LEARNING STYLES OF ADULT UPGRADING STUDENTS :
PERFORMANCE USING PLATO® SOFTWARE
by
Peter N .B. Walsh
B.A., Bishop's University, 1970

PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
m

COUNSELLING

©Peter N .B. Walsh, 1999
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
April1999
All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in
whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without
the permission ofthe author.
I

L18ffARY

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ABSTRACT

This study examined the performance of adult learners in an upgrading situation. It was
hypothesised that students' upgrading performance using a computer-based learning system
would not be significantly different, regardless of their individual learning styles. All students had
their learning style preference evaluated. All learners were to learn from a computer-based high
school upgrading courseware package. The project examined the performance of a number of
forestry workers. The adult students learned from a set series of assigned courses in math and
English from a computer-based software program and staff monitored progress using the internal
student tracking system. Their individual performances were compared using their learning styles
as an independent variable. Three learning styles were examined; Auditory, Visual and MultiSensory. The subjects' learning styles were determined. Other independent variables, including
sex, graduation status, and current academic ability level, were compared using one-way ANOVA
statistical tests. Graduation status was either graduated from high school, or non-graduate.
Current academic ability level was tested and raw scores were converted to primary, elementary,
or secondary school levels of academic ability. No significant differences in performance were
observed among the independent or dependent variables as a function of the individuals' different
learning styles. This result supported the conclusion that adult students with a variety of learning
styles may be assigned to a computer-based learning system and that they each could perform
similarly, regardless of their individual learning style. Computer-assisted learning may be useful as
a tool to assist adult learners with various learning styles to complete their basic high school
education.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .. ..... ...... .......... ..... ........ .. ......................... .... .... .... .... .... ..... ...... .... .......... .... ........ .... ...... n
List of Tables .... ..... .. ..... .... .............................. .................. ........... .... ....... ..... ............ .. ............ . v
Dedication ...... ... ..... ...... ..... .... .... .... ........................................... ........... ............... .... .......... ....... vt
Acknowledgements ... .................... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....... ............. ...... ........................ vii
Chapter 1 : Introduction ........ .... .... ........ .... .... .... .... ........ .... .... ....... .... ......... ........... ................... 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review ..................... .. .·... ... ....................... . .... ......... ........... ...... ..... ... ..... 4
The Adult Education Field ........................................... ............ .......... ...... .... .... ..... 4
Leamer Activities ....................................... .. ...... ..... .............. ... ....... ................. 5
Intellectual Process ...... ...... .. ............... ..... ...... ..... .. .............. ........ ................. 5
Social System ................... ..... .... ... ............................... ........... ..................... 5
Current Definitions ... .............. .................... ....... ....... .... ...... ..... ........ ... ......... 6
Adult Education Theory Development ................... ..... ......... .......... ....... ................ 7
Learning Projects .......... ....... ..... ........................................... .. ......... ..... .. ...... ... . 8
Self-directed Learning ... .... ..... ... .... .... ......... ....... ........ ... ..... .... ... ........ ....... .... ..... 8
Transformational Learning..... ........ .. ... ................................................... ........... 9
Adult Literacy .. ........................... ........ ......... ... ....... ........ ....... ....... ... .. .. .. .. .. ...... ..... . 10
Fundamental Skills ...... .... ........ .... .... .... ............ ...... ..... .... ....... .... ....................... 10
Living Intentionally .............................. .... .... ....... ... ... .. ...... .... ..... .. .... .... ...... ... ... . 11
The Adult Education System .... .... ..... .................. ... .... ......... .............. ............ ........ 12
Funding ...... .... .. ........... .... .... .................................. ..... ...... .... ...... ......... ............. 12
Schooling and Literacy .... .... .... ................................... ....... .............. ... .. ....... ... .. 13
Forms of Adult and Continuing Education ................ .............. .......................... 14
Formal .... ........ ........ .................... .............. ......... ... .... ......... .................. ........ 14
Non-formal .......................... ................................................ ....... .. ...... ... ...... 14
Informal ..... ............................. .... .... ........ ........... .......... .. ............... ........ ....... 14
Learning and Teaching ........ .... .... .... .... .... .... ....... ........ .... ........... ................ ....... 15
Adult Learners .................................................. .............. .......... ................ ....... 15
Adult Education in Educational Institutions ........ ............. .......................... ... .... 16
Adult Educators ... ................................................ .... ............... .... ..... ... ........ . 16
Institutional Practices .......................... .... .... .... ...... ..... ..... ...... ........................... 17
Competition and Co-operation ............... .... ........ ... .. ... ... .... .... .......... ............. 17
Funding Sources .................... ..... ....... ........ .. .......................... .... ... .. ......... .. .. 17
Future Directions in Adult Education ...................... .... ...... ..... .......... .......... ....... 18
The Internet ...................... ...................... ............ .... ............ .. ................ ....... 18
Evaluating Learning ........... ....... ..... ........ ... .... ...... .. .. .. .... ......... .. .................... 18
Practitioners ............................................ ...... .......... .. ............. ..... ................ 19
Computers and Adult Education......... .... .... ............ ... ..... ........... ............................ 19

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Communication and Learning ............................. ..... ...... .... ... .. .. ........................ 20
Software Use in Educational Settings ...... .... .... ............ ......... .. ..... ..................... 21
Computers in the Classroom ................ .... .. ........... ....................................... 22
Revolution or Evolution? ............................................. ..... ........................... 23
Learning Styles .... ......................... ........... .... .... ....... .............................. .... ....... ..... 24
Major Learning Style Theories ................. .... ............................... ...................... 24
Cognitive Style vs. Learning Style ..................................... .... .... ... ... .... ............. 28
Learning Style Research .......... ................................ .......... ............................... 29
Sensory Learning ..................... .... ........ .... ..... ....... ... .. .. .... ............ ........... ... ........ 30
Preferred Learning Style .............................. ................ .................. ................... 31
Hypothesis .... .... ......... ............ ................. .... ........................................... .. ... .... ...... 33
Chapter 3: Method ................. ..... .... .... ............ .... .... .................. ............................................. 34
Research subjects .. ............................. ................ ........................................ ........... 34
Demographic Data Collection ................... ........... ..... ..... .. ... ........ ...................... 34
Upgrading Course Performance Data............................... ... ....... .................... ... 3 5
Data Analysis ..................................................... ... ...... .. ... ...... ......... ... .............. 3 5
Chapter 4: Results ........... ........... ........ .... .... ............ ........ ........................................................ 36
Participants ................ .......... .. ... .... ..... ..... ..................... .. .. ..... .... .. .... ... ......... ....... ... 36
Independent Variables .... .... .... .... .... .... ............................................. ... ...... .... ... ...... 38
Dependent Variables ......................................................................... ............. ....... 40
The Relationship Between Learning Styles and Upgrading Performance ............... . 44
Chapter 5: Discussion .......................................... ......... ....... ....... ......... .......... ................ .... ..... 47
Evaluation and Interpretation ................................ ............ ............... ..................... 4 7
Limitations ... .... ...... ......................... ............... ..... ...... ... ...... ...... ........ ................. .... 48
Implications for Future Research .... ........................... .. .......... ............... .... ............. 48
Conclusion ....................................... ...... ........ .... ..... ........... .... ...... ..... ................ .... 50
References ..... ...... ............. ...................... .... .............................. ..... ...... .............. .............. .... .... 51
Appendix ................. ......................... .... ............ ................................................ ....................... 56
A. Continuing education registration form ... ... ....................................... ....................... ......... 56
B. Learning Style Response form ... .... .. .. .................... ......... ..... .. ....... ... .... ..... ... .... ... ... ...... .. ... 57
C. CAAT Canadian Adult Achievement Test, Select-a-Level test ... ............... ... .... ......... ... ..... 58
D. Clearance letter ................ ....................................... .... ........... ........ .......... ............ .... ........ 60
E . PLATO® Individual performance summary sheet .................. ...................... ............. .... ... . 61
F. Chi-Square and Correlations results summary--learning style for dependent variables ........ 62

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List of Tables

Table

Page
1. Learning Style Elements in 11 Theories ... ... .. ... .... .... ...... ... .. ....... ... .. ......... ............... 25
2. Perceptual Learning Styles Experimental Research ................................................ 29
3. Percentage Distribution of Subjects for Four
Independent Variables ....................................... ... ...... ........ ... .......... .. .... .... ... ... ... ... . 37
4. Tabular Summary oflndependent Variables and
Learning Styles ..... ........................................... .............. ..... ........ ........... .... ............ 38
5. Chi Square (i) Test ofthe Independence ofFour
Independent Variables ............................... .. .. .. ... .. ...... ..... ................. ...... ....... ......... 39
6. Summary of ;I Test of Significance of Learning Style
for Four Independent Variables ........ ............................... ................. .... .. ... .... ......... 39
7. Statistical Summary of Upgrading Module Results ............ .. .... .. .... .. ......... .. .... .. ...... 41
8. Statistical Summary ofHours Spent Learning Six
Upgrading Modules ................. ... ...... .... ..... .... ...................... ... .... .... .... .. .. ... ...... ... .... 42
9. Pearson r Correlation Coefficients for Twelve
Dependent Variables ................................. .... ...................... ............... ............ ........ 42
10. Summary of Correlations ofDependent Variables ........ .. ... .......... ..... ...... .... .... ......... 43
11 . Summary of Tries, Total Time, and Time per Try for
Three Learning Styles ............................ .... ....................... ...... ........................ ........ 44
12. Learning Style One-way ANOVA Results for 18
Dependent Variables ........ ....... ........................................... ............. .. ..................... 46

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DEDICATION

To Estelle Doris Walsh

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This learning project has been a four and a half year love-hate relationship, completed with
the help, assistance, and support from my extended families; personal, academic, and social.
In the summer of 1994, the University of Northern British Columbia explored, with a
unique group of adult learners, a new and untried distance learning format for the time and place.
We had intensive summer courses, night courses in two different cities, dedicated video lines for
delayed and real time television course broadcasts, multiple site learning centres, daunting
hardware, and e-mail. Eventually we were connected via WWW.UNBC.EDU to the remote
library. Instruction came from visiting and new professors, full and part time lecturing staff, and
from team teaching by students, yet we had no courses on the Prince George campus site. All
these innovations were part of this Master of Education program at the new UNBC, co-ordinated
by Dennis Macknak Director of Regional Operations.
The mentoring of Dr. Bryan Hartman was exemplary, unfailing, and a credit to UNBC. He
kept this distance education concept and experiment going, solving all problems before or as they
developed. His style accommodated mine and allowed me to grow. Dr. Peter Chow made us into
one group of adult learners, from the bunch of scared individuals we were at the start of the
program. Dr. Ron Lehr challenged and stretched us and our various beliefs about relationships.
Dr. Peter MacMillan was a great help organizing my data. Near the end of the project, he
refreshed and clarified needed knowledge, long after I had taken my statistics courses. His
patience was appreciated. Jennifer and Mary were an inspiration, as was Cathy. The collegial
support of classmates Bill, Carol, Cheryl, Elaine, Jim, Rick, and the other students kept us going,
through thick and thin. Friends Alan and Dorothy, Bob and Marie, Daniel and Frances, Dave and
Vicky, Jim and Carol, Mike and Penny, Bill, Bobby, Brent, Carolyn, Eileen, Helen, Judy, Lois,
Lona, Margaret, Norma, Peggy, Sue, and special friend Olive, played important parts in my
completing this program. Thanks to all of you .

