GE D RED \'IOL E1 CE I

GE rD ER-8 \ SE D DE\ 'ELOP I E T PR().J ~: TS :
O NDI T J<> N L AS H TR ~ S F E R PR()CRJ\ 1\'1,.. A D \\rO l EN'S
~E IPO\\' E Rl\l ENT' A 0 ~ DE\ ' ELOP\rl ENT' I
BA G L DES II
1

r\ld \hdur Ra hid

8 \ .. \ 11 ....c. ar h \1 u " It 111 l ' n 1\ c 1" 1t"v . I 9 9 9

THE I

UBM ITTED l1 TilE PART! L FULFil I MENT OF
THE REQ IREME T FOR Tl IE DEGREE OI..
MA TEROF ART
I

I TER tAT IONAL T DfE
(INTERN ATIONAL DEVELOPMENT)

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH ERN BRI rL H COLUMB IA
Jun e 20 15

((') Md Abdur Rashid, 20 15

b tract
Conditional Ca~h Tra n ~ fer (CCI') pto grmn ~ fun ction 111 counttt e<-~ around the \votld
and u ~ uall v tran ~ fe t c a ~ h to the rnnthe t\o, of the hcnc fi cidl\ chtldr cn 111 o1det to facilitate
J

~

\\ O men ·~ ·de\cl o ptncnt· and ·cn1pO\\ Ctn1 ent · In n1 o\o,t L,\1.\CS. the \\ l) tld Bank. a nd the

gO\ CI11111Cl1tS of'thc I C~ p cc ll\ C CO Uilltl C\o,J0 111tl ) opctdle th e\o,e cc r pl og tnm ~ S tnce 1992, 111
Ban g l a d c~ h . ('('I pt ogranl

opct <llC \ ld l \VO broad cdu caltn n - h a~ed p rog rmn ~ the r eJnak

. . cco ndary . . chool \ \o,\o, l\o,tance ProJec t (f

\P ) cl nd the Pt tllH\1) r cluca ti o n De\ clopn1CI1t

Progran1 (PEDP) Mainstremn de\ eloprncnt tht nk c r~ a nd \ Vorld Bank <.;x pert" claim the
C'\Ctnpl af) nature of' thC~C prog rc1 111~ 111 ac ht e\ tn g thc11 Ohjectl \ e" tnclud ing dclaymg th e
rnanr agc age for gtrb. tncrca. tng "chool cnrolln1 cnt. e nabling en1plo] ahtllly, and enh anc1ng
cn1powermcnt \ Vi thin the household II O\\ C\ cr. cntt cal development thtnkers have found
suffi c1ent e\ idence that. tn tead of de\ cloptