ALIVE MOMENTS IN ART THERAPY:
A CO-CONSTRUCTION OF MEANING BETWEEN
AN ART THERAPY PRACTITIONER
AND ART THERAPY PARTICIPANTS
by
Beverley Read
B.A., Simon Fraser University, 1990

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in
EDUCATIONAL COUNSELLING

© Beverley Read, 2003
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
March 2003

All rights reserved. This work may not
be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or with other means, without permission of the author

1^ 1

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APPROVAL
Name:

Beverley Read

Degree:

Master of Education

Thesis Title:

ALIVE MOMENTS IN ART THERAPY: A CO­
CONSTRUCTION OF MEANING BETWEEN AN ART
THERAPY PRACTITIONER AND ART THERAPY
PARTICIPANTS

Examining Committee:

Chair: Dr. Robert W. Tait
Dean of Graduate Studies
UNBC

^

4 {A A jC L i

(MsdûA/b

Supervisor:
sor: Trudy
Tructy Mothus, M.Ed., Ph.D. (ABD)
Lecturer, Education Program
UNBC

\ n

2J

l

-

Committee Member: Dr. Paul Madak
Acting Dean of the College of Arts, Social & Health Sciences
Professor & Chair, Education Program
UNBC

Committee Member^Lela Zimmer, Ph.D. (ABD)
Assistant Professor, Nursing Program
UNBC
K

External Examiner: Dr. Catherine Musham
Professor, Department of Library and Informatics &
Department of Family Medicine
Medical University of South Carolina

Date Approved:

MAKch a?, 3 0 03

-

Abstract
This study was designed to examine the co-construction o f meaning when an art
therapist and art therapy participants interacted to co-create shared understandings. This
research evolved out of ten years of art therapeutic practice and the adoption of a
qualitative, postmodernist, social constructionist stance. The participants and art therapist
identified “alive moments'’ (Shotter & Katz, 1998) when viewing videotapes of their art
therapy session that characteristically struck them as being the most vital or meaningful.
Four participants, three women and one man were recruited in response to
postings advertising the research. All participants were professional people who, at the
time the research was conducted, were working in the helping professions or in
education. Notions from Participatory Action Research (PAR), integrated with social
constructionist theory^ art therapy theory and practice, feminist theory and Rogerian
counselling techniques were used by the researcher and the participants to collaborate to
co-create relevant and meaningful themes from their experience.
This study suggests that future art therapy practice and research would benefit
from innovative approaches founded in theoretical orientations such as social
constructionism. The study offers ideas for authentic and meaningful collaborations
between the art therapy practitioner and the art therapy client that are primarily focused
on client strengths and client expertise rather than on a therapist-directed analysis and a
problem-focused discourse.

Ill

Multiple Realities

I noticed that the blue of my paints wasn’t blue enough to get the
intensity of the New Mexico sky.
I painted the sky red instead. I painted Jazz yellow.
He is a brown dog,
but yellow expressed him better. Color became fluid.
Leaves didn’t have to be green
because I saw them that way.
I added turquoise to them, then mixed blue with
black and splashed on navy,
which added a touch of melancholy—after all,
it was the end o f the summer.
(Goldberg, 1997, p. 45)

IV

Table of Contents

Abstract

111

Table of Contents

IV

List of Tables and Figures

Vll

Acknowledgements

Vlll

Chapter One

1

Examining Existing Art Therapy Definitions
Reflections on My Personal Experience of
Co-constructing Meaningful “Alive Moments"
Theoretical Paradigms
Significance of This Study
Chapter Two

Chapter Three

1

5
9
14
16
16
16
18

Literature Review
Background
Qualitative Research in Art Therapy
Psychoanalytic, archetypal, and dynamically
oriented art therapy and research.
Socio-cognitive, gestalt and family systems
art therapy and research.
Postmodernism, feminist and social
constructionist art therapy and research.
Limitations of Traditional Art Therapy Research
Research Question

34
47
49

Research Approach
Methods
Participants/Co-researchers
Procedures
Data Analysis
Ethics

51
51
54
55
56
57

18
29

Chapter Four

Chapter Five

Results
Co-researcher Profiles; Co-constructed “Alive
Moments” and Relevant Themes
Angela’s alive moment(s).
Researcher’s alive moment.
Co-constructed themes.
Hampton’s alive moment(s).
Researcher’s alive moment.
Co-constructed themes.
Suzie P ’s alive moment(s).
Researcher’s alive moment(s).
Co-constructed themes.
Barry’s alive moment(s).
Researcher’s alive moment(s).
Co-constructed themes.
Summary
Discussion
Introduction
Evolution of research design in response to
initial research question.
My struggle to co-construct a safe and nonhierarchical research milieu.
My struggle to accept that the research
question had been answered.
Resolution of the struggle.
Initial Intentions and Unexpected Outcomes
The Co-construction of Authentic and Mutual
Understanding
Feminist Art Therapy and Social
Constructionism: Vessels of Co-creation
Feminism: A Way to Flatten the Hierarchical
Norm o f Research
Participatory Action Research: A Change
Process
The Influence of My Art Therapeutic
Experience on the Research
The Co-constructed Themes as Indicators of
Meaningful Interchanges
Concerns Regarding this Study: Constraints
Constraints of choosing one theoretical
orientation.
,

62

63
63
65
66
67
69
70
71
73
74
76
78
79
81
84
84
84
85
87
90
90
95
96
97
103
107
109
112
112

VI

Methodological constraints.
Sample size.
Participants’ demographics.
One participant’s feedback.
Implications for Future Research
True PAR B co-creating art with the
participants.
Divergent Participants and Varying Life
Obstacles
Implications and Influence of Research for My
Practice as an Art Therapist
Implications of Research for Future Art Therapy
Practice in the Field
References

112
115
116
117
120
120
121

122
124
126

Appendix A

Information Sheet for Participants and Employer

137

Appendix B

Letter of Informed Consent

141

Appendix C

Limits of Confidentiality

145

Appendix D

Employer’s Letter of Consent

147

Appendix E

Research Participant Recruitment Notice

148

Appendix F

149

Appendix G

150

Appendix H

151

Appendix J

153

Appendix K

154

vil

Appendix L

155

Appendix M

156

Appendix N

157

Vlll

Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge many people who have supported me throughout this
academic process, which at times felt overwhelming.
First of all, I would like to thank my life partner, Len, for his unconditional support,
ongoing encouragement, and unwavering trust in me to complete this thesis. There were
many occasions when I felt defeated and, without his consistent faith, I am not sure that I
would have had the courage to continue. I am also very grateful to my daughter, Shelley, and
her husband, Ron, for their tolerance, support, understanding, and assistance with everyday
commitments when I had neither the interest nor the energy to do them. In particular, I am
highly appreciative to have the honour of being Anthony’s and Genevieve’s grandmother.
These wonderful children continue to offer me invaluable encounters with wonder, curiosity,
and the motivation to become a better woman. Hopefully, I provide them with a grandmother
who feels her fear and does it anyway. In addition, I am indebted to the “thesis slugs”, the
group of amazing and brilliant women I have had the privilege of knowing over the past few
years. Without all o f you. Barb, Margaret, Marion, Laurie, Kristi, and Sue, and your relentless
support, encouragement and thought-provoking feedback I know I would have fallen harder
and cried longer before I picked myself up to carry on.
I am indebted to Professor Trudy Mothus who, when I was certain I was sinking into the
statistical backwater of those that never finish their theses, valiantly stepped forward to be my
thesis advisor. Trudy, there are probably not enough ways to thank you for your consistent
feedback, immense patience, unfailing expertise, ongoing support and encouragement and,
most of all, your willingness to continue to work with me despite your many commitments.
Also, my sincere thanks must go to Assistant Professor Lela Zimmer and Dr. Paul Madak
who, along with Professor Mothus, willingly assumed the roles of thesis committee members
halfway through my process. I have greatly appreciated the effort of both of you to offer your
expertise and support to this venture.
Acknowledgements would not be complete iff did not include Dr. Karl Tomm and the
late Dr. Gary Saunders from the Family Therapy Training Program of the University of
Calgary. Through their compassion, expertise, and overall respect for my individual process
of learning, I adopted a post-modern stance o f viewing the world of therapy and art therapy,
which in turn, invited me to see people as experts of their living experience. As well, 1 am
grateful to Shirley Riley, the first post-modern art therapist 1 had the privilege of
encountering. She became the impetus for initiating this research.
1 am dedicating this thesis to my mother, Ms. Nora Bourke, who consistently encouraged
me to pursue my education and supports me unconditionally, and to my late Grandfather (Mr.
Harry Witney) and his typewriter. From a young age, 1 would watch my grandfather typing
letters on that old standard typewriter and, as soon as he left the room, 1 would climb up on
his chair and entangle the keys in a stack of metal. Each time, 1 knew 1 would be chastised for
this behaviour but 1 risked his displeasure with me just for the opportunity to touch that
magical machine. At five years old, it seemed that it was a means to expression and learning.
1just knew that if 1 learned to operate that typewriter 1 would find the way to unimagined
success and escape from life on a farm!

List of Tables and Figures
Table 1 - Co-constructed Themes Between Co-researchers and Researcher

82

Figure 1 - Angela’s Picture

149

Figure 2 - Beverley’s Collage

150

Figure 3 - Angela’s Picture

151

Figure 4 - Hampton's Picture

152

Figure 5 - Susie P.’s Picture

153

Figure 6 - Susie P.’s Picture

154

Figure 7 - Barry’s Picture

155

Figure 8 - Beverley’s Picture

156

Figure 9 - Beverley's Picture

157

Chapter One
Introduction
Studying art therapy from a perspective other than the traditional case study approach
became the driving force behind my decision to develop a research design that examined the
social environment o f an art therapy session. 1 wanted to demonstrate how two individuals
co-construct a reality, through the art therapy process, characteristically different from the
realities they individually bring into the session. Past research in art therapy and art
therapeutic encounters have focused on the intra-psychic experiences of the client as they are
revealed and then evaluated by the art therapist. 1 invited clients to participate in an
experience that did not focus on these internal processes, but rather emphasized the reality
that we co-constructed together.
Examining Existing Art Therapy Definitions
In order to develop a social constructionist research rnodel, 1 examined a particular
definition of art therapy. Over the years, art therapists have struggled to define art therapy.
However, Rubin (1982) defines art therapy by the differences between what happens in a
typical art therapy session and what does not occur. Art therapy is best understood when one
considers both aspects: the art and the therapy. The object of the art activity must be a
therapeutic one (Rubin, 1982). To concur with the idea that therapeutic benefits result from
the making of art, in and o f itself, Adamson (1990) points out that those individuals who
have difficulty speaking of their experiences may find art making helpful. Art-making,
therefore, has been considered an activity that offers therapeutic benefits and creates an
opportunity for the artist to feel a type of liberation from the constraints of debilitating

patterns of living (Tomson, 1997).
To understand the difference between art therapy and the making of art for art’s sake it is
necessary to examine the goal of the activity. When art is made with an expectation that
artistic skill will be attained, art is created and art therapy does not occur (Rubin, 1982).
Malchiodi (1999) and Tomson (1997) expand this definition by pointing out that the activity
of making art within a therapeutic setting includes a process plus the creation o f a product.
They offer two views that are prevalent in the art therapy field to explain what happens: (1)
the belief in “art is therapy”— creating art is a healing activity in itself; and, (2) the notion of
“art psychotherapy”— a process of communicating symbolically through imagery that
..enhances verbal exchange between the person and therapist and in achieving insight.”
(Malchiodi, 1998, p. 6). The first stance maintains that participating in the creative,
regenerative act of making art provides an opportunity to engage in a natural healing activity.
The second perspective, on the other hand, suggests the occurrence of a process. Such a
process results when an individual creates art and, in so doing, communicates through the
expression of personal symbols, often with an unanticipated result of strengthening the
interaction between her or him and the art therapist. This enriched interchange transpires
subsequent to the individual’s disclosure of his or her inner meanings through the art
expressions. Accompanied by verbal exchange, the art therapist and the client develop
possibilities of meaning and understanding.
As a result of my desire to study the social environment in which art therapy is
conducted, I chose a theoretical approach entitled “social constructionist” theory. As a
theoretical orientation, social constructionism endorses the negotiation of meaningful

interactions occurring within a community o f relationships (Shotter & Katz, 1998). In
addition, social constructionism provides for the adoption of a ‘critical stance’ vis-à-vis our
perceptions and understanding of the world we live in. This means that proponents of this
orientation do not assume the existence of an ‘objective reality’ based on empirical evidence
(Meldrum, 1999). Rather, they presume the following notions based in a subjective
understanding of experience: (a) realities are not only culture-specific, they are embedded in a
rich tradition of spiritual history (for example, in Canada, First Nations people have culturally
distinct practices, such as the use o f the medicine wheel); (b) we exist in a community of
relationships that are based in a historical context.
Shotter and Katz (1998) and Meldrum (1999) also advocate for a position that maintains
“knowledge of our world is sustained by social processes”, is negotiated through language
and community relationships, and can be exemplified by examining a small group within a
larger social institution. Even a university class can be viewed as a community in that its
participants co-construct a certain imderstanding of their experience through the negotiation
of meanings relating to particular concepts.
Examination of social constructions requires ‘social interaction’ between people
(Meldrum, 1999). For example, beliefs about marriage will likely determine certain
behaviours. In all likelihood, the belief in the roles of men and women in marriage,
constructed and internalized within a social environment such as living in a family,
determines how one acts when entering into a marriage. Specifically, a traditional idea such
as “women are obliged to cook the meals” has a definite impact on how one interacts as a
wife or partner.

'

Using these notions, the study adopted as a goal the creation o f an environment in which
participants were empowered and honoured rather than disrespected and pathologized. In
order to do this, I adopted a social constructionist theoretical stance. In addition, I questioned
the traditional approach of interpreting art therapeutic experience from the predominant
theoretical approaches that discount strengths and focus on problems (Riley, 1984).
Conducting research from this significant perspective contrasted strongly with a
traditional approach in which case studies have focused on the expertise o f the art therapist as
she or he defines the client’s art according to a particular theory of human development. My
interest in researching art therapy from a social constructionist standpoint developed out of
my belief that art therapy practice Occurs in an inter-relational manner between the therapist
and client. In my experience, art therapy did not take place when the client created art and the
art therapist, as an objective onlooker, analyzed the process and the image. A social
constructionist theoretical approach offered me the latitude to examine the co-construction of
the interactions between the art therapist and the client.
Weingarten (1991) aptly quotes Gergen (1985) in clarifying this activity: “This
delicate interdependence of constructed narratives suggest that a fundamental aspect of social
life is reciprocity in the negotiation of meaning” (p. 270). As Gergen asserts, an exchange of
meaning transpires when individuals co-create a dialogue. 1 believe that this happens in the
art therapeutic process as well. As the art therapist brings her version of reality to the
experience, she continues to decipher and interact with the client’s perceptions. These
accounts of perceived reality are shared and mediated between the two individuals until they
co-create a mutual imderstanding

The individuals’ behaviour also significantly impacts the meaning-making process.
Shotter (1999) incorporates Bakhtin’s (1981) ideas into meaning making by focusing on the
“relationally-responsive nature of everyday utterances” (p. 1). Bakhtin maintained that the
'‘utterances” expressed in conversation are dependent upon “supplementary” response.
Language and the creation of meaning are a co-construction o f relational happenings that
require an action. This may not necessitate a verbal response. Such a possibility seemed vital
to the art therapy experience. Art therapy provides the opportunity for the concrete expression
of non-verbal behavior such as colours, shapes, lines, representational images, and symbols
that depict relationships. These relationships can be expressed as those between details of the
image and image-maker, and between the image-maker and various individuals in her or his
life. In addition, the imagery can contain significant information about the relationship
between the client and the art therapist. By supplying this model, Shotter, using some of
Bakhtin’s original ideas, contributes substantially to the theory of social constructionism.
Rather than emphasizing an individualistic approach to understanding art therapy practice,
social constructionism advances a relational and, in my opinion, more encompassing view of
what occurs in art therapy sessions. I would like to personalize this discussion by reflecting
upon my own experience as a client of art therapy.
Reflections on My Personal Experience o f Co-constructing Meaningful “Alive Moments ”
The two years I spent training as an art therapist accompanied an intense art therapy
process in which I participated in a group and in individual art therapy. Following my
graduation in 1991,1 continued to work through any unresolved psychological issues with a
Registered Canadian Art Therapist. As well, I participate in an ongoing group of art therapists

that meet for peer supervision on a monthly basis. These experiences have been invaluable to
me. I continue to actively participate in these mutual and individual reflective endeavours as
a way to maintain my integrity as an art therapist. This process assists me in ensuring that my
personal issues do not interfere with my ability to listen to and understand the experiences of
people with whom I work.
Throughout my personal art therapy I have encountered instances of meaningful
aliveness. Shotter and Katz (1998) defined “alive moments” as those instances in
conversation when the individuals involved are “struck”, not only by the actual words that are
spoken or written, but also by body language and the emotional tone o f the dialogue. Another
aspect of Shotter’s and Katz’s definition validated by my past art therapeutic experience is
that, if these vital instances had not been noticed at that particular time, they may have not
been explored. In that case, the meaningfulness derived from collaborative awareness may
have been overlooked. An example of such an interaction occurred in March, 1991 in a group
setting. The following words were my written reactions to the group experience and the co­
creation of a group mural. Initially I responded as follows:
I really want to be isolated from this group. I am the monster in this group creating chaos
on this island. 1 am the red spiky fish puking its guts out, polluting the ocean. (See
Appendix N) for copy of the image).
With feedback from the group therapist and group participants, it became clear to me
that I alienated myself from the group, believing that I would not be accepted because I was
not secure in my own self-esteem. Fromm (1956) believed that self-esteem had its roots in a
human awareness of our need for connection with our fellow human beings. Having a low
sense of self-worth results from the awareness of our shame at needing to be connected and

thus contributes to a sense o f guilt and anxiety. Although this initially appears as primarily an
intra-psychic process, what is relevant to the discussion of co-construction in this experience
is the process utilized by Dr. Fischer and the other group members in order to co-construct an
understanding of how I distanced myself from people who expressed compassion for me. At
that time, 1 believed that 1 was not worthy of others’ care, so it seemed safer to be alone and
irritable. The reason 1 disclose this personal information is to emphasize how emotionally
alive this moment in art therapy became for me, given that it occurred in therapy 11 years
ago. The profound meaning stood out because it clearly elucidated how actively 1 had created
my own loneliness. Initially, as 1 came to this understanding of myself, 1 felt overwhelmed
with sadness. In a relatively short time I replaced this feeling with relief. As a response to this
absorbing moment on my healing journey, I created the following image and reflections:
This is how my jug of self-esteem will look. I am making sure that I have an intact
bottom on the jug. There is light and growth coming out of it, out onto the world, where I
hope to be an effective therapist some day. (Written March 25,1991). (See Appendix
M).
Obviously, I had engaged in some reparative work following the group experience. I felt
confident that this interaction carried intense meaning and that it had been co-constructed
through active interchange and feedback from both the participants and the facilitator. 1 knew
that a profound level of meaning resulted because of the intense emotional resonance 1 felt in
my body. The co-constructed meaning significantly impacted the creation of the image of the
jug. It felt as if an enormous burden had been washed away and, in its place, remained hope
and inspiration about becoming increasingly authentic. Illustrations of how this momentous
experience continued to have impact was expressed in the following excerpts from my

8

personal journal, dated September 13,1991: "Yes Dr. Fischer 1 am now embracing life.
Thank you, thank you for helping me get my life back. I feel closer to who I really am, than I
ever have in my life”. It is evident from these words that I attributed a great deal of meaning
to my art therapeutic experience and that I allowed myself to become vulnerable in a way that
was unusual for me.
A more recent example o f my experience of alive moments in an art therapy session
occurred when I sought the services of a qualified art therapist. On September 21, 2001,1
wrote the following in response to my session, (the images are not included, they remain at
her office):
I had a great session with [_____ ]; it was a celebration of my life in some ways. I had to
acknowledge that life is going pretty well for me these days, and I have had enough
sadness, anxiety and despair. [_____ ] wondered if I had been addicted to pain and
despair in the past. It is a hard realization to deal with but it is in my art. There appears to
be a theme throughout my art that I “wait for the next shoe to drop”, kind of in a hyper­
aroused state o f vigilance. It is very helpful to me, learning to recognize that I don’t have
to be in a state of worry and despair.
Perhaps I would not have realized how often I felt anxious if I had not participated in this
process. Although, initially, I experienced discomfort with the art therapist’s musings, I came
to appreciate her feedback. As we co-constructed a new version of reality for me, I began to
appreciate how tainted my version of my ‘fate’ had been. The very fact that I felt such
discomfort with the phrase ‘addicted to despair,’ indicated to me that it contained some truth
for me. If I had not renewed my understanding of how 1 limited myself by maintaining
pathological understandings, I would have disagreed with her comment. Again, I wondered if
I would have come to realize how dominated I felt by anxiety and despair if the therapist had
not brought forth the possibility. This mutual collaboration led to an understanding of how I

limited myself by holding on to negative beliefs regarding my experience. In addition, we co­
created the recognition that, at that time in my life, there were elements to be grateful for. The
deep level o f the meaning co-constructed during these alive moments stood out in that they
crystallized how the process of identifying those vibrant moments of therapy significantly
impact future personal thoughts and ultimately behaviour.
It is apparent to me that the co-researchers’ experience of this research parallels, to some
extent, my personal art therapeutic encounters — specifically, the focus on meaning co­
created between myself and my art therapists, and the meaning that the participants and I co­
constructed. The opportunity to explore my therapeutic issues, I believe, contributed
significantly to my openness and iricreased understanding of how the process of mutual giveand-take occurs in a postmodern art therapy experience.
Theoretical Paradigms
To constract an experience of art therapy with research participants, I decided to
combine a Rogerian counselling approach and social constructionism as an overall
epistemology, combined with Participatory Action Research (PAR). Harriet Wadeson (1992),
an eminent art therapist, in the following quote, encapsulates one of the concerns I had
regarding art therapy research:
Yet, most art therapists enter the field charged with their own personal experience of
gratification from art expression and a wish to involve themselves with others through
the intimacy of imagery. Such work is of a very different nature from the exacting of
methodological considerations of research design and implementation (Wadeson, 1992,
p. IT
As Wadeson points out, many art therapists become entranced with the idea that art
therapy has healing aspects and pursue a career in the field in what appears to be somewhat of

10

a romantic approach. These idealizations of art therapy differ greatly from the restrictions
placed upon researchers in the field of social sciences. Research, unlike this romanticized
approach to art therapy, therefore, became of great interest to me. Proponents of a social
constructionist approach offered a way to encapsulate the desire that many art therapists,
including myself, had to ‘involve’ ourselves in the intrinsic co-construction of bringing forth
meaningful discourse within the art therapy experience. It became essential that the
methodology I chose reflected this desire. I had to shed the delusion that I could be an
‘objective’ researcher. I decided on Participatory Action Research (PAR) as a well-suited
method. This choice complemented my belief that, as a social constructionist, the research
participants would as deeply impact me, as they would be by me. As well, the collaboration
and relationship(s) we created would acutely influence us.
Participatory Action Research, as a method, moves beyond an understanding of another’s
world (their subjective experience) to the active process of co-creating meaning that results in
some type of action or change. Smith (1997) presents PAR as an experience of liberation in
which a group o f people meets to understand, analyze, and deliberate over a “living process”
(p. 173) with the goal of implementing some type of change. The movement occurs through
what Smith refers to as “dialectic of praxis” or an “action-reflection” process. “Actionreflection”—an analytic, informative process— occurs when the participants and researcher
engage in contemplative self-reflection, within the context of their present and past
experiences. Enacting a set of behaviours related to the newly acquired self-knowledge
ensues (Smith. 1997).
PAR also includes within its theoretical tenets the concept that “objectivity does not

11

exist" (Smith, 1997, p. 183). In other words, "people are active agents in their world" (Fine,
1994, p. 180). Through the entire PAR experience, individuals affirm their active
involvement in the construction o f their realities. Similar to the views of social
constructionist inquiry, individuals honor multiple realities, construct relationally.diverse
discourses, engage in seif-reflexivity, and give the final word to those whose lives are directly
affected. Smith (1997) defines PAR as a research methodology encompassing a theory of
knowledge and reality in which the researcher accepts the primacy of dialogic, relational
meaning making. The construction of a PAR stance occurs through the adoption of the
following principles; (a) liberation as intent, (b) the development of a ‘compassionate
culture’, (c) participation in a ‘holistic, dynamic, vital, circular’ process (i.e., praxis, defined
as action-reflection), (d) revering research participants’ reality, including the
acknowledgement of historical and cultural knowledge, (e) participating collectively to
explore, discuss and take action on collaborated ideas, and (f) co-constructing new ‘living’
knowledge gathered through a continuous dialogue, one that results in a deeply-understood
transformation. These principles fit well with social constructionism and its epistemological
foundations dedicated to the co-construction of authentic, relational, and diverse realities.
I utilized a Rogerian counselling approach as a means of creating a therapeutic milieu in
which such alive or striking moments could manifest spontaneously. Fundamental concepts
of a Rogerian approach are: (a) trust in the ability of individuals/groups to be motivated by a
basic impetus toward health and growth; (b) that the therapist adopt a stance of unconditional
positive regard in which her or his values will not influence how the he or she views the
client’s reality; (c) the therapist adopts congruence in all her interactions so as to

12

communicate a sense o f consistency in words and actions; (d) the use o f empathy that
indicates to the client that the therapist commits to a genuine interest in learning to
understand his or her experiences (Raskin and Rogers, 1995).

Silverstone (1997) expands on these particulars by maintaining that a Rogerian, or
person-centred, counselling orientation incorporates additional values such as the social and
constructive nature of the human being, that a basic human need consists of faith in oneself,
the importance of perception in influencing behaviour, that the final authority for the health
of the individual rests with him or her, that the therapist needs to view individuals as whole
beings on their path to self-realization, and that therapists renounce any thoughts that they
have of power and control over others. Given that this research purported to offer a milieu in
which alive moments would be manifested, the adoption of a Rogerian approach by the
researcher/clinician seemed to be the most appropriate way to create an environment of
respect, safety, esteem, trust, mutual compassion and caring. These ideas appeared to blend
well with a social constructionist philosophy in that they call for the locating of oneself
within a posture that values the dignity of human experience. Therefore, I proposed that alive
moments would be nurtured more sensitively if 1 endeavored to create a compassionate
culture through the use of a Rogerian counselling orientation. In addition, I believed that
through the creation of a compassionate milieu my therapeutic practice would improve.
My primary interest resulted in viewing art therapy as an aspect o f a relational practice in
which meaningful interchange is co-constructed, with an emphasis on historical/cultural
relativity, and openness to the critical analysis that allows for the co-creation of active

13

interchanges. My intrigue revolved around those moments that arrested or halted the process
by the very nature of their import. Specifically, my curiosity peaked when I was seized by
unique moments that carried an element o f surprise. During these moments, I realized the
power of this intimate interaction and its ability to impart a momentous experience of
understanding and verbal exchange. In particular, I felt compelled to examine these moments
as they ‘strike’ both the art therapist and client (Shotter & Katz, 1999). “Alive or living
moments” in therapeutic dialogue have been referred to by Shotter and Katz, as those that:
. ..‘move’ or ‘strike’ others by the saying or the writing o f certain words at certain
moments, to use words to draw attention.. .to aspects of their own sayings and doings to
unique details of their lives, that might otherwise have passed us both by unnoticed, and
particularly, to yet-to-be relations between such details (p. 2).
As well, I wanted to consider the social constructionist tenet that posits viewing of
experience from alternate and varied realities or truths, and affirms that all of these
interpretations are not only valid but also possible. Goldberg (1997) expresses the possibility
of multiple truths in the following quote:
I noticed that the blue o f my paints wasn’t blue enough to get the intensity of the New
Mexico sky. I painted the sky red instead. I painted Jazz yellow. He is a brown dog, but
yellow expressed him better. Color became fluid. Leaves didn’t have to be green because
I saw them that way. 1 added turquoise to them, then mixed blue with black and splashed
on naw , which added a touch of melancholy— after all, it was the end of the summer (p.
45).
It seems to me that this quote aptly symbolizes the experience of a social constructionist
approach. The artist expresses her version of everyday events in a distinct and alternative
manner (e.g., a “red” sky). Not only does this quote exemplify the value of perceiving
multiple realities, it illustrates the possibility of ‘arresting’ or ‘living’ moments. By writing in
such a poetic manner, Goldberg seizes our attention and demands that we re-assess the effect

14

of seeing only ‘‘green” leaves. She arouses within us a desire to re-evaluate our own
meanings o f her words. More importantly, however, we awaken to the potential o f perceiving

multiple truths. I endeavored to create similar moments of vitality with the participants. In so
doing, I became sensitive to the meaning of these expressions in their lives. Therefore, the
goal of this research became the description o f these alive moments from both the
participants’ and the researcher’s perspectives.
Significance o f This Study
In order to create an experience of co-constructed understandings and appreciation, I
expected that this thesis would be valuable for professionals, both art therapists and other
counselling practitioners, as well as academics. Qualitative researchers in the fields of
psychology, psychotherapy, family therapy, education, and especially art therapy may be
interested in this type of approach. I anticipated that, especially within the art therapy
community, this type of research would be welcomed. An email conversation from Dr. Debra
Linesch, a professor in the Clinical Art and Family Therapy program at Loyola Marymount
University in Los Angeles, endorsed what I wanted to accomplish: open space for a different
pathway— art therapy research that proposes a change. She expressed it this way: “I.. .am
delighted to respond to you and help in your most worthwhile endeavors. ..First of all, I truly
support your ideas and your decision to not simply contribute to the abundance of case study
research in our field.” (Linesch, personal communication, December 5, 1999).
As well, I envisioned that visual artists, art therapy trainees, and even certain individuals
and groups, not working in the therapy field, but seeking a creative approach to freeing
themselves from the constraints of problem-saturated discourses, would find this research of

15

interest. If the consumers o f the service we have to offer perceive this research as beneficial,
it will be necessary that they have access to what may be an alternative approach to resolving
difficulties. In other words, this research ought to be made available to those who would most
benefit from it. 1 hope that it will empower people to question the medical model discourse
that still informs much of art therapeutic practice.

16

Chapter Two
Literature Review
Art therapy was pioneered in the United States, Canada and Europe in the early 20*'’
century. Despite art therapy’s relatively short history, it is now recognized as a valuable
therapeutic approach used to assist individuals and groups in resolving life difficulties. My
interest in researching art therapy stemmed primarily from the work I participated in over the
past 10 years as a registered art therapist. In particular, I became increasingly intrigued by the
nature of the relationship between the art therapist and the client where participants construct
a reality that is conducive to the healing of problematic life experiences such as death or loss,
relationship difficulties and various traumas. The relationship or the social environment in
which the art therapist and the client interact offers a vital setting for this research to be
conducted.
Background
Differences o f opinion exist in the art therapy world with regard to what occurs in art
therapy sessions. Regardless of the various definitions o f art therapy, many art therapists
work within a psychotherapeutic milieu. In differing ways, art therapists assist clients with
difficult life situations and explore new ways of being in a world that presents many
challenges. In addition, art therapy comes about with the aid of the creative process, a
dimension of the human experience that often remains imderdeveloped.
Art therapy research to date consists predominantly of case study research (McNiff,
1999). In this chapter, I examine this trend and discuss three dominant theoretical approaches
to art therapy. First, I explore psychoanalytic art therapy and Jimgian art therapy since they

17

have been two of the most influential theories for art therapy. Second, 1 consider sociocognitive and systems approaches such as Gestalt and family therapies. Next, I describe
postmodern therapies such as feminist therapy and social constructionism. Finally, I will
examine the limitations o f some of these approaches and discuss how, through investigating
their restrictions, I have come to embrace a different research theory and methodology,
namely social constructionism.
The following literature review examines traditional art therapy, presenting a historical
context and introducing more recent research based in a postmodern perspective, including
social constructionist art therapy. Since there is little quantitative research in art therapy, it is
not relevant to this particular study because it contradicts the foundation of postmodern or
social constructionist inquiry. Specifically, by its very nature, quantitative research assumes
that the researcher is the expert and the participants’ experience, discovered, dissected,
analyzed and reduced to statistics, will become important only when the researcher has
manipulated and interpreted it. In addition, quantitative research assumes that there is only
one knowable reality or truth. Unlike social constructionism, where multiple truths are
honoured, quantitative inquiry values the pursuit of truth as it is condensed to some quantity.
In this way, the hierarchy o f a researcher being in a position of power over the research
participants is reinforced. Therefore, I decided that quantitative research in the art therapy
field would not be included as it is not relevant to the type of experience that I hoped to cocreate with the research participants.

18

Qualitative Research in Art Therapy

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onemW w f fAerapy wif/ rMewcA.

Art therapy, traditionally founded and embedded in psychoanalytic practice (Cane Detre
et al., 1983), became an extension of psychiatric practice that took place in hospitals and
mental health centres. In these settings, psychiatrists with interest in visual art introduced
patients to the making o f images to assist in the alleviation o f painful and psychological
symptoms. In addition, educators such as Margaret Naumberg and Florence Cane (Cane
Detre et al, 1983) launched psychoanalysis into the school system in the form of image
making. This image-making process included visual art such as drawings, paintings, and
three-dimensional works consisting of clay sculptures. The use of art in school, with its
therapeutic effects for children, interested both of these pioneers. The extension of art therapy
soon included other client populations such as individuals and groups consisting of children,
adolescents, and adults suffering from a range of issues such as behavioural problems,
inappropriate expressions of anger, alcoholism, mental illness, depression, and physical
ailments such as cancer.
Around the same time, Edith Kramer (1971), another psychoanalytically-oriented
educator and artist, began using art therapy in the school system, residential treatment centres
for children, and in her private practice. She believed in the necessity of having a sound
understanding of the intrinsic power o f creative expression plus a thorough knowledge of
psychoanalysis. In her book. Art as Therapy with Children, Kramer presented several case
studies that delineated how she worked with children suffering with issues such as blindness,
aggression, and the developmental concerns of adolescence and self-esteem. Kramer asserted

19

the necessity of following the principles o f Freudian psychoanalysis, such as the resolution o f
unconscious defenses and neurotic conflicts, by encouraging children to draw, paint or make
sculptures about their life issues.
One particular case study presented by Kramer is that of a seven-year old boy who
experienced a lack of ability to manage his anger. She did not give directives to begin his art
therapy sessions; rather she encouraged him to use clay to make spontaneous sculpture.
During one art therapy session, Kramer observed how this boy approached the clay. He
attempted to make a dog’s head but, because of his agitation and lack of technical ability, the
neck was too weak to hold the head, and he could not make a tongue for the mouth that
would stay attached. Despite Kramer’s attempts to assist in stabilizing this sculpture it
continued to collapse. In response to this failure, the child smashed it in anger. Following this
expression of anger, the child used a piece of paper to trace his shoe, and then re-created the
markings on the sole.
Kramer interpreted this session as an example of child’s repressed psychosexual rage
having been triggered by the dog’s open mouth and his inability to manage its construction.
Specifically, she related the mouth to body cavities that provoked the child’s ambivalence
regarding his own bodily functions. She believed that these triggers were a demonstration of
his unconscious sexual drives. Further, Kramer explained this behaviour as a defensive
reaction, a type o f “ritual” used to regain control of his overwhelming emotions. Although
she did not consider this session as one in which the child made any progress, she discussed
other sessions in which this boy continued to use spontaneous art-making that illustrated his
ability to create meaningful and ordered art. In these later sessions, she described an

20

increased level of calmness and a stronger connection between her, the child, and his art.
This type o f psychoanalytic art therapy presents a difficulty in that it focuses on the
child’s pathology and the release o f unconscious motivation that seems to be beyond the
child’s control. Kramer (1971) assumed that this child had sexual drives that overwhelmed
him to the point that he lacked the ability to control his impulses, and by rising to the surface,
these urges provoked his aggression. Her evaluation that this child was suffering from
“grossly defective ego development” (Kramer, 1971, p. 163), exemplifies not only a negative
perspective, it portrays a punitive approach. She presupposed that the tracing of the shoe
represented a retreat into ‘defensive’ behaviour rather than considering the fact that this
child’s attempt to gain control may have been an effort to bring some form of containment to
his anger. In this light, the drawing of a familiar object can be seen as a strength rather than a
defect because it allowed the child to gain some mastery over an uncomfortable situation.
Naumberg (1987) also presented case studies ffom a psychoanalytic perspective. She
termed her approach “dynamically-oriented art therapy”. By this, Naumberg referred to the
process by which art making elicits imagery from the unconscious mind and reveals it in the
form of symbols. In her book. Dynamically Oriented Art Therapy: Its Principles and
Practice, she offered three examples of adult use of art therapy to resolve issues such as
depression, alcoholism, and hallucinations. One case illustration she presented was that of a
41-year old woman who suffered with alcoholism and hallucinations. Naumberg reported on
12 sessions with this particular client, documenting her progress through the art therapy
experience. She did not give any directives for the sessions. Rather, she encouraged the
spontaneous expression of art by the client.

21

According to Naumberg, the third session revealed an especially poignant and effective
encounter in which the woman began to remember some childhood experiences. In this
session she created a painting that she entitled, “Bright Colors in the Center of a Dark
Picture: It’s a Ray o f Light and Hope Working with M.N.” (M.N. being MargaretNaumberg),
(Naumberg, 1987, p. 89). Having created this image, the client recalled some pleasant
childhood memories. In addition, Naumberg suggested that one o f the meaningful aspects of
this image, in particular the ‘ray of light and hope’, referred to the client’s positive feelings
for the therapist. She labeled these feelings “transference”, which refers to the assignment of
childhood feelings to the psychoanalyst/therapist/art therapist. Naumberg underscored the
importance of this session, stating that it indicated the start of a growing sense of self-esteem
and meaningful connection with another human being.
Although Naumberg (1987) appeared to be less analytical about the art than Kramer
(1971), she nevertheless framed art therapy within a psychoanalytic approach. She
maintained a belief in the development of positive transference as a sign of progression in the
client’s therapeutic work. However, there is no indication in her documentation of this
session that suggests that the client was asked if she felt better. Again, the art therapist
determined the health of the client according to a set of tenets espoused by psychoanalytic
theory that tends to give credit for the client’s recovery to the therapist. This assumption is
problematic because it does not give credit for therapeutic growth to the client, who needs to
know that her health is not dependent upon the therapist’s skill. More importantly, the credit
for the creation of change in a person’s life ought to land squarely at the individual’s feet
(Riley, 1994).

22

Wadeson (1987) is another proponent o f psychoanalytic art therapy. She presented a
specific case study undertaken when she worked with individuals in a psychiatric unit. She
described the work with one woman diagnosed with manic-depressive illness with whom
Wadeson worked over a two-year period. As with, Kramer (1971) and Naumberg (1987), she
used a non-directive approach and encouraged spontaneous art making. Wadeson reported
that she had difficulty connecting with this client. During the manic phase, the woman spoke
almost non-stop and, while in the hyperactive state, she often splashed paint indiscriminately.
On one occasion, she ran out of the art room into the ward. During the depressed state, she
became non-communicative and withdrawn. Wadeson reports on one particular session in the
depressed phase when she was able to request that the therapist pose for a clay sculpture. The
client created a piece o f two women, herself and the therapist. Wadeson analyzed this
sculpture as a representation of the importance of the therapeutic relationship in the client’s
life. Despite her inability to focus in both phases of the manic-depressive illness, the client
established a meaningful relationship with the therapist and, in addition, she expressed many
o f her repressed feelings. As well, Wadeson observed that despite the client’s lack of insight,
she benefited from the art therapy sessions because she learned to rely on the support of
another person, the art therapist.
In this case, Wadeson’s (1987) work with the client revealed some positive aspects. In
particular, she provided a caring, respectful environment in which the client could express
herself. As well, Wadeson appeared to have been gentle and accepting of whatever mood the
client presented. However, she, too, resorted to the interpretation of the art and the experience
of the client as one that is contingent upon the therapist’s good will. By deferring to tenets of

psychoanalytic theory (although less dependent upon its terminology), she did not attribute
enough power to the client’s abilities to form relationships or to successfully express her
feelings in a creative way.
Lester (1980), a psychoanalyst, working with images, presented a case in which she
discussed transference and imagery in the analytic process. Her interest in this case study was
primarily the relationship between imagery and “free association” (Lester, 1980, p. 411). Free
association refers to a process in which the psychoanalyst encourages a ‘patient’ to express
any thoughts or feelings that come into her mind, while she reclines on the analytic couch
(Horowitz, 1988). Lester purported that, during free association, imagery becomes heightened
and, in turn, this enhancement of visual representations intensifies the transference that
develops during analysis. Although she did not have the client draw these images (she is not
an art therapist), she did request he describe them in the form of daydreams or “fantasies”.
These images could have easily been created in a visual expression and, given this possibility,
the case is worth noting in this section on psychoanalytic art therapy.
Lester (1980) saw this client over a four-year period. The primary approach she took
revolved around resolution o f his neurotic transference in relation to her. The client, a 19-year
old student, attended McGill University in Montreal, Quebec.
He experienced a type of depression in which he felt “empty, worthless, and incessantly
dissatisfied with him self’ (Lester, 1980, p. 413). Lester described the process of analysis,
noting that after a certain point, once he expressed the imagery freely, he became less
anxious, more competent in dealing with his inner conflict, and began to feel less interested
in his fantasies and dreams.

24

One particular example o f the client’s active change to his fantasy world was his
expressed wish that the analyst would never leave him (this occurred following the analyst’s
vacation). Lester identified this moment as an indication o f the movement from previous
violent fantasies, in which he imagined mutilating people, to one in which the transference
relationship became apparent and could be resolved. Aroimd this time, Lester assisted the
client in working through the feelings of abandonment— originating in his childhood—and
guided him in developing more self-respect and less dependence on her. She attributed the
movement in therapy to a parallel process that occurred: as the dream/fantasy images changed
so did the fi-ee association. Therefore, according to Lester, the encouragement of this client’s
imaginary life became an essential turning point in the evolution of the therapeutic encounter.
One of the primary limitations of this study is evidenced by it not being an art therapeutic
experience. However, the value in including it here rests with the illustration it provides as an
example of the creative mind in the healing process. Specifically, the movement from the
violent images to those of a benign nature suggests the existence of untapped potential within
the psyche of this individual. However, another difficulty with this study stems from its
reliance on psychoanalytic interpretation and practice. Little, if any, credence lies with the
natural creative ability expressed by this client. Again, the therapist as expert assumes the
authority for healing the client. As well, similar to the other art therapy studies discussed, it
focused on the existence o f an unconscious, and the need for the therapeutic technique to
access that unconscious material and bring it into the light of the present day. In so doing, it
emphasized that the only way to heal from childhood experiences is the resolution of
repressed memories through the development of a transference relationship with the analyst.

25

Baron (1989) conducted art therapy with patients who were sufkring 6om cancer. She
also worked from a psychoanalytic orientation, thus her focus relied on the revelation of
unconscious attitudes that afkct the mental state o f clients with cancer. In one specific case
example, she presented a woman who exhibited what Baron interpreted as denial regarding
her illness. An indicator, to Baron, of the woman’s denial was the maintenance of an
outwardly cheerful appearance to her family and others. Baron describes this woman’s denial
as a guard against facing and accepting the reality of the cancer in her body. This 41-year old
woman suffered with advanced lymphoma and, at that time, her drug trials were ineffective.
She participated in an art therapy group for people enduring cancer.
In one session, she drew a picture, which Baron interpreted as weakening her ability to
heal. Baron described the picture as containing a large, yellow tumor in the middle with
several men, carrying bows and arrows, shooting at the tumor and other men digging into the
healthy tissue surrounding the tumor. These men symbolized her immime system. The client
indicated that this was a picture portraying her triumph over the cancer. However, Baron
interpreted it as a “bleak” picture rather than accepting the client’s explanation that this
picture depicted how she was struggling to accept the cancer and attempting to live her life in
a less stressful manner. Baron, upon further reflection, concluded that the image might relay
some healing aspect, since it assisted the client’s partial acceptance of her medical condition.
Baron’s (1989) assumption that the client’s response to the art she created was inaccurate
represents an obvious limitation of this case study. Here we see another example of how the
‘expert’ therapist arrives at conclusions based on a pre-determined theoretical orientation
rather than on the specific expressions of the client. Baron’s highly analytical approach

26

assumed that the client engaged in a defense mechanism (denial) as a way to disown her
illness. Although the experience allowed the client to express some control over the invading
tumor, her initiative was undermined. It seems that it would be far more respectful to validate
the client’s creative and natural healing power evidenced in her drawing. Instead,.the
therapist attempted to remain ‘objective’ and thus did not express enthusiasm for the client’s
healing capacities. The study does, however, provide an opportunity for the reader to be
exposed to the healing power of the creative imagination despite the pathologizing critique.
McNiff (1981, 1992,1998) and Dailey et al. (1987) endorse another type of analytic art
therapy. They advocated for a perspective similar to a Jimgian archetypal approach to art
therapy. By doing so, they incorporated a theory proposed by Carl Jung, who maintained that
universal symbols are stored in the unconscious of all human beings. He referred to this facet
of the human psyche as the “collective unconscious” (Woodman, 1982). The collective
unconscious contains archetypal “ ...patterns or motifs.. .that are the basic content of
mythologies, legends and fairytales.” (Woodman, 1982, p. 195). These are the types of
images that archetypal art therapists believe come to light in the creation of imagery. As well,
Jungian art therapists maintain that these images, once interpreted through a personal process
such as art therapy, possess intrinsic, healing power that assists individuals in making
profound changes in their lives.
Similar to psychoanalytic art therapists, archetypal art therapists present their research in
the form of case studies. Their studies are replete with references to metaphors, and symbols
that are often found in various cultures. These therapists also maintain that the creation of art,
in and of itself, has a healing capacity because of the universal healing potential in human

27

creativity. Therefore, the case studies do not deal primarily with the resolution o f issues by
working through neurotic conflicts. Rather, they attest to the strength of an ancient healing
approach to release solutions when individuals engage in the creative process (McNiff,
1981).
These archetypal case studies addressed issues experienced primarily by adults. They
included the resolution of major transition phases in adult life, including the process of aging,
issues depression, and relationship difficulties. Although these are mainly adult life trials,
archetypal art therapy can be effective with children as well. Dailey et al., (1987) present case
studies of children who achieved a unified sense o f self upon completion of art therapy. This
sense of self refers to a stable awareness of who they were vis-à-vis their experiences that the
children attained due to the art therapy sessions. These children presented various problems
including anorexia, behaviour and school issues, enuresis (lack of bladder control), physical
ailments such as kidney trouble, anxiety, low self-image, physical abuse, fire-starting, and
parental separation. Dailey et al., (1987) worked with these children in a non-directive
manner, accepting their imagery without judgement or criticism, but being aware that many
o f their creations expressed both the children’s personal imconscious and imiversal patterns
the collective unconscious revealed to them through their images.
In one study, Dailey et al. (1987) reported on art therapy work completed with an
enuretic, nine-year old boy. He had become enuretic with the birth of his younger brother
after his mother became ill and unavailable to him. The art therapy lasted for an 18-month
period. One specific session she described incorporated Jungian theory. As with the other
sessions, this one was client-directed. Dailey et al., (1987), did not give any instructions to

28

the boy. During this session, he sculpted a clay bowl with a head in it. He completed the bowl
by painting and varnishing it. Upon completion o f this art piece, he became unusually joyful,
running around the therapy room excitedly.
Dailey et al. interpreted this to symbolize the child’s offering of himself to the “angry
goddess” (his mother). The child’s mother had been angry with him on several occasions due
to his violent outbursts at home. Dailey et al. believed this session to be a “peak experience”,
one in which they celebrated going out of the therapy room to buy a treat for the child (he
saved his treat for his mother). She discussed this session as one of the first in his journey
toward wholeness or the individuation of his psyche. By “individuation,” she referred to the
Jungian concept of a process by which the client develops a coherent “S elf’ that directs the
personality (Woodman, 1982).
Although Dailey et al. (1987) presented the work as a method of respect and regard for
children’s experience, a problem remains in the interpretation o f the child’s experience
according to a prescribed set of theoretical tenets. She resorted to the belief that the creation
of art has the power to extract universal motifs from the unconscious mind. Given this
interpretation, there remains little, if any, need to request an explanation from the client.
Again, in this art therapeutic approach, there is disregard for the client’s perspective. Despite
the rich imagery and the attractive nature of this interpretation to elicit a complex
understanding of the human condition, it continues to be another approach that relegates the
client to the background. The therapist occupies the foreground, assuming that the client has
no control o f his or her own recovery.
In summary, psychoanalytic art therapy has provided the art therapy discipline a sound

29

foundation on which to build further theory and incorporate new ideas. However, the
limitations o f this approach seem to now outweigh the beneûts. Limitations include: (a) the
emphasis on uprooting unconscious pathological motivation for certain behaviours rather
than recognition o f human strengths, (b) the concentration on interpretation of art and
therapeutic discourse according to a pre-determined theory of human development rather than
endorsing unique human experience, and (c) the relegation o f client knowledge to a place of
unimportance rather than consideration of it as a well o f valuable information, with the
potential for healing. Given these limitations, it remains necessary to research art therapeutic
experiences that focus primarily on the client as the expert, and honours his or her experience
as fundamental to the co-creation of, and meaningful interaction in the therapeutic
connection.
Socio-cognitive, gestalt and family systems art therapy and research.
Gestalt therapy provides an example of the movement away from psychoanalytic art
therapy with its emphasis on the attainment of insight. This approach focuses on the here and
now. The word ‘gestalt’ is a German word that has no literal translation into English, but
rather has been incorporated into English by philosophers and psychological theorists. Words
that come close to its meaning are “form, figure, pattern, structure and configuration” (Rhyne,
1984). Gestalt psychologist Fritz Peris, whom Ryhne trained with, is a famous proponent of
this approach. Rhyne explains one of the tenets of Gestalt theory; the “whole is greater than
the sum of the parts” (1984, p. 8). This concept, along with the emphasis that therapy occurs
in the here and now, provided Rhyne with a backdrop from which she developed gestalt art
experience. In particular, creating art became a way for individuals and groups to discern, in