1

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Adult students have been returning to school to complete or augment their educational
competencies for decades. Since 1973, there have been many developments in the adult education
field . The introduction of personal computers and computer-assisted learning has evolved since
many adult students were last in school (Hofstetter, 1985, p.1). Many people left because they
could or would not learn the way their teachers were teaching. Could using computers assist these
adults in reaching their learning goals? This study tried to answer that question.
Adult upgrading students are, by definition, academically deficient. For a variety of
reasons, they have not completed the basic high school curriculum in a satisfactory manner, or to
an acceptable level. They left, quit, were asked to withdraw, or failed one or more subjects or
courses in school, and they now want to complete their adult basic education to the high school
level, or at least learn to read and write. Students who were not successful in school as children
are often quite smart. History is full of examples such as Edison, Churchill, and Einstein.
Sternberg stated it well. "When we expand the range of abilities we test for, we also expand the
range of students we identify as smart" (Sternberg, 1997, p. 24).
Success is seen by many as attaining at least a high school diploma. Adult students are
usually busy people. Adults cannot easily return to high school classrooms as full-time day
students even if they wanted to--and most do not. They have learned significantly since being in
school, but they have no credit or official recognition for this learning. They lead full lives, yet
they need to finish high school for personal reasons, promotion qualifications, or for pre-requisite
qualifications and knowledge for post-secondary learning or industrial training.

2

Many adult learners need different learning conditions to be effective and to cope with the
rest of life's demands. Among these conditions are a flexible learning schedule, self-paced,
interruptible learning, delivered by a knowledgeable, patient, reliable, non-judgmental, empathetic,
and expert instructor.
We can now add technology-b~sed learning to the list of possible solutions to meet these
needs. Today's personal computers are inexpensive yet powerful enough to run sophisticated
learning systems that are capable of presenting learning concepts in a valid and reliable manner.
To date, most of these systems are a combination of on-screen, static images or text, multiplechoice test questions to validate learning, and an administrative component to record and track
student progress and performance. New iterations of these courseware products will deliver
multimedia components, including sound, graphics and video clips. To date, these software
learning packages have generally been limited to on-screen-visual reading machines. Another
revolution in learning is about to take place, but is not yet widely available.
It is now generally recognized that ways of learning and learning rates differ from

individual to individual (Messick, 1984, p. 61). Matching a student's learning style to an
appropriate teaching style also enhances learning (Sternberg, 1997, p. 23). Students and academic
advisors who are aware of learning styles should be able to improve learning performance by
matching learning styles to learning opportunities. An auditory learner should learn more easily
from a lecture than from reading a textbook, whereas a visual learner would learn better by seeing
material than by listening to a radio broadcast. Research by Rita Dunn and others has implications
for adult learners returning to complete a high school education, especially when a variety of
learning options exists (Ingham 1991, p. 58; Dunn, 1990, p. 233). Adult students want results
quickly and they want them the best way possible for each of their personal situations. They are
not looking for a way to cheat the system, they just want to learn what they need to know to get

3

on with their lives and advance. Most are not stupid; they are just uninformed in some areas of
their learning.
In general, the greater a person' s I.Q., the less time it takes to process stimuli and make
judgements. There is a strong correlation between the time required for a response
(latency) and how well people score in I.Q. tests. Neuro-scientists and. psychologists are
exploring the theory that I.Q. might correspond to rapid processing and low error rate
within the brain: clever people may simply have better "connections" between their brain
cells. (Restak, 1984, p. 173)
Competition for attention in school does not always result in good marks. Some students often
choose not to compete, or to make the most of their innate skills. If they do not work at learning,
they may not lose the competition for attention, but they can stop progressing in their academic
learning.
Another way of saying this is that the greater number of sensory channels used in the
learning process, the greater is the actual amount of learning. Studies have confirmed that
learning is more rapid and efficient when the learner is a participant rather than simply a
spectator and that learning must be used to be retained (Kidd, 1973, p. 219).
We all have 20--20 hindsight. The adult student is the one looking ahead to a brighter future, and
making up for lost chances.

4

CHAPTER2
Literature Review
The Adult Education Field
Adult education is a young field of study, one in which the essential characteristics of the
enterprise are far from settled (Selman, & Dampier, 1991 , p. 1). In British Columbia, "Night
school classes under the auspices of the School Board began in early 1907" (Selman, 1975).
Adult upgrading implies a simple idea of improvement, but includes a much broader set of
concepts. An adult learner is not always chronologically mature. Adult education programs in the
British Columbia school system are authorised for those at least sixteen years of age (Nicholls,
1993 , p. 81). Rogers and Shipley (1997, p. 71) stated that "Adult learners are generally defined as
anyone aged 17 and over enrolled in a structured education or training activity" . A seventeenyear-old youth who quit school at fifteen is eligible for adult education registration and funding.
An eighteen-year-old who has stayed in school is considered a youth and is not eligible for
sponsored adult education in British Columbia until that student has been away from schooling for
at least one academic year (Ministry of Education, 1998, p. 2). Similar anomalies exist in other
jurisdictions. In general, adult students are those functioning as adults, with adult responsibilities,
who choose to return to study, usually part time or for a short period, while they carry out their
other life responsibilities. They may or may not have separate classes scheduled for them.
Adult education is not the same as the education of adults . The former refers to activities
designed especially for adults; the latter is "All purposeful efforts by which adults seek to learn or
are assisted to learn" (Selman, 1991 , p. 2). The purposes of adult learners, the processes by which
they learn, and the providers of the learning, are all elements of adult education (Selman, 1991,
p. 3).

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Field researchers and the public have and use numerous terms to describe adult education.
In addition to the term "adult education", Selman (1991 , p. 2-8) lists the following descriptors:
"community education,"

"continuing education,"

"further

education,"

"adult

training,"

"continuing studies," and "extension." These are just some ways practitioners in various

institutional settings

see their different roles. Lifelong learning, recurrent education,

transformational learning and autonomous learner; full time, part time, regular, credit or audit
student; academic, general interest, vocational, or professional courses; all are terms that describe
adult education.
Learner Activities
Many formal definitions have tried to encompass the range of adult education activities.
One of the first such definitions was noted in a report to the British Ministry of Reconstruction in
1919: "All the deliberate efforts by which men and women attempt to satisfy their thirst for
knowledge, to equip themselves for their responsibilities as citizens and members of society or to
find opportunities for self expression" (as cited in Selman, 1991 , p. 3).
Intellectual Process. In contrast to the definition of a set of activities taken on by the
learner for a purpose, Houle's definition is more of an intellectual process, involving the learner as
well as the ways providers relate to the learner.
It is the process by which men and women, learners and practitioners, seek to improve
themselves or their society by increasing their skills, knowledge or sensitivities; or it is any
process by which individuals, groups or institutions try to help men and women improve in
these ways. Houle, 1972, p. 32)
Social System. A third approach to a definition of adult education came from Verner
(1962), who emphasised the processes used by adult education providers as part of a social
system made up of individuals and organizations.
Adult education is the action of an external agent in purposefully ordering behaviour into
planned systematic experiences that can result in learning for those for whom such activity

6

is supplemented to their primary role in society, and which involves some continuity in an
exchange relationship between the agent and the learner so that the educational process is
under constant supervision and direction. (Verner, 1962, p. 2-3)
Current Definitions. Among the most widely cited formal definitions of adult education is
the one from the United Nations. At the Fifth International Conference on Adult Education, held
in Hamburg in July 1997, the following was accepted:
Adult education denotes the entire body of ongoing learning processes, formal or
otherwise, whereby people regarded as adults by the society to which they belong develop
their abilities, enrich their knowledge, and improve their technical or professional
qualifications or tum them in a new direction to meet their own needs and those of their
society. Adult learning encompasses both formal and continuing education, non-formal
learning and the spectrum of informal and incidental learning available in a multicultural
learning society, where theory- and practice-based approaches are recognized. (UNESCO,
1997, p. 1)
The above definition is an updated one from the original UNESCO Adult Education
Definition adopted in 1976. The newer one recognizes the need for both theoretical and practical
approaches to adult education and seems to downplay the role of formal institutions in education.
Learning processes replace educational processes, and continuing education is now specifically
included in adult education. The original 1976 definition follows :
The entire body of organized educational processes, whatever the content, level and
method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial education in
schools, colleges and universities, as well as in apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded
as adult by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge,
improve their technical or professional qualifications or tum them in a new direction and
bring about changes in their attitudes or behaviour in the two fold perspective of full
personal development and participation in balanced and independent social, economic and
cultural development. (UNESCO, 1980, p.3)
There are other distinctions made or expressions used to describe adult education, such as
night school, part time or continuing education classes, lifelong learning, upgrading, retraining,
recurrent education, and autonomous or self-directed learners. "Adult education is discussed on
three different dimensions - as a set of activities, as an intellectual process in which adults seek to

7

learn things and as a social system which is made up of individuals and organizations" (Taylor,
1998, p. 1).
Adult Education Theory Development
The philosophical underpinnings of modern adult education are traceable to Malcolm
Knowles who defined the term "Andragogy" in his book, The Modern Practice of Adult
Education. After dismissing pedagogy as, "specifically, the art and science of teaching children,"
Knowles, (1970, p. 37), defined andragogy as "the art and science of helping adults learn."
However, even in books on adult education you can find references to "the pedagogy of adult
education, without any apparent discomfort over the contradiction in terms" (Knowles, 1970,
p. 37).

Four crucial assumptions about adult learners distinguish them from child learners,
according to Knowles:
1.) his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being
a self-directing human being;
2.) he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource
for learning;
3.) his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his
social roles;
4.) his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to
immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from
one of subject centeredness to problem centeredness. (Knowles, 1970, p. 39)
We can effectively treat children and youth as we do adult learners, but we cannot treat
adult learners as children and be successful very long. The continuum of change between youth
and adult for the above-noted criteria needs to be examined to match the learner' s developmental
level. Some youth are more adult than their years and peers. Later in life, Knowles revised and
updated his theory in the second edition of his book, The Modern Practice of Adult Education.
He subsequently applied the above assumptions to all learners. He put andragogy alongside the

8

pedagogical model. The choice of which format to use became dependent on the learner and
learning situation, rather than solely on the learner's age (Knowles, 1980).
Learning Projects
Allen Tough, from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (O.I.S.E.) introduced the
concept of adult learning projects. He examined how adults deliberately engage in self-directed
learning projects throughout their lives and how these projects may or may not involve
institutional or formal learning settings in "A sustained, highly deliberate effort to learn" (Tough
1979 p. 7). New technology advances, such as CD ROM encyclopaedias, the World Wide Web,
Internet search engines, videos and new speciality television channels, now make this learning
project option available to virtually any learner anywhere. Virtual institutions are a reality today.
They are a ' place' where one may complete courses and programmes of study from grade school
to graduate study without leaving one' s computer. One such site on the Internet has as its
purpose, "To bring together everything relating to Canada and education that has a presence on
the World Wide Web" (Press, 1999, p 1). Some of the links to adult education sites include:
school boards, community colleges, and universities across Canada, Canadian educational
journals, data bases, clearing houses, directories, libraries, and educational networks. There were
twenty-five such entries in April 1999 (Press, 1999, p. 1). In the Education Journals list, for
example, twenty-four Canadian journals are included. This sort of learning source significantly
increases the range and availability of self-directed learning projects that Tough wrote about
before the World Wide Web was even invented.
Self-Directed Learning
Self-directed learning gained recognition as an outgrowth of Carl Rogers' experiential
learning in writings such as Freedom to Learn (Rogers 1969). In it, he identified the elements of
experiential learning to include; "A quality of personal involvement, ... self initiated, ... pervasive,

