrowly based preoccupation with acquiring more funding from the
federal government which appears to dominate all aspects of the community's development.
For example, to achieve economic self-sufficiency and sustainability of the economic base,
the community must broaden its economic concerns beyond the present narrow politicalfiscal purposes of achieving larger government grants and gaining more control over the
Band's budget. It is important not only to preserve traditional economic enterprises such as
hunting and fishing, and to encourage entrepreneurism and economic development on the
reserve, but also to prepare Tl'azt'enne for participation in the employment and business
opportunities afforded by the mainstream Canadian economy without loss of political,
economic, cultural and social relationships to their home community. This view is supported
by Boldt (1993)who states that "Indian economic self-sufficiency and independence will

113

never be more than an illusion if Indian economic development is premised on the tripodal
economic model of traditional subsistence pursuits, on-reserve economic development, and
government grants."
The use of detailed case studies will be equally valid in other areas where the
community recognizes problems such as alcohol and substance abuse and high drop-out rates
from the education system. Such a perspective would examine aspects of individual
behaviour and their place in social systems to determine their roles in supporting or
preventing problems themselves. This is especially valid with issues like alcoholism and drug
addiction where, although there is a debate about the existence of genetic bases, they are most
generally assumed to arise through a dynamic interaction of individual, social, and
environmental factors. Gruenwald et al. (1997) encourage researchers involved in
community-based studies of alcohol and drug problems to examine individual and social
behaviours that characterize consumption of these substances and, most important, locate
these behaviours within community contexts. As an example, a comprehensive approach to
the study of illegal drug use might begin with an exploration of social dynamics underlying
the motivation to use drugs. This may discover peer group or family influences. The study
can be expanded to cover the social dynamics of obtaining drugs and continue with
explorations of treatment-seeking behaviour among Tl'azt'enne. Such a study would have the
potential to touch on any major community systems or institutions that may influence such
behaviours. These may include the schools, the local illegal market, the treatment service
system (or the absence of it), and the criminal justice system. Such studies would not only
provide understanding of the individual, social, and economic forces underlying the creation
114

and maintenance of such problems, but also provide explanation for how community systems
come to influence the problem.
The need for detailed description and understanding of community problems is
specified not only in the literature but also by a number ofTl'azt'enne research participants.
Gathering extensive information about children's schooling experiences in the Tl'azt'en
Nation as well as the psychology and trends behind dropping out of school or alternately,
reasons for returning to the educational system at a later time, was suggested by participants
with responsibilities in the educational system. Larry Finden, principal of the Eugene Joseph
School, suggested that if such studies involved a reasonably large number of students, they
could lead to the development of models that would identify optimum learning environments
and circumstances for Tl'azt'enne children.

7.4 Indicators and Survey Data
The validity of measurement has always been an area of concern in the social
sciences. While social scientists have strived constantly to improve the accuracy of
measurement, it is still acknowledged that there may be inherent problems in the
measurement of complex social, organizational and behavioural phenomena. More than
twenty years ago, this recognition led social scientists to propose a multimeasure approach to
increase the confidence of observed results of the same phenomenon (Carmines and Zellner,
1979). It is suggested that survey data may provide a source of complementary information to
support the development of indicators. By themselves, neither community indicators nor
surveys provide a very complete picture of the community. However, when combined, they
may provide a more comprehensive basis to analyse and evaluate the progress of
115

communities. Indicator information produced by community systems such as law
enforcement agencies, educational institutions, economic systems and health care systems
can be combined with survey research data that provide information about activities and
views of individuals. Surveys do have limitations in terms oftime, energy and budget. Also,
any one survey can address a relatively small number of content areas. Sampling and selfselection biases may also arise with surveys. Nevertheless, relying on the strengths of the
two measurement approaches may provide cross-validations of measured changes and deeper
insights into the workings of communities and the people who form them.
7.5 Summary and Conclusions
The study succeeded in achieving all the established objectives. It explored and
identified major factors that influence the sustainable development of the case study
community, the Tl'azt'en Nation. It examined and described the nature and magnitude of the
threats and opportunities that influence sustainable development of the community. It also
identified a list of indicators that measure impact on sustainability and established selection
criteria to facilitate evaluation of indicators selected by the community.
Case study methodology was used to meet the research objectives. Community
consultation, in the form of focus groups and semi-structured interviews, formed the most
central aspect of the research. Additional information was obtained from observations as well
as from documents such as community profiles, economic development plans, government
reports, minutes of annual general assembly meetings, and health assessment accounts. A
final list of 45 indicators was developed through a sequence of steps involving the following:
community consultation to identify issues and indicators; literature searches to fill in gaps in
116

information; establishment of 7 selection criteria, namely representativeness,
understandability, measurability, data availability, reliability, responsiveness and
attractiveness to the media; and iterative application of selection criteria to selected indicators
in consultation with the community steering committee.
The findings drew attention to the existence of certain crucial and urgent issues in the
community that were perceived to be important enough to influence not only the well-being
of the community, but also its very survival. The extensive abuse of alcohol and drugs in the
community and the community's lack of unity and long-term vision were identified as major
stumbling blocks. Other major concerns identified as a result of the research in the
community may be listed as follows: low levels of educational achievement; inadequate
housing; poor levels of physical, mental and spiritual health; insufficient employment
opportunity; scant recreation and service facilities; transportation and access problems;
unimpressive community leadership; poor community participation ability; erosion of
language and culture; degradation of natural environment and loss of historical heritage; high
levels of crime and violence; and low sense of community morale and motivation. The study
examined and appeared to support the assertion that solutions to local problems are best
developed through community-based grassroots initiatives. The findings stress the need to
develop credible and effective monitoring tools to meet the needs of individual communities.
Upon completion of the study, an examination and comparison of the results with the
dimensions of sustainability described in Chapter 4 reveals that almost all the widely
accepted characteristics of sustainable development were discussed directly or indirectly
during the course of the research. Issues related to inter- and intra-generational equity, and
117

biological and economic diversity were raised frequently. Concerns about the use of
renewable and non-renewable resources as well as problems with solid waste, and soil and
water pollution were encountered on several occasions. Although, air pollution was not
mentioned as a problem, many participants appreciated the air quality in the community and
identified as one of the benefits ofliving in the community. Therefore, based on this study,
the general characteristics of sustainable development, as described and diagrammatically
depicted in Chapter 4, may serve as an adequate starting point for communities interested in
developing their own goals and indicators.
The use of focus groups and interviews appeared to be quite effective for meeting the
objectives of this study. In retrospect, it appears that more issues may have been discovered
by conducting fewer focus groups and more interviews. The last two focus groups were not
very effective in generating much new information. They served to reinforce, emphasize and
provide more insight into issues that had been discussed in previous focus groups. Each
interview, on the other hand, brought new issues and perspectives to the table. Therefore,
although the repetition of issues in the focus groups may be perceived as important for
ensuring adequate coverage of important issues, conducting more interviews may have
unearthed additional relevant information. As well, it would have been very desirable to
interview community members during the hunting season at the seasonal residence in Grand
Rapids. More concerns and information about traditional occupations, contemporary hunting
practices and control of lands and natural resources may have been obtained with such welltimed consultation.

118

The following are perceived to be the major benefits of conducting the study for the
Tl' azt'en Nation: creation of a forum to encourage community dialogue and participation;
providing information for treaty negotiations and the land claims process; the possibility of
creating new institutions or reorganizing old ones; and support for community administrators
and policymakers.
The findings from this study reveal fundamental differences between issues identified
by the case study community as being vital for sustainable development and those identified
by the literature. This seems to suggest that some community consultation processes rely on
community officials and agencies and may not adequately represent grassroots concerns and
opinions. They may also suggest that grassroots concerns are primarily short-term and
personal while those presented by decisionmakers and administrators are more detached and
far-sighted. The findings may also support that problems related to inadequate recreation and
service facilities, transportation, and limited services for people with special needs may be
more prominent in isolated rural northern communities. This premise lends itself well to a
project that compares Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal northern communities.
Recommendations for future research include the need to examine the three premises
mentioned above in more detail. Other recommendations include the desirability of
conducting expanded case studies that examine individual or social problems and behaviours
in the context of the community.
The study discusses the feasibility of combining indicators with survey data to
provide cross-validations of measured changes and a better understanding ofhow
communities function. The inability of indicators to produce change by themselves and the
119

need for suitable time and spatial frames for their valid interpretation are stressed as their
major limitations.
While the researcher's ability to establish rapport with the community would
influence the process to a large extent, the results seem to support that the case study research
strategy is effective for conducting exploratory research in First Nations communities. The
wider range of issues that are brought to the table through a case study and the in-depth
exploration afforded by tools like focus groups, interviews and document analysis make it an
advantageous research strategy and may compensate for limitations of generalizability.
Although extrapolation of the results of this study to other communities may be
limited since different communities will tend to present different sets of circumstances and
local conditions, it is expected that this case study will provide other communities interested
in developing their own frameworks with the basics of how to develop a process,
methodology and philosophy on which to build their studies. Therefore, while the indicators
themselves may not be comprehensibly generalizable to other communities, the process
appears to be.

120

Bibliography
Alberta Round Table on Environment and Economy. 1994. Creating Alberta's Sustainable
Development Indicators. Edmonton: Environment Council of Alberta.
Arctic Institute ofNorth America and Joint Secretariat- Inuvialuit Renewable Resource
Committees. 1996. Circumpolar Aboriginal People and Co-management
Practice: Current Issues in Co-management and Environmental Assessment.
Alberta: University of Calgary.
Armstrong, Robin. 1990. University Education and Economic Well-Being: Indian
Achievement and Prospects. Ottawa: Ministry oflndian Affairs and Northern
Development.
Atkinson, Giles et a/. 1997. Measuring Sustainable Development: Macroeconomics and the
Environment. United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.
Babbie, Earl. 1995. The Practice of Social Research. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Besleme, K. and Mullin, M. 1997. "Community Indicators and Healthy Communities"
National Civic Review 86(1).
Boldt, M. 1993. Surviving as Indians: The Challenge of Self-Government. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press Inc ..
Bone, Robert M., and M.B. Green. 1984. "The DIAND Norman Wells Socio-Economic
Monitoring Program: Establishment of Existing Socio-Economic Conditions."
Report 5-84, prepared for the Department oflndian Affairs and Northern
Development. Ottawa: Department oflndian Affairs and Northern
Development.
British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy. 1994. State of
Sustainability: Urban Sustainability and Containment. Victoria: Crown Publications.
Carley, M. 1981. Social Measurement and Social Indicators: Issues of Policy and Theory.
London: George Allen and Unwin.
Carmines, E.G., and Zellner, R. 1979. Reliability and Validity Assessment. California: Sage
Publications Inc ..
Cronback, L.J. et al. 1980. Toward Reform of Program Evaluation: Aims, Methods, and
Institutional Arrangements. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

121

..--

Elias, Peter D. 1991. Development of Aboriginal People's Communities. Ontario: Centre for
Aboriginal Management Education and Training (CAMET) and Captus Press.
Elias, Peter D. and MartinS. Weinstein. 1992. "Development and the Indian People ofFort
Ware: Predicting and Managing Consequences." A Study for the Kaska Dena
Council and the Community ofFort Ware.
Environment Canada. 1991. A Report on Canada 's Progress Towards a National Set of
Environmental Indicators. Ottawa: Environment Canada.
Eriksen, K. April, 1997. Personal Communication.
Erikson, K. 1976. Everything in Its Path. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Finden, L. July, 1997. Personal Communication.
Findlay, A. eta/. 1988. "Where to Live in Britain in 1988: Quality of Life in British Cities."
Cities 5(3): 268-276.
Fraser Basin Management Program. 1995. Report Card: Assessing Progress Towards
Sustainability in the Fraser Basin. Vancouver: Fraser Basin Management
Program.
Fry, A. 1970. How a People Die. Toronto and New York: Doubleday and Company.
Furniss, E. 1994. Victims of Benevolence: The Dark Legacy of the Williams Lake Indian
Residential School. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press.
Gruenwald, P., Treno, A., Taff, G., Klitzner, M. 1997. Measuring Community Indicators: A
Systems Approach to Drug and Alcohol Problems. California: Sage
Publications Inc ..
Guba, E.G. and Y.S. Lincoln. (1981). Effective Evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Haig-Brown, C. 1995. Taking Control: Power and Contradictions in First Nations Adult
Education. Vancouver: University ofBritish Columbia.
Hammond, A., Adriaanse, A., Rodenburg, E., Bryant, D., and Woodward, R. 1995.
Environmental Indicators: A Systematic Approach to Measuring and
Reporting on Environmental Policy Performance in the Context of
Sustainable Development. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
Hogde, R.A. 1994. "The Two Sides ofthe Indicators Coin" Redirections 3(1): 5-7.
122

Hudson, D. 1983. Traplines and Timber: Social and Economic Change Among the Carrier
Indians of Northern British Columbia . Edmonton: University of Alberta.
IUCN. 1980. World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable
Development. Switzerland: International Union for Conservation ofNature and
Natural Resources.
IUCNIUNEPIWWF. 1991. Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living.
Switzerland: International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources.
IUCN. 1995. A Sustainable World: Defining and Measuring Sustainable Development.
California: International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources.
Jackson, W. 1988. Research Methods: Rules for Survey Design and Analysis. Scarborough:
Prentice Hall.
Jacksonville Community Council. 1992. Life in Jacksonville: Quality Indicators for
Progress. Florida: Jacksonville Community Council.
Kansky, M. 1987. ''Native Indian and Inuit Views on the Federal Environmental Assessment
and Review Process." A Research Project for the Indian Association of
Alberta. Edmonton: Environmental Law Centre.
Konkin, B.G. 1991. The Health Indicator Process in British Columbia. Report Prepared for
the University of British Columbia Task Force on Healthy and Sustainable
Communities.
Li, P. 1981. Social Research Methods. Toronto: Butterworth & Co.
Local Government Management Board. 1993. A Framework/or Sustainability: A Local
Response by UK Local Government to the UK Government's First Strategy for
Sustainable Development. Luton: Local Government Management Board.
Maclaren, V. 1996. Developing Indicators of Urban Sustainability: A Focus on the Canadian
Experience. Toronto: Intergovernmental Committee on Urban and Regional
Research Press.
Mail, P. 1989. "American Indians, Stress and Alcohol." American Indian Native Mental
Health Research 3(2): 7-26.

-

Marchal, J. September, 1997. Personal Communication.
123

Mattess, N. September, 1997. Personal Communication.
Michalos, A. 1980. North American Social Report: A Comparative Study of the Quality of
Life in Canada and the USAfrom 1964 to 1974. Dordrecht, Holland: D.
Reidel Publishing Company.
Michalos, A. 1997. "Combining Social, Economic and Environmental Indicators to Measure
Sustainable Human Well-Being." Social Indicators Research 40: 221-58.
Michalos, A. 1997. "Migration and the Quality of Life: A Review Essay." Social Indicators
Research 39: 121-66.
Michalos, A. 1998. "Public Services and the Quality ofLife." Social Indicators Research 00:
1-33.
Moran, B. 1994. Justa: A First Nations Leader. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press.
Morgan, D. 1993. Successful Focus Groups: Advancing the State of the Art. California: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Napoleon, A. 1992. Community Based Development Planning in Native Communities.
Salmon Arm, British Columbia: NAERC.
National Aboriginal Forestry Association. "Co-Management and Other Forms of Agreement
in the Forest Sector." http://www.entrenet.com/imagica/comanage.html
(April, 1995).
Notzke, C. 1994. Aboriginal Peoples and Natural Resources in Canada. Ontario: Centre for
Aboriginal Management Education and Training (CAME), Claudia Notzke
and Captus Press, Inc ..
Nyce, D. 1990. Teachers Plus: First Nations Teacher Education Programs in Canada.
Vancouver: University ofBritish Columbia.
Ontario Round Table on Environment and Economy. 1995. Sustainable Communities
Resource Package. Toronto: Ontario Round Table on Environment and
Economy.
Patton, M.Q. 1980. Qualitative Evaluation Methods. Beverly Hills, California: Sage
Publications.

124

*

Pinkerton, E. 1989. Cooperative Management of Local Fisheries: New Directions for
Improved Management and Community Development. Vancouver: University
of British Columbia Press.
Rees, W. 1992. "Ecological Footprints and Appropriated Carrying Capacity: What Urban
Economics Leaves Out" In Environment and Urbanization 4(2): 121-130.
Rossi, R.J. and Gilmartin, K.J. 1980. The Handbook of Social Indicators: Sources,
Characteristics and Analysis. New York: Garland STPM Press.
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1996. Report of the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples: Looking Forward, Looking Back. Ottawa: Canada
Communication Group Publishing.
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1996. Report of the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples: Restructuring the Relationship. Ottawa: Canada
Communication Group Publishing.
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1996. Report ofthe Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples: Gathering Strength. Ottawa: Canada Communication
Group Publishing.
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1996. Report of the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples: Perspectives and Realities. Ottawa: Canada
Communication Group Publishing.
Scott, W. 1978. Measurement and Analysis of Progress at the Local Level. Geneva: United
Nations Research Institute for Social Development.
Scrimshaw, R. 1985. "Native Business Opportunities" In Native Self-Reliance through
Research Development, ed. William F. Sinclair, 39-41 .
Shapcott, C. 1989. "Environmental Impact Assessment and Resource Management, A Haida
Case Study: Implications for Native People of the North." The Canadian
Journal of Native Case Studies 9(1): 55-83.
Sharkey, M.J. 1970. "The Carrying Capacity ofNatural and Improved Land in Different
Climatic Zones." Mammalia 34: 564-572.
Sharma, P. 1998. Aboriginal Fishing Rights: Laws, Courts and Politics. Halifax: Fernwood
Publishing.

125

Shkilnyk, A. 1985. A Poison Stronger than Love: The Destruction of an Ojibwa Community.
Massachusetts: Yale University.
Stevenson, M. 1996. "Indigenous Knowledge in Environmental Assessment." Arctic 49(3):
278-91.
Tl'azt'en Nation. 1990. Tl'azt 'en Nation Physical Development Plan. Stanley Associates
Engineering Limited.
Tl'azt'en Nation. 1995/1996. Tl 'azt 'en Nation Community Health Assessment.
Tl' azt'en Nation. 1997. Community Profile.
Tl'azt'en Nation. 1998. Community Profile.
Tl'azt'en Nation. 1997. Minutes from Tl'azt 'en Nation l41h General Assembly.
Tower, M. 1989. "A Suicide Epidemic in an American Indian Community." American Indian
and Alaska Native Mental Health Research 3(1): 34-44.
Wackemagel, M., Mcintosh, J., Rees, W. and Woolard, R. 1993. How Big is Our Ecological
Footprint? A Handbook for Estimating a Community's Appropriated Carrying
Capacity. Vancouver: Task Force on Planning Healthy and Sustainable
Communities.
Weinstein, M. 1992. "Just Like People Get Lost: A Retrospective Assessment of the Impacts
of the Faro Mining Development on the Land Use of the Ross River Indian
People." A Report to the Ross River Dena Council. June 1992.
Wheatley, B. 1979. Methylmercury in Canada: Exposure ofIndian and Inuit Residents to
Methylmercury in the Canadian Environment. Ottawa: Ministry of National
Health and Welfare, Medical Services Branch.
Whorton, J.W. Jr. and Morgan, D.R. 1975. Measuring Community Performance: A
Handbook ofIndicators. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma, Bureau of
Government Research.
Wolfe, J. 1988. ''Native Experiences with Integrated Community Planning: Promise and
Problems," in Dykeman, F. (ed), Integrated Rural Planning and Development.
New Brunswick: Mount Allison University.
The World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our Common Future.
New York: Oxford University Press.
126

Wood, S. 1972. Social Indicators and Social Reporting in the Canadian North. Halifax: The
Institute ofPublic Affairs, Dalhousie University.
( Yin, R.K. 1984. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . Newbury Park, California: Sage.

'c..---

York University. 1990. Selected Healthy Cities Indicators: A Research Agenda. Toronto:
York University.
York, Geoffrey. 1992. The Dispossessed: Life and Death in Native Canada. Toronto: Little,
Brown and Company.
Zitzow, D. 1990. "A Comparison of Time Ojibway Adolescents Spent with Parents/Elders in
the 1930s and 1980s." American Indian and Alaska Native Mental
Health Research 3(3): 7-26.

127

Appendix
Confidentiality Protocol for Focus Groups and Interviews
All research documents and interview materials will remain the property of the
researcher. This will include focus group and interview audiotapes and field notes.
Confidentiality and anonymity of the participants will be respected throughout the research
process. All audiotape information will be transcribed by the researcher only. No participant
will be referred to by name in the written reports unless the individual personally wishes to
be identified.
Written reports of focus groups and interviews will be available to individual
participants if requested and participants will be encouraged to provide feedback and
additional comments. Written reports of the research findings will be provided to the
Tl'azt'en Nation Band Office and additional comments will be incorporated into the final
report. All publications based on research findings will acknowledge the contribution of the
community. Upon completion of the research project, the audiotapes will be demagnetised by
the researcher and all field notes will be destroyed.

128

Text of Consent Letter
Dear Participant:
The Ethics Committee of the University ofNorthem British Columbia requires that all
research participants sign a consent form before becoming involved in any research
conducted as part of a university programme.
I will be conducting research in the Tl'azt'en Nation as part of the graduate thesis that
is a requirement for completion of a master' s degree. The title of my thesis is Sustainable
Development of Rural Aboriginal Communities: A Case Study of the Tl 'azt 'en Nation. The
research will involve conducting discussion groups and interviews with members of the
community. It will seek to generate information that will enable the following:
1. Identification of community goals and vision;
2. Identification of opportunities that exist in the community to support achievement of goals;
3. Identification of barriers that obstruct achievement of community goals or progress
towards them;
4. Development of a system of indicators that will serve as a planning tool by allowing the
community to assess their prospects for the fulfilment of community goals.
If you agree to participate in a focus group or interview, you will be asked questions
relevant to the above mentioned objectives. The discussions and interviews will be
audiotaped and field notes will be taken. I may quote information that you provide during the
focus group or interview in the thesis. However, you will not be identified by name in any of
the written reports unless you choose to be. You have the choice to not be identified. As
well, you have the right to refuse to answer any questions or to leave the focus group or
interview at any time. All data generated in the course of this research will be transcribed
only by me and possibly perused by my graduate advisor. The identities of the participants
will not be disclosed to any other individuals. Any references to the identities of the
participants that would compromise their anonymity will be removed prior to the preparation
of research reports and publications. Upon completion of the project, all audiotapes will be
demagnetised and field notes destroyed.
If you agree to participate, please sign and return this letter to me.
Yours sincerely,
Bipasha Baruah, Researcher
I agree to participate in the focus group/ interview under the conditions described above. I
am willing/ not willing to be identified.
Signature:
Date:
129