30

the present time, their whole personality rather than reduce behaviours to pathological
expressions. This therapeutic experience provides a qualitatively different opportunity than
that of psychoanalytic art therapy. The latter has as its goal the identification of certain
pathology and the subsequent unearthing of it as a process of gaining insight.
Rhyne (1984) incorporated Gestalt theory with art therapy in an experience in which the
focus stays in the present. Rhyne defined the ‘gestalt art experiences’ as those in which the
artist or client is completely absorbed in the process of creating art by thoroughly
concentrating on the encounter with the art media, while at the same time being mindful of
the activity. In other words, there exists a process of watching oneself as one engages in the
art making. Rhyne maintained that through this type of mindfulness, the client recognized
preferred ways of being for now and the future.
Similar to the psychoanalytic approaches Rhyne (1984) used case studies to present her
work both in practice and research. She worked with groups, couples, individuals, and
families experiencing various life dilemmas. These included children and adolescents who
exhibited behaviours such as hyperactivity, selective mutism, developmental delays, suicide
attempts, and drug addiction.
One case Rhyne (1984) chose to report on was a 35-year old African-American woman’s
experience as a participant in group art therapy. This woman worked through issues of racism
while she participated in social action. The adult groups facilitated by Rhyne were
spontaneous and open-ended in which no specific directions were given about what to create.
During one session, this woman decided to paint apart from the group on the floor o f the
room. She labeled this image, “The Monster Man”, (Rhyne, 1984, p. 57). It depicted a huge

31

black male image on a background o f red.
Rhyne underscored the importance o f this image stating that it provided the first
opportunity for the woman to acknowledge her feelings of confusion, anger, and hurt. Her
associations to the painting included the acknowledgement of feelings such as isolation,
alienation, fear, disgust, and power. Rhyne adopted the technique of re-directing the
verbalizations about the painting back to the client’s immediate feelings and experience. She
identified this session as a crucial point in the therapy due its profound effect upon the
client’s willingness to express her feelings and let go of her strong need to control her effect.
According to Rhyne, the prime significance of this session relates to the realization that the
client discovered what being ‘black’ actually meant to her. In so doing, she began an intense
process of self-reflection.
One of the advantages of using Gestalt art therapy is that it requires the therapist to focus
on the present rather than the childhood or past experiences. Another advantage of this
approach stems from the concentration on the client’s language as he or she processes the art
therapy. In addition, it integrates the immediate reality with ‘fantasy’ in a constructive and
meaningful way. However, Gestalt art therapy, as an intra-subjective process, places the
emphasis on the therapist’s employment of certain techniques that extract meaning as if they
are instruments in discovering a core of truth. It seems to ignore the possibility that both
participants— client and art therapist—could co-create meaningful interchange through
mutual give-and-take.
Kwiatkowska (1978), Landgarten (1987), and Riley (1994) are some of the art therapists
who have promoted family art therapy. Art therapy from thi6 perspective integrates family

32

therapy theory. The blend of art therapy and family systems theory provides a specific
example of this integration. Family systems theory views the family as a unit in which each
member’s actions influence the other members of the family (Landgarten, 1987). A systems
approach to working on family issues adapted to art therapy permits the art therapist to
observe the family as it interacts together in creating an image or several images. Landgarten
identifies three components of family systems art therapy. These constituents are: (a) the
“process” that is a diagnostic tool to increase understanding of family communication and
troublesome patterns of interaction, (b) the “contents” (what actually takes place in the family
art therapy session) that supply a container for the expression o f both conscious and
unconscious patterns of being; and (c) the “product” (the image created) that provides a
record o f the family session. Other family systems theoretical concepts, such as “family roles,
alliances, communication patterns” (Landgarten, 1987, p. 6), are easily observed as the family
makes art together. In these ways, art therapy provides a concrete, bird’s eye view o f the
family creating a microcosm of their interactions.
Landgarten (1987) also presented her work and research in the form of art therapy case
studies. These included families who experienced various forms of discomfort and
difficulty—with issues resulting from parental separation and divorce, crisis intervention for
a family whose child who was sexually abused, a sole parent family suffering from
depression, to families with acting-out adolescents and terminally ill family members.
Landgarten (1987) described a case study in which a family struggled to resolve fair
parental visits for the children amidst divorce proceedings. During the course of the art
therapy, she invited the family to make spontaneous art as well as directed them in some art

33

tasks. Langarten used specific art directives, such as providing construction paper for all the
members (two children and parents), while requesting that they make an image illustrating
what they perceived as the current family dynamics.
She found that this art exercise depicted the struggle the family experienced when the
children only visited their father on weekends. For example, the mother’s picture entitled
“Angry Mondays” portrayed her resentment that Dad had become a “Good-Time Charlie.”
(Langarten, 1987, p. 61). This image contained three triangles with “angry arrows” (the father
and two children) coming out o f them, pointed at herself (a round shape). Landgarten
identified this session as being pivotal in that it crystallized the crux of the family issue. She
decided to schedule a follow-up session with the parents alone. The purpose of the follow-up
meeting was to negotiate visitation privileges agreeable to both parents. Several sessions
followed this one, culminating in the completion of several goals, including moving toward a
divorce in a less emotionally-laden manner, assisting the children in understanding the
reasons for the divorce, lessening o f the children’s guilt feelings, arranging visitation, and
helping the children to adjust to a different family structure.
Despite the many successes reported in this case study, the impetus for resolving the
family difficulties still originated with the art therapist. She retained the position of analyzing
the images and deciding on the next course of action. It did not appear that they negotiated
the necessity of a parental art therapy session. In a more collaborative approach, a process of
mediation could have occurred in which the client and art therapist reached a decision
through reciprocal interchange.

34

yêmmzff aW focW cow/nar/fowff arf f/Krapy aW rgfearcA.
Since its early inception, art therapy has, for the most part, endorsed a positivist
psychological stance. It focuses primarily on the dissolution of pathology and the
empowerment o f healthy patterns of behaviour and cognition. As discussed to this point, this
trend has been developed in the form of case studies, with the emphasis on the individual
(with the exception o f family art therapy). Byrne (1995) argues for the movement toward a
practice that is less entrenched in the interpretation of personal or archetypal symbols of the
imagery by an expert therapist and focused on the co-creation of meanings that emerge from
language and social context. Feminist art therapy and social constructionist art therapy are
approaches that address this need for change.
First of all, a definition o f postmodernism is required. Kvale (1992) locates the origin of
the term in the 1950’s and 1960’s when it was coined in architecture, literary criticism, and
sociology. He also notes that the term became popular during the 1970’s and 1980’s,
especially with the publication of Lyotard’s (1984) book. The Postmodern Condition: A
Report on Knowledge. Postmodernism distinguishes the following tenets: (a) it is not a
philosophy as much as a variety of perspectives and translations of human experience; (b)
there is a movement away from the belief in an objective reality and a tendency to question
encompassing, universal truths', (c) it is an epistemology that upholds the principle that
meaning is co-constructed and explained in reference to certain phenomena rather than the
adherence to an established doctrine of intention; (d) it promotes and (e) it upholds a belief
system that endorses the existence of multiple and relative human knowledge, constructed
through language in a social context. In art therapy, there has also been a movement toward

35

the incorporation o f postmodern beliefs in an attempt to understand the diversity of visual
expression related to human knowledge.
Art therapists appear to have mysteriously disregarded feminism, one of the most
powerful influences in the social sciences in the past four decades. Burt (1997) performed a
subject search on the CD-ROM Psyc Lit o f the articles and book chapters that mentioned
feminism and several professions, including art therapy, psychology, social work, family
therapy, psychiatry, occupational therapy, and psychotherapy between the years January,
1987 and June, 1994. Out of 357 articles that referenced art therapy, she found that there
were no book chapters and only two journal articles (a total o f 0.6%) that mentioned
feminism. A striking lack of research and case presentation exists in the art therapy field
when comparing the number o f studies undertaken in the field of psychology. The latter
referenced 138 articles and 170 book chapters (a total of 1.4%).
Burt (1997) defines feminist theory, within the context of her writing, as the
“ .. .movement to equalize the position of women in relation to the position of men in our
society.” (p. 98). As well, she maintains the following point: socio-political structures that
oppress women exist in society. Included in these is the field of mental health.
Furthermore, the personal experience of each woman in society is valid and is influenced
by these socio-political structures, which are socially constructed with specific purposes, and
both sexes are constrained by their individual sex roles and by absorbing the attributes of
androgyny (the characteristics of both genders). Each gender could experience liberation to
some extent.
Liebmann’s (1997) case study of a self-help women’s project in Bristol, England

36

exemplifies art therapy from a feminist perspective. This group project was entitled NEWPIN
(New Parent Infant Network). Goals of this program were: reducing the cycle of abuse in
families, preventing child abuse, building parental self-esteem, liberating parents from the
influence of depression and loss of identity, and encouraging parents to adopt a belief in the
worth of consistent and caring child care.
The coordinator introduced art therapy to this group in an attempt to balance the verbal
component of the group with a creative feature. Input attained from the group members
determined the criteria for involvement in the art therapy group. For example, they
established a guideline that accepted all imagery without criticism (Liebmann, 1997). As
well, the participants founded the group on feminist principles similar to those identified by
Burt (1997). Considering that the group blueprint transpired during the initial phase of the
development, issues of power and control diminished to some extent. The group members
experienced the resolution of personal issues through the creative act of discovering their
unrecognized strengths in the art-making process. In this case, an expert art therapist did not
analyze the art. Evaluation of the group experience revealed that a consciousness-raising
occurred. Specifically, the women indicated that they, through the creative activity,
recognized how many socio-political and economic conditions had held them back. The
coordinator of the project observed that the participants achieved a sense o f greater control in
their lives through the art therapy group and this enabled them to feel more empowered in
facing further life difficulties. The women also acknowledged that they felt more capable
because they found their “voices” (Liebmann, 1997, p. 214). Dialogue following the group
sessions exemplified this change. In particular, these women identified gender discrepancies

37

and considered how these societal limitations affected them in daily life.
Ross (1997), another feminist art therapist, conducted a study in which she interviewed
participants in three groups. These participants were either employed as speech therapists
(professionals), speech therapist trainees, or clients. The female participants explored the
issue of conflict and its effects on them both professionally and personally. The groups ran
for an hour and a half on a one-time basis.
The first group consisted o f the professionals who were asked to consider the various
roles in their lives and to think about the degree (if any) of conflict they felt

. .within or

between their roles.” (Ross, 1997, p. 143). She requested that each woman create an image
that resonated with these thoughts. Ross found that both personal and social concerns
materialized in the imagery and the ensuing discussion. Conflicts arose that related to both
work and home. Work-related conflicts revolved around working hours in the clinic,
seniority, professional status, and duties of supervision, and establishing clear boundaries
with clients. The nature of the personal conflicts reflected a high degree of exhaustion from
working. As a result, the women felt guilty that they were conceivably “neglecting^ their
families. For example, one image Ross describes as “...home and work colliding with each
other like meteorites” (1997, p. 144). Upon further self-reflection, through open
communication with each other, the participants realized that these conflicted pressures were
in part “self-imposed” and in part due to the expectations of others.
The second group, composed of trainees whose training consisted partly of assertiveness
training, was asked to consider a question that asked whether they thought they had acted
assertively or unassertively and how. After such reflection, the researchers imparted an

38

invitation to the participants to create an image that reflected these considerations. The
difference between the images of assertiveness and non-assertiveness indicated to Ross
(1997) a noticeable component of the art-making encounter.
Interestingly, the participants often referred to themselves as two distinct individuals,
when in a non-assertive stance or an assertive one. A particular woman’s picture of herself as
not assertive provides a poignant example o f this distinction. She described it as a "crumpled
and bent-over flower.” (Ross, 1997, p. 145). Other women expressed experiences in the nonassertive stance as being “invisible” and being “unable to stand upright”. This art-making
encounter also triggered painful childhood memories that the participants shared and worked
through because of their experience of safety within the group. However, the assertive images
also expressed profound wisdom. They depicted women as “full-bodied figures”, women
“overcoming the powerlessness and “being real” (Ross, 1997, p. 146). Overall, these
participants perceived a power difference between themselves and those in authority. They
decided that a preferred reality would be to bridge that gap by behaving more assertively
since this would help them feel more authentic as human beings.
The third group included clients who stammered. Ross (1997) asked them to create two
separate images; one of feeling “powerful” and the other of feeling “powerless”. She
discovered that these women experienced a fimdamental sense of “being out of control”
(Ross, 1997, p. 146). Some of the participants assembled collage (a picture created with
ready-made images found in books or magazines) that portrayed images o f powerlessness
consisting of magazine pictures of overweight women or shabby women, as exemplified by
one woman’s depiction o f herself as a huge mouth enclosing a spiral. She described it as “ ...a

39

bottomless pit of appetites.” (Ross, 1997, p. 147). A significant outcome o f creating these
pictures of powerlessness and the pursuant discussion relates to how women connected their
feelings of impotence not only to individual concerns, but also to their gender in general.
They felt that, as women, above and beyond having a disability, they experienced less
authority in society. The powerful images, on the other hand, contained pictures of slim
women, beautiful homes, exercise equipment, and ‘Virtuous foods such as salads” (Ross,
1997, p. 147). Overall, this group of women felt that to become powerful they must somehow
suppress their natural passions. Ross concluded that through the art therapy experience, these
women identified their personal struggles and connected them to the social roles they
occupied, and the attitudes they had adopted regarding the social constrictions of their
gender. In this study, women also experienced a type of consciousness-raising that
encouraged them to make decisions about ways they could alter their behaviour in an attempt
to decrease their feelings of disqualification.
A criticism of this study relates to the fact that the researcher/facilitator introduced the
idea of conflict before the art-making process, Specifically, she requested that they consider
how conflict had affected their lives. Even though she acknowledged that she had used a
directive to instruct the participants in this researcher, she did not account for the influence
this instruction may have had on the type of images created or how it could have impacted
the ensuing verbal or non-verbal reflections. This study characterizes an approach in which
an art therapist uses a directive to inspire the creation of art that will depict an experience she
is interested in researching rather than one in which the researcher accepts the generation of
spontaneous imagery. Ross (1997) did not take into consideration that she might have

40

restricted the art expressions to some degree by inviting the participants to consider a specific
concept. A further impact o f Ross's use of a directive may be that it disallowed alternative
images that led to discussions of past successes already utilized by these women to master
dilemmas such as conflicts.
Malchiodi (1997) presented an overview o f feminist art therapy in which she describes
the art created by several women artists who suffered with breast cancer. Although these artmaking experiences were not carried out with an art therapist, she maintains that they were
therapeutic in that the individuals concerned worked through painful struggles through the
utilization o f creative expression. Malchiodi indicated that these artists participated in a form
o f social action by making their pain visible through their art. In a larger way, through
exposure of these images to the public in the form of exhibits, they became symbols of
emancipation from what could have been the silencing and isolation of their experience. The
art projects took the form o f grief masks (sculptures), a mastectomy quilt, photography and
ceramics, as well as, poetry and books (Malchiodi, 1997).
Through the action of exposing their creative expressions of their suffering, these artists
evolved from a position of victimization to one of entitlement (Malchiodi, 1997). As well,
these acts of empowerment became a form of “inspiration” for other women suffering from
breast cancer (Malchiodi, 1997). By having the courage to expose their pain in such a public
forum, these artists became champions for the rights of women experiencing such a
devastating ordeal.
By focusing on the gender imbalance implicit in a patriarchal society and reporting on its
impact on women and, in some cases, on men, feminist art therapy and research has become

41

an important arm o f the art therapeutic world. In the studies quoted, the group experiences of
these women appeared to have assisted the participants in this recognition and, in so doing,
raised their consciousness. Women also benefited from the feminist art therapy groups
because it provided a venue for them to express their suffering in a visual form. This
appeared to be helpful in not only understanding their experiences, but also in reducing the
isolation of suffering alone. The universal nature of a group experience created an interaction
between the women in a social arena. The participants and the facilitator negotiated
meaningful co-constructions of these painful experiences. In a modernist, rather than a
postmodern approach (Ross, 1997), the researcher moulds the experience by restricting the
results through a process o f suggestion. Ross, for example, directed the participants to create
images about their experiences o f conflict. By doing so, it is possible that she excluded
alternative images, which may have influenced the ensuing discussion. As well, it still
represents an example of an expert determining an outcome and interpreting it according to
her expectations.
Social constructionism is based on several suppositions. These include: the existence of
an established, knowable reality rather than the belief in an obscure, indefinite reality
comprehensible through communication and further co-constructed as individuals continue to
exchange individual thoughts; the modernist idea that a “system of knowledge” (Shotter,
1993, p. 179) exists for humans to discover is not emphasized; the co-construction of reality
occurs among people through a shared interaction (using language) within particular social
contexts (including historical ones) (Shotter, 1993).
Riley (1994) initiated the use of social constructionism into the practice and research of

42

family art therapy. She became aware of the importance of the individuars or the family’s
social and cultural contexts and the influence of these necessary links on difficult
experiences. Specifically, she adhered to the tenet that clients construct valuable meaning that
they award to their experience. This meaning, co-constructed between the client(s) and the
therapist, provides the impetus for change in the therapeutic encounter.
Central to this approach, art therapists adopt a stance of curiosity and tentativeness. In
addition, Riley (1994) contends this stance lessens the need for the therapist to demonstrate
her or his expertise by determining the “right answer” to clients’ difficulties. As well,
therapists/art therapists must not only maintain an inquiring attitude, but they also need to
embrace one of vigilance regarding their meanings of reality. From this perspective, value is
placed on human contact as a social interaction in which meaning is not discovered but rather
must be created within the give and take of dialogue with each other and about the image.
Riley (1999) explains that the art therapist provides art media and a favorable environment
and the client constructs images upon which they reflect. In so doing, the therapist can offer
interpretation that may be accepted or rejected by the client. Arriving at the final explanation
of these images follows a thorough process of give-and-take that emphasizes the plurality of
“truths”. Social constructionist art therapy, therefore, provides an inter-subjective opportunity
to process therapeutic issues and to actualize, multiple and shared meanings.
Ultimately, the inter-subjective experience of the client effectively results in the co­
creation of meaning, not as a static concept, but rather as one of fluidity that changes and
adapts as people communicate with each other. Contact with others becomes the prime way
in which personal and shared meaningful interpretations of life events continually change

43

through verbal and non-verbal language (Fruggeri, 1996; Gergen and Kaye, 1996; Riley,
1994 and 2000; Shotter, 1993).
Riley (1994) supports her claims with a case study in which she explored one family's
narrative through the use of social constructionist art therapy. One or more of his caretakers
had subjected an 11 -year old boy to various forms of emotional and physical abuse. One
particular form of abuse at the hands o f his stepmother required him to kneel on dried beans
for hours, sometimes more than once a day. This torture had made him lame. Riley
maintained that essential to his therapy would be that he reconstruct the meaning he
associated with beans. During the art therapy sessions, attended by the boy and his foster
mother, he decorated a shoebox with magazine images and cut a slot in the top of it. Riley
then decided to cut out bean shapes from brown construction paper. Initially, this behaviour
confronted the boy, frightening him to some degree. Although Riley directed the art therapy
by choosing to cut out bean shapes, which may be interpreted as an attempt on her part to
control the outcome of his therapy, she succeeded in calming his fears through her empathie
responses to him. With each subsequent session he became able to take some of the beans
and put them in the box, entitling the act as “ .. .things he wanted to forget” (Riley, 1994, p.
23).
Through a process of handling the bean shapes and exerting his control over them, he
began to talk about the pain of his experiences and eventually overcame his fear of beans.
The meaning of these past experiences changed through the actual hands-on experience of
manipulating the ‘beans’ and altering what had been a traumatic hurtful phenomenon into one
of irrelevance. In other words, Riley and the child collaborated to co-construct a new reality.

44

one in which he transmuted terror and trauma into self-efficacy and self-control.
Campbell and Abra Gaga (1997) corroborate Riley's (1994) perspective by reporting on
a study in which a young African-American woman sought art therapy following a drug
overdose. This case occurred in Britain where this young woman, as a child, had been
apprehended by social services and placed in various neglectful and abusive foster homes.
Initially, in therapy, this woman reported that she usually dreamt of herself as ‘white’.
However, as art therapy progressed and the art therapists encouraged her to embrace her
ethnicity through image-making and ensuing dialogue, she started to dream o f herself as a
black person. Prior to engaging in art therapy, this client had not been able to articulate her
experiences but, through the creative process, developed the strength to express the pain of
enduring racism and, in time, embraced an identity filled with pride and possibility.
In some ways, these two case studies approximate cognitive-behavioural art therapy,
however, the primary difference focused on the dialogue in these studies.
Although the writers observed a definite change in the clients’ behaviours and
cognitions, the treatment emphasis remained on the language co-constructed between the
clients and the art therapists. In addition, a shared activity occurred between the clients and
art therapists in which a different interpretation resulted (Riley, 1994; Campbell & Abra
Gaga, 1997). For example, in the latter case, the client and art therapist co-created a new
version of the experience of being a woman of colour. It moved from one o f “despair and
pain”, to one of self-confidence and self-acceptance. Through the creation o f imagery,
encompassed within a healing discourse that employed negotiation, this client embraced a
new self-image.

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Kapitan and Newhouse (2000) offer another example of social constructionist
exploration conducted in a similar manner to a case study; however, they describe it as a
narrative of deconstruction and reconstruction. Kapitan presents Newhouse’s creative process
as she worked through her struggle to complete her thesis for a Masters Degree in Art
Therapy. Kapitan initially struggled with what she perceived as a lack of organization and
rigour on the part o f the student (Newhouse). However, as Newhouse continued to create art,
such as collage, accompanied by writing, Kapitan realized that, rather than approach this
project in a linear fashion, she disassembled previously held postulates that art and thesiswriting need to be completed in an “organized” and lineal manner. Instead of following
academic guidelines, Newhouse used art to construct her individual meaning, related to the
process of writing a thesis. In this way, she engaged in an experience in which multiple
meaning(s) could be created instead of adhering to a formula for how a thesis is to be
produced. For example, Newhouse described her art making:
Often a single object or scrap o f paper inspires me, and around that scrap I build a
collage. I lay my initial scrap on a sheet of paper without gluing it down. I add,
rearrange, remove, and manipulate the materials until I am satisfied I have achieved an
acceptable effect (Kapitan and Newhouse, 2000, p. 117).
Newhouse demonstrated what occurs in a social constructionist process—how the
individual interacts with the environment to create something different than initially
perceived. In other words, meaningful reality transpired when she constructed one of specific
and profound importance.
In addition, this exploration illustrates the inter-subjective aspect of social
constructionism. Only through ongoing dialogue between Kapitan and Newhouse did new

46

meaning actualize. Kapitan disclosed how, initially, she questioned Newhouse’s approach.
However, by challenging herself to re-examine her preconceived beliefs about thesis writing,
supplemented by recurrent conversations with Newhouse, she learned to trust the credibility
of this dialogic process.
A study conducted by Kalmanowitz and Lloyd (1999) exemplifies further a qualitative
approach. They conducted it in the former Yugoslavia where the researchers complemented a
team from Britain sponsored by the British charity, ‘War Child’. They facilitated two
exploratory pilot projects in Slovenia and Croatia to determine the needs of the refugees. The
art therapists offered a variety of art media to the participants in this project and, for the most
part, art making happened spontaneously. Specifically, they established an “arts-based trauma
centre” where refugees dropped in to experiment with image making (Kalmanowitz & Lloyd,
1999, p. 17). They created two primary symbols: roads and houses. The researchers found that
the houses represented the refugees’ loss of their homes, and the roads symbolized the many
miles these people had walked. The researchers initially identified these symbols as themes.
However, once the researchers made this identification, they returned to the participants to
engage in a collaborative process in which the latter described the roads as representing their
long journeys and the houses as depicting the loss of their homes.
Following the research, Kalmanowitz and Lloyd engaged in a self-reflective process, by
making art themselves. By doing this, they determined that their main purpose in this
research was to ‘bear witness’ to the suffering of the refugees (Kalmanowitz & Lloyd, p. 25).
Since these researchers participated in a process of self-reflection rather than imposing a
standard test upon the refugees, it seems that this research falls into the category of social

47

constructionist inquiry. It is the willingness, as a researcher, to not only acknowledge one's
influence upon the research environment, but also to explore the effect o f the study on
oneself as a researcher that positions this study within the realm of social constructionism. As
well, these researchers adopted a stance of “not-knowing” rather than one of an expert in
relation to the participants’ lived experience (Riley, 2000). By embracing this posture, these
researchers practiced one o f the principal premises suggested by social constructionist
theorists. Acceptance of this stance implies that the researcher believes that meaning making
is a collaborative process rather than a discovery process where one individual unearths
unrealized self-understandings with the assistance of a detached authority.
Limitations o f Traditional Art Therapy Research
Byrne (1995), M cNiff (1998), Burt (1996,1997), Riley (1994,2000), and Kapitan and
Newhouse (2000) advocate for a change in the research of art therapy. They maintain that
research in art therapy, to date, consisted of methods such as case study because of the
connection between art therapy and psychiatry. As indicated earlier, case study research
dominated the research in the field of art therapy. This approach did not fit with my hopes of
answering questions about the process of meaning making in art therapy.
McNiff (1998) and Byrne (1995) promote the exploration of qualitative research
methods in which the art therapy experience can be brought forth with more imagination and
creativity within a discursive method. Specifically, they refer to an approach that takes into
consideration the ideas put forth by social constructionism. One tenet in particular stands out:
that language and interaction cultivate the co-construction of meaning.
Deacon (2000) also proposes movement toward more creative and postmodern

48

approaches in qualitative research. In particular, she defends the use of the arts to collect data
because of their ability to express the multiplicity of human experience that in turn leads to
co-constructed discourse. For example, she discusses methods such as visual arts, drama,
writing, and use of metaphors, photography and videography used to provide a rich
foundation o f contextual information that may accompany verbal language. Her approach fits
well with M cNiff s (1998) ideas about the use o f innovative research techniques that he terms
"art-based research”.
McNiff (1998) coined the term “art-based research” and he refers to it as follows:
“.. .art-based research grows from a trust in the intelligence of the creative process and a
desire for relationships with the images that emerge from it. These two focal points are
the basis for a new tradition of inquiry.” (p. 37).
He emphasizes the need for art-based research by stating that the appropriate setting for
it is “daily practice in the world...” (McNiff, 1998, p.82). Also, he focuses on the necessity
for research in art therapy to be based in creative activity that occurs within the world of
everyday experience. With this acknowledgement McNiff (1998), expresses an urgency to
explore daily phenomena that take place inter-subjectively. In other words, he stresses not
only the relationship between the art and the artist but also the relationships between the
artist, the art therapist and the art, the ensuing discourse, and how they weave together. It
seems that his notion of art-based research fits well into the thoughts 1 had about exploring
the creativity and meaning-making process that occurs in art therapy. In particular M cNiff s
(1998) “art-based research” harmonized with the tenets put forth by social constructionism,
especially with its focus on examining the ordinary interactions of the client and art therapist.
As well, M cNiff s concern with creative aspects of research blended well with social

49

constructionism’s consideration that central to the experience of two or more people
interacting is the process by which they co-construct meaningful, discursive exchange.
Research Question
My interest in “living moments” and multiple truths, discovered in the therapeutic
process led me to the following research question: How does the creation of imagery and the
discourse, related to that imagery, nurture and give rise to meaningful “alive moments”
(Shotter & Katz, 1998) between the art therapist and the client? These moments of realization
are notable because they reify, both through the art and the dialogue, the movement that
evolves. Shotter and Katz (1996) refer to such instants of vitality in therapeutic practice as
“living or arresting moments”. They define them as: “. . . to be ‘struck’ or ‘arrested’ by
another’s words is not just to responsively understand them in terms o f a single
connectedness. . . but to find oneself resonating to a whole multiplicity of other
possibilities.” (Shotter & Katz, 1996, pp. 2-3). In other words, the listener becomes transfixed
by certain words/phrases (in the case of art therapy, images), of momentous proportion.
Specifically, they are two important aspects to the understanding the significance of “alive
moments”. They are: (1) that these interactions occur within a relational sphere in which one
is seized by a realization that one’s self has been changed in a surprising and significant
manner. (2) these living moments resonate throughout your being, they are not a verbal
response only. Shotter & Katz (1998) quote Bachelard by emphasizing that as with poetry,
these living interactions characteristically fashion existence because of their power to halt our
typical reactions and almost force us to alter our sense of others and ourselves. Our inner
conversations also change as our outer interactions become more reflective and tentative. In

50

this way “alive moments" become instants of crystallized meaning that offer the unexpected
opportunity to alter our living knowledge and consider other potential for possibilities not
previously contemplated.
The co-construction of meaningful alive moments between myself and former clients
required an examination of previously conducted research in an attempted to discern if there
had been movement o f any kind toward a postmodern approach in art therapy. As indicated
by Alter-Muri (1998), the movement in the fine arts world toward the acceptance of
postmodernism and current critical analysis of modernist thought was beginning to shake the
underpinnings of traditional art therapy theory. During this study, I met and co-constructed
art therapy sessions with four individuals who participated in all aspects of the research
experience. The aim was to experience a collaborative art therapy experience in which
meaningful interchange was negotiated through the identification of alive moments (Fuller &
Strong, 2001). These alive moments were chosen by both the researcher and participants and
were further analyzed and crystallized into meaningful communication within a social
constructionist framework.

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Chapter Three
Methods
Research Approach
To construct an experience of art therapy with research participants, I decided to
combine a Rogerian counselling approach and social constructionism as an overall
epistemology along with Participatory Action Research (PAR). Harriet Wadeson (1992), an
eminent art therapist, encapsulates, in the following quote, one of the concerns I had
regarding art therapy research:
Yet, most art therapists enter the field charged with their own personal experience of
gratification from art expression and a wish to involve themselves with others through
the intimacy of imagery. Such work is of a very different nature from the exacting of
methodological considerations of research design and implementation (Wadeson, 1992,
p. 1).
My interest in research of a “different nature” became essential. Proponents of a social
constructionist approach offered a way to captivate the desire that many art therapists,
including myself, have to “involve” ourselves in the intrinsic co-construction of bringing
forth meaningful discourse within the art therapy experience. The methodology I chose
needed to reflect this desire. I had to shed the delusion that I could be an “objective”
researcher. I decided to choose PAR as a research method. This choice complemented my
belief that, as a social constructionist, I would be deeply impacted by the research
participants, as they would be by me. As well, the collaboration and relationship(s) we
created would acutely influence us.
Participatory Action Research as a method moves beyond understanding of another’s
world (their subjective experience), to the active process of co-creating meaning that results

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in some type of action or change. Smith (1997) presents PAR as an experience of liberation
in which a group o f people meets to understand, analyze, and deliberate over a “living
process” (p. 173) with the goal of implementing some type of change. The movement occurs
through what Smith refers to as “dialectic of praxis” or an “action-reflection” process.
Action-reflection, an analytic, informative experience, occurs when the participants and
researcher engage in contemplative self-reflection within the context of their present and past
experiences. Following this interaction, the participants and researcher interact in a different
manner. These interactions are related to the newly acquired knowledge o f self and other
(Smith, 1997).
PAR also includes, within its theoretical tenets, the concept that “objectivity does not
exist” (Smith, 1997, p. 183). In other words, “people are active agents in their world,” (Fine,
1996, p. 180). Through the entire PAR experience, individuals affirm how they are actively
involved in the construction of their realities. Similar to the views of social constructionist
inquiry, multiple realities are honoured, discourse is constructed relationally within a social
milieu, self-reflexivity takes place, and the final word of expertise comes from those whose
lives that are directly affected. Smith (1997) defines PAR as a research methodology
encompassing a theory of knowledge and reality in which the researcher accepts the primacy
of dialogic, relational meaning making. The construction o f this methodology includes the
adoption of the following principles: (a) liberation as intent; (b) the development of a
“compassionate culture”; (c) participation in a “holistic, dynamic, vital, circular” process
(i.e., praxis, defined as action-reflection); (d) honouring research participants’ reality,
including the acknowledgement of historical and cultural knowledge; (e) participating

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collectively to explore, discuss, and take action on collaborated ideas; and (f) co-constructing
new “living” knowledge gathered through continuous dialogue, one that results in a deeplyunderstood transformation (Smith, 1994). These principles fit well with social
constructionism and its epistemological foundations dedicated to the co-construction of
authentic, relational, and diverse realities.
Maina (1999) presents another aspect o f PAR that may not be readily appreciated. She
discloses her previous struggle to find “appropriate methods of data collection that would be
congruent with the experience o f the members of my community and particularly the teachers
who would be directly involved in my research” (Maina, 1999, p. 4). It is a concern I shared
with her. Specifically, I felt somewhat conflicted because, as Maina (1999) indicates, the
researcher contrives the research design in the first place. However, within the frame of a
social constructionist position, I acknowledged that I was not about to attempt to conduct
value-free, objective research. As a matter of theoretical integrity in this case, 1 became active
and fully involved in the co-construction of realities as a collaborator. My input would be as
pertinent as that of the research participants. Given that social science research is done with
human participants and that 1 developed this study, it was my contention that by my
assumption o f a social constructionist approach, using Rogerian counselling couched within
PAR methodology, I endeavored to co-construct a shared experience. Specifically, I
perceived this research as a series of micro-PAR interactions. Once participants accepted the
invitation to participate, they became co-constructors in the process, outcome, and reporting
of the research through my willingness to be transparent and genuine in my interactions with
them. For example, I assured the participants that they did not have the power to hurt my

54

feelings and that I hoped that they would bring up any concerns through talking, email, letters
or asking for an advocate who may be willing to speak for them. Also, I maintained a selfreflective posture through my own journaling process, writing and making art on my own that
revealed biases, excessive influence, or disempowering thoughts and feelings that may have
developed within myself. 1joined with the participants by honestly disclosing any previously
held perceptions, as well as any emergent perceptions, so that I would maintain a nonhierarchical and congruent culture. In this way, I believe that two directions emerged— one in
which I shared my thoughts, feelings, and perceptions with them and another in which they
reciprocated. 1 trust that, with this approach, an experience was created in which 1 became
their research participant (Freire, 1990). Within this type of collaborative model, we co­
created art and conversation, and participated in a dialogic process of relational and practical
interplay.
Participants/Co-researchers
I invited people to participate in this collaborative experience from my place of
employment and other public places. 1 posted a recruitment notice at my present place of
employment, emailed it to friends and colleagues, and put them in public places such as the
art gallery, the college, and the university, outlining the research and requesting participants
(Appendix E).
The participants were adults, four women, and one man over the age of 20 years. Their
relevant life issues ranged from unresolved childhood experiences to difficulties in present
relationships, work-related problems, career choices, and grief over loss of a parent.

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Procedures
The research occurred at my place o f employment where we scheduled art therapy
sessions that fit both my schedule and that of the participants. Data was collected in a series
of interviews during which the participants created images. I used both videotaping and
audiotaping to ensure accurate recording of the interactions. I provided the participants with
simple art media such as tempera paint, chalk and oil pastels, crayons, felt pens, clay, and
paper. Initially, the participants and I met to review the Information Letter (Appendix E). I
explained the intent of the research. In addition, I asked the participants to express their
opinions about the value o f the research. At that time, I requested any suggestions or
contributions they may have regarding the study. As well, I clarified the act of choosing a
meaningful alive moment.
After the first meeting, the following process evolved: (1) the spontaneous making of art
by the participant, while I quietly observed; (2) upon completion of the art-making I gave the
videotape to the participants and requested they choose an alive moment. 1 explained that 1,
too, would choose an alive moment and then we would meet to discuss our choices; (3) we
reconvened and reviewed the selected videotape. At that time, we discussed the importance
of the alive moment and how our choices were different or similar. An interaction resulted,
characterized by mutual exchange of empathie understanding. 1 audiotaped this conversation
with the purpose of recording our verbal communication. (4) 1 then had the audiotape
transcribed requesting that it include all responses. (5) Once transcribed, the participant and 1
met to peruse it for accuracy and engaged in further collaboration about the process we co­
created. This discussion crystallized the alive moment as the most meaningful point in the

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therapeutic interaction. We met for a last time to identify and discuss any relevant and
possible recurring themes or patterns that we had co-constructed. Between each part of the
research process, a one- to two-week period elapsed.
As well, I kept ajournai outlining the influence the research had on me. This journal
contains writing as well as the drawings, paintings and clay sculptures that assisted me in
processing the research experience. I disclosed any relevant ideas I had conceptualized
through this journaling to the participants. I regarded this process as an integral part o f the coconstruction of the meaningful dialogic interaction we engaged in.
Data Analysis
During the third meeting with the participants, once the reviewed audio tape sections had
been transcribed, we collaborated and discussed the alive moments to determine if the
identification of these striking instants in the therapeutic encounter nurtured the emergence of
themes that were valuable to us. Exploring the data for the existence of individual themes
proved to be worthwhile as it assisted in establishing coherence in the meaning-making
aspect o f art therapy. Identification of these congruent strands of understanding bolstered the
experience for both the participants and I. It assisted in highlighting our appreciation of our
similarities and differences as authentic human beings.
In addition, I asked the participants if they sensed a difference in themselves since
involvement in the research. I attempted to determine how they might have been affected by
the research in ways that may not have been expected. Typical of qualitative research,
imexpected data did appear. According to a PAR approach, I discussed this unforeseen data
with the participants. We cooperated to determine the relevance of this data to the overall

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research experience.
I expected that the participants and I would be changed to some extent, but I had no way
of knowing how this would occur. As I had experienced in the past, I was once again
surprised by the impact of art therapy. As well, I imagined that 1 would be invited to
contemplate how powerful social constructionist art therapy was in humbling my experience
as an art therapist. These feelings, too, were reinforced. 1 had the opportunity once again to
experience the momentum toward health that occurs when two people collaborate with the
goal of co-constructing wellness.
Ethics
A concern with ethical standards became my highest priority in this research, given the
emphasis I had placed on co-construction, and the necessity to maintain respect of the
participants’ lived experience. In particular, I contemplated four questions: if 1 were a client
would 1 want this research to occur? If so, then how would I assure more comfort and bring
forth increased participant empowerment (Zeni, 1998)7 Are there situations in which my role
as an art therapist and a researcher conflict? If I assumed there would be such a role conflict,
how would I endeavor to resolve such discord (Stiles, 1993)?
Firstly, 1 endeavoured to “do no harm” (Palys, 1997). This criterion, taken from the
Canadian Psychological Association Guidelines for ethical principles of research and therapy,
ensures respect and dignity for all persons who participate in research (Palys, 1997, p. 102).
The Canadian Counselling Association (1999) also upholds similar principals regarding
respect for the dignity of persons and “not willfully harming others” (p. iv). In addition. Miles
and Huberman (1994) suggest similar ethical guidelines. Specifically, they delineate speçific

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points that are fundamental to sensitive research. For example, at the stages o f recruitment,
fieldwork, and reporting, the researcher must ensure (dependent upon theoretical perspective)
that ultimate care is taken when approaching participants. Specifically, one adopts an
'‘ecological” approach adopting the following postures: (a) during the recruitment, the need
for cultural sensitivity; (b) during the fieldwork, avoid being detached; and, (c) during the
reporting, engaging in responsive communication.
This ecological perspective provided a foundation for what Zeni (1998) presents as a
necessary element when conducting collaborative research. She discusses “action research”
as a type of “insider research” due to the nature of the practitioner-researcher role. Thoughtful
contemplation occurred in order to attend to the following points: recognition of the power
relations between researcher and research participants; consciously working in collaborative
decision-making as a way o f flattening the hierarchy; the purpose of the study and would
participants consider it a worthwhile endeavor; are there risks and benefits to both researcher
and participants, and what efforts will be implemented to minimize the risks; fully
questioning the concept of informed consent, and thoroughly discussing with participants the
consequences of their involvement; assuring anonymity and confidentiality by asking
participants to choose pseudonyms and, further, by changing identifying demographic
information; determining how the data will be collected and stored, providing a secured
storage place (such as a locked file cabinet) to guarantee participant confidentiality; providing
an opportunity for participants to withdraw from the study at any time during the process; and
discussing ownership of the document produced (Zeni, 1998).
Weingarten (1991) introduces the concept of “intimacy” into the consideration of ethical

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demands, both in therapy and research. She defines intimacy as interaction occurring when
people share meaning or co-create meaning and are able to coordinate their mutual meaning
making. Meaning can be shared through writing, speech, gesture, or symbol. In the process of
co-creating or sharing meaning, individuals have the experience of knowing and being known
to each other. Intimate interaction can happen with one or more people, in actual or imagined
encounters (Weingarten, 1991, pp. 294-295).
Clearly, from this standpoint, therapists and researchers have an opportunity to coconstruct meaningful, intimate interaction by their presence in the research environment.
Considering the inter-subjectivity of the research perspective I participated in, 1 discovered
that 1 became fully aware and vigilant regarding the implicit unequal power relations that
could have exist in any research experience. As a critical requirement, I decided to honestly
disclose any thoughts I had regarding my privilege in an attempt to decrease the power
inequity and to increase the level of intimate interaction.
Given the nature of this collaborative study and my primary concern with “doing no
harm,” I ensured the safety and well being of participants. Clients who have been working
with my colleagues at my place of employment and those who saw my notice posted in other
public places were invited to participate. I presented them with an information sheet and
discussed any possible concerns they had about their participation, focusing on any cultural
or specific issue that may have been sensitive to them. As well, I asked at the outset of our
conversations whether clients consider this type of research a worthwhile experience for them
and the field in general. To effectively address any possible bias, I sought to maintain quality
control through processes referred to as “forestructure” and “permeability” (Stiles, 1993, p

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602). In order to attain such permeability and forestracture, I kept an ongoing journal of my
reactions and, as well, sought to disclose these renewed imderstandings to the participants.
I protected the identity o f research participants by requesting that they choose
pseudonyms and by changing demographic information. 1 provided participants with
informed consent forms to sign and discussed in detail any concerns they had. In particular, 1
maintained vigilance in these discussions by asking if participants fully understood what
exactly their involvement meant, including access and availability of the thesis document.
These consent forms included a statement that ensured participants would have the power to
decide whether images created within this experience would be attached to the document.
1 provided participants with the opportunity at all stages of the research process to
withdraw from the study. As well, 1 made myself available for discussion of any concerns
that arose or, if participants did not feel comfortable discussing these concerns with me, 1
suggested names o f other therapists they may wish to contact. 1 advised participants that all
videotapes, audiotapes and typed transcripts (raw data) would be stored in a locked, metal file
cabinet that I alone have access to. Raw data would be made available to my advisor, my
committee members and participants (if interested), and stored in a locked file cabinet for
five years. 1 offered the research participants an opportunity to continue art therapy with me,
for two sessions free of charge, to work through any issues that may have arisen out of the
research experience. If this arrangement was not satisfactory 1 suggested names of other
therapists in the community for the participants to pursue therapy with. As well, 1 made
myself available for further discussion and resolution of any concerns that may come up due
to the research, if participants sought therapy with other professionals. To maintain validity in

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a qualitative study, I continually collaborated with another art therapist and/or other therapists
or counselors to monitor my motivation and to be vigilant with regard to the issues of
possible disempowerment of research participants (Stiles, 1993, p. 608). I perceived the
consultation with another art therapist as vital, given this could have been my most
vulnerable area of bias. Since I have a relatively long history of work as an art therapist and
some of my perceptions may have become rather solidified, the importance of consulting
another art therapist stood out for me. I deemed that this consultation contributed to coconstruction of renewed imderstandings of my participation in this study. As well, this
practice assisted me in becoming more open and permeable to the reception of unique
constructions of participants’ realities.
I discussed with research participants the possibility that the collaborative information
co-constructed (including photographs of imagery) may be used for research purposes, for
educational purposes (teaching), for art therapy/coimselling purposes, and may be reported in
academic journals.
The following appendices are attached to inform participants of the objectives of this
research: (a) an information sheet (Appendix A), (b) Letter of informed consent (Appendix
B), (c) limitations to confidentiality form (Appendix C), (d) a letter of permission from my
employer to conduct research at his private practice (Appendix D), (e) a notice of participant
recruitment (Appendix E).

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Chapter Four
Results

In this study, I was interested in creating research from a social constructionist
perspective within an art therapeutic setting where two individuals— the counselor and the
client—interacted to bring forth relevant meaning(s). This endeavor characteristically created
a mutual encounter that contributed to the co-construction of shared understandings. The
intention of this study was to bring forth such an experience. As 1 became immersed in this
research, it became clear to me that a distinct difference developed between engaging in art
therapy as a solitary activity and this experience of participating in art therapy in the presence
o f another individual, in particular a trained art therapist. Through the use of Participatory
Action research—a qualitative methodology—the participants and 1 chose alive moments.
We defined these alive moments as those that stood out for us and appeared to have more
energy than at other times during the initial art therapy session. Such instances of mutual
understanding crystallized into vital pieces of meaning that demonstrated how the socially
constructed art therapy research unfolded. Also, I utilized Rogerian counselling techniques
such as the one that follows to accurately reflect the participants’ meanings:
H:
B
H
B
H

so that was a very thinking first one (referring to the first drawing Appendix (H)
but this one was more from a different place.. .a little further down...
like a more deeper place
yeah
and you were surprised about all the colours that you chose that symbolized you?
yeah.

Using this approach and within this context, this chapter will describe the participants’
and my experiences. As well, it will include our meaningful alive moments and the

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subsequent co-constructions of reality as we moved through the art therapeutic encounter. In
addition, I will end the chapter by explaining the relevant themes that the co-researchers and I
identified as recurring during the sessions. I will begin by introducing the co-researchers in
this study and describing their experience.
Co-researcher Profiles: Co-constructed "Alive Moments ” and Relevant Themes
In the methodology section, I outlined how Participatory Action Research (PAR)
requires that the researcher seek the participants’ input regarding data analysis. Within PAR,
research participants maintain a primary role as co-researchers. This notion is central to social
constructionist theory as well. In order to adhere to the principles of these two approaches, I
focused on describing each co-researcher’s process, which they, in turn, validated. No
additional analysis or interpretation occurred prior to this writing.
Initially, in the construction of this research, I decided to invite adults to participate. I
had no preconceived notions about the gender of the prospective participants. Three females
and one male, all Caucasian and between the ages of 30 and 55, accepted my invitation. A
mutual process developed as potential co-researchers agreed to participate on a first-comefirst-serve basis. The process of co-constructing meaning with people in an art therapeutic
environment became more significant than their demographics. The following section
profiles participants and briefly describes their life experience. All participants chose the
pseudonyms identified and the letter “B” identifies me for my first name, Beverley.
Angela’s alive moment(s).
Angela, a professional married woman, responded to my posted notice inviting
participation in the research in part due to having previous involvement creating visual art.

64

After viewing the videotape of our art therapy experience Angela identified two moments
that she experienced as most “alive” for her. One had to do with the overload of obligations
in her life, and in the other she realized how oppressed she felt by both unsold property and a
family problem. Both issues remained unresolved at that time, and not likely to be settled in
the near future. She indicated, as well, that due to the fact that these issues were not resolved,
she experienced an exacerbation o f the feelings of being oppressed and overwhelmed
exacerbated. She expressed this as follows:
I realized that when 1 painted it all out and kept adding stuff that I do have a lot.. .1 was
constrained because so much o f what’s happening that’s oppressive to me has to do with
the houses and that has to do with the family situation.. .And I realized.. .having these
houses sitting there and me being powerless to do anything...
As well, Angela expressed an element of surprise that she could not work to resolve the
issue of feeling overloaded with her life obligations without discussing the family-related
problem:
.. .And then I am sure 1 said it before but [_____ ] wasn’t listening or I didn’t say it the
right way or whatever. That surprised me, that 1 couldn’t keep that out of this. 1 thought
if I picked this as an issue, my being overworked, that I would be able to keep the family
problem out of the picture.
Angela realized that through our conversation and the art making we co-constructed an
unexpected circumstance. Despite her efforts to suppress details of the family problem, it
became apparent that this issue occupied a prominent place in her life. By selecting this alive
moment, she realized the total effect of feeling powerless in relation to a family member’s
difficulty. Due to the profound impact of this realization, Angela increasingly understood her
sense o f impotence, especially in relation to how it contributed to an overall feeling o f being
overwhelmed and overloaded. She also became aware that not realizing the impact of the

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family member’s problem required a disproportionate expenditure of her personal resources;
B. :
A.:

So that was the most meaningful part of it, .. .that you couldn’t keep [____ ]
out of it?
Yeah, I th ink,. .. um I hadn’t realized how, how much of my energy goes
there.

For Angela, the amoimt of energy necessary to cope with this family issue held distinct
meaning for her because it created a new appreciation of her feelings of powerlessness and a
sense of being burdened.
The importance o f Angela’s alive moment is evidenced by her own evaluation.
Specifically, her words “ I hadn’t realized how . .. much energy goes there” aptly expressed
the extent to which her choice of alive moment had brought forth a profound understanding
of her predicament.
Researcher's alive moment.
I chose an alive moment from the videotape when Angela and I discussed the painting
she created (Appendix F). In particular, we referred to one representation of her as a fleshcoloured outline that had not been filled in with paint. In contrast she painted herself in red
when she worked as a group facilitator. I noticed the difference between these two selfexpressions and she indicated that, unlike times when she functioned as a group facilitator,
she often felt “empty.. .really tired”. My singling out of this alive moment led to the
following conversation:
B;
A:

I asked you about the centre, is there any reason why you didn’t fill
yourself in?
yup, yeah and I never thought of that when I was doing it. That was the
first thing I painted.... and all this stuff going on around me so I never thought
of the fact that I was empty until you pointed it out... Because it doesn’t
matter what I look like. What does matter in this issue, is what is going on

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B:
A;

B:

around me.
So, if that was the case, then would it not matter, are you saying it wouldn’t
matter about how that would impact you?
Well no, it matters how it impacts me .... But umm, that’s the thing.. .all
these things impact me. But what I look like to a person doesn’t matter much
in this picture because. ..it doesn’t matter what 1 look like, what persona 1 am.
I’m tire d .... You know it doesn’t matter if I have my tutoring clothes or my
testing clothes or my parent clothes or my workshop clothes...
Okay, because in all those roles you are tired.

Therefore, the conversation that grew out o f the identification of these alive moments
resulted in a process of co-constructing a mutually shared understanding. Through the giveand-take of our verbal interaction, we co-created an appreciation that Angela’s feelings of
tiredness appeared more precise and more meaningful than the vague experience of feeling
overwhelmed.
Co-constructed themes.
In our final meeting, Angela and I identified significant themes that recurred in the
process o f choosing alive moments in the art therapy experience. Angela identified three
relevant themes: (a) an excessive number o f commitments, (b) feeling most oppressed by
family problems and unsold properties, and (c) the unexpected outcome or the surprise at not
being able to discuss feelings of exhaustion without relating it to the family problems.
Angela’s choice of these three themes paralleled mine to some degree: (a) feelings of
being “empty” (the empty image - Appendix F), contributing to feeling so tired; (b) the
oppressiveness of the family issue and how much energy it took to live with that, even in the
research she struggled to keep it private; (c) the surprise element, how the process was
unexpected in some ways; and (d) how she over-extended herself, giving to others, indicated
by her statement about commitments and group facilitation, “I b l e e d . w h i c h seems to fit

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with the idea o f not wanting to reveal the family issue, in a way protecting them and keeping
the secret.
Thoughts from my research journal during this process revealed that I felt gratified and
awed by the experience. The following words seem to express my interpretation of how these
themes developed in my own self-reflection process:
I am also aware (again) o f how the art therapy contributes to an individual’s greater
understanding o f her experience. In particular, in this case, Angela consciously and
almost persistently did not want to reveal information about one particular detail. That
she was attempting to control the revelation of a particular issue seemed to lead to an
awareness that this same issue was o f great import in her life, (the family secret)... In
this situation she was surprised how much of her energy was being taken up by the
oppression of this particular aspect o f her life. ... Although Angel” did not always agree
with my observations and input, it was interesting to feel justified to be more real in my
interactions (Thesis Journal Entry from September 20,2001).
If I am truly working from a social constructionist perspective I know that I must let her
come to her own meanings and interpretations. Yet, on the other hand, I know, as social
constructionists that my meanings/reality brought into the session are part of the co­
construction of meaningful interchange (Thesis Journal Entry from October 16, 2001).
We co-created profound themes and co-constructions through our individual processes of
self-reflection while simultaneously collaborating to develop ideas that may not have come to
fruition by a solitary venture or by verbal exchange alone.
Hampton’s alive moment(s).
Hampton is a sole mother and a professional woman working in the human service field
who responded to the research notice after a friend passed it on to her. Following the viewing
of the videotape of our art therapy session, she chose the following moment as being most
alive for her:
H:

The meaningful moment 1 picked was when we were talking about this move.
And you asked about what the colours meant? And 1 hadn’t really ever

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B:
H:

B:

H:

thought about it that way. ... I just went and picked them because I liked
them and then when you asked me about.. .it was (laughter). ..it was one of
those meaningful moments, 1 guess. ... And because I am not an abstract
person. . ..Like when 1 do my own art it is very representational. ... there's
more symbolism in there (referring to the second picture B Appendix I) than
there would be in here (referring to the first picture B See Appendix N). So
.. .it really hit a different lev el.... Umm (short pause). I guess having you
make me aware of the colours in it.... Making them important, like making
them significant.. .the colours that 1 had chosen. ... when you raised that.. .it
was really changing the level of awareness for me. So that was meaningful. ...
Yeah and it helped, I think, took me to that different level because... because 1
hadn’t been there before...
So you were surprised that those colours symbolized how you feel, maybe
how you feel about yourself or who you are.
Like, to think in terms.. .think of yourself in terms of colour isn’t something
that I have ever done. In classes before and they say if you were a colour
which colour would you be...(Laughter). 1 always have a hard time with that
kind of thing. ..because 1 really don’t think like that.
Okay so it was the part about.. .after I talked about the colours for yourself and
what they meant, what they symbolized.. .and you said intimacy is yellow and
purple ...
Hmmmm.

Hampton and 1 engaged in an interchange characterized by elaboration, clarification, and
reflection. Through this type of back and forth verbal interaction, we created a mutual
understanding about the significance of the colours in the art piece. Once 1 inquired about
them and she elaborated further, we co-constructed an understanding that the chosen colours
were actually expressions of her. For example, by focusing on the specific colours together,
she realized that they symbolized emotions in a way that differed from when she engaged in
her usual self-reflective process.
Hampton’s choice of alive moment stood out significantly for her in the way she
expressed her surprise at how she had not previously experienced herself in this manner. Her
evaluation o f this vital instant was characterized by her words “I didn’t really think like that”.

69

referring to thinking of her emotional self in terms o f different colours. It is obvious that she
valued the experience of choosing an alive moment because it provided an alternative way of
viewing herself, it opened up new possibilities of understanding her inner life.
Researcher’s alive moment.
The most alive and meaningful moment I chose in the session occurred when I felt most
connected to Hampton. Specifically, as she frankly disclosed concerns relating to her
relationship, our interaction became more intimate.
B:

H;
B:

And you said that your yellow is in the centre because it is grounding and its
in the inside but hers is on the outside. ..it’s more of a reaction.. .like it shows
how she only shows that part.. .that intimate part when something has
happened. When something negative has happened and then it is more of a
reaction than being inside her.
Right.
Yeah, I thought it was really significant because it felt like...you and I really
connected.

This occurred after she talked about the meaning of the colours in the second picture
(See Appendix I) and her realization that, when her partner expresses intimacy, it seems to be
a reaction to a particular event rather than a feeling that comes from within her psyche.
B:

I also felt most connected in the session. . . . I guess it is just quite profound for
me when I see the art again.. .every time it is different and uh.. .it really
explicitly shows the situation.. .you know.. .when you talked about intimacy
and how it becomes more of a reaction from her than from deep within her
and with you the image is so different, and it is right in the centre of your
being.

The parallel process that took place between Hampton and I and the conversation about
intimacy stood out for me because a more intense connection developed between us. My
fascination with this moment stood out because I felt as if I was experiencing a microcosm of
her relationship dynamics. As she frankly disclosed her feelings, we moved to deeper sense

70

of connection—in particular, the discussion of the meaningfulness of colours to her,
specifically the colours yellow and purple. These colours symbolized her feelings of intimacy
and, at that point, the conversation changed direction. It flowed into an interaction that
evolved into further co-construction o f an actual experience of profound understanding
between us. As an art therapist, this type of interaction in a session typically induces a
sensation that is profound and unique. Through this collaborative dialogue, we co-created an
exchange that became the highlight of the art therapy session and, for me, resonated with an
appreciation of how momentous the process of collaborative meaning making can be.
Co-constructed themes.
During our last meeting, we brought forth themes that we individually identified as
occurring throughout the art therapy research session. Hampton identified the following
relevant theme: The use of colours to symbolized her feelings and her sense of self as well as
the interactions or descriptions of interactions between herself and her partner.
For her, this particular concept transpired throughout the research session and
exemplified co-constructed understanding. She expressed that until I asked about the possible
meaning of the colours she had not thought o f it. Although upon being asked about the
symbolism of colour she concurred that, whether she consciously chose this colour or not, it
resulted in significance and meaningfulness for her. The session became meaningful when
Hampton and I started to talk about the implication of the colour choice. Previously, she had
not considered the possibility that colour choice could have emotional significance. She
demonstrated this when she communicated her past experience of having difficulty in
perceiving herself as a colour, especially when it was suggested as a. solitary, cognitive

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exercise. Hampton realized that, through the mutual collaborative dialogue and the art
making, colours have meaning for her. This realization aptly illustrated how socially
constructed discourse contributes to the co-creation of understandings and shared meanings.
1 chose themes similar to those Hampton identified. These were; (a) the unforeseen or
unanticipated experience that evolved as we brought forth the emotional symbolism of the
colours, and the appreciation that the experience was “better than expected”; (b) the
significance of the colours and the individual attribution of feelings to certain colours—
colour choice, although not always an intended action carries with it profound meaning and
expression of emotions and experiences; and (c) Hampton’s statements that the art therapy
significantly changed the experience of knowing herself. A new self-understanding and
mutual appreciation was co-created. Through this conjoint interaction, Hampton and 1
collaborated to weave together a dialogue that manifested not only in mutual understanding
but, as well, created a new appreciation on Hampton’s part of how socially constructed art
therapy can accentuate an alive meaning making process.
Suzie P ’s alive moment(s).
Suzie P is another professional woman working in the helping professions and is a single
mother. The art therapy research attracted her, in part because of her extensive experience in
self-discovery work with the expressive arts. Therefore, her involvement in the art therapy
process appeared to be a comfortable situation. Having viewed the videotape of the art
therapy session she chose the following moments as being most alive for her:
S:
B:

And then when I started using the water on it that was also very meaningful.
Actually that was probably the most spiritual part of i t ... with the water on it.
That tactile experience was most spiritual.

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S:

B:

S:

B:
S:

And just the visual of the water struck things inside. ... (short pause) and the
colour was of my desires so that was significant. ... This one (see Appendix J)
was more significant than the smaller work that has black edges (see Appendix
K). (short pause)... that gold chalk had to go back on the work that had the depth.
... Yeah...so then it wasn’t that peachy, salmony colour, I added gold to it. (long
pause); Yeah that gold was an energetic gold kind of ...a way to work beyond the
room .... when you noticed that I wished to have my whole self involved with the
work and not my head...not just my head, when you mirrored that to me. ... Yes
that was very effective, (short pause). Maybe the second piece (See Appendix K)
is ego.. .like in the naming o f it... It came to me Y that my ego was quite
(chuckle) a problem. It is a hard taskmaster, (short pause). And there was certain
affirmation in what you said... that was quite helpful.
Oh., .okay. .. .those points that you picked out that were important to you, what
was it about any o f them that was particularly significant? If you could pick any
of them? It sounds like the process for one, was really important, the doing, the
colours, the watching of the water as you put it on the picture. ...
Besides the paint went off the page ... Because these things are not coming from
my head. ... it was just welling up from deep within.... So my head was just
observing what I was needing and so that was informing my ego in my head
about what was going o n ; .. About the person I am deep inside... the sort of
whole person that lives in there, that can hide from anything else (chuckle).
So...just allowing those sensations and what I needed was informing me ...
Why it was so significant?
But.. .often I am not really aware o f what I need or what or who I am and I am
distanced from it in my rational mind, eh? And so .. .just by letting the sensations
come u p ...you know, just knowing that the paper’s not big enough. ..it has to be
bigger... or you know this ... yeah, that’s the right colour, it does have to off the
page, that is not me saying ‘‘make it this way”...it is something deep inside
saying “it needs to be this w ay.... And my rational mind is just being an observer,
like a scientist...sort of. ... So that’s quite important to me. . ..and so, and it was
often a surprise to my m ind... “Oh that’s what you mean, look at what the
water’s doing to her, she loves the water.” (chuckle)

By participating in this interchange and referring to the art pieces again, we co­
constructed an experience that intensified the process of creating art for Suzie P. The actual
creation of the visual expression was the most alive and meaningful part of the research for
her. The interaction between Suzie ? and I is a pertinent demonstration of how meaning in
social constructionist art therapy is co-created through a lateral interchange of reflection,

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questioning, clarifying and sharing of each other’s perceptions of reality.
For Suzie P the choice of alive moment impacted her sense of self in a profoundly
meaningful way. Her description o f how the choice of alive moment invited her to observe
her whole being involved. Specifically, she said: “ . . . Because things were not coming from
my head . .. it was welling up from deep within”. It is evident from these words that Suzie
P’s experience in the study nurtured the opportunity for an alternate experience of her selfunderstanding to be brought forth. In addition, this moment became momentous because she
felt more spiritually connected when her ‘head just observing’.
Researcher’s alive moment(s).
One of the alive moments I chose from the videotape, similar to Suzie P’s, was when she
added the gold to the peach-coloured painting (See Appendix J). For me, this expressed
meaning because she validated that part of herself “deep within”—the live energy that is so
necessary for her to live a meaningful and authentic life. A second meaningful and alive
moment for me follows:
B:

S:
B:
S:

And I think that is really interesting too, that it has to go off the page. I was
curious about that, that the colour has to go off the page because I was
thinking...does that mean that then it’s not stopping,.. .that you say, you call it
flowing. ..it’s like a continuous flow ...or is it have ... umm ...I can’t think of the
work ...an infinite number of possibilities?
No, that it comes from an infinite place and goes out in an infinite way, that they
are immeasurable in a sense...
Ohhh. I see, so it’s more about the immeasurability of this experience, as well as
where it comes from and where it goes, but those are the infinite aspects of it.
Yeah, like a person comes from an infinite place, qualities that a person holds,
that are part of them. ... Comes from an infinite place it can go into the world in
immeasurable ways we don’t know.. .we don’t know how ... That’s what is really
hard about i t . . .control is ...

The choice of this particular alive moment profoundly stands out for me because, at this

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point in the conversation, we contemplated, reflected, and shared some of our deepest,
perhaps most intimate beliefs about spirituality and magnitude of the human condition. In
particular, existence is incomprehensible and immeasurable in many ways and yet, in our
individual lives, we struggle to understand and make sense of it. We engaged in a process
that was different from individual self-reflection. Suzie P and I disclosed our struggle to
grasp the meaning of a somewhat mysterious and abstract concept. The very nature of human
existence became a subject that we contemplated, not only in response to the art she created
but, more importantly, in the language we chose to ponder an idea. In so doing, we co-created
a mutual appreciation of life’s enigmas.
Co-constructed themes.
During our last meeting, Suzie P and I collaborated to construct relevant themes that
occurred in the research session. Suzie P decided that the following themes were meaningful
to her: (a) she allowed the sensations to surface, and then manifest in her picture, as opposed
to thinking about how her picture would look; (b) the importance of being in a “true place
within, as opposed to a head place”; (c) she can be her own worst enemy; (d)
acknowledgement and respect of her life energy, honouring herself- the spiritual source and
its infinite nature, that it is a continuous flow, and that we struggle to control where it goes.
As well, she wondered about the relationship she has to water and how it is a metaphor for
the “fluidity” of human existence: “ water ...it’s m e... it represents the qualities of
understanding, knowing intimately, reflecting, soft, clarifies, and is easily muddied”; and (e)
her curiosity, her ongoing interest in “learning something new”.
Suzie P constructed these themes through the art therapy research experience.

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Specifically, they developed as we engaged in a collaborative interchange and co-created
alive meaningful understandings. She owned and valued the real moments from the videotape
and dialogued with me in a way in a way that encouraged me to fully appreciate how much
she relied on that part o f herself to guide her through weighty life issues.
My chosen themes related significantly to Suzie P ’s. Specifically, these were; (a) how
meaningful the process was for her, as opposed to the product or analysis of the art; (b) the
significance of water, its spiritual qualities, such as fluidity and its power to help her get in
touch with her depth o f experience and the qualities of water as a spiritual metaphor because
of is ability to reflect, to be clear and yet to be muddied; (c) aliveness or meaningfulness
doesn’t come from the head, the necessity to have a whole person experience or involvement
in the self-reflective process, and letting the information emerge from her depth; (d) the life
energy and how it must be respected; and (e) the effectiveness of having me mirror her
feelings, thoughts, and process.
I felt energized throughout the research with Suzie P. This occurred as I experienced her
willingness to participate in a conversation that probed the question of human existence. My
thesis journal entries shed some light on my process, how I struggled to become more
authentic in these interactions. This is exemplified in the following words:
. .. I was struck by the degree to which this participant opened up to expose her inner
journey to me. I felt honoured and surprised because she has never met me before, or
even talked with me in person. We have only communicated over the phone. Somehow
her sincerity seemed to encourage me to be more in touch with my feelings too.
Participating in this experience with her somehow quieted me down. It was a calming
situation for me, more so than I remember having for quite some time. (Thesis Journal
Entry, October 18, 2001).
Together we participated in a process characterized by clarification, mirroring and at

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times retreating. We steadily co-constructed a mutually shared understanding of what was
arresting and meaningful for her. Art therapy became a potent experience for both of us as we
co-created living moments in the research sessions.
Barry’s alive moment(s).
Barry was the only male participant in this study, also employed in the human service
professions. He became involved in the research by responding to the poster outlining the
study’s premises. In the transcript “B” identifies Barry’s statements, while I use “BR” to refer
to myself. Upon viewing the videotape of the art therapy session, Barry chose the following
alive moment:
B:

BR:
B:
BR:
B:

BR:
B:

My meaningful moment was when I saw the other side.,. when you asked me
about the picture. ... And I can’t remember the exact context now (chuckling)
because it was a while ago, ..., you asked me some questions about the picture
and it was calm and it was about energizing, the outdoors ...things like that. ... I
can remember all different sorts of things.. .and then 1 saw the opposite side of
that too. . . . S o the meaningful moment for me when 1 saw both sides of the
situation. Does that make sense?
Yeah, so when you saw the calmness and the...w hat’s the word...lack of
calmness (chuckle) ...
No it would be like conflict. ... That’s this stuff (referring to the picture. See
Appendix L), and this was before my father passed away, right?
So what was so meaningful about that, 1 meant what so meaningful about that
moment in the videotape?
Ummmm. ..it really enforced the balance in my life, that yeah. ..everything has
two sides to it. ..even the greatest problem can have a lot of strengths if you are
willing to look for them, and the greatest strength can have some conflict to it. ...
For example, having a sense of humour can be wonderful but if you use it at the
wrong time it can get you into trouble. (Laughter) You know, umm for me it was
profoimd in that ummmm, my youngest brother has been kind of bothering me
because I have tried almost everything to try and connect with him .. .he just
doesn’t seem to want to connect so it’s like.. .it’s okay to let go of that.
Uh hmmmm... so that’s your decision?
... it’s not my choice to let go of it. ..it’s in terms o f.. .1 m ean... No, it’s not my
choice that he doesn’t want a relationship. ... That’s his choice. . ..one of my
brothers came up to me, ... “Well you know what, Barry? You’ve done

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everything, I don’t know”.. .he said, “there’s nothing you can do, you know you
just gotta let it go” and I thought there’s more reinforcement for what I kind of
.. .maybe not.. .1 don’t now. ... And my mom will be going soon too, she has had
a few strokes so she is not doing well, but it was a good process to go down there
and it was nice to have it reinforced, you know like I had done some work here in
terms of the drawing (See Appendix L) and in terms of our discussion.
Through a continuous dialogue, Barry and I created an interchange that specifically
addressed his desire for a closer connection with his brother and how he accepted tha,t at this
time, his brother had little interest in reciprocating. In this acceptance he found a new
appreciation for the “two sides to the coin”. By creating a visual representation (Appendix L)
of a tranquil outdoors scene, Barry expressed one side of the coin, the part of his present life
that he created, a manifestation o f peace and calmness. However, through our conversation
about the painting, it became apparent that in his family there was a definite conflict and,
regardless of how hard he tried to mend that fracture, it remained unhealed because of his
brother’s unwillingness to participate in any joint interaction. The co-construction of this
realization and mutual understanding between us brought forth the significance and profound
meaning of the need for balance in Barry’s life. As well, in a more general sense, we
collaborated to co-construct an acknowledgement that balance is a life quality that he
endeavored to create.
Barry’s choice of alive moment(s) was obviously significant for him because he
expressed how satisfied he now felt about with some of his life choices, in particular mending
fences with his father and giving up the pursuit of a relationship with his brother.
Specifically, Barry’s words about the “two sides of the coin”, relating to conflict and
harmony, and the shared imderstanding we co-constructed, he came to accept that despite his

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desire for balance in life, there were times when experiencing conflict was necessary to attain
a deep sense of inner calm. Words such as “

so the meaningful moment for was when I

saw both sides of the situation”, indicate how Barry had come to accept that through the
identification of an alive moment he was able to appreciate the struggle as well as the
resolution.
Researcher’s alive moment(s).
The most alive and meaningful moment I chose occurred at a different point in the art
therapy session. However, it, too, related to the co-constructed recognition o f the importance
of balance in one’s life, and how acceptance of the negative side of the coin is as valuable as
validation of the positive side. The following conversation ensued:
BR:

B:
BR:

B:

This is meaningful for me,...when you were talking about the spiritual or how
you to go out in the wilderness.. .and that when you were in Vancouver the last
time, you had talked about how you noticed that there wasn’t any life in the water
in the harbour. ... That led to a conversation about your calm, life-giving
relationship .. .how different than your family of origin. . . . So yeah that was the
realization about your relationship at this point.. .is very different, you know how
you have been able to create ...or construct that in your life.
Yeah...definitely ...
Yeah... that seemed to be important to me because I felt how significant that it is
for people coming out of families where there has been conflict or issues, as there
is with most people, ... families of origin life have that.... many people are able
to create something different. ... You have actively worked harder at it within it
yourself and doing all that family of origin work .. .and creating a peaceful place
for you to go and... be spiritually but also creating a relationship with an adult
woman that is reflected in this picture. ... that is what I thought was really
im portant...how you’ve done that ...in your life...the risk, and you have been
courageous enough to push through all this stuff... It came to me too as you were
talking about asking your dad for those “meetings”, ...that was a great act of
courage too.
Hmmm.

Although in the last part o f the quote I explained why this moment seized my attention, it

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was necessary to emphasize my choice because the experience carried intensity and depth for
me. As I conversed with Barry, referring to a picture illustrating harmony and calmness, I
came to an understanding that the illusive goal o f creating of tranquility in one’s life may
have to grow out of conflict and disharmony. Through our collaboration, it became evident to
both Barry and I that, in order for such a harmonious relationship to develop in his adult life,
he had to thoroughly examine his origins, and carefully and deliberately shape a different life
today.
Co-constructed themes.
Themes of relevance chosen by Barry had more o f a wide-ranging scope than I expected.
As shown in the following, he related them to life issues or struggles: (a) that he referred to
the behaviour exhibited by his brother as “passive-aggressive”, and that he has never used
that term before but recognizes that his entire family, including himself, utilize this approach;
(b) “no regrets” - he felt no regrets about his father’s death (Barry’s father died in the middle
of this research process) and, as well, he did not regret pursuing a relationship with his
brother; (c) “knowing where he came from” - an important self-discovery because it led to
further self-reflection that he understood his family of origin dynamics and recognized that
perhaps he too, experienced “stuckness” about the pursuit of his brother; (d) “how to get
outside m yself’ by being aware of where he came from; (e) the journey to calmness may
entail conflict, and his difficulty in accepting this; (f) that he felt anxiety in a conflicted
situation, and he has a tendency to pursue the other person to regain harmony and he
continues to bring balance into his life as exemplified by referring to a past relationship; (g)
that the colours and construction of the picture provided an apt metaphor for how he still

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questions himself, especially in conflict and actively works to re-create balance in his life,
especially if he thinks he has hurt someone; and (h) recognition that he worked hard to create
a “peaceful place” in his life today, and that it was an act of courage.
Barry’s identification of these meaningful themes and how they relate to his life in a
more global manner demonstrated not only an honest self-evaluation, but also displayed an
act of courage. Through our combined efforts and our honest disclosures about how the
research experience affected us, we co-constructed a shared understanding that seemed to
assist Barry in seeing beyond the study to how the themes in the art therapy related to his life
in general.
I identified themes almost identical to Barry’s; (a) the need for balance in life and that
the road to achieving it is often conflicted; (b) “no regrets” - that because of Barry’s family
of origin therapy and training he did not have regrets after his father’s death, (c) the personal
became professional; (d) the creation of a “peaceful life and relationship” today and the
knowledge of how his past contributed and strengthened the journey to achieve this; (e)
Barry’s desire for a connected relationship with his younger brother and how he pursued it;
(f) the importance of the construction of the picture and the colours chosen and how they
parallel Barry’s efforts to construct a creative life. The struggle to form a creative reality and
a life-enhancing adult relationship stood out for me in this collaborative communication. As a
life theme, it resonated not only in my journey to create something different than what I grew
up with, but in many other peoples’ lives that I have had the privilege of knowing. The
interaction between Barry and I, including reference to his art expression, cemented for me
how meaningful and exciting the process of co-constructing mutual appreciation and shared

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understandings can be when utilizing a social constructionist approach in an art therapy
session.
Summary
The co-constructed art therapy experiences described in this chapter portray the sincere
intentions of these participants in their endeavours to co-construct an experience of
uniqueness and mutual imderstanding with me. As two individuals meeting in a somewhat
contrived situation, we engaged in caring communication and co-created moments of
aliveness that contributed to mutual knowledge. We became co-researchers in a way that I
had not completely anticipated.
The themes that we collaborated on, following the identification of individual alive
moments, were significant in that they illustrated how we for the most part experienced the
study in a similar manner. The co-constructed themes developed as a part of negotiation and
collaboration regarding their importance illustrates how we co-created meaningful shared
understandings. Table 1 outlines the co-constructed themes identified by the co-researchers
and myself.

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Table I
Co-constructed Themes Between Co-researchers and Researcher
Client Themes

Researcher Themes

Angela

Beverley

Excessive number o f commitments

Feelings of emptiness

Oppressed by family problems

Oppressiveness of family issues

Unexpected outcome regarding

Surprise element re: family situation

not being able to keep family secret

Degree to which she overextended
while giving to others

Hampton
Symbolic use of colour

Beverley
Unanticipated symbolism of colour
Significance of use of colour for
expression of feelings
Changes due to the research

Suzie P

Beverley

Surfacing of Sensations

Meaningfulness of experience

Importance of being in “true place

Significance of water as spiritual

She can be her own worst enemy

metaphor and fluidity of water

Acknowledgement of her life energy
Appreciation of her curiosity

Aliveness doesn’t come from her
head
Respect for her life energy
Effectiveness of mirroring her expressions

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Client Themes

Researcher Themes

Barry

Beverley

No regrets about his fathers’ death

No regrets about father’s death

Identification of “passive-aggressive”

Need for balance in his life

behaviour by himself and family
AHow to get outside m yself’
Journey to calmness may entail conflict
Feels anxiety when he ‘pursues’ others
to regain harmony
How certain decisions re: colours

The personal became professional
through his own family therapy
Desire to have better relationship
with his brother
Colours and construction of picture
how important they were to him

resulted in image turning out in a
particular way

Chapter Five will further explore and discuss these co-constructed alive moments. In
addition, I will ponder how art therapy framed within a social constructionist perspective,
conducted through the use of Participatoiy Action Research contributed to the co-creation of
meaningfulness in this research experience and the development of theoretical imderstanding.

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Chapter Five
Discussion
Introduction
Evolution o f research design in response to initial research question.
The research question that evolved to initiate this study follows: how does the creation of
imagery and the discourse, related to that imagery, nurture and give rise to meaningful alive
moments between the art therapist and the client? Given this question and the results
discussed in Chapter Four, I continued to hypothesize about the possibility that if an art
therapist adopted a social constructionist stance in relation to her clients, could she co-create
meaning between them? In response to this consideration, I propose the following points that
I have contemplated in depth: First o f all, I will discuss the conflicts I experienced prior to
my final realization that the study had demonstrated a collaborative effort to co-construct
shared understanding. I will consider the various aspects of the study in relation to previous
and present literature and reflect on my past experience as a client of art therapy and reflect
on how that has impacted me as an art therapist and a researcher using particular thesis
journal entries and previous images I created in response to specific facets of the study.
Second, I will address the theoretical approaches I adopted and re-introduce social
construction and explain how I incorporated it with PAR and Rogerian counselling
techniques and feminist beliefs. These theories will be explored as a way to explain their
contribution to my initial goal of reducing the power difference between the co-researchers
and myself. Finally, I will discuss my concerns with this study and offer my thoughts for

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further research and explore how I perceive my practice as an art therapist has been impacted
by the research. Included in this last point will be suggestions about how this research may
impact the field of art therapy in general.
My struggle to co-construct a safe and non-hierarchical research milieu.
My initial desire and commitment to co-construct a research experience that would
create an experience of equality between the co-researchers and myself culminated in a fairly
intense struggle within myself. Despite my commitment to a social constructionist stance and
my attempts at utilizing Rogerian covmselling techniques, I continued to question whether I
had truly shed my former psychodynamic training as an art therapist. These doubts himg on
regardless of my dedication to a constructionist perspective and the use of a PAR
methodology. The data showed that I had accurately employed Rogerian counselling and art
therapy techniques in a collaborative manner, but there remained a nagging sense that
perhaps the power discrepancy had not been diffused. I questioned whether the inherent
difference between the status o f a therapist/counselor/researcher could ever be dissolved to
the degree that the co-researcher/client/participant would feel equal. Tamasese, Waldegrave,
Tuhaka, and Campbell (1998) point out that within certain “institutions” inherent power
relations exist that require special attention. It is within this context that my uncertainty
remained. How does one co-create a total experience of collaboration and equality in a
research model? This underlying question continued to haunt me until I came to a realization
that, as Tamasese et al. (1998) also suggested, there is a need for someone to remain
accountable for the care o f the participants in therapy and/or research.
With further reflection, I began to feel less conflicted about the need to co-create an

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experience of ideal collaboration. My responsibility had been to provide an environment in
which the rights and needs of the co-researchers would not be undermined. I began to
understand that the doubts I initially felt about my inability to co-create an environment of
equality might actually be related to my desire to ensure that co-researchers were not harmed.
Maintaining the stance that, ultimately, I had to be responsible for the care of the participant
meant that I had to maintain a position o f accountability. If that resulted in a situation in
which I erred as a pure collaborative researcher, I willingly took that chance knowing that I
had been cautious and had practiced in an ethical manner.
Following this decision, my anxiety about whether the study had been an exemplary
collaborative experience lessened to some degree. I acknowledged that I had not usurped the
co-researchers’ power. Instead, I hoped that participants were safe and underwent as little
emotional discord as possible resulting directly from this study. This is evident in my initial
offer to provide additional art therapy sessions (free of charge), or a referral to another
therapist if anyone felt this was what he or she needed. Only one participant/co-researcher
took advantage o f this offer, which resulted in a positive experience. Since I did not have a
contract to tape and transcribe any subsequent sessions, I do not have taped data to support
this experience. However, one example of a situation in which a co-researcher asserted her
reality over mine follows:
B:
S:
B:
S:
B:

.. .okay well did you have any questions at all about what I said and the moments
I picked out, or any comments or questions about that?
Ummmmmm
or disagreements?
...at the end of the process when we started talking aboutit...I think that is a bit
dangerous to talk about something.. .then it becomes an exercise of the head.
Okay.

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S
B
S
B

it doesn’t involve the whole self...
uh hmmmmm
better stick with what you know, what feelings were evoked ...
Okay.

Contemplating this dialogue I realized that Suzie and I had collaborated in a manner that
significantly reduced the power differences between us. It is evident from this piece of the
transcript that I willingly received her feedback—in particular, her disagreement with the
aspect of the research that ended in a process of talking about the experience. In this way, I
believe that I adhered to the principles of social constructionism, PAR, and Rogerian
counselling through my willingness to honour her discontent with that piece of the research.
By re-examining this conversation, I accepted that we had co-constructed a mutually shared
and respectful understanding of each other’s reality.
My struggle to accept that the research question had been answered.
A paper by Vorhees (1994) validated my uncertainty about whether I had answered my
research question. In particular, I speculated about how did the use of PAR, the adoption of a
social constructionist stance and a feminist perspective, accompanied by application of
Rogerian techniques, contribute to the identification of meaningful alive moments in therapy?
Not knowing whether the research question had been answered became especially troubling.
After reading Vorhees’ work, I felt less conflicted about my initial self-doubt as a fledgling
researcher. Her honest disclosure of experiencing a wide range of emotions confirmed that
my struggle was fairly typical. As well, it normalized the doubts I had that perhaps I had not
answered my research question. In addition, it calmed my fears that the research had not been
meaningful for the participants. I will demonstrate in the next section, how the study

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accomplished what I had hoped it would. I addressed the question of how through the
adoption of a non-authoritarian stance exemplified in theoretical orientations such as
feminism and social constructionism. The utilization o f a PAR methodology in conjunction
with Rogerian Counselling techniques, the co-construction of alive moments, and the
subsequent conversations created a means by which mutually appreciated understandings
were shaped. Weingarten (1995), in her study about “challenging cultural beliefs about
mothers” stated: “Helping a voice to be heard is truly radical listening.” (p. 21). By “radical
listening” she referred to the type o f listening that portrays a genuine, appreciative attitude
that invites another person to tell her or his story. This approach is similar to the principles of
Rogerian counselling. Upon further reflection, I came to accept that the question of how
meaning was co-constructed had been answered and that it had been answered in a
collaborative manner.
The other concern I had related to my need to know whether the experience was
meaningful for the co-researchers. In other words, was the study worthwhile? It appears this
type of self-questioning is typical when researching rather nebulous human experiences such
as the co-construction o f meaning (Vorhees, 1994; Weingarten, 1995; Linesch, 2000; Fuller
& Strong, 2000). Returning to the basic tenets of social constructionism, Shotter (1999)
discusses the difference between “external observation” and “participatory understanding” as
ways to understand the human experience. In particular, he stresses the latter approach that
underlines the interaction between two individuals as a “comprehensive view” that manifests
in reflexivity and quite possibly, self-questioning (Shotter, 1999, p. 10). It appears that
similar to the PAR principle of “action-reflection”—the process of co-constructing mutually

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appreciated realities—necessitates the questioning process on both the part of the
researcher/therapist and the co-researcher/client. The search for meaning from these
perspectives develops into a circular interaction in which truths are co-constructed within a
milieu of respect and genuine care. As Bakhtin (as cited in Shotter, 1999, p. 10) stated: “Truth
is not bom nor is it to be found inside the head of an individual person, it is bora between
people collectively searching for truth, in the process o f their dialogic interaction.” In this
way, the search I embarked on to convince myself o f the worth of this study illustrated not
only a typical reaction to researching the human experience of co-constructing meaning, it
also became the impetus for an honest search to understand and eventually validate my
intentions, hopes, and possible unrecognized motives for initiating and completing this study.
However, following this intense process of self-examination, I returned to the data and was
pleasantly reassured that the experience I had intended had materialized. This is illustrated by
the following quote:
A:

1 was surprised that I couldn’t fully examine my personal issues of overload
without discussing the impact o f family problems, and I preferred to keep family
issues confidential.

These words were expressed during our last meeting in which Angela and 1 coconstructed meaningful themes. Her surprise reveals that there is an element of meaning in
the experience because prior to the research she had not fully realized the extent to which
these family issues impacted her sense of being overloaded. The realization she identified as
a result of our co-created conversation around her image underscored for me not only the
value of this research, it demonstrated to me that it had been a collaborative effort and
through my noticing of the emptiness of her self-representation and how it stood out in

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relation to the whole picture, she had gained a new understanding of her experience (See
Appendix F).
Resolution o f the struggle.
Following the above-mentioned struggle, I acknowledged the outcomes of the study and
embraced the possibility that several aspects of the co-constructed experience deserved
recognition and discussion. The following section will examine these points, including
expectations and findings, a further analysis of the co-created mutual understandings, and
further effects o f whole-heartedly embracing the tenets of social constuctionism, feminism,
and PAR.
Initial Intentions and Unexpected Outcomes
In response to my reflections and ruminations when initially contemplating this research,
1 created a collage (See Appendix G) and wrote the following words:
“In 2 print”
1 stole this clever title. It is the name of a youth art magazine and it refers to the creation
o f a document. Before that even begins I must ensure that the following elements are in
place. “Explore the wisdom and Elders”—the old woman and ghost o f a woman placed
next to green and blue paint.
Green and blue are knowledge. Knowledge is developed by waiting, respecting the
elders. She carries a knowing expressed in her wrinkles and her kind and compassionate
eyes. Her smile is disarming, and it must be.
Comfort is necessary, comfort and welcoming. The ghostly woman, an apparition of
veracity—she needs no body because her truth is her vessel, her existence may not be
permanent, but her learning is dynamic and fluid. ...
Images that inspire— such is my reality, images will hearten my conscience, to retain my
focus, an ethical locus that ensures wellness.
Blackness and whiteness on a blank canvas where dormant potential awaits invitation.

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This is the ground for sensual meaning, integrated; this becomes my manuscript— ‘Tn 2
Print” (Thesis Journal Entries from December 1999).
Revisiting these words, I realized that I expected the research to manifest in a particular
manner. As I reflected upon this writing following the completion of the study, I realized that
I had imagined that I would be more instrumental in the co-construction of the research
experience. Despite the sense I had of being committed to a social constructionist theoretical
orientation, I still believed that I had to offer a “blank canvas.” Through the adoption of this
metaphor, I became aware that in the early stages of formalizing the research question I
expected that 1 would provide a value-free environment for the emergence of meaningful
outcomes. These ideas remained from my training as a psychodynamic art therapist.
Additional reading, discussions with other social constructionist thinkers, and continued
reflection resulted in the realization that I had to completely alter the notion that only a sterile
therapeutic milieu would assist the participants in experiencing a profound and meaningful
encounter. The study portrayed that as I thoroughly adopted the principles of social
constructionism, feminism, and Participatory Action research, and became more effective in
the practice of Rogerian counselling techniques, the research interactions resulted in vital,
consequential, and thoughtful interactions. The degree to which we collaborated to construct
significant meaning is exemplified by the following quote:
B:

H:
B:

I thought it was really significant because it felt like you connected about this
realization that when she [______ ] expresses intimacy or shows intimacy it
comes from something outside that has happened, something outside herself,
rather than from inside herself.
Hmmmm.
I also felt most connected in the session. ... I guess it is just quite profound for
me when I see the art again...every time it is different and uh...it really explicitly
shows the situation.. .you know.. .when you talked about intimacy and how it

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becomes more o f a reaction from her than a feeling from deep within her, and
with you the image is so different, and it is right in the centre o f your being.
As this conversation continued the connection deepened and strengthened. Reflections
from ajournai entry dated, November 29,2001 aptly described how I experienced the
interaction:
Last evening when I met with my 2"^* participant (Hampton), for the last time, and she re­
affirmed my contribution to the interchange, I was struck (again) as to very coconstructive nature o f the art therapy interaction. As I asked her re: the meaning of the
colour yellow and she indicated that it was about intimacy, and the conversation turned
to one describing the lack o f intimacy between herself and her partner, I became
painfully aware that if I had not asked the question that we may not have entered into this
particular conversation.... As well, I was again reminded of the depth o f selfunderstanding and self-reflection that can occur for both the art therapist and the clients
when the art therapy process is entered into and the conversation is validated and
meaningful.
As 1 continued to contemplate this interaction, I remembered Weingarten’s (1991)
assertion that during the co-construction o f “ethical” research, intimacy is created when the
two individuals involved (researcher and participant) allow themselves to know and become
known to each other. During this study, the process of knowing one another progressed as we
allowed ourselves to be intimately connected. As we grew closer, we developed meaningful
dialogue. This type o f genuine and momentous discourse developed instinctively due in part
to the safety of the research milieu. My experience of the interactions surprised me in that, as
we identified and collaborated about the alive moments, we became increasingly honest and
trusting. Riley (2001) supported the co-creation of such intimacy when she discussed a group
therapy experience she participated in with elderly individuals. She poignantly expressed the
depth of emotion that developed between herself, an elderly person suffering with
Alzheimer’s disease, and his caregivers. Riley’s reference to an expression of one particular

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participant as he talked about how difficult it was for him to paint when he could not hear.
Riley drew closer to him as he expressed his deep feelings about the loss of his physical
attributes. In this encounter, she became aware of how his senses of sight and hearing were
closely linked. As he continued to express his “sadness, anger, and joy,” it became clear Riley
understood that, through the co-construction of a safe and honest therapeutic setting, a
meaningful and intimate interaction developed.
As discussed previously, 1 came to embrace a sense of unanticipated outcomes as the
research evolved. I experienced myself differently as an art therapist. I realized that my
participation had been active and necessary. The first quote, relating to the collage (Appendix
G), suggests that 1 enter into the picture in a ghost-like manner. I understood this apparition
of myself through a process of journaling and painting. I initially thought of my role in the
interaction as a holder o f my own truth, while simultaneously maintaining a stance that
neither influences nor guides the art therapy session. As a result of allowing myself the
freedom to express my truth in a non-authoritarian manner, 1 realized that, by assuming a
ghost-like stance, 1 denied the influence of my presence. In the past, this blindness inhibited
my effectiveness as an art therapist. I realized that 1 had impeded the co-creation o f intimacy
and meaningful discourse through the assumption that 1 had to maintain this stance of
detachment.
Following the interviewing and transcription of the research tapes, 1 came to another
unexpected realization. The following thesis journal writing not only expresses the
differences between a solitary experience as a researcher/practitioner and an involved
participant in the research process, it also underscores the significance of my presence and its

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influence in the art therapy encounter:
Can I have a conversation with the art and myself alone, and if so, does the meaning that
I derive from this solo activity have as profound an effect on my being in the world as i f I
were to have an interchange with another human being?
No, alone it is primarily self-reflection, even when in conversation with the art.
Although engaging with the art is a revealing process, it is not an exercise in socially
constructed discourse. It is not an interaction mediated within a milieu that has the power
to create a mutually collaborated reality. (Thesis Journal Writing, January 10, 2002.)
In this quote, I struggled to clarify how I understood the difference between solitary art
therapy and co-constructed art therapy. I compared a solitary act o f conversing with the art to
the experience of engaging in a mutually collaborated co-construction of meaning. It became
evident to me that the difference occurred through the act of mutual give-and-take that took
place between the participants and myself. Shotter (1993) and Riley (1994, 2001) emphasized
the importance of the social nature of any meaning-making process. This study supported
their claims in that it illustrated how the context or social enviroiunent impacted the reality
that the participants and I co-constructed. Fuller and Strong (2001) discussed the impact of
context in their representation of discourse and language as a “received world view” (p. 201).
This phrase refers to the process o f co-constructing meaningful interaction between people
when they relate to one another by choosing specific responses. These responses are
dependent upon what has been previously expressed with certain environments, past and
present. The idea o f a received worldview appeared to be demonstrated in this research
through not only the words used, but also the art created by the participants. Certain threads
o f conversation were emphasized due to the imagery created and the choice of alive moments
that struck both the participants and myself. As Anais Nin so eloquently expressed, “We

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don’t see things as they are, we see them as we are” (quoted from ajournai entitled: "A
Journal Celebrating Wild Women”).
Shotter (1993), Riley (1994, 2001), Fuller and Strong (2001), Alter-Muri (1998), Kerr
(1999) enhanced Anais Nin’s quote through their emphasis on the social aspect of intimate
discourse. Reality, therefore, as demonstrated by this study and the supporting literature, is an
interface between individuals’ worldviews and selective verbal responses uttered as they
interact with each other. In other words, as outlined by one of the vital tenets of social
constructionism, a knowable reality is co-created within certain contexts or social
environments.
The Co-construction o f Authentic and Mutual Understanding
I expected that this research would provide an opportunity for the participants and me to
interact in a manner that would impart mutual regard and express an appreciation of each
other’s individuality and life wisdom. Central to the act of bringing forth a genuine
interaction was the co-creation of a safe and reciprocally valued context. In an attempt to
offer an experience in which the participants felt honoured and valued, I utilized clientcentred art therapeutic techniques. Silverstone (1997) and Raskin and Rogers (1995)
advocated an approach that underscores the adoption o f congruent, empathetic, genuine, and
caring attitudes toward the client or participant and oneself. For the most part, I maintained a
stance that supported the participants’ dignity. Through the identification of alive moments in
the art therapy and the use of client-centered therapy techniques such as reflecting and
empathizing, I encouraged the participants to further elaborate on their feelings and thoughts.
The following quote exemplifies such an interaction:

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S:
B:
S;
B:
S:

B:
S:

About the person I am deep inside... like the.. .sort o f whole person that lives in
there,
Okay...as opposed to coming from your head informing you.
Y eahh...
Yeah... so this part inside you did guide you that was touching you, and
informing you o f what to do...or what you were doing. ...
Ummm.... that I, in a sense I am my own worst enemy, and keep that life from
going.. .like here (referring to Appendix K), its
too small and it doesn’t have the
flow o f the water or depth or anything because it is confined too much.
Okay. ..so it sounds like in that realization that you’re your own worst enemy,
you’re the one that confines or restricts your experiences in some way.
Uh hmmmm.

It is evident to me that the use of thoughtful empathizing and reflecting assisted Suzie
P’s reflections as we co-created a dialogue in response to the images she created. The
interaction deepened, as we participated in a co-constructive dance, characterized by intimate
connections and vibrant meaningfulness.
Feminist Art Therapy and Social Constructionism: Vessels o f Co-creation
The metaphor of the vessel as a container for the co-construction of postmodern art
therapy, joined with the ideologies of social constructionism and feminism, provided me with
a powerful image o f how practice can be conducted within a certain framework. The strength
of this metaphor reveals the possibility of holding in place certain epistemological tenets
while they simultaneously inform a relevant practice. The principles of social
constructionism, postmodern art therapy, and feminism supplied a solid base to the “vessel”
that contained the activity of researching the experience. Some o f the principles upheld
within these ideologies include: (a) the adherence to a belief in the non-existence of an
objective reality; (b) the significance of the context, both historical and socio-political; (c) the
importance of the social interaction between individuals; (d) the value of expressions of

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meaning in both dialogue and visual images; (e) the need for social activism to liberate
women and men from the inherent oppression o f socially constructed institutions; and (f) the
belief in the existence o f a multiplicity of comparative human knowledge (Alter-Muri, 1998;
Byrne, 1995; Kvale, 1992; Riley, 1994, 2001; Spaniol, 1998; Burt, 1997; Ross, 1997;
Malchiodi, 1997; Arrington & Yorgin (2001); Kaplan, 2000; and Kapitan & Newhouse,

2000).
Feminism: A Way to Flatten the Hierarchical Norm o f Research
Several years ago in my journey of self-recovery, I embraced a feminist perspective for
my conduct in the world both as a professional and a human being. I adopted a feminist belief
system as a way to nurture my growth and development as a sane and contributing woman in
my world. My desire to co-create an egalitarian research experience became paramount in
that I hoped that the co-researchers would feel a sense of empowerment. In so doing, I
anticipated that an experience of freedom would be co-constructed.
As early as the 14'*’ century, Julian of Norwich (c. 1342-1423), wrote about the
“feminine side o f God” (Cahill, 2002, p. 1), referring to her understanding of the Christian,
particularly Roman Catholic, doctrine of belief in the sacred trinity of God. As well, during
my undergraduate years at Simon Fraser University as a student of women’s studies,
psychology, and sociology, Catherine MacKinnon (1987) strongly influenced my thinking
regarding the rights of women with the following words:
Gender here is a matter o f dominance, not difference. Feminists have noticed that
women and men are equally different but not equally powerful. Explaining the
subordination of women to men, a political condition, has nothing to do with difference,
because the ideology of difference has been so central to its enforcement. Another way to
say that is, there would be no such thing as what we know as sex difference much less

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would it be the social issue it is or have the social meaning it has were it not for male
dominance. Sometimes people ask me, “Does it mean you think there’s no difference
between men and women?” The only way I know how to answer that is: of course there
is; the difference is that men have power and women do not. I mean simply that men are
not socially supreme and women subordinate by nature; the fact that socially they are,
constructs the sex difference as we know it. I mean to suggest that the social meaning of
difference is gender-based (Mackinnon, 1987, p. 51).
This quotation asserts the power of a socially constructed belief system that has asserted
the inferiority of women through the maintenance of patriarchal discourse. The purpose of re­
introducing feminism as pivotal to this writing is to re-emphasize how strongly I am
committed to the creation o f a research experience of equality and, in so doing, I maintain
that I actively struggled to co-create a non-hierarchical study.
In the world o f traditional psychoanalysis there have been many women dissidents,
including Karen Homey and even Anna Freud. Writers such as Simone de Beauvoir, Betty
Friedan, Eva Figes, Germaine Greer, Shulamath Firestone, and Kate Millet continued to
speak against the traditional view of women as suffering from such misunderstood concepts
as “penis envy” (Mitchell, 1974). In the 1980’s, psychoanalysts, such as Jessica Benjamin,
thoroughly examined the concept o f the oppression of women in her worthy book, The Bonds
o f Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism and the Problem o f Domination, reinforcing ideas such as
those put forth by Catherine MacKinnon:
The contemporary consciousness of women’s subjugation has profoundly challenged the
acceptance of authority that permeates psychoanalytic thinking. Feminism has provided a
fulcrum for raising the Freudian edifice, revealing its foundation to lie in the acceptance
o f authority and gender relations. (Benjamin, 1988, p. 7).
These later 20* century writers shaped much of my thinking as a trainee in a
predominantly psychoanalytic training program of art therapy and influenced my decision to

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adopt a feminist and social constructionist stance to the practice of art therapy. As discussed,
these viewpoints took on a pivotal place in the development o f my research question and the
models utilized to carry out the study.
Ruddick (1996) blends the concept o f social constructionism into a feminist perspective
by the following words:
The idea that “epistemic communities” socially produce all knowledge enables us to ask
how the criteria of rationality are negotiated in particular circumstances. Several feminist
philosophers have pointed to ways in which these negotiations are entwined with
assumptions or charges of masculinity or femininity. Stated generally, what Carol Cohn
typically structures epistemological communities, a feminist critical theorist, has called
“gender discourse” (Cohn, 1993). A gender discourse is a symbolic system that
dichotomizes human characteristics such as thought and feeling, mind and body,
confrontation and accommodation, and systematically associates the first and valued set
of characteristics with masculinity, the second, and opposite set with femininity.
(Ruddick, 1996, p. 265).
Epistemology has been defined as “the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its
methods and validation” (Illustrated Oxford Dictionary, 1998, p. 273). Ruddick examined the
known, established theoretical construction of gender as one couched within a social milieu,
primarily concerned with the oppression of women. In addition, this socially determined
construct relegated certain human experiences as being more likely to be expressed by
women than men. For example, this discourse consigned human sensibilities such as
rationality to men and emotionality to women. These types of discourse were particularly
troubling for me as 1 grappled with the co-creation of an egalitarian research experience.
Therefore, my primary concern focused on the inherent power relations in a therapeutic
milieu. Given my commitment to feminist ideas and social constructionist concepts,
accompanied by my need to co-create a PAR research study using Rogerian counselling

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techniques, I found the words of Winnie Tomm (1995) comforting:
The study of power relations is a central focus of feminist research. A clear
understanding of power dynamics is required for effective social action. I believe that
such critical analyses and corresponding social action can be combined with the ethic of
compassion that characterizes all spirituality (p. 5).
Although this study did not focus on spirituality, this quote reassured me in that it
assisted my understanding o f my intuitions and beliefs about the role of compassion in cocreating a research environment where power dynamics would be diminished and the natural
hierarchy o f research would be flattened as much as possible.
Adoption of a postmodern, feminist art therapy resulted in the practice of the principles I
have expressed as necessary for the reduction of power relations in this study. As indicated,
the preservation of these standards was primary and, in doing so, it contributed to, in one
particular example, an increased understanding of how one participant confined certain
aspects of his life. One significant point evolved out o f a conversation about Barry’s choice
of alive moment. He referred to this realization that he appreciated the experience of
“knowing where I come from.” This acknowledgement assisted him in recognizing that the
journey to attain harmony in his life may include the resolution of conflict and, if so, it had
been worthwhile to pursue any such discord to its conclusion. The ensuing dialogue and
reference to his image (Appendix L) demonstrated how we connected to each other and the
image, and our process o f co-creating a mutual understanding:
BR:
B:
BR:
B:
BR:
B:

Yeah, so when you saw the conflict and what’s the w ord... lack of calmness?
No it would be conflict.
Conflict.. .yes.
Like I mentioned, conflict between my youngest brother and I.
Yeah
Yeah in that context so ...

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BR:
B:

BR:
B:

So what was so meaningful about that, I mean what was so meaningful about that
moment in the videotape?
Ummmm Y it really enforced the balance in my life, that yeah...everything has
two sides to it, even the greatest problem can have a lot o f strengths if you are
willing to look for them, and the greatest strength can have some conflict.
Uh huh ...
...You know...for me it was profound in that ummm my yoimgest brother has
been kind o f bothering me because I’ve tried almost everything to try to connect
with him. . . . He just doesn’t seem to want to connect so its like. ..it’s okay to let
go of that.

The interaction characterized the essential notions of postmodern art therapy. I
approached this image and the participant’s associations to his image with an openness and
curiosity that portrayed my willingness to be informed of his reality. I found that, as I
continued to reflect upon the discourse co-constructed with Barry, I became further entranced
with the metaphor of the vessel. As a container of the meaning-making interaction, the image
of the vessel had the ability to hold in place all the exchanges that occurred in the present
moment, the tenets of the ideologies adhered to, the past life experiences and knowledge
brought to the interaction, and the potential to nurture the co-creation of new and
undeveloped possibilities o f discourse. With the implementation of the philosophies of social
constructionism, feminism, and postmodern art therapy, we connected on a level that brought
forth honest, genuine practices informed by these ideologies. Barry and I collaborated to
understand and appreciate the distinctness of our interchange.
Another example o f such mutually shared understanding occurred when another
participant — “Angela” mused over her chosen alive moment:
A:

It doesn’t matter what I look like.. .all these things (referring to her image, see
Appendix H) impact m e.... It doesn’t matter what I look like, what persona I am.
I’m tired. ... You know it doesn’t matter if I have tutoring clothes on, my testing
clothes or my parent clothes, o r.. .workshop clothes.

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B:
A:

...because in all those roles you are tired.
Yeah.

The few words I expressed in reflecting her feelings of “tiredness” contributed to the
identification of an experience of “ .. .feeling empty.. .1 bleed ...” As she reflected on the
extent o f the oppressiveness of her life at this point, she began to fully comprehend the
burden o f assuming an excessive number of commitments. The two words “I bleed,” which
she expressed in reaction to her empty self-image, exemplified a personal and profound
feeling o f being overwhelmed. Her choice of these words left little doubt about the depth of
her exhaustion.
As I received her reality, I felt honoured to have participated in this art therapy research
experience with her. Through the adherence to the principles of postmodernism, social
constructionism, and feminism, I reminded myself of the privilege the participants had
bestowed on me through their authentic disclosures in this research experience. A vital
reaction reverberated within me when I reflected on how fortunate I was to have been
involved in this research. I felt an intense sense of gratitude and humility that the participants
had invited me into a precious space, and that a creative collaboration had occurred. We had
co-constructed an intimate and mutually appreciative reality. I reminded myself of one of the
first tenets I learned as an art therapist, that is, continue to “know myself.” Dr. Fischer’s
words resonated in my mind — “keep on painting,” he had advised. He was my mentor and
one of the primary therapists when 1 trained at the Vancouver Art Therapy Institute. His sage
advice seemed never so valuable. I must remain vigilant and continue to monitor my own
authenticity as a human being who has entered into a profession in which people come to

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entrust their deepest experiences to me. I have continued to participate in art therapy with
other art therapist(s) over the past 10 years since my graduation. I have found that it is an
effective and life-giving endeavour, a vessel to deconstruct my demons and to reconstruct my
creativity as an art therapist and a human being. Fromm (1956) talked about the intrinsic need
o f the human creature to be aware of herself/himself: “Man is gifted with reason; he is life
being aware of itself; he has awareness of himself, of his fellow man, of his past, and of the
possibilities of the future.” (p. 8). For Fromm, this awareness was examined in the context of
how one becomes a loving, compassionate human being. To locate this concept with the
framework of self-awareness as an art therapist, in particular my experience of grappling with
my own demons, the significant aspect of that quote that stands out for me is the possibility
o f “life being aware of itself.” Specifically, I am referring to the process of continuing to
know myself. The act of painting and engaging in conversation as a supervision process is
how I perceive that my life as an art therapist continues to be momentously aware of itself.
Participatory Action Research: A Change Process
I employed Participatory Action Research (PAR) with the expectation that the
participants and I would experience an increased sense of confidence as well as a novel
expression of mutual understandings. The primary constituents of PAR that stood out for me
with regard to the outcome of this research are: (a) an awareness of having been changed
through the co-creation of meaningful interactions; and (b) a sense of liberation as a result of
participation in a collaborative “living process” (Smith, 1997, p. 173). Specifically, the first
aspect of PAR manifested in the research as the particip^ts expressed a change in their selfunderstandings. Hampton, in particular, discussed how she had not recognized the value of

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colours to represent her emotional responses:
H:

B:
H:

Like to think in terms., .think o f yourself in terms of colour isn’t something that I
have ever done. In classes before, and they say if you were a colour which colour
would you be? ...I always have a hard time with that kind of thingbecause I
don’t think like th a t...
So it was revealing and unusual?
It was...

As Hampton expressed, she had not experienced the attachment of emotions to colours
in the past. Participating in the research created a new understanding for her. As well, it
became apparent that she had gained a distinct and enhanced sense of herself. It was the first
time that she had been able to attribute feelings to certain colours in her drawing (Appendix
I). Hampton indicated that she found the collaborative art therapy research interaction “better
than expected.” Complementary to principles of PAR, the art therapy research resulted in an
interaction exemplified by negotiation, mutual sharing, and a welcomed alteration in the
participant’s sense of knowing herself.
Alteration in my self-knowledge occurred here as well. I had the opportunity to reassess
my role as an art therapist, moving fi-om an understanding of myself as primarily observer to
one o f active participant. In addition, I validated my own journey of self-reflection. More
importantly, however, I participated in a meaningful experience of co-creating in-depth,
intimate interactions with the participants. Meaning making in art therapy has not been an
occurrence that I have focused on in the past. The deliberate act of choosing a meaningful,
alive moment in this research encouraged me to be a full contributing partner in the art
therapeutic encounter. Such an active form of engaging in the art therapy provided me with
the chance to appreciate my contribution to the co-constructed outcome of the research.

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Through this collaborative interchange, I grew to appreciate my knowledge and reality as it
manifests itself in the art therapy experience. Rather than oppressing my perception, the
research brought forth an increased sense o f confidence and pleasure in my role as a
congruent individual in the therapy session.
Experiencing myself as competent differed dramatically from my previous perception of
myself as a therapist too often inundated with self-doubt. As the participants underwent a
change in their sense o f selves. I, too, felt a parallel change occurring. A shift took place
primarily through our collaborative efforts as co-researchers committed to the goal of
increasing shared understandings. Fryszberg (2000) substantiates the value o f postmodern art
therapy in the assistance of the appreciation of one’s sense of self, and the nurturance of
relationships in an experience o f life change. Characteristic of PAR, this research validated
that life alteration could occur, and when it did, an increase in self-appreciation, and the
appreciation of others occurred.
Another constituent of PAR, the experience of being liberated from a discourse of
limitation, also developed out o f this research. Specifically, this concept conveys the change
process that occurred when the participants and I co-constructed new or different meanings
for various understandings of our constructed realities. Fuggieri (1996), Green and Kaye
(1996) and Riley (1994,1999,2001) support this type of change process so characteristic of
PAR. The co-construction of this manner of interaction is portrayed in this study by the
following dialogue with Angela:
A:

1 realized that when I painted it out and kept adding stuff that I do have a lot. ... I
was constrained because so much of what’s happening that’s oppressive to me
has to do with the houses and that has to do with the family situation. ... And I

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realized— having these houses sitting there and me being powerless to do
anything.
Initially, when Angela began painting, she did not realize how oppressed she felt by her
family situation. With further verbal collaboration, we maintained a focus on the painting’s
truth. We deconstructed the experience of oppression and recreated one characterized by
freedom. This process was facilitated by her willingness to openly portray one aspect o f her
life as being dominated by restrictive influences. By recognizing how much o f her life energy
had been usurped by the suppression of her feelings with regard to this family issue, Angela
gained a fresh view of how she had succumbed to unfair expectations o f herself. Angela felt
liberated following from the oppression she had formerly experienced in relation to the
family situation.
Spaniol (1998) conducted research with individuals suffering with a psychiatric
disability. She approached the research from an ethnographic perspective by actively
requesting that the participants be involved in relating their experiences with art therapy.
Spaniol (1998) describes this art therapy research as emancipation from the inhibiting context
of a “disability culture”. Specifically, she described how she invited the clients to recount
how they engaged in the art therapy research. One participant disclosed that he valued not
only the art he created, but also the process by which he and the art therapist co-created
meaning. Change apparently occurred for him through this interaction. He developed new
skills to alleviate his anxiety. Spaniol’s research parallels the outcome o f my study in that it
provided the participant(s) an opportunity to become aware of limiting beliefs, and created
alternative options to lessen influence of any previous disabling internal dialogue. By

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utilizing a methodology such as PAR, we actively engaged in the research in a way that
brought forth change. This experience, in turn, contributed to an unexpected sense of control
over what seemed like overwhelming problems in the past. Carolan (2001) supports the use
of PAR with art therapy by emphasizing how the path to change is co-created through active
collaboration of both researcher and co-researchers as they engage in mutual meaning making
and the co-creation o f contextual truths.
The Influence o f My Art Therapeutic Experience on the Research
Reflection on my past art therapy experience as a client in which art therapy can assist in
the process of healing psychological issues yielded at least two realizations. Firstly, I believed
that it contributed to the research. Specifically, through my ongoing and intense process of
participating in art therapy over the years, I gained a deep appreciation and understanding for
those clients who take a risk to express their inner experiences in a visual art form. In
addition, I came to acknowledge that, through the participation in art therapy as a client, 1
understood and empathized with the participants’ experiences in this research. McNiff
(1998), Riley (1994), Malchiodi and Riley (1996), and Riley (2001), advocate for the
personal processing o f art therapists’ psychological issues prior to the practice or research of
art therapy. It became clear to me as the study progressed that, as I engaged in a lengthy
therapeutic process to disentangle myself from the disabling discourse of my childhood, I had
embraced a therapeutic stance of ultimate respect, admiration, and care for those daring
individuals who pursued a similar path. In addition, I gained a sincere appreciation for the
assistance o f a qualified therapist when embarking on such a courageous journey. Without the
caring, empathetic, genuine and committed therapists I have worked with, I doubt I would

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have been capable o f attaining the degree of life fulfillment I enjoy at the present time, nor
would I have had the motivation and tenacity to push forward through the difficult life
challenges.
Experiencing the intensity of being struck by alive moments myself also enhanced the
study. For example, I knew how to explain the process of identifying such to the participants.
From the participants’ responses, I realized that they understood what I meant by the
identification of such moments. They required little elaboration on the concept of choosing
those moments that stood out for them from the session. Later in my journal, as I reflected on
how I had explained that these moments would be meaningful to them, I came to realize that,
due to my past experiences as a client, I fully comprehended how I had been struck by these
kernels of aliveness in the sessions. Secondly, it became clear to me that my past therapy
participation paralleled some o f the participants’ research experiences. Specifically, the
mutual process of co-constructing meaning through the identification of these living
moments presented interactions similar to the ones I have participated in. Although I have not
been directed to choose these instances of meaning, I have experienced the intensity o f such
times in the therapy sessions. In particular, the moment I previously described in individual
art therapy appeared to be similar to those of both Hampton and Suzie P. Both women
described how, through my musing about the meaning o f colours (for the former), and my
acknowledgement that she wanted her whole self involved in her art therapy experience (for
the latter), they gained an increased and unexpected understanding of themselves. As well,
Angela identified how she had been surprised that the family issue had so much influence on
her overall sense o f being overwhelmed. Through our mutual interactions, and in particular

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when I highlighted the emptiness o f her self-image, it became clear that she felt more
impacted by it that she formerly realized. Writing from my thesis journal indicated how
similar our experiences were:
... I felt moved again, by the profound insights or realizations and co-constmctions that
were developed between this participant and myself. It is always a confirmation, and yet
a wonder that I am left with when I work with people with art therapy. Each interaction
is different and exciting, and yields valuable and meaningful interchanges. I was also
struck again, by the differences in images and in created meaning applied to the
experience. It seems to me that art therapy provides the participant/client/person with a
glimpse into her reality that may have gone unnoticed if she had not participated in the
image-making experience. (Thesis Journal Writing, September 20,2001.)
This writing resulted as I continued to reflect on how the research impacted me. At these
times, I realized that I felt deeply touched by the participants’ experiences. These entries took
on a sense that is similar to some of my own therapeutic compositions. At different times
during the research, 1 reflected in my thesis journal. Upon further contemplation it became
increasingly apparent that the participants’ experiences paralleled my personal art therapy
process.
The Co-constructed Themes as Indicators o f Meaningful Interchanges
As I continued to ponder this study and its importance in the art therapeutic experience
of the co-researchers and myself, I mulled over the seemingly profound meanings that we co­
constructed. To re-iterate to some extent about these additional musings, it seemed fitting to
re-iterate about the themes co-created between us. Given the emphasis on the identification of
alive moments put forth throughout this discussion, I decided to emphasize the following
themes that stood out in this research.
Firstly, one theme that developed with two of the participants through the

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acknowledgement of meaningfulness as it was co-constructed, relates to the feeling of
liberation ftom former self-limiting discourse. Specifically, I weighed how significantly
postmodern art therapy had released me from the shackles of self-disparaging discourse
against the discussions that evolved with the participants. As Shotter and Katz (1998) pointed
out, when one person in a mutual exchange pays attention to a specific aspect of the
interaction and relays it to the other individual a certain type o f ‘noticing’ occurs. They refer
to this as “responsive-relational understanding”. Through the use of a Rogerian counselling
approach (Silverstone, 1997), I attended to specific expressions both in the imagery and the
ensuing dialogue and, in so doing, assisted the co-researchers in taking a second look at
particular constructions of reality that previously limited them in realization of their potential.
This type o f freedom resulted through the mutual interactions that developed as part o f our
process of our identification of alive moments.
Secondly, the theme o f increased self-understanding developed along with the co­
creation o f mutual understandings. This parallel process stood out for me as it became
obvious that each co-researcher realized and reflected upon some aspect o f their reality as we
co-constructed a new reality in the sessions. In addition, this fresh self-appreciation was
characterized by an overall sense of surprise and wonder, as it became part of a relationally
created understanding for each participant. For example, two out o f three of the co­
researchers expressed how they had gained an increased comprehension of their socially
constructed knowledge in relation to their creative abilities. Specifically, one participant
found that she had the aptitude to perceive her emotional states as colourful metaphors, a skill
she formerly had not realized or valued. This newly acquired knowledge and the sense that it

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occurred in an unexpected manner further enhances the efficacy o f art therapy when
conducted from a postmodern perspective. Through an adherence to postmodern ideals
(Shotter & Katz 1996, Deacon 2000, Barbee 2002, Riley 1994,2000, and Hogan, 1997), we
co-created an alternative to self-criticisrn and the debilitating effects o f maintaining such
limited discourse.
Thirdly, a key theme demonstrated by this research developed out of the co-researchers’
willingness to be fully present in the experience. In particular, two individuals attained an
understanding o f satisfaction with the authenticity of their involvement in the art therapeutic
experience. Specifically, they expressed that through the art making they noticed the
genuineness of their experience when they allowed themselves to participate from a true
place. This acknowledgement resonated for both o f them because they articulated about how
the imagery and the accompanying dissuaded self-doubt. For one person, the experience
invited an expression o f her spirituality and life-energy. The other individual commented on
how he felt more genuine as a human being when he deconstructed the self-limiting beliefs
because, through the acknowledgement of his desire to be a more authentic person, he felt a
deep sense of relief and satisfaction. Such appreciation also contributed to an enhanced
mutual understanding between us since I, too, had difficulty extricating myself from the
incapacitating effects of self-doubt. As Shotter and Katz (1996, 1998), and Katz and Rappo
(1997) stated, the relational aspect o f exchanges and its effect on the co-construction of new
realities brings forth meaningful and profound interactions that are mutually appreciated.
As I repeatedly explored these themes, I came to accept, through the identification of
those alive moments, that the co-researchers and I had truly co-constructed a postmodern art

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therapeutic experience. It seemed that, as we chose these crystallized instances of vitality, we
connected to one another in a way that was atypical of usual interactions. The safety of a
therapeutic environment invited our process to become mutually rewarding and meaningful.
Due to the attainment o f a fuller understanding o f the effects of postmodern art therapy, I still
ponder over the process that occurred in this study and how we co-created mutual
understandings as well as alter our previously held social constructs.
Concerns Regarding this Study: Constraints
Constraints o f choosing one theoretical orientation.
Other theories could have been adopted to describe and understand the art therapy
interactions. However, regardless of what theoretical approach I chose, the study would have
been impacted. What is important is that, as a qualitative researcher, I recognized and
recorded what influenced the outcomes. It is likely that different expressions o f meaning
would have resulted from this research had I chosen to adopt a Freudian or Jungian
theoretical orientation and analyzed the art therapy participants and myself. For example,
these psychodynamic approaches would probably have underscored the influence of the
participants’ past experiences, particularly those o f childhood, and focused on working
through the resolution o f transference within the art therapeutic milieu. As discussed
previously throughout this thesis, it was my intention to explore a different approach, one
which I thought fit more appropriately with the postmodern stance I had, assumed since my
graduation from a psychodynamically-oriented art therapy training program.
Methodological constraints.
A conspicuous limitation in the utilization o f the methodology chosen for this study is

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that I designed the initial research and formulated a research question. Although I adhered to
the other principles o f PAR, I have been plagued by the fact that this research grew out of my
desire to study art therapy from a postmodern perspective. A pure PAR study would have
involved me approaching a particular group of individuals and offering my services as a
facilitator of a piece o f research. We then would have collaborated to co-construct a relevant
study that would have grown out of the needs of those people. To counteract the effects o f my
power as a researcher, I adopted a social constructionist attitude and stance. As well, I
simultaneously utilized a Rogerian counselling technique. In addition, I struggled to maintain
a stance of curiosity and respect, while continuing to monitor my motivation, needs, and
reactions in the research environment.
One particular aspect of this study, however, that I was unable to eliminate was that I
had the training as the art therapist and the participants did not. It was extremely difficult to
wrestle with the possible perception on the part of the participants that I was the expert who
would interpret and analyze their images. I became aware of how diligently I was striving to
reduce my power of influence as the art therapist in this study. I realized that almost in an
unconscious manner, as a clinician I deliberately and actively disempower my expertise.
Ways that I work to present as an equal human being as an art therapist is to maintain an open
and welcoming demeanour, and at times when appropriate, increase my transparency with
self-disclosures. Actions I take to mitigate my expertise are typically maintaining open body
language, smiling, maintaining reasonable eye contact, leaning forward to express my interest
and attentiveness, and often, choosing to sit in a chair that is lower than that of the client.
These almost automatic bodily responses were maintained throughout the research

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experience. Adopting a social constructionist stance, using PAR methods and person-centred
counseling skills, accompanied with the incorporation o f a Feminist ideology I actively
worked to become an educated non-expert; in particular, I regarded myself a non-expert of
the participants’ lived experiences including their innate strengths, and their well of
resources.
In addition, in consideration o f my ‘expert knowledge’, this study is similar to case study
research within a qualitative research paradigm. Under this umbrella the qualitative
researcher assumes the role of clinician-researcher (McNiff, 1997 and Gale, Chenail, Watson,
Wright and Bell, 1996, Chenail, 1996 and Flemons, Green and Rambo, 1996). Adoption of
this role allows the clinician-researcher the freedom of inventing and designing the research.
Also, by embracing a social constructionist stance I realized that, just by my presence in the
therapy milieu, I would be influencing the outcome(s) and, even if I had not designed the
study, I would be actively co-constructing a new reality for the participants.
Another possible constraint of this research is that I asked the participants to choose an
“alive moment”. In this way it is possible that I may have influenced the outcome of the
study. However, it is important in qualitative research that the participants and the researcher
approach the research equally attuned to the research structure. Specifically, this refers to the
requirement o f qualitative research, particularly PAR, that all participants collaboratively
share the expectations and process of the study they are involved in (Miles & Huberman,
1994). In this way the researcher connects with the participants for the purpose of ensuring
that everyone involved in the experience are equally knowledgeable of all aspects of the study
and engaged in a collaborative endeavour. The primary purpose of my instruction to choose

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an alive moment was to make certain that all participants were similarly informed. In
particular, as outlined by PAR, participants or co-researchers must have access to the same
knowledge that I have. By this statement, I am referring to my behaviour in defining alive
moments, and in addition, explaining how these alive moments would be chosen. This type
of instruction is typical of PAR and other qualitative research (Miles & Huberman, 1994). It
is necessary that the researcher do her utmost to reduce the power difference between herself
and the co-researchers by transparently explaining the process and aim of the study.
In addition, the methodology outlined in the proposal for this research specifically
indicated that participants would not be recruited from my particular caseload as a practicing
art therapist or from another clinician’s caseload. The aim in this particular ethical
consideration was that I would not be unduly influential on their performance in this study.
Specifically, this refers to the possibility that, if I had asked present or former clients from my
caseload, to participate there may have been a sense of obligation that they could have felt
regarding their desire to please me. As well, it was important that no possibility existed that I
had recruited other clinicians’ clients by enticing them to participate in art therapy. Such
enticement would have been unethical and could have been perceived by my colleagues as
appropriating their clients. These specific restrictions, at the proposal stage of this study were
built in an attempt to flatten the inherent hierarchy between therapist-researcher and clientparticipant. As well, there was a need to reduce any misconceptions that I could coerce the
individuals to participate in this research.
Sample size.
Although the study is based on a small sample (four individuals), sample size is not

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particularly relevant in a qualitative research model. What is relevant is the clients’ context or
life experience. In particular, the fact that they had post secondary education would imply that
they have the ability to think critically, make well-informed decisions and question my
motives if they deemed it necessary. The participants’ life experience, therefore, is more of a
pertinent than the actual sample size. In particular, the goal of qualitative research is that each
individual participant’s experience is valid and important, rather than whether this research is
generalizable to other populations. Within the parameters of this study these participants
indicated that they had been positively impacted by the experience. Reflecting on their
expressions it appears that the choosing of alive moments within a socially constructed
milieu, in which their lived experience was respected and validated, resulted in considerable
outcomes. The four participants indicated that their experience the study was positive and
enlightening in several ways.
It is worth noting, as well, that very different outcomes would probably have resulted
with a larger sample. As well, the goal of this research was to collaborate and co-construct
meaning between the participants and myself. Given this objective, I maintained integrity
through procedures such as permeability, forestructure, triangulation, and journaling.
Participants ' demographics.
The fact that all the participants worked in the helping professions might be regarded as
a limitation in this study. It is possible that due to the nature of their professions, these
participants represented a particular type of individual. For example, it may be that these
participants were highly interested in self-reflective pursuits, and have pursued such
endeavors in the past. Considering this possibility, several questions arose in my mind: What,

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if anything, does their professionalism do for them as participants? How does participants’
context, specifically their professionalism, influence their performance in the study? Would
individuals, who lacked this particular level of education have talked with me in a different
manner? To answer these queries, first of all, the participants’ professionalism and education
undoubtedly contributed to the responses and reactions they expressed during the study.
However, it is important to point out that regardless o f whether these people work as
professions, they have human experiences and respond to life with feelings, thoughts and
behaviour. If their lived experience is not deemed as valuable as any other person’s
experience, specifically from a different culture or socio-economic status, then there exists an
underlying assumption that professionals somehow are more attune to life’s expectations and
do not suffer in as relevant manner as someone who is less educated. It is evident that their
professionalism did influence the research outcomes, however, the more relevant point is that
despite this possibility, in qualitative research all human experience is regarded as valuable.
To re-iterate, there is no doubt that the results would have been very different if the
participants had different life experiences. However, despite the adults’ life experience, age,
or profession, the research was designed with the purpose of co-constructing meaning with
these individuals. Consistent with PAR and social constructionist theory, the research was
designed to study the process of meaning making through the identification of ‘alive
moments’. To this end the research purpose was achieved and further studies could examine
the influence of different individuals’ life experience in this process.
One participant’s feedback.
One participant indicated that one aspect of the study she did not enjoy or appreciate

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related to the amount of “talking about” the experience. She would have preferred to create
art with less conversation and more focus on the emotional responses. Writing from my
journal indicates how I processed this feedback:
This research process is probably somewhat more enlightening than I expected; while at
the same time, less so. Yesterday I had feedback from a participant that the ‘talking
about’ the art process was not as helpful as “staying with the emotional experience
would have been.” In many ways I agree with her. However, in my research the
conversation is about the meaning making process. It is a part of the co-construction of
verbal or emotional meaning. I guess making art together could be more of a coconstructive emotional experience. Another thought I had was that it may been more
“effective” (her word) if she had participated in Gestalt art therapy, which is grounded in
the here and now and is more focused on the emotional experience. However, that is not
what I proposed to do. (Thesis Journal Writing, November 15,2001)
As I re-read this writing, it seems to be somewhat defensive and has an overall feeling of
irritability. It is as if I attempted to deal with feedback while feeling threatened to some
extent by it. In the end, however, the feedback from this participant proved to be invaluable
because it encouraged me to examine my need for perfectionism. For example, I felt anxious
when I perceived the experience I facilitated for the participants did not provide the best
milieu for healing. This feedback is also valuable in that it assisted me in thinking of other
research models— specifically, one in which the art therapist would create art with the
participant.
Another result of this particular piece of feedback was that I re-examined the original
research transcripts. Upon doing this I discovered that Suzie P had not been referring to the
possibility that I had talked ‘too much”, rather she expressed her preference for a more
meditative and mindful experience of “being with” the emotions that were triggered by her
image making. Despite her preference, and her specific criticism about the talking, she

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indicated that a change had occurred. In fact, she commented on the effectiveness of the
“■mirroring” I had done in response to her images and comments. Specifically, this ‘mirroring’
supported the co-creation of a new sense of herself within a postmodern model. In reality
Suzie P ’s words validated the practice o f utilizing language in a change process. On one
hand, she expressed her preference for a less verbal interchange, while simultaneously
endorsing the social constructionist tenet of using dialogue in the conceptualization of
change. By commenting on the effectiveness of ‘mirroring’ Suzie P corroborates the research
process while paradoxically criticizing what she terms the excessive use of talking. This
presents a particular challenge and possibly the opportunity to explore how such feedback
could be explored in a collaborative manner for further research.
Another consequence o f this specific feedback was that I again questioned whether the
inherent power difference between the participants and myself had actually been reduced or
eliminated. Upon re-reading my proposal for this study and the Appendix A, the initial
Information Sheet, I discovered that I had fully expected the participants to offer feedback,
both positive and negative. With increased contemplation I realized that Suzie P would
probably have not have told me about the “too much talking” if she had felt that she would
experience any negative repercussions from me. I can safely state that in order for her to
make that statement it is highly likely she felt that her input would be respectfully received
and considered.
Given that I adopted person-centred counseling techniques, and that I presented them in
a tentative fashion, it is evident from the following excerpt that Barry felt little constraint in
correcting me: " . . . what is the word, lack o f calmness”, B: "No it was conflict. . . " .I

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hesitated in using the word ‘conflict’ when referring to Barry’s family o f origin experiences
because I did not want to unduly influence his recollections. However, it is apparent from his
statement that he felt comfortable in naming the experience in his own words.
Given these two examples o f participants’ honest self-disclosure I believe that the milieu
we co-constructed was as truly egalitarian as could be achieved in a research model. The
more I return to the words o f the participants, the more I am convinced that this study
provided an opportunity for participants and I to interact within a space where power over
another did not manifest.
Implications fo r Future Research
True PAR—co-creating art with the participants.
The last point in the limitation section became an impetus for me when considering
further social constructionist studies. In particular, it would be fascinating to pursue research
in which the art therapist-researcher co-creates art with one participant or a group of
participants. McNiff (1998) conducted research in this manner and states that it is effective
and revealing for the clinician-researcher as a method o f self-examination. My first
identifiable limitation o f this study indicated that it did not comply in a pure manner to the
requirements of PAR. It seems that, as an art therapist, if I approached a community of people
and presented myself as a facilitator o f an art therapy experience constructed in a truly
collaborative manner, it would make perfect sense that I, too, participate in the co-creation of
art relevant to the agreed upon purposes of the research.
Existing groups that may be of interest might be support groups in which the researcherclinician does not facilitate the group experience. Rogers (1989) explored these types of

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group interactions in what was termed “encounter groups”. Such experiences were nonhierarchical in nature and Rogers did not impose an outside structure. Out o f this movement
emerged various support groups in which everyone is considered equal and there are no
leaders and outside status is irrelevant. For example, many 12-Step programs, such as
Alcoholics Anonymous are founded on this premise. Further research in which the researcher
became a true participant would likely result in novel and unexpected outcomes.
As well, research with low-income families, couples or individuals would be interesting
and revealing. This type o f study would be worthwhile as it may assist in determining
whether socioeconomic status or educational level has any impact on individuals’ experience
of choosing alive moments and co-constructing meaningful and profound interactions with a
researcher.
Divergent Participants and Varying Life Obstacles
Many research studies have been conducted with art therapy with varying client
populations, communities and life experiences. However, it seems to me that the method of
choosing alive moments within an art therapy research experience has not been conducted to
date. Many individuals could participate in the creation of meaning-making process through
the process of identification o f arresting or striking moments, not only in art therapy, but also
in conversation in general. It would be exciting, with more time and more energy, if people of
all ages could co-create meaningful experiences through the process o f identifying aliveness
in school conversations, in other art therapy studies with children, adolescents, couples and
families.
The use of art therapy can be integrated into many different self-reflective experiences as

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well as group experiences. I can imagine how meaningful an art therapy interaction could be
if a group of adolescents worked together (with a facilitator) in co-creating mutual
understanding for any number of prominent life issues, including abortion, sex, dating
practices, substance use. As well, the research of collaborative meaning making approaches
through the identification of alive moments recorded on tape and video may offer couples and
families the opportunity to truly co-construct shared understandings as a means of
counteracting the negative effects o f misunderstandings. It would be fascinating to pursue
these possibilities in a research experience that focused on the co-creation o f harmony with
families and between couples.
Implications and Influence o f Research fo r My Practice as an Art Therapist
One of the primary implications on my future practice as an art therapist is that I now
feel validated and more confident in the adoption of a postmodern approach to working in my
profession. This is valuable to me as it illustrates how I have a tendency to be plagued with
self-doubt in relationship to my ability as an art therapist. In particular, these doubts have
been exacerbated because of my having recently adopted a social constructionist orientation.
These fears related directly to the experience of abandoning my training as a psychodynamic
art therapist and then adopting a postmodern approach. The research study emphasized how
profound the meaning-making process can become when approached from a compassionate
yet active stance as an art therapist.
Not only did this study enhance my confidence as a social constructionist art therapist, it
underscored the worth of introducing and encouraging individuals to explore their creativity
as a method o f resolving life difficulties. It also re-affirmed my knowledge of how powerful

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art therapy can be in the exposure o f limiting beliefs regarding self. Through the collaborative
approach, a fertile and welcoming milieu can be created in which creativity can be expressed.
Zeni (1996) advocated for enhancing intimacy in research through an honest expression
of authenticity. I believe it is less likely that a power hierarchy between the participant and
the researcher would develop if therapists disclosed in a freer manner to their clients. Putting
this idea into practice in my art therapy room has assisted in encouraging clients to re-look at
self-limiting beliefs and began to embrace the possibility that their lives are not
‘dysfunctional’. Rather, they are presented with the idea that their difficulties would thwart
almost anyone. Specifically, I have fbtmd that, by introducing the concept, clients have within
them the resources they need and, to date, they have utilized creative responses to many o f
their problems, I became increasingly successful in negotiating meaningful art therapeutic
experiences. The imagery can be trusted to portray their truth. Accompanied by a mutual
interchange of co-constructed imderstanding, augmented by a strength-based focus, clients
and I have brought forth effective options to thriving in an all too difficult and complex
world.
Another result of the research relates directly to my professional standing as an art
therapist. Specifically, I now see that I can invite other art therapists to consider the adoption
o f a stance that is not focused on pathology and dedicated to the discovery of irrefutable
truths. Rather, I believe that I can encourage art therapists and therapists in general to
consider the possibility that both the therapist and the client are actively creative in coconstructing new and innovative realities. As well, as a long time practitioner of art therapy, I
feel a deep sense o f relief and freedom to let go of preconceived notions o f how I must be as

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a clinician. Instead, I now focus on accepting my approach— blemishes and all—and
seriously considering how my professional and personal experience can be an asset in each
session.
Implications o f Research fo r Future Art Therapy Practice in the Field
In general, this study suggests that practice in the field of art therapy may benefit from
the adoption of a social constructionist approach. In particular, it is evident from the results
of this study and the participants’ feedback that they felt respected and supported in exploring
their own meanings and self-understandings. It makes sense that some art therapy
practitioners reassess their loyalty to pathology-based procedures and seek to encourage and
bring forth clients’ strengths and creative solutions to their life difficulties.
This approach may not fit well with more traditional approaches to art therapeutic
practice, such as Freudian or Jungian orientations. However, despite the basic differences in
theoretical fiameworks and some of the elemental therapeutic techniques, it would probably
improve psychoanalytic practice in art therapy if the practitioner adopted a social
constructionist stance that allows for the reduction of the power differential between the art
therapist and the client.
Summary
To return to the question of resolving my research question, it seems appropriate to
restate it at this time. The research question I developed was ‘How does the creation of
imagery and the discourse, related to that imagery, nurture and give rise to meaningful “alive
moments” between the art therapist and the client?’ In other words this question is asking:
How does the making of art and the talking about it result in alive moments that create new

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possibilities for living (Shotter & Katz, 1998)? By rewording the research question it assists
in a process of re-examining how the research question was answered. By narrowing down
the question even more, it can be construed in the following manner: How do we create our
life through our talk, and how did the art making contribute to those living exchanges? Upon
further contemplation it appears that this process of choosing an alive moment that
characteristically captured experience contributed to the “responsive-relational” interactions
that occurred in the research (Shottter & Katz, 1998). More simply put this term refers to the
process of co-constructing imderstandings through the use of language within a social milieu.
Vygotsky’s social development theory o f learning supports these concepts as well (Riddle,
1999). Two or more individuals connect through the use of language that has been shaped by
specific cultures and specific life experiences.
This study, using a feminist and social constructionist perspective, integrated with
PAR, and Client-centred approaches resulted in the telling of individual stories that were
made explicit through the creation of imagery. Specifically, the art created became the vessel
that contained the alive moment. Videotaping the initial art therapy session allowed the
participants and myself to temporarily freeze frame these encounters and in so doing, allowed
for reflection and the co-constructions of new possibilities o f imderstanding. The
identification of alive moments within the context of this research experience provided a
valuable opportunity for the participants and myself to interact within a “living” system
(Shotter & Katz) that was temporarily immobilized for the purpose o f reflection and
conversation with the aim o f co-creating new experiences. These new understandings signify
that change occurred for both the participants and myself. Specific examples of these co­

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created alternate live possibilities and new self-understandings are expressed by both
Hampton's expressed surprise that she could express her feelings in colour, and Suzie P’s
acknowledgement o f the effectiveness of the mirroring technique. In these ways the research
question was resolved and new life stories were told.

127

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Appendix A
Information Sheet fo r Participants and Employer
My name is Beverley Read, and I am completing my Master of Education degree in
Counselling at the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC). I am conducting a
research study in which I would like to understand how people attribute meaning to art
therapy experiences. Over the past 10 years working in this field I have come to realize that
art therapy is a valuable healing approach, and have become especially intrigued with the
aspect of the relationship between the client, the art therapist and the art created in the
session. Given this interest I am developing this research study to become more aware of how
people learn to understand each in the art therapy experience. 1 am proposing to conduct a
study that examines how each o f us will look at artwork created, rather than the traditional
approach in which I would analyze the art. The purpose of this type of inquiry is for the
researcher to honour and respect the lived experience of the participants by inviting them into
an interaction in which they will be empowered by open and honest communication between
themselves and the art therapist.
Attached is an 'informed consent’ letter (Appendix B) that outlines researcher and
participants’ expectations and obligations.
To co-create a safe and collaborative research environment I will protect the participants
in this research in the following ways:
Recruitment .of Participants - Participants will be invited by posting a recruitment
notice (Appendix E) at my present place of employment and public places such as the
art gallery, the college and the university. Once potential participants express interest

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in being involved in this research I will contact them by telephone, outlining the
objective of the research. At this time I will include in the invitation a question about
whether participants think this research experience would be a worthwhile endeavour
for them.
Proposed Tasks to be Requested o f Participants - I will ask participants to engage in

one art therapy session with myself as the art therapist, in which she/he will create
spontaneous art. I will be videotaping and audio taping this session. In addition, I will
request that participants choose meaningful moments from the videotape that are
important to them. 1 will indicate to them that I, too, will choose a meaningful
moment. We will then meet again to review the videotapes and discuss our chosen
moments, working together to create a meaningful discussion. I will audiotape and
videotape this meeting as well in order to produce a transcript of our interactions. In
addition, we will identify any relevant life issues or themes that we may have
produced together.
Access to Respondents’ Responses - Access to respondents’ responses will be
available to my thesis advisor, committee members and participants (if interested).
Voluntary Nature o f Participation - Participants will be provided with the opportunity,
at all stages of the research process, to withdraw from the study, with no
repercussions. I will make myself available for discussion of any concerns that may
arise at this time. If participants do not feel comfortable discussing these concerns
with me, I will provide names of other therapists they may wish to contact. As well,
any images have been created by participants; will become the sole property of the

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participants.
Potential .B£n£;fits...frQm-thfiJStudy..- It is my opinion that participants will benefit by
being involved in this study because they will have the opportunity to be in complete
control o f the outcome. This will occur through a process of collaboration regarding
decisions about what will be included and not included in the final research
document. 1 believe this will be an experience of empowerment for them.
Potential Risks (if any) from the Study - I think the potential risks will be minimal
from involvement in this study. If there are issues arising out o f the research
experience that need to be addressed, 1 plan on providing two free art therapy sessions
to attempt to resolve any such difficulties. In addition, 1 will be willing to meet with
participants and other therapists (if that is their wish) to consult about the effect of
participating in this research.
Anonymity and Confidentiality - 1 will protect the identity of participants by

requesting that they choose pseudonyms and by changing demographic information.
Limitations of confidentiality will be discussed in full (as per Appendix C). These
limits are in accordance with those practiced at my place of employment.
StQrage...o.f-Data. - Data will be stored in a locked, metal file cabinet for a period of
five years. 1 will be the only person with a key to this cabinet.
N am e and Phone N um ber o f Person to Contact in Case Q uestions Arise B If

participants have any questions regarding this research, please contact me at (250)
963-0161 or Dr. Paul Madak, my supervisor at (250) 960-6520.

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Availability of Research Results. - If participants wish a copy of research results,
following the last collaborative meeting to determine what will be included in the
thesis document, please contact me at (250) 564-9360.
CnmplainLSuabmiLtheL. Research.. S tu d y .A n y complaints about the study should be
directed to the Office of Research and Graduate Studies, at (250) 960-5820,
University o f Northern British Columbia.

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Appendix B

Letter o f Informed Consent
I ,___________________________ , agree to participate in a research study (thesis) to be
undertaken by Beverley Read as part o f her Masters in Education (Counselling) degree, at the
University of British Columbia. I understand the purpose of this research is to explore the
meaning-making process using art therapy, and to create a meaningful experience within the
art therapy experience. The information gathered from this research will help art therapists
and other helping professionals to become more effective in their work with people.
I acknowledge and understand the following;
Beverley Read has invited me to participate in this research and it is my understanding
that we will work together in a situation in which I will have the final say as to what is
included in the thesis document.
I will permit the videotaping of three one to one-half hour sessions with Beverley Read. 1
am aware that 1will both view the videotaped session, and that 1 will choose a moment from
the tape that is most alive for me. At an agreed upon date, Beverley Read and 1 will
participate in a one to one-half hour session in which we will view particular sections of the
videotape and discuss the chosen meaningful moment. I agree that this second interview will
be audio taped and videotaped to be transcribed by Beverley Read. At a later date, Beverley
Read and I will meet to go over the transcriptions and make a joint decision as to whether the
art piece will be included in the thesis document.
My name will be omitted from the transcriptions and I will choose a pseudonym for use
in the transcriptions.

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I will not be remunerated for my participation in the study.
Art created in the session by myself becomes my property and I will make the final
decision as to whether it will he photographed for inclusion in the thesis document. Beverley
Read and I will discuss the imagery (paintings or sculptures) at the third meeting.
At any time during the study I am free to withdraw my participation and the information
obtained from these collaborations will not be used. I am free to limit areas of my experience
that I do not wish to share or reveal.
The information provided by myself and others will be used for research purposes, for
application in future counselling and art therapy services and may be reported in academic
journals. I can contact Beverley Read at (250) 564-9360 or through email at readb@telus.net
to obtain a copy of the research results.
Transcriptions and notes will only be available to Beverley Read and to her thesis
advisor, and to her thesis committee members. Raw data will be stored in a locked cabinet for
five years following retrieval o f information, and destroyed thereafter.
Beverley Read has offered me two free art therapy sessions following the research
experience if there are uncomfortable issues or experiences to process due to participation in
this research. I clearly understand this offer, and we will decide together if two sessions are
adequate. If two sessions are not sufficient we will negotiate further sessions as deemed
necessary. Beverley Read has indicated that we will fully discuss this aspect of the research
experience so that I am well aware of her offer prior to the start o f my participation. If this is
not appropriate for me, she will provide me with names of other counsellors or art therapists
either in Prince George or in the surrounding region.

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Beverley Read will be working under the supervision of her faculty advisor, Dr. Paul
Madak at the University of Northern British Columbia. He can also be reached for inquiry
regarding this study at (250) 960-6520, or emailed at: madakp”unbc.ca. As well, I can contact
the Faculty o f Graduate Studies at UNBC at 960-5820 for further inquiries.
Given that 1 have read the above information I am willing to answer the following
questions:
(Please check the appropriate response.)
Do you understand that you have been asked to be in a research study?
Y es_____ No_____
Have you read and received a copy of the attached Information Sheet?
Y es_____ No_____
Do you understand that the research interviews will be tape-recorded?
Y es_____ No____
Do you understand the benefits and risks involved in participating in this study?
Y es_____ N o _____
Have you had an opportunity to ask questions and discuss this study?
Y es_____ N o ____
Do you understand that you are free to refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at
any time? You do not have to give a reason and it will not affect any medical or other kind of
care you are receiving.
Y es_____ N o _____
Has the issue of confidentiality been explained to you? Do you understand that you will

144

have access to the information you provide?
Yes

N o _____

I have read and imderstand the information above and I agree to participate in this
research study in art therapy.

Signature of Research Participant

Date

Printed Name

Witness

Date

Printed Name

I believe that the person signing this form understands what is involved in the study and
voluntarily agrees to participate.

Signature of Researcher

Date

145
Appendix C

Limits o f Confidentiality
Participation in this research is voluntary and the information (both verbal and non­
verbal, including imagery created) in the art therapy sessions is to be retained as confidential.
However, there are some instances, under the legislation of the province of British Columbia,
in which therapists and researchers are required to report certain details of their otherwise
confidential sessions/interviews. These instances would be in one of the following situations:
(a) if you were to indicate to the art therapist/researcher that you planned to harm yourself,
(b) if you were to advise the art therapist/researcher that you had intentions of harming
someone else, (c) if you were to inform the art therapist/researcher that a child, an individual
under the age of 19, is being neglected or emotionally, physically or sexually abused.
In any of these cases it is the researcher/art therapist’s legal responsibility to report to an
appropriate authority so that assistance could be obtained as soon as possible. This
researcher/art therapist at her place of employment in accordance with those practices these
limitations o f confidentiality.
1 fully understand and agree to the limits of confidentiality as outlined above.

Signature

Date

Witness

Date

146
Appendix D

Employer’s. Letter o f Consent
I ,________________________, (Garth Walmsiey) give permission to Beverley Read to
conduct her research on my premises, with former or present clients who are working with
her colleagues. It is my understanding that clients will be advised of the degree of
participation and outcomes of such research in a manner that fully apprises them of any
possible risk or discomfort. It is also my understanding that these clients will receive two,
free additional art therapy sessions, if they deem it necessary either with Ms. Read or a
therapist of their choice, provided by referrals.

Garth Walmsiey, MSW

Beverley Read

Date;

Date:

147

Appendix E
Research Participant Recruitment Notice
A research study is being conducted by Beverley Read, graduate student with the Faculty
of Education B Counselling, University ofNorthem British Columbia, Prince George, B.C.
This study will involve participants engaging in an art therapy experience. Art therapy is the
use o f simple art media such as tempera paint, pastels, or clay to create images that are
related to particular life situations. Art therapy has been used to resolve many different life
difficulties, as well as other experiences such as the exploration of meaningful relationships,
increasing self-understanding, promoting self-confidence and assistance in making important
life decisions, working through troublesome childhood experiences, increasing self-esteem,
exploring creativity, and many other life issues.
This research will offer an opportunity to work with a Canadian Registered Art Therapist
with 10 years experience in the field. She will be attempting to understand the healing
relationship when entered into by an art therapist and a client. This research will focus on
development of mutual respect in the art therapy experience and invites potential participants
to become fully involved in the outcome of the study.
There will be no financial compensation for involvement in this study. However, three to
five sessions will be provided for collaboration of the art therapy experience.
This study is looking for adults to participate, from the age of 20 onward.
For further information please call Beverley Read, Registered Canadian Art Therapist at
home at (250) 564-9360 or at work at (250) 564-1000.

148
Appendix F

Figure 1 - Angela’s Picture

149
Appendix G

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Figure 2 - Beverley's Collage

150
Appendix H

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Figure 3 - A ngela’s Picture

151
Appendix I

"Aft"

Figure 4 - Hampton's Picture

152
Appendix J

Figure 5 - Susie P .’s Picture

153
Appendix K

a,

Figure 6 - Susie P.’s Picture

154
Appendix L

.

Figure 7 - Barry’s Picture

155
Appendix M

-

Figure 8 - Beverley’s Picture

156
Appendix N

Figure 9 - Beverley's Picture