9

... evaluated by the learner, ... its essence is meaning" (p. 5). Later, in 1983, Rogers advocated an
unstructured method of teaching where the teacher's role is that of a facilitator and the student is
allowed the freedom to pursue his or her own self-discovered learning activity (p. 27). As access
to learning resources increases and the need for life-long learning gains acceptance, self-directed
learning may well become the dominant learning mode in society. To date, full time attendance at
the degree-granting educational institutions has been the norm.
Transformational learning
Another aspect of adult education theory is that of Transformational Learning.
Transforming past knowledge is different from forming new knowledge. "Adult learning focuses
primarily on modifying, transforming, and reintegrating knowledge and skills, rather than on
forming and accumulating them as in childhood" (MacKeracher, 1996, p. 37). The more
experiences one lives, the more this transformational learning is important. Mezirow developed
the concept that:
Perspective transformation fills an important gap in adult education theory by
acknowledging the central role played by the function of critical reflectivity. Awareness of
why we attach the meaning we do to reality ... may be the most significant distinguishing
characteristic of adult learning. (Mezirow, 1981, p. 11)
He and others, for example Hart, (1983 , p. 89), Freire (1973 , p. 102), indicated that
transformations take more energy, time and effort to establish than do initial formations
(MacKerchacher, 1996, p. 37). Put another way, unlearning and relearning are more difficult than
initial learning. Transformations may take place at any age, but there must already be learned
concepts or skills to transform into new ones. Adults have more of these transformational learning
situations than do children.
Feringer (1978, p. 1) and Ornstein (1972, p. 39) suggest that past experience can be used
most productively when it becomes the basis for an analogy or metaphor. Their view
implies that learning requiring transformation of previous experience, proceeds most

10

effectively through such facilitating act1v1t1es as brainstorming, analogies, games,
simulations, metaphors, case studies and the like. (MacKeracher, 1996, p. 39)
We need a hook to our past experience in order to change it, or to learn a different way of
integrating new knowledge into old patterns. Adding one more ball to a group of balls floating in
a barrel changes the pattern and relationship of all the other balls in the barrel. So it is with new
learning. The more learning experiences we have, the more interrelated our knowledge becomes.
Adult Literacy
Adult literacy is a special part of adult education. Most children learn to read and write as
they develop and learn in school. Those who do not acquire these skills at a young age may do so
as adults in a literacy class, or with a tutor. They are fragile learners and have understandably low
self-esteem and self worth. "However, the more common stories included descriptions of neglect,
low income, lack of self-esteem, abuse, and learning disabilities. Most of those interviewed had
faced major difficulties in their lives as children and adults" (Bossart, Cottingham, & Gardner,
1994, p. 9). It is sobering to realize that these are the ones with enough self-esteem and risk-

taking skills even to attempt learning again. What hope is there for their illiterate friends who will
not even try?
Fundamental Skills
As the total knowledge base of humankind expands faster and faster, the group of what
are considered fundamental skills has also grown. Computer skills are now needed daily. "We are
being forced to use computers or lose access to libraries (the card files are gone), messages (yoice
mail), correspondence (electronic mail), gas pumps (automatic payment), and banks (automatic
cash machines)" (James, 1995, p. v-vi). Literacy standards are changing as the knowledge needed
to survive changes and grows. The International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) defined a baseline
literacy level as being: "The ability to understand and use printed and written information to

11

function in society, to achieve goals, and to develop knowledge and potential" (Shalla &
Schellenberg, 1998, p. 10). How many of those who consider themselves literate can effectively
program a VCR or telephone--even using the manual!
Adult literacy is an example within Adult Education that relates well to all three aspects of
this field of study: the learner, the institutional processes and society in general. The typical adult
learner has generally slipped through the initial education system and has acquired educational
experiences of all kinds (Bossert, et al. 1994, p. 9-12). Learning to Learn, a study of adult
learners in British Columbia, showed the impact of literacy learning on adult students (Bossert et
al. 1994, p. vi-vii). The effects of participating in an adult upgrading program were significant in
the students' educational, psychological, social, community, and economic areas of life. "It's like
turning on a light, things are never the same ... people are learning to learn ... people have learned
that they have learned. They now have the confidence that they can keep on learning on all kinds
oflevels throughout their lives" (Bossert et al. 1994, p vi-vii).
Living Intentionally
Balshaw conducted a study with non-violent men who had witnessed spousal abuse in
their childhood. Because of this study, he developed a concept he called Living Intentionally
(Balshaw, 1993, p. iii). He demonstrated four identifiable stages of growth through which each
man had progressed:
• becoming aware of the environment and of himself
• resolving to live more positive lives
• connecting with others
• contributing to the world.
There are at least five implications ofLiving Intentionally, which have specific relevance to
Adult Basic Education (ABE) providers and for many adult learners. They include:

12

1. Rethinking the drop out label
2. Systematic support for lifelong learning
3. The importance of connecting with others

4. The need to contribute to the world
5. The role of adult basic education in the economy and in society. (Bossart et al. 1994, p.
ix)
"To the degree that any ABE program nurtures and enables the Learning to Learn model
and the Living Intentionally process, enduring positive impacts as described in this study will
result" (Bossart et al. 1994, p. ix). The learner and society benefit when learning takes place.
The Adult Education System
A Learning Enterprise may seem to be an oxymoron, but adult education is a big business.
Not all adult learners are autonomous, completely self-directed or perfectly motivated. They still
need support in their learning.
Funding
Economically speaking, one anonymous ' philosopher' put it well. "If you think education
is expensive, try ignorance!" It costs less to educate than to rehabilitate; less to inculcate than
incarcerate. A full- or part-time adult student in the British Columbia school system generates
grants to the School District. School Districts receive approximately $4000.00 per full-timeequivalent student (one adult FTE student is counted for every eight courses registered). These
grants cover all related education costs (Coopers & Lybrand, 1994, p. 15). In Canada, "It costs
about $50,000 to keep a convict behind bars for a year" (Haysom, 1998, p. a4) . "A year in prison
costs more than a year of schooling at Harvard" (Carbo, 1990, p. 27). Even at twice the cost or
half the price, education wins! These direct costs of education do not include the hidden costs of
low self-esteem, welfare state dependency, and unemployment payments or lost productivity. This

13

is not a new concept, but as budgets get tighter and the squeeze increases, the value of Adult and
Continuing Education can be measured in hard cash terms. If we wanted to tally the direct cost
savings of education it could be done, and the results would surprise many people.
Schooling and Literacy
The relationship between schooling and literacy is not as clear as one might presume. All
provinces and territories provide education for young learners. Many school districts and all
colleges in BC provide adult upgrading programs (Rubenson, 1992, p. 5). "Seventy-four of the
province' s 75 school districts have adult students enrolled in either regular or adult programs"
(Rivers, 1992, p. iii). Access to education is not uniform however. Significant numbers of adults
left school before the college system was established in the 1970' s. Some presume that they have
missed their chance at an education.
In all, the literacy levels of about 20 percent of the Canadian sample in the IALS survey
are lower than the model one would predict and about 16 percent are higher. "Clearly, education
does not 'fix' a person's literacy skills for a lifetime" (NALD, 1999 p. 1). Literacy is a skill. Like
most skills, one needs to practise to develop and to maintain it.
Three types of literacy were measured by IALS : prose, document and quantitative. They
were defined as follows :
• Prose literacy: The ability to understand and use information from texts such as
editorials, news stories, poems and fiction.
• Document literacy: The ability to locate and use information from documents such as
job applications, payroll forms, transportation schedules, maps, tables and graphs.
• Quantitative literacy: The ability to perform arithmetic functions such as balancing a
chequebook, calculating a tip, or completing an order form. (Shalla & Schellenberg, 1998,
p. 10)

14
Forms of Adult and Continuing Education
All three forms of adult education--formal, non-formal and informal, can be used to
increase literacy and other skills (Selman, 1991, p. 11). He and others differentiate these three
learning formats for all areas of adult education or training.
Formal. In the formal educational setting, there

IS

an organizational relationship,

regardless of the learning content, between the learner and the sponsor of the activity. Formal
education is usually full-time study in a traditional educational institution, with comprehensive
curricula and many levels of content linked to a certification or graduation accreditation. It is time
based and content bound, with all students moving through it at a relatively fixed, predetermined
pace. One can think of this way oflearning as eating a multi-course, fixed-menu meal at a banquet
hall.
Non-Formal. Non-formal education is the rest ofthe organized, systematic, institution- or
agency-led learning available, from which the learner may choose what and when (within reason)
to learn. Some of the activities include night school, short courses, lectures, and community health
programs. Using the above analogy, we have a smorgasbord side table at a social dinner function.
Informal.

Informal education is the unsystematic,

unorganized, and

sometimes

unintentional learning that all individuals engage in during their whole lifetime. The life experience
of an adult is usually informal learning interspersed with a number of non-formal, learning project
choices that follow an initial period of formal education. In the future, the order and relative
importance of this informal learning will be more varied than in the past. As we truly become
lifelong learners, we will have more non-formal and formal periods of learning during our
lifetimes. This should make continuing education an even more important life function than it is
now. The need to upgrade will prompt more agencies to offer more and greater learning services.
Institutions will grant formal recognition for informal learning. Dewey's autonomous learner may

15
become the societal norm. Raiding the refrigerator at home or at a friend's when hungry is an
appropriate analogy extension.
Learning and Teaching
Tough, (1979, p. 44) summarized well why people learn. "The benefits anticipated by the
learner are not only intellectual, cognitive, and material; but also emotional or psychological,
including pleasure, satisfaction, self-esteem, recognition and receiving praise."
The other side of the learning coin (the dark side) was also described well by Tough
(1979, p. 184). He quoted Hans Selye' s story of revenge teaching to illustrate the dark side.
When neighbours have a noisy party, we wonder how to punish them or change their
behaviours. Revenge (the wish that another person not prosper) is a ' savage distortion of
the natural wish to teach others not to hurt us .. .It is nothing more but a grotesque
malformation of our urge to teach' (Selye, 1956, p. 286).
Adult Learners
"Adult learners are generally defined as anyone aged 17 and over enrolled in a structured
education or training activity" (Rogers & Shipley, 1997, p. 71). Learning and teaching are human
characteristics. How we use them is up to us. The adult, mature learner can make these choices.
Analytical theorists argue that until the foundations of a subject-centred curriculum are known, a
person without a defined base of knowledge is like a voter having the right to vote but not
knowing the issues in the election. Who decides who shall vote and how do we become informed?
These are the central questions not only for education but also for democracy.
The formal, non-formal, and informal continuing education or adult education formats
constitute the current educational scene, as they always have. Through the years, the relative
importance of each changes due to political, economic and/or social factors.

16
Adult Education in Educational Institutions
Adult and continuing education are generally marginal to an educational institution' s
overall mandate and function. A typical school district's adult education budget may represent less
than two percent of the overall district budget, and yet the division may register approximately
five percent of the student full-time equivalent population. Marginality is also demonstrated in
teaching and office space allocation, equipment budgets and administrative influence. In many
instances, responding to the demands of the marketplace and continuing education learners puts
one at odds with one's institution.
Adult Educators. Many adult education administrators echo the writing of Gordon
Selman, one ofBritish Columbia's most admired adult educators.
I have been at odds with my employing institution for most of my 38 years that I worked
for it. In Extension/Continuing Education, I was aware at the time that we were a
marginal interest of the institution and that we did not get a fair shake in terms of policy or
financial support. In the Faculty of Education, we in Adult Education always felt, and
were constantly reminded, that we were marginal to the interests of the Faculty, which
was mainly concerned with training personnel for the K to 12 system. I had always valued
my connection with the University--it was a good life--but at the same time, I frequently
had a jaundiced view of some ofits policies. (Selman, 1994, p. 162)
Adult educators are entrepreneurs working in a bureaucracy, a truly modern oxymoron.
They are only as good as the next student's learning need, the next fad in part-time learning
demands, and the next change in their community's economy. Anticipatory planning is not
unplanned design. Flexibility and quick response time are imperatives, and elaborate plans can
change overnight. Whether it's setting up a course on the newest version of Microsoft Powerpoint, lobbying WCB to examine First Aid Attendants recently trained, getting railroad workers to
use a new laser gun survey tool, or co-ordinating a replacement speaker for the ecology society's
annual meeting, the good adult educator moves quickly.

17
Institutional Practices
Education is big business. Training is a significant enterprise, "Directly involving nearly
half the population" (Statistics Canada, 1994, p. 2). "In 1991 , more than one Canadian in four
participated in some form of organized education or training activity, excluding full-time formal
education programs. This represents more than 5.5 million adults 17 years of age and older"
(Statistics Canada, 1994, p. 40). By province, in 1991 British Columbia ranked third in adult
education participation rates, behind Alberta and Manitoba (Statistics Canada, 1994, p. 41).
Twice as many people enrolled in job-related adult education training than in personal
development courses (Statistics Canada, 1994, p. 43).
Competition and Co-operation. Competition and co-operation are not mutually exclusive
within Continuing Education. In most mid-sized towns or cities, there are many stakeholders in
the Continuing Education industry. In Quesnel, British Columbia, a city of approximately 20,000
people, there is a university regional office, an international university conducting masters level
programs on site, a community college regional office, a Community Skills Centre, a school
district full-service Continuing Education division, a for-profit private college, and a governmentsponsored Native Training institution. Human Resources Development Canada sponsors training
activities in a Wood Enterprise Centre and in local industries, as well as a host of private trainers
and training consultants.
Funding Sources. Institutional funding for adult and continuing education programs
currently comes from tuition fees paid by the student or employer and government core program
or special project grants. Governments also fund private institutions, consultants and industry, or
some combination of the above. Most continuing education operations are not fully base funded
and must collect fees to cover costs, often including charges from their own institution. In many
cases, fees are based upon what the traffic will bear, as in any retail business. As supply and

18

demand fluctuate, so do course fees and offerings. As institutional funding shrinks, demands by
the institution's core activity budgets require more of the "profit" from continuing education to
maintain their overall infrastructure. Fewer and fewer non cost-recovery activities are included in
course calendars, and more and more learners are excluded from participating in needed
upgrading activities.
Future Directions in Adult Education
Lifelong learners are now the norm, not the exception. People are adults longer than they
are school aged, and the world is not getting simpler. Adult education has unlimited scope,
restricted only by our individual desires to learn while we live, and by our ability to tap into
learning sources and resources.
The Internet. A new player in every learning community is the Internet and the World
Wide Web. Distance Education is becoming its own oxymoron. The "mother" of all libraries is
available to anyone, anywhere, with a telephone connection or satellite up-link. More than enough
schools, colleges, universities and corporations are welcoming learners "from a distance" .
Evaluating Learning. For mainly competitive reasons, a relatively new concept is gaining
increasing strength in adult learning, that being Prior Learning Assessment, or PLA. The first
national forum on Prior Learning Assessment in Canada was held in Ottawa in 1995. Human
Resources Development Canada hosted the forum. Canadian college terminology is not yet fixed;
for example, it includes PLA, PLAR and PLR for Prior Learning Assessment, Prior Learning
Assessment and Review, and Prior Learning Recognition. As with many recent educational
innovations in Canada, PLAR started in Quebec about 20 years ago and is just now being
discovered or invented in the rest ofthe country (Norton, 1997, p. 3). The various definitions or
elements of institutional PLA procedures all centre around the concept that PLA is learning
acquired prior to enrolment in college without the benefit of the college's instructional efforts.

19

The problem for PLA is that there is no institutional basis for the certification of knowledge or
learning. The PLA process is used to ascertain if the adult's learning is equivalent to or in excess
of the knowledge, skills or competence commonly identified with the institution' s own credit
course outcomes or industry-based training programs for certification. PLA formalises non-formal
and, especially, informal learning. As the opportunities and needs to learn outside institutions
increase, PLA will need to expand. Learners and learning rather than institutions and teaching will
direct this education enterprise. Some institutions will adapt to the new reality. Others will adopt
it. Many will become redundant. A few may disappear.
Practitioners. The adult educator is an adult learner, a pragmatic practitioner, and a grass
roots member of society. In the future, new ways of learning will develop, new content will be
created, and new equipment will deliver it. Students may mature more quickly, andragogical
techniques may filter down into the schools more effectively, and intelligent machines may change
what we call work. Brain implants may help us learn to learn and to discern, virtual schools may
proliferate, information filters may be developed and science fiction may become historical record.
Many of the jobs in the next decade have not yet been invented. People will need to learn, and
adult education, in some form, will help them learn. The future is ours to invent. "If you think in
terms of a year, plant a seed; if in terms of ten years, plant trees; if in terms of a hundred years,
teach the people" (Ancient Chinese proverb).
Computers and Adult Education
The computer revolution has had its detractors, as has every revolution. Examples of early
responses to innovations that went on to change the modern world range from Lord Kelvin's
observation that radio had no future to Harry M. Warner's scepticism about the market for talking
movies. John Loggia Baird was considered a lunatic, possibly dangerous, for claiming to have a
machine for seeing by radio. Modern-age Luddites point to computer learning in education and

20

the resulting depersonalisation, low student completion rates, high start-up costs, new roles for
instructors, and even new names for those who help students learn, as reasons to avoid using
computers. "If Rip Van Winkle came back today, the one thing he would recognize as being
unchanged would be a high school classroom!" (Orsak, 1990, p. 27).
Computers have initiated a Fourth Education Revolution. The First saw the establishment
of formal learning, the Second, the invention of writing, and the Third, the invention of the
printing press (Thomas and Buck, 1994, p. 65).
Communication and Learning
Communication and learning operate in two modes: synchronous and asynchronous. "The
main distinction between the two is whether teachers and learners are participating at the same
time or not" (Parrott, 1995 p. 3). Technologies such as Morse code, telephone, television, and
radio are synchronous, occurring in real time for all participants. Some can be "converted" to
asynchronous machine equivalents, such as an answering machine, VCR, or tape recorder. By
freezing the communication content in time, these devices allow someone to "participate" later, or
to review the same content repeatedly. Computer networks, Internet chat lines, interactive audio,
or videoconferences are examples of synchronous computer communication systems. E-mail is
asynchronous. Computer Based Training (CBT) can be both in that the learner interacts with the
computer program in real time but may later return and continue or repeat the learning exercise.
In some CBT programs, the instructor may interact with the learner by remotely reviewing
progress and/or by posting a group or individual message to the learner based upon a review of
the work. This feedback to the learner is asynchronous unless the instructor is connected on line
to the computer station and can interrupt the learner. Like any tool an instructor has, how it is
used is of utmost importance. However, instructors now have the equivalent of power tools rather
than just hand tools.

21

Software Use in Educational Settings
There are growing numbers of software programs used in Adult Basic Education. The
Quesnel School District currently uses PLATO®, Pathfinder®, Autoskills®, Skills Bank III®,
and Cornerstone® as reported by Carolyn Hilbert, Adult Education Advisor (Hilbert 1997). Both
time and space have been affected by these new technologies. Recording devices have frozen time
and networks have eliminated space or distance. Software programs allow the "capturing" of a
computer by another computer that can be located almost anywhere in the world. An informed
operator may then trouble-shoot (or cause trouble) by altering either machine, despite the distance
between them.
Learners have been set free by the invention of hypermedia and digital technologies. These
new technologies foster privacy, patience, and independent opportunity, They also measure
achievement, track progress, and handle administrative data. Distance is shrinking in the world of
education. The advent of World Wide Web-based courses from literacy to post graduate level
study will also increase adult students' access to learning from wherever they are living on the
globe.
Well established methods of learning are still the most used; for example, many instructors
still lecture to groups of learners who take notes, review them, then spit back the same ideas
during a final exam a few months later. Innovation, to some instructors, means using coloured
chalk to highlight very important ideas that they have written on the blackboard. The bell curve of
mediocrity, after so many iterations of the same lecture, becomes almost ideal and statistically
pretty for these people. There are also captivating teachers, lecturers, and storytellers who make
education and learning exciting and fun for people of all ages.
In 1989, an ERIC meta-analysis on computer effects in classrooms since 1980 discussed
instructional effectiveness and improved classroom methods. The measures studied included;

22
"student achievement, attitude, dropout rate, [and] learning time" (Roblyer, 1989, p. 1). The
results of the impact of new technologies on learning were inconclusive. A decade later, we still
have few definitive studies or conclusions.
Kulik, Kulik, and Schwalb (1986) studied 24 research evaluations and found that
computer-based education (CBE) usually has positive effects on adult learners' performance
(p. 235). Orlanski and String (1979, p. 237) concluded that a time saving of 30 percent, with no
difference in achievement, occurred in CBE classrooms. In 1995, a bibliography compiled for the
CyberEdge Journal listed only 15 research papers on Computer-Based Training. Only four were
less than two years old (Johnston, 1995).
Computers in the Classroom. Many terms differentiate the types of computer involvement
in learning. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAl) delivers drill and tutorials, Computer-Managed
Instruction (CMI) looks after test administration, student records and performance, and
Computer-Enriched Instruction, (CEI) uses the computer as "A calculating tool, simulator or
programming device" (Kulik, et al. 1986, p. 240). They showed similar time saving results as had
Orlanski and String, that is, about 29 percent less than with conventional teaching methods
( p. 249). In a review of the literature published between 1984 and 1992 on computer-based
training vs. traditional classroom instruction formats, John Rachal found no statistical differences
between the two formats in six studies. There were minimal differential results in two others, one
had a significant difference in favour of CAl, and one had a significant difference favouring
traditional methods (Rachal, 1993, p. 165).
Computers are in use as learning and teaching devices. Studies are no longer mainly
descriptive analyses of computer systems (Thomas & Buck, 1994, p. 1). Studies are showing how
computers are effective (Foshay, 1994, p. 3). PLATO® ranked highest in a comparison of five
systems in use in British Columbia in the area of"Allows Variety ofLearning Styles" (Thomas, &

23

Buck, 1994, p. 96). This project is using a recognized expert learning system to evaluate learning
styles and computer-based training.
Revolution or Evolution? The question of revolution or evolution in computer-based
learning is an open one. Technology augments older technology. The rate of evolution is so rapid
that many see it as a revolution. When the only constant is change, it is understandable that people
are sometimes wary of new ways oflearning and teaching.
When people began to accumulate knowledge through the technology of writing and
reading, they found a way to preserve it through succeeding generations without relying
on memory -- greatly changing the way education was conducted. The impact of the
printing press on students of the time has been analyzed and reanalyzed. No longer did
students have to write or remember everything the teacher delivered; students could use
books. But they did not completely give up the oral/aural connection; witness the
popularity of lecture classes even now. As new technology enables shifts at the level of
delivery, old technologies are augmented, not totally replaced. Even though many of us
have computers at our disposal, we still use books, speech, and pen or pencil writing in
education. (Berge & Collins, 1995, p. 6)
We may be at a similar time in teaching and learning to the time when accomplished artists
started to experiment by using new tools and media. For example, not all actors were able to
transfer to talking movies. Old habits die hard. What worked still works, but the new may work
better, more elegantly or more easily. New artists will find new ways to use the tools and may
produce works of art that were previously not possible.
The research is clear on how the next 'generation of Integrated Learning Systems (ILS)
will be used to improve learning in colleges, institutes, and schools. These emerging technologies
have the potential to be even more liberating than the printing press was for the forebears of
today' s learners and instructors (Thomas & Buck, 1994, p. 68).
One study, similar to this one, of learning styles and computer-assisted instruction showed
"No main effects for learning style" (Cordell, 1991 , p. 175). She recommended that: "It would be
a great contribution to the field of CAl and education as well, to have data concerning the

24
demographics of age, sex, education, and experience related to learning styles and/or outcomes of
CAI design" (Cordell, 1991 , p. 180).
Learning Styles
We all have style. It is the way we each approach and complete a task, the way we do or
make things. We can sense and be aware of things only by seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, or
smelling them. As we learn, these perceptions are added to others and they affect how we
perceive, grasp, and understand our world. Keefe (1982), defined learning styles as "Cognitive,
affective, and physiological traits that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners
perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment" (p. 44). He went on to state:
Learning styles diagnosis is unquestionably a primary component of the teaching-learning
cycle, one that opens the door to a personalized philosophy of education. Style diagnosis
gives a powerful new tool to educators who want to improve student learning. Viewed
apart from a personalized philosophy of education, learning style analysis is merely an
interesting new assessment technique. In the context of a systematic diagnosticprescriptive approach, however, it is the base on which an edifice of personalized
schooling can be built--a truly modern approach to education. (Keefe, 1982, p. 53)
Numerous theorists have postulated ideas about learning styles to try to show how and
why we differ in the ways we each learn best. There is a wide range of approaches to the subject
in the research literature.
Major Learning Style Theories
A 1990 study by Thomas C. DeBello (p. 204-217) examined eleven learning style theories
widely known in the field, including those of Dunn & Dunn, National Association of
Secondary School Principals (NASSP), Hill, Letteri, Ramirez, Reinert, Schmeck, Hunt,
Kolb, Gregorc, and McCarthy. These theories represent the continuum from
multidimensional models, like Dunn & Dunn' s Learning Style Inventory of environmental,
emotional, sociological, physiological, and psychological stimuli groups with 21 subcategories (DeBello, 1990, p. 205), to Letteri' s six information-processing phases
(DeBello, 1990, p. 208) and Kolb' s bipolar four-stage cycle (DeBello, 1990, p. 214).

25

This study concentrated on one aspect of the Dunn & Dunn model, perceptual modality
preference. As discussed elsewhere, we learn from what we perceive through our senses. Table 1
summarizes the learning style elements in these major theories.
Table 1
Learning Style Elements in 11 Theories
Theorist

Elements ofModel

Dunn and Dunn

Environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, psychological

NASSP
Hill

Environmental, emotional, sociological, physical,
psychological/cognitive, study skills
Qualitative/theoretical symbols, modalities of inference, cultural

Letteri

Cognitive style

Ramirez

Bi-cognitive style, bi-cultural

Reinert

Perceptual modalities

Schmeck

Cognitive processing, study methods, retention

Hunt

Need for structure, need for authority dependent/independent

Kolb
Gregorc

Concrete experience vs. reflective observation/abstract
conceptualization vs. active experimentation
Perception/ordering

McCarthy

Innovative/analytic/common sense/dynamic hemisphericity

(DeBello, 1990. p. 204)
There are continuing debates over learning styles. Debello stated that "much of learning
style is biologically imposed on humans. We can no sooner change our styles than permanently
change the colour of our eyes, hair, or skin" (DeBello, 1990, p. 218). Another major issue is
"Whether to teach to students' strengths or to attempt to expand their style" (DeBello, 1990,
p. 217). Other researchers, including (McCarthy, 1990; Kavale & Forness, 1987) argue: Does it
matter? "Present findings provide the necessary basis for no longer endorsing the modality model,
since learning style appears to be really a matter of substance over style" (Kavale, & Forness,

26
1987, p. 238). A good student will learn despite the teaching expertise, or lack thereof The
teacher taught, the student just did not learn. Who is at fault? Who is accountable?
In any communication, both the sender and receiver are involved. In the end, it matters not
at all how eloquent the speaker. In any communication, the value of that communication lies in the
clarity and congruent understanding by the receiver, not the sender. If the recipient cannot
understand, there is no real communication. Yelling at someone who understands only a foreign
language does not facilitate communication. "The intrinsic goal of human communication is to
bring about a common understanding and mutual trust" (Mezirow, 1996, p. 165). No one learns if
one cannot understand the other.
Teaching style is effective and efficient only to the extent that it accommodates the
students' learning styles. If the student does not learn, the teacher has not taught well or
effectively enough. Why teach if no learning takes place? The role of the teacher is not only to
teach--it is to assist the learner to learn. Results matter. How one best learns is the focus for
teaching and learning. Learning styles enhance learning. "We believe that styles have a great deal
of promise for the future" (Sternberg, & Grigorenko, 1997, p. 710).
"Learning style is the way people absorb, process, and retain information" (DeBello, 1990,
p. 204). Learning style theories cluster around a few concepts that are themselves debated. Not all
theorists believe that learning styles must be assessed. Some doubt that instructional techniques
need to be developed and be congruent with any particular learning style. "Teachers need not
label learners according to their style, just help them work for balance and wholeness" (McCarthy,
1997, p. 46). The validity and reliability ofthe assessment instruments themselves are questionable
in the opinion of some researchers. Kavale and Forness, (1987, p. 228) found that "Neither
modality assessment nor modality instruction were efficacious." Curry (1990, p. 50) wrote:
"Weakness in the accumulated evidence for the reliability and validity of measurements is the

27
second continuing problem." Snider (1990, p. 53) concluded : "The idea of learning styles is
appealing, but a critical examination of this approach should cause educators to be skeptical." A
comprehensive rebuttal by Dunn, Griggs, Olsen, Beasley, and Gorman (1995, p. 359) refutes
these and other researchers' findings. It presents a meta-analysis of studies using the Dunn and
Dunn Learning Style Model to prove the validity of learning style as a concept.
Kavale and Forness (1987) stated that "Only 7 out of 10 subjects actually demonstrated a
modality preference score different enough to warrant placement in a particular modality
preference group, while 3 out of 10 would be misplaced" (Kavale & Forness, 1987, p. 232). Dunn
et al. (1995, p. 359) claimed that their study addressed this criticism, and showed the concerns of
Curry and Snider to be "largely irrelevant." A statistical argument was made that an 'r' effect size
of 0.33 may be educationally significant. Since 28 of 29 subset weighted effect sizes were greater
than 0.33; "These moderate subsets would have importance and be of concern in educational
practices" (Dunn, et al. 1995, p. 359).
Is the debate over? Hardly.
There are only three comprehensive models oflearning style. (Hill et al. 1971, Keefe et al.
1986, Dunn et al. 1975, 1979, 1981, 1985); others address only one to four elements,
usually on a bipolar continuum. Although various scholars define the concept differently,
only a few learning-style identification instruments are reliable and valid (Curry, 1987)
(Dunn, Beaudry, & Klavas, 1989, p. 50).
DeBello, (1990) noted that "Dr. Curry's 1987 review of 21 different learning/cognitive
style models through psychometric analyses reported that the Dunn and Dunn model had one of
the highest reliability and validity ratings" (p. 206). Rita Dunn's critical analysis of Kavale and
Forness' Report on Modality-Based Instruction systematically refutes their assessments and
concludes:

28
Thus they once again will be in a position to sound erudite but, in fact, commit errors of
objectivity, strategy, and design. Perhaps innocently, but nonetheless devastatingly, they
again will mislead practitioners who might otherwise use this promising strategy of
modality-based instruction with selected children (Dunn, 1989).
The debate and attempts to validate particular points of view continue. A metaanalytical validation of the Dunn and Dunn model of learning style preferences in 1995
prompted this conclusion.
Given these data--a total sample size of 3181 , an alpha level of .01 and the general
convention of .08 as a desirable level of power .:.-the power of this study was estimated at
.995. This finding seems to indicate that providing educational interventions that are
compatible with students' learning-style preferences is beneficial. (Dunn, et al. 1995,
p. 357)
Confusion or discrepancies among researchers go even to the definitions of terms such as
auditory and visual learning, or learning style itself. It is understandable if different results are
observed if people are looking at different things. Some researchers defined auditory as the ability
to hear, whereas others defined it as the ability to remember what was heard, and still others
defined it as preferring to learn by listening. Dunn et al. (1995, p. 354) noted: "One of the major
flaws of previous examinations of the effectiveness of modality-matched instruction was the
imprecise interpretations of the terms auditory, visual, tactual, and kinesthetic. Those terms were
defined differently by various researchers ." No wonder reliability is low comparing various
learning style assessment instruments, especially in a meta-analysis which included studies that did
not even include definitions, let alone consistent ones.
Cognitive Style vs. Learning Style
Considerable emphasis has been aimed at the differences between cognitive style and
learning style. Both styles are predicated upon the constructivist approach to learning from Jung' s
1923 Theory ofPsychological Types (Conoley & Kramer, 1989, p. 538; Sternberg & Grigorenko
1997, p. 704) . "Cognitive style may be defined as one's preferred way of receiving information or

29
of gaining meaning from one's environment. Learning style focuses on student attitude toward
learning, the teaching method, teachers and peer relationships" (Cranston, 1992, p. 244).
Learning Style Research
Numerous studies and tests have assessed variations on the theme: How are we smart?
"Research on learning styles has been conducted at more than 60 universities over the past decade
on this theme" (Dunn, et al. 1989, p. 50). Researchers include Kolb, Dunn, Price, DeBello, Conti,
Gregorc, Myers, Briggs, McCarthy, and Schneck. Table 2 summarizes the nature of some of the
research that has been conducted on perceptual learning styles (Dunn, 1990, p. 234).
Table 2
e ce~t l Learning Styles
~e
Study

Sample

ent l Research

Subject Examined

Perceptual Preference
Examined

Buell & Buell (1987)

Adults

Continuing
Education

Auditory, visual,
tactual

Carbo (1980)

Kindergarteners

Vocabulary

Auditory, visual,
"other" (tactual)

Ingham (1989)

Adults

Driver safety

Auditory/visual
tactual/visual

Jarsonbeck (1984)

4th grade
underachievers

Mathematics

Auditory, visual,
tactual

Kroon (1985)

9th, lOth graders

Industrial Arts

Auditory, visual,
tactual, sequenced

Martini (1986)

7th graders

Science

Auditory, visual,
tactual

Urbschat (1977)

1st graders

CVC Trigram

Auditory, visual

Weinberg (1983)

3rd graders

Mathematics

Auditory, visual,
tactual

Wheeler (1980)

Learning disabled
2nd graders

Reading

Auditory, visual,
tactual, sequenced

Wheeler (1983)

Learning Disabled
2nd graders

Reading

Auditory, visual,
tactual

30
"The theoretical foundation of the (Kolb) inventory is based upon the Jungian concept of
style or type" (Conoley & Kramer, 1989, p. 441). Kolb interpreted the learning theories of
Dewey, Lewin and Piaget and postulated that there is a learning cycle of four stages which we all
experience. "Immediate concrete experience is the basis for observation and reflection. Those
observations are assimilated into theory from which new implications for action can be deduced.
Those implications serve as guides in acting to create new experiences" (DeBello, 1990, p. 214).
Some prefer different stages and have strengths in different abilities. These abilities or strengths
are their learning style.
The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an excellent example of a construct-oriented
test that is inextricably linked to Jung' s (1923) Theory of Psychological Types (Conoley,
J. C. , and Kramer, J. J. 1989, p. 538). This Jungian base links Kolb and MBTI, cognition
and personality. Cognitive styles represent a bridge between what might seem to be two
fairly distinct areas of psychological investigation: cognition and personality. (Sternberg,
& Grigorenko, 1997, p. 701)
"Learning style is a biologically and developmentally imposed set of personal
characteristics that make the same teaching method effective for some and ineffective for others"
(Dunn et al. 1989, p. 50). In 1995, J. J. Irvine reported that the widespread belief that minority
groups such as Native, African, and Hispanic Americans could be lumped together as fielddependent learners is "Premature and conjectural. Research does not support the supposition that
members of a particular ethnic group have the same learning style" (Irvine, 1995, p.1). An
individual is just that--an individual.
Sensory Learning

It is not difficult to realize we can only learn through the senses we have and have
developed. Semaphore is useless for a blind person, as is yelling at the deaf. The celebrated
learning by Helen Keller demonstrates the concept of learning style adaptation. She was blind,
deaf, and, for a while, mute. She learned by having the letters of objects pressed into the palm of

31
her hand. She learned to speak by feeling the vibrations on her teacher' s larynx. She started with
what she had and learned feeling! She had no other option. Her learning style options were very
limited. Once the stimulation reached her brain, she could understand and think. Our eyes bring
stimuli to our brain from great distances. We can hear a range of sounds from a variety of sources
if our auditory receptors are stimulated. Our interpretation cannot start before stimulation has
arrived. Our senses of taste and touch are immediate, not remote. We cannot react at a distance to
the senses of taste or touch, as we can with smell, sound, or sight. Our nose, ears, and eyes allow
us to sense and be aware of things from a distance. It is safer for us to see, hear, or smell
something before it is on our skin or in our mouth. We can move away from danger quickly once
we are aware. Is this distance education in its most fundamental form? The greater the number of
senses involved, the greater the number of stimuli triggered, and the greater the number of
learning opportunities that can occur. Another way of saying this is that:
The greater the number of sensory channels used in the learning process, the greater is the
actual amount of learning. Studies have confirmed that learning is more rapid and efficient
when the learner is a participant rather than simply a spectator and that learning must be
used to be retained. (Kidd, 1973, p. 219)
Survival is easier when you know what's corning before it hits you. Today, more than ever before,
education is needed for survival.
Preferred Learning Style
Just as every learner has a unique set of distinguishing features; for example, height, size,
eye, and hair colour, so each has a combination of abilities to learn and a unique set of intellectual
strengths and weaknesses. These sets have elements in common and they form the preferred
learning styles for that individual. The well-developed "intelligent person" will be able to use all
his or her abilities appropriately. The true learner will develop the ability to compensate for poor
learning in one skill area by using other better-developed capacities to learn and then demonstrate

32

that learning. An example could be a paraplegic describing or singing the instructions to run a
football pass pattern, or, a deaf person dancing. A good teacher will present material in a variety
of ways to enable students to use their own preferred styles to grasp the meaning. An expert
teacher will help all students discover their individual best way to learn and then teach each
student in that style for that learner.
The shift from teaching to learning has also been evident in the changes in assessment
techniques used in schools. In British Columbia, the three-hour Grade 12 final written essay exam
is gradually giving way to year-long classroom marks counting as a major part of the overall
assessment (May, 1994, p. E-69). The new curricula for high schools in BC, the Integrated
Resource Packages (IRP' s) include a variety of instructional and assessment strategies to evaluate
learning in different ways. The British Columbia Ministry of Education's Evaluating Student
Performance document stated : "Assessment methods and tools include: observation; student selfassessments; daily practice assignments; quizzes; samples of student work; pencil-and-paper tests;
holistic rating scales; projects; oral and written reports; reviews of performance; and portfolio
assessments" (BC Education, 1999, p. 2). All are options in today's classrooms.
In the draft copy of Thinking in the Future Tense, Jennifer James writes about new forms
of intelligence (James, 1995, p.108-112). One is called Practical Intelligence, "The skill that lets
some people take a computer or clock apart and put it back together. . . . People with common
sense may or may not test well, but they have a clear understanding of cause and effect" (p. 112).
She quotes Nelson Goodman as expanding upon intelligence by changing the word order from
"How smart is he or she" to "How is he or she smart" (p. 11 0). This simple twist is what learning
style is all about; how are we smart and how can we show it? Recognizing that there is more than
one way to be smart and there are more than a few ways to test learning are the first steps.
Researchers and learners are finding that not everyone learns and performs in the same ways.

33

Using the computer as a learning and teaching tool has added a new dimension to
education, as it is one of the first tools to help us with our brain. Traditional tools have given us
mechanical advantage for the muscles of our body. There are no levers in a computer's hard drive,
no devices to help us move more quickly. Computers have 'memory' and the capacity to perform
complex calculations, retrieve stored information, and transfer it to other computers. These
abilities were once thought to be uniquely human. We are finding new ways to make new things
with this evolving tool. One product is the capacity to help adults learn effectively. Now that we
have access to these new tools we can, using an industrial metaphor, increase productivity,
maintain quality control, and reduce overhead. We may be able to construct unimagined learning
formats or "products" that were not possible before the invention and development of the
computer, as we did with robotics in the silicon chip manufacturing process. The level of basic
education needed today is increasing. Knowledge is becoming obsolete quicker than ever before.
Something has to change. We must allow and help adult learners catch up to those who already
have a high school education. This study examines the idea that computer-assisted learning may
be useful as a tool to assist adult learners with various learning styles to complete their basic
education.
Hypothesis
It is hypothesised that students' upgrading performance using a computer-based learning
system will not be significantly different, regardless of their individual learning styles.

34

CHAPTER3
Method
Research Subjects
This study was a post facto examination of performance by 41 adult registrants at
Continuing Education Quesnel who used the computer-based PLATO® learning system. All
students were registered to study at the North Cariboo Community Skill Centre (NCCSC). The
research used upgrading courses selected by continuing education professional staff from within
the range of courses available via PLATO® as the basis for measuring skill enhancement.
Continuing Education Quesnel staff working at the NCCSC collected the students' demographic
and performance data. The study collected limited demographic, academic and learning-style
information from each person. The minimum age level for participation in the study was 19 years.
Candidates were asked whether they had completed high school. High school records were not
checked, examined or codified. Staff conducted the assessments late in 1996, shortly after the
NCCSC started regular operations. Staff and students were new to the centre, the organizational
structure was still being developed, and software 'glitches' were still being solved.
Demographic Data Collection
All subjects completed the Quesnel School District's Continuing Education Division' s
registration and demographic questionnaire (Appendix A). They completed the Gary Price
Learning Style Inventory (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1989, p. 92) adapted by Clare LaMeres
(LaMeres, 1990, p. a2, a3), (See Appendix B). All subjects completed the Canadian Adult
Achievement Test (CAAT) Select-a-Level placement test (See Appendix C), to assist in
developing a personalised learning plan. Staff introduced students to the computer-based learning
atmosphere in a consistent manner. Quesnel School District #28 staff collected, collated, and

35

coded all data. The researcher received no personal identification information about any
individual. The Superintendent of Schools of School District #28 granted permission to conduct
the research (See Appendix D).
Upgrading Course Performance Data
The PLATO® software program tracked and recorded all the upgrading performance data
for each learner (See Appendix E). Areas of study included mathematics and English up to the
Grade 10 content and achievement levels equivalent to the British Columbia public school system
curricula. Mathematics concept areas covered within the PLATO® courses included fractions,
decimals, ratio and proportion, percent, geometry and measurement, and pre-algebra placement
tests. The English course covered parts of speech, sentence structure, effective writing and
implied meaning in English prose. The PLATO® software program generated performance data
reports.
Data Analysis
Data analysis consisted of examining the relationships among the independent variables of
sex, graduation status, CAAT scores, and learning style. Chi Square (x2) and Analysis ofVariance
(ANOVA) statistical methods were used, as well as correlation analyses among pairs of
independent variables. Learning Style was then compared with each of the dependent variables;
the number of tries to master the concept, whether it was mastered or not, and the time on task
for each concept attempted.

36
CHAPTER4
Results
This project investigated the relationship between learning styles and a number of
curricular areas in a computer-based software program. Three additional independent variables
were also measured;

sex, past academic performance level, as indicated by high school

graduation status, and current academic potential, as measured by performance on the CAAT
Select-a-Level test. The data were analysed using the statistical software program SPSS, version
6.1. The level of significance selected for this study was an alpha level of .05 for all statistical
tests.
Participants
Forty-one students participated in the study. Thirty-three of the participants were male and
eight were female. When classified according to learning style, 19 participants were described as
visual learners, five were auditory learners, and 17 were multi-sensory learners. Fifteen
participants were high school graduates while 26 were non-graduates. (Participants' placement
scores on the (CAAT) placement test indicated that three participants were functioning at the
primary school level, 13 were placed at the elementary level, and 25 were working at the
secondary level). The continuous data for the performance level (CAAT raw scores) ranged from
27 to 45 . The Mean score was 39.61 , and the Standard Deviation was 4.43 . These raw score
values were re-grouped into three categories: Primary, covering scores from 0-29, Elementary,
30-39, and Secondary, 40-45 . A tabular summary ofthese data and the percentages of the sample
they represent is presented as Table 3.

37
Table 3
Percentage Distribution of Subjects for Four Independent Variables
Independent Variable

n

Percentage
of sample

Sex
Males
Females

33
8

80%
20%

Learning Style
Visual Learners
Auditory Learners
Multi-Sensory Learners

19
5
17

46%
12%
42%

Graduation Status
High School Graduates
Non-Graduates

15
26

37%
63%

3
13
25

7%
32%
61%

CAAT Raw Scores

Mean
Median
SD

CAAT Performance Levels
Primary Grade Level
Elementary Grade Level
Secondary Grade Level
Note: Total number of subjects = 41.

= 39.61

= 41
= 4.43

The CAAT raw scores were the only continuous data collected. More than four times as
many men as women took part in this study, an expected number, since the participants came
from the local forestry industry. Few participants were functioning at the Primary school level.
There were fewer Auditory style participants than Visual or Multi-Sensory ones. Table 4 is a
tabular summary of the independent variables measured in relation to Learning Style.

38

Table 4
Tabular Summary oflndeuendent Variables and Learning Styles
Independent Variable

Sex

HS Grad

Grade

Level

Learning Style
Visual

Auditory

Multi-Sensory

Male

15

4

14

Female

4

1

3

Yes

7

2

6

No

12

3

11

Primary

1

0

2

Elementary

6

3

4

Secondary

12

2

11

1

7

3

6

2

12

2

11

Note: Level 1 =(Primary+ Elementary Grades); Level2 =Secondary Grade
There were no Primary Auditory participants. For statistical purposes, the Primary and
Elementary cells were combined and labelled Level 1.
lndeuendent Variables
It was important to establish that the independent variables were unrelated . Once

established, the study could then determine that any relationship among Learning Styles and the
dependent variables was not affected by significant correlations between two or more independent
variables. Table 5 shows the ;I calculation results among the four independent variables; namely,
Sex, Graduation Status, CAAT and Learning Style.

39
Table 5
Chi Square Cr) Test of the Independence ofFour Independent Variables
Chi Square test results

df

p

1

> .05

2

> .05

Learning Style vs. Sex

:1 = .448
:1 = .775
:1 = .967

2

> .05

CAAT Score vs. Graduation Status

;1= .125

2

> .05

Learning Style vs. Graduation Status

:1 = .981
:1 = .563

2

> .05

4

> .05

Independent Variable Combinations
Graduation Status vs. Sex
CAAT Score vs. Sex

CAAT Score vs. Learning Style

None of the independent variables was significantly related (p > .05) to any other
independent variable.
A series of tests of the relationships between learning style and the levels of each of the
independent variables was calculated (See Table 6). In all cases, a cross tabulation that was tested
by means of the computation of a Chi-square statistic showed that there was no significant
(p > .05) relationship between learning style and the different levels of any ofthe four independent

variables. Collectively, these tests established that none of the relationships among the
independent variables was significant.
Table 6
Summary of/ Test of Significance of Learning Style for Four Independent Variables
Independent Variable

Learning Style
df

p

Sex

:1

0.07

2

.97

HS Grad

0.04

2

.98

Grade

2.97

4

.56

Level

1.06

2

.59

40

Dependent Variables
In that no significant relationships were observed between any of the independent
variables, the analysis moved on to an examination of the relationship among six measures of
mathematics and English performance that comprised the dependent variables of the computerassisted upgrading program. The dependent variables included: the number of attempts to master
a concept, whether or not the concept was mastered, and the total time spent on each curricular
module. Each time a participant signed on to the PLATO® upgrading program and worked on a
content module, the computer registered it as a try (an attempt to master the concept) and tracked
the time spent learning. When the participant answered all questions and tests within the module
with a mastery level of 80%, the computer recorded it as mastery of the content and moved the
participant on to the next concept module. See Appendix E for a sample of the student
performance report. Table 7 presents a summary of the mean, standard deviation (SD) and
frequency of participants for each of the dependent variables; tries, mastery, and time on task, as
fractional hours and as cumulative minutes, for each of the six curricular modules.

41
Table 7
Statistical Summary ofUQgrading Module Results
MODULE
Fractions

Decimals

Ratio

Geometry

Algebra

English

TRIES

MASTERY COUNT

MINUTES

Median=

4.00

Not Attempted

17

Median=

153

Mean =

5.24

Attempted

2

Mean =

216

SD=

4.50

Mastered

22

SD=

195

Median=

2.00

Not Attempted

20

Median=

34

Mean =

2.41

Attempted

Mean =

65

SD=

1.99

Mastered

17

SD=

84

Median=

2.00

Not Attempted

15

Median=

28

Mean =

2.12

Attempted

7

Mean =

57

SD=

2.04

Mastered

19

SD=

69

Median=

2.00

Not Attempted

15

Median=

24

Mean =

1.95

Attempted

10

Mean =

56

SD=

2.00

Mastered

16

SD=

71

Median=

2.00

Not Attempted

12

Median=

14

Mean =

4.59

Attempted

29

Mean =

20

SD=

5.55

Mastered

0

SD=

23

Median=

Not Attempted
Attempted

10
22

Median=

Mean =

3.00
6.61

Mean =

108
271

SD=

8.03

Mastered

9

SD=

349

There was a wide range of participation in the various modules, resulting in large SD
values. The time spent by learners at each session varied widely since they were all studying
independently and set individual schedules. There was no limit to the number of times one could
attempt a module. The time spent by participants learning each module was calculated. Table 8
presents the comparisons of the time spent learning each of the modules.

42
Table 8
Statistical Summary ofHours Spent Learning Six Upgrading Modules
Statistic
Fractions
Decimals
Ratio
Geometry
Algebra
Mean
3.36
1.05
0.57
0.56
0.20
Median
0.34
0.28
0.24
0.14
2.33
1.24
1.09
1.11
0.23
SD
3.15
#Time= 0
11
13
2
3
9
Note: # Time = 0 means the number of subjects who did not start the module.

English
4.31
1.48
5.49
12

Table 8 shows that as the curriculum progressed in its natural order of presentation, an
increasing number of participants did not attempt subsequent modules. Only two participants did
not try fractions, but 13 did not begin the Algebra module.
Table 9 presents the correlations between each of 12 dependent variables for the 41
participants involved in the upgrading program. In all cases, the correlations were positive. The
highest correlation was between Ratio Tries and Algebra Tries (r = .76). The lowest correlation
was between Algebra Minutes and Decimal Minutes (r = .01).
Table 9
Pearson r Correlation Coefficients for Twelve Dependent Variables

Decimal Minutes
Fraction Minutes
Ratio Minutes
Geometry Minutes
Algebra Minutes
English Minutes
Decimal Tries
Fraction Tries
Ratio Tries
Geometry Tries

Dec
Min.

1.0

Frac
Min.

Ratio
Min.

Geo
Min.

Alg
Min.

Eng
Min.

Dec
Tries

Frac
Tries

Ratio
Tries

Geo
Tries

Alg
Tries

Eng
Tries

1.0

.52

.60

.07

.50

.49

.72

.31

.48

.43

.41

1.0

.48

.10

.50

.48

.32

.68

.41

.56

.41

1.0

.26

.75

.34

.40

.27

.57

.48

.51

1.0

.42

.13

.14

.34

.47

.62

.30

1.0

.29

.40

.40

.51

.62

.75

1.0

.58

.59

.58

.50

.52

1.0

.49

.64

.50

.48

1.0

.58

.76

.52

1.0

.71

.61

1.0

.63

.69

.60

.66

.01

.55

.57

.39

.29

.34

Algebra Tries
English Tries

Note 1: Pearson r for DV's. Median = 0.49, Min = 0.01 , Max= 0.76, SD = 0.16.
Note 2: Min. = minutes.

.33

.36

1.0

43
The median value equalled .49. The majority of the correlation values were between .34
and .48.
There is a moderate positive correlation between time on task (Minutes) when comparing
the curriculum components decimals (Decimals Minutes) and English (English Minutes), r = .55,
p = < .01 and another between time spent on Geometry (Geometry Minutes) and Ratio (Ratio

Minutes) r = .48, p < .01. These moderate correlations are typical of most of the values tabulated.
They show that there was a positive relationship between the times spent on different curricular
areas, which is an expected result. Participants were learning a variety of content and could
choose which modules to study. The time spent on each module was related to the time they spent
learning. The high number of participants who did not spend any time on Algebra (13) resulted in
that module exhibiting extremely low correlations with the rest of the curriculum modules. A
descriptive summary ofthe correlation coefficients is presented as Table 10.
Table 10
Summary of Correlations of Dependent Variables
Time with Time

Tries with Tries

Time with Tries

Module

Value

Module

Value

Module

Value

Eng./Geom
Alg./Dec.

.75

Alg./Ratio

.76

Frac./Frac.

.72

.01

Eng./Frac.

.48

Alg./Dec.

.13

Mean

.45

Mean

.58

Mean

.43

SD

.23

SD

.08

SD

.14

Correlation
Highest
Lowest

Note: Overall Mean= .47, SD = .17.
The correlation between the time spent on modules and the number of attempts made to ·
complete them shows that they are related; for example, English Tries and English Minutes,
r = .75 ; Geometry Tries and Geometry Minutes, r = .57; and Ratio Tries and Ratio Minutes,

r = .68. In each case, the correlation is significant p < .0 1. This shows that, as one would expect,

44
there is a relationship between the number of tries and the time spent working on the curriculum
modules.
The Relationship Between Learning Styles and Upgrading Performance
This study was conducted to investigate possible relationships between learning styles and
performance in a computer-based upgrading program. The attempts to learn (Tries), total time
spent learning (Total Time), and time per try (Time/Try), were calculated with each Learning
Style group for each module. Table 11 presents these results.
Table 11
Summary of Tries, Total Time, and Time per Try for Three Learning Styles
Tries
Style
Visual
Auditory
MultiSensory

Statistic
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD

Fractions
4.53
2.89
4.60
6.99
6.24
5.23

Decimals
2.16
1.89
2.20
2.28
2.76
2.08

Ratio
2.11
2.23
2.20
2.28
2.12
1.87

Geometry
1.68
1.20
2.00
1.58
2.24
2.75

Algebra
4.21
5.41
5.20
5.36
4.82
6.03

English
7.42
9.08
7.20
6.50
5.53
7.48

Geometry
36.84
43 .54
49.00
54.40
78 .71
94.23

Algebra
20.89
24.56
29.40
26.92
15 .24
19.13

English
244.37
306.98
414.20
441.81
257.94
377.89

Geometry
18.75
19.71
24.50
34.40
35 .21
34.26

Algebra
7.27
10.35
5.65
5.03
3.16
3.17

English
32.73
48 .93
57.53
68.01
46.65
50.49

Total Time
Style
Visual
Auditory
MultiSensory

Statistic
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD

Fractions
194.26
175 .84
155 .20
167.81
259.12
222.19

Decimals
38 .00
32.77
44.20
44.83
102.00
116.18

Ratio
46.79
63 .66
37.60
35 .75
73 .94
80.44

Time/Try
Statistic Fractions
39.45
Mean
SD
23.44
33 .74
Auditory
Mean
24.02
SD
Mean
41.56
Multi42.51
Sensory
SD
Note: Style means Learning Style.
Style
Visual

Decimals
19.17
17.66
20.09
19.66
36.89
55 .92

Ratio
18.81
16.01
17.09
15 .68
34.92
43 .09

45

An Analysis of Variance was used to test the hypothesis that students' performance was
not significantly different for any of the dependent variables, regardless of their learning style. A
series of one-factor ANOVA tests was computed to determine if there was a significant difference
among the three learning styles for any of the six dependent variables used to measure upgrading
performance. Table 12 presents the ANOVA results summary.
A single analysis of the 36 conducted approached significance (p = .06). It was likely a
Type 1 error, one that rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true. All the other results were far
from being significant. At an alpha level of a = .05, one should expect a Type 1 error to occur
once in approximately 20 tests.
No significant relationship was observed among the three styles for any of the dependent
variables (p > .05). In other words, when learning style was compared for each dependent
variable to find out if any particular learning style was more effective for adult students upgrading
to complete their high school education, none of the F values was found to show a significant
relationship between the various learning styles and any of the curricular module dependent
variables.

46
Table 12
Learning Style One-way ANOVA results for 18 Dependent Variables

ss

df

MS

F

p

Fractions tries--Between
Fractions tries--Within
Fractions mastery--Between
Fractions mastery--Within
Fractions minutes--Between
Fractions minutes--Within

28 .60
782.99
0.74
37.65
59059.51
1459078.24

2
38
2
38
2
38

14.20
20.61
0.37
0.99
29529.75
38396.77

0.69

.51

0.37

.69

0.77

.47

Decimals tries--Between
Decimals tries--Within
Decimals mastery--Between
Decimals mastery--Within
Decimals minutes--Between
Decimals minutes--Within

3.57
154.39
0.25
36.53
39283 .69
243344.80

2
38
2
38
2
38

1.78
4.06
0.13
0.96
19641.84
6403 .81

0.44

.65

0.13

.88

3.07

.06

Ratio tries--Between
Ratio tries--Within
Ratio mastery--Between
Ratio mastery--Within
Ratio minutes--Between
Ratio minutes--Within

0.04
166.35
1.13
32.48
8741.48
181581.30

2
38
2
38
2
38

0.02
4.38
0.57
0.86
4370.74
4778.46

0.01

.99

0.66

.52

0.92

.41

Geometry tries--Between
Geometry tries--Within
Geometry mastery--Between
Geometry mastery--Within
Geometry minutes--Between
Geometry minutes--Within

2.74
157.16
0.26
30.71
15978.82
188040.06

2
38
2
38
2
38

1.37
4.14
0.13
0.81
7989.41
4948.42

0.33

.72

0.16

.85

1.62

.21

Algebra tries--Between
Algebra tries--Within
Algebra mastery--Between
Algebra mastery--Within
Algebra minutes --Between
Algebra minutes --Within

5.52
1224.43
0.12
8.37
835 .91
19612.05

2
38
2
38
2
38

2.76
32.22
0.06
0.22
417.95
516.11

0.09

.92

0.28

.76

0.81

.45

English tries--Between
English tries--Within
English mastery--Between
English mastery--Within
English minutes --Between
English minutes --Within

34.09
2547.67
0.41
18.57
118902.33
4761774.16

2
38
2
38
2
38

17.05
67.04
0.21
0.49
59451.16
125309.85

0.25

.78

0.42

.66

0.47

.63

Source

47
CHAPTERS
Discussion
Evaluation and Interpretation
This study demonstrated that learners with any of the three identified learning styles,
visual, auditory, or multi-sensory, performed similarly on the PLATO® upgrading curricula.
Learners in math and English activities, using on-screen presentations and exercises, showed
similar patterns of learning for each of the three dependent variables studied; task persistence, as
measured by the number of attempts to learn, task mastery, and time on task.
Given the similar results for each learner type identified, counsellors should feel confident
in recommending a computer-based upgrading program for these learning-style types, presuming
other factors, such as access and availability, are equivalent.
Physical access to a computer lab is administratively simple to arrange. The lack of need
for on-duty teaching staff at all times the lab is open means that access to learning may be
increased by using a computer-based upgrading system. In such a system, students can be more in
charge of their learning than in a teacher-directed, fixed-scheduled learning format. If group
instruction is the only method of learning available, students have little control of what they learn
or when they learn. Dunn, et al.. , (1989, p. 56) showed that teaching style affects student learning.
This is a major factor for some learners. The computer presents and manages instruction equally
well for all learners, and students can work in a variety of subject areas and at various levels,
independently and cost-effectively. The computer-based expertise is waiting for them on-screen
when they are ready and available to learn from it.
This study shows that a computer-based upgrading system can play an important part in an
overall adult upgrading program; offering a flexible, relevant learning option for a variety of
learners and disadvantaging no-one because of his or her learning style. The cost saving

48

implications for institutions are considerable. Because of this study, one might more easily justify
establishing a learning laboratory with a generalist teacher, a technically aware aide, and a
computer-based learning program. This eliminates the need for a specialist teacher on site all the
time. The aide can assist with general questions. Administrators wanting to serve a variety of
learners may consider installing a computer-managed learning system. This study supports cost
saving uses of technology to educate adults in upgrading programs. It is a way to provide a timeindependent, expert learning system within learning organizations, especially if capital costs can be
amortised over a number of years. Increasing access does not mean proportionately increasing
costs to the learner or to the institution.
Limitations
This study examined one aspect of learning styles, perceptual input preference. There are
numerous other learning style identifiers. A comprehensive mapping of more of them might yield
more definitive and justifiable conclusions about learning style and performance on a computerbased upgrading system.
A larger sample, one in which each sub-group had at least 30 to 40 subjects, would yield a
more statistically reliable set of results. The use of a control group of similar learners in a
traditional classroom setting would provide a more statistically valid set of results on actual
learning performance using the computer-based learning format. A replication of this study, per
se, might be of little value. Multi-media format iteration has superseded the software program
used. A truly differentiated multi-media software program would provide a better method to
evaluate the sensory modality differences of the learning styles of individuals.
Implications for Future Research
The shelf life of computer-based programs is much shorter than that of textbooks or a
teacher's course notes. Pathways 2000® recently superseded the PLATO® software program

49
used in this study. Future research using this newer product may identify differences among
learning style types that this study's version could not. A study that examines the media that
students choose to have material presented to them may also differentiate learning styles among
learners. Auditory learners with an option to use headsets and hear the on-screen text read to
them, or who choose to listen to a tape-recording clip of a variety of bird calls, might show more
effective learning than would visual learners under these same conditions.
Other researchers have found that factors such as time of day, mobility needs, rest breaks,
and food intake are significantly different for learners with different learning styles (Dunn, et al.
1989, p. 54-56). Learners should benefit from an institutional system that allowed for this variety
of differences to occur. A comprehensive, learning-style inventory test, given to students at intake
to an upgrading program, would yield important planning information for programmers and
administrators.
New software advances, along with new hardware capabilities, will allow administrators,
teachers, learners, and researchers to use modular curricula to meet specific needs. These new
multimedia software formats can present the same content in auditory, visual, and/or virtual
reality manipulation formats . Students can select or match the presentation style to their needed
learning style. New capacity for response loops and reinforcement strategies will develop to meet
the kind of mistakes the learners make as they progress through their learning. Studies to help
develop and improve this software will be needed to take effective advantage of the improved
technological capacities that are now available. When more than the sensory input preferences for
learning are investigated, what learners do with the sensory input and how they do their learning
may be tracked and investigated to help make planned learning the most effective it can be.

50

Conclusion
Based upon the results of this study, we can conclude that adult learners, usmg a
computer-based software program, perform equally well, regardless of their individual preferred
learning style. Learning style is unaffected by sex, level of schooling or current academic
performance potential. With the degree of specificity outlined above, learning style is assuredly
not affected by any ofthe independent variables measured. The independent variables were indeed
independent of each other. No contamination of the results of tests between one independent
variable, learning style, and the dependent variables was, therefore, likely to be due to any of the
other independent variables.
Some dependent variables were naturally related. The total time spent learning was related
to the number of attempts to master content. The more times one tries to learn, the more time one
usually spends learning.
Computers are a part of our learning situation and are becoming a necessary tool in
teaching and learning. Software programs are presenting more learning material for a variety of
sensory input modes. Adult students, regardless of their personal learning styles, can benefit from
computer-based learning programs. They can control their learning and tailor it to meet their
needs. Computer-based learning programs allow institutions to meet the varied needs of adult
learners and may be cost effective. We conclude that these software programs can be an integral
part of an institution's comprehensive adult education offerings.
Confirmation of the pervasive applicability of computer-based learning formats should
come with similar studies conducted with larger sample groups. Advances in software and
computer hardware will make using computers even easier to use than they are today. New
computer capabilities and communication capacities may lead to new projects to investigate.
Links between learning theories and learning styles should emerge to validate both.

51

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56

APPENDIX

Appendix A
Continuing Education registration form
ACADEMIC STIJDENT INFORMATION

Please complete all information in this box
Last Name: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ First Name_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Middle_ _ __
Address: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ City_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Postal Code: _ _ __
Emergency Contact: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Phone: _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Birthdate: Yr

M _ _ D_ _ Gender: M __ F__ Phone#_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

S.I.N.# (optional) _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Language most often spoken in the Home: _ __

Place of Birth (Country) _ _ _ _ _ _ (Province) _ _ _ _ _ Current Citizenship: _ __
Band _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

Native Indian Status No_ _ _ _ Yes _ _ __
Last Grade Completed:

Yr.: _ _ _ Last School Attended: _ _ _ _ _ _ City _ _ __

I want to earn my High School Diploma

Yes:

No:

PEN# _ _ _ _ _ _ __

My long-term education goal is t o - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - This information is true .

Signature: -------------~-

Office Use:
C.A.A.T. Select-A-Level Score _ _ _ /45

te

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Detail Score_ _ _ _ _ Level A B C or D

PROGRAM PLACEMENT: Upgrading _____ Course # _ _ _ Date_ _ _ $ _ __
Course # _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Date_ _ _ _ _ _ _ $ _ __

57

AppendixB
Learning Style Response form.

WHAT'S YOUR LEARNING STYLE?

Answer each question either "True" or "False" Your first spontaneous response is probably the
truest answer you can give.
1. I really like to listen to people talk

O True

0 False

2. I really like to watch television ·

O True

0 False

3. I must be reminded often to do something

O True

0 False

4.

O True

0 False

5. If I could choose to go to school anytime during the day, I would go in the
mornmg

O True

0 False

6. 1 really like people to talk to me

O True

0 False

7. The things I remember best are those I see

O True

0 False

8. I don't have to be reminded to do something

O True

0 False

9. I can't sit in one place for a long time

O True

0 False

10. Ifl could choose to go to school anytime during the day, I would go in the
early evening

O True

0 False

11 . I'd rather read than listen to a lecture

O True

0 False

12. I prefer to learn something new by having it told to me

O True

0 False

13 . I forget to do things I've been told to do

O True

0 False

14. I find it hard to sit in one place for a long time

O True

0 False

15 . I remember things best when I study them in the early morning

O True

0 False

16. I fmd it easy to listen to people talk

O True

0 False

17. It's easy for me to remember what I see

O True

0 False

18 . I remember to do what I am told

O True

0 False

19. I have to get up and move around when I study

O True

0 False

20. I remember things best when I study them in the evening

O True

0 False

21 . I enjoy learning by listening

OTrue

0 False

22 . I like to learn by reading

O True

0 False

23 . I do what I am expected to do

O True

0 False

24. It's easy for me to stay put when I study

O True

0 False

25 . I study best in the morning

O True

0 False

1 can sit in one place for a long time

58
Appendix C

CAAT Canadian Adult Achievement Test, Select-a-level

DIRECTIONS
Below are groups of four words or
numbers. Fill in the circle beside the
one that does not belong with the others.

9 a
c

8+2
2 x2

b
d

9-5
11-5

10 f
h

preference
acrobat

g

J

comedian
actor

SAMPLES
A (a) east
(c) went

(b)
(d)

north
south

11

a
c

gap
patch

b
d

crack
split

B (f)
(h)

6x1
2x3

(g)
(j)

3+3
3+2

12 f
h

12-4
13-6

g

J

11-4
14-7

1 a
c

blouse
umbrella

b
d

stockings
skirt

13 a
c

bone
skim

b
d

muscle
nerve

2 f
h

plant
fork

g

14 f
h

pitcher
buckle

g

J

spoon
knife

J

pail
kettle

3 a
c

6x4
2x4x4

b
d

8x3
12 X 2

15 a
c

(4,8)
(5,10)

b
d

(2,4)
(3,9)

4 f
g

flour
ceiling

g

16 f
h

robin
sparrow

g

J

wall
door

J

eager
hawk

5 a
c

collecting
instruction

b
d

education
training

17 a
c

gorgeous
beauteous

b
d

grateful
attractive

6 f
h

4+5
3x3

g

18 f
h

(3,2)
(5,3)

g

J

10- 1
3+7

J

(8,7)
(6,5)

7 a
c

beam
timer

b
d

plank
board

19 a
c

painless
sick

b
d

hurt
wounded

8 f
h

penicillin
muslin

g

aspmn
insulin

20 f
h

rectangle
diagram

g parallelogram
J triangle

Name

J

GO ON TO NEXT PAGE ....

59

CAAT Select-a-Level

33 a

(5,10)
(6, 12)

b
d

(3,8)
(4,9)

c

36 + 12
48 + 16

b
d

60 + 24
96 + 32

34 f

inaugurate
commence

g
J

initiate
terminate

22 f

yield
slow

g
J

spot
curve

35 a

imperfection
inadequacy

b
d

faultlessness
deficiency

23 a

symphony
affection

b
d

fondness
devotion

36 f

24
46

g
J

36
32

24 f

6 x6
8x4

g
J

3 X 12
2 X 18

37 a

occupant
inhabitant

b
d

tenement
dweller

25 a

fortitude
bravery

b
d

courage
timidity

38 f

dock
balcony

g
J

veranda
porch

26 f

embroider
crochet

g
J

unravel
quilt

39 a

1 1/2
8/16

b
d

1 2/8
1 2/4

27 a

5/20
1/4

b
d

3/12
4/10

40 f

cousin
nephew

g
J

bother
parent

28 f

cheek
nostril

g
J

month
teeth

41 a

prescribe
interfere

b
d

decree
mandate

b
d

roster
register

42 f

(- 3)- (-2)
(-8) + 3

g

J

2-7
5 X(- 1)

21

a
c

h

c

h

c

h

c

h

29 a ·inventor
c

census

22

h

c

h

c

h

c

h

c

h

h

10-6

g
j

v'16
1/2

43 a

doubtful
dubious

b
c

indefinite
infallible

a
c

currency
capital

b
d

monarchy
finances

44 f

demolish
deplore

g
J

eradicate
extinguish

32 f

career
vocation

g

occupation
hobby

45 a

1/8 + 1/8
1/2 X 1/4

b
d

3/8- 1/4
2/16

30 f
31

h

Name

J

c

h

c

STOP

60

Appendix D
Clearance letter

61

Appendix E
PLATO® Individual performance summary sheet
Printed: 7/04196
CODE KEY

NM = Not Mastered

M =Mastered

N = Not Started

S =Started

C =Complete

- =No Ends

E =Exempt

L =Locked

Report on all student activity within routing activity
Status: S Score: not mastered

Activity Name

Activity Title

blma6

Tries: 2

Start: 12/02195

Finish: 12/02195

Status

Tries

Score

Time in

Start

Finish

Last on

Fractions

s

001

NM

0:46

12/02195

pending

12/02195

blma7

Decimals

s

001

NM

102

12/15/95

pending

12120/95

blma8

Ratio/Proportion/Percent

c

001

M

0.52

12120/95

12120/95

12120195

}cprealg_pt

Pre-Algebra Placement Tests

N

()()()

0:00

pending

pending

}wrseries_a

Writing Series with

N

()()()

0:00

pending

pending

·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·

Assessments

62

Appendix F
Chi-Square and Correlations results summary--learning style for dependent variables.

FTRIES
FMASTER
FMIN

28
4
76

.14
.89
.36

.26
.71
.33

DTRIES

16

.63

.37
.63

RTRIES
RMASTER
RMIN

16
4
5

.70
.76
.37

.98
.26
.25

.83
.26

GTRIES

14

.80

.42

.90

50

.37

28
48

.31
.75
.41

.74
.57

.99
.58

32

.39

.49

.58

54

.24

.89

.77

DMIN

EMIN
DF =degrees offreedom
F = fractions
D =decimals
R = ratio and proportion
G= geometry
A= algebra
E =English

TRIES = the number of tries to master the concept
MASTER= whether it was mastered or not
MIN = the time on task for each concept attempted

.58
.72
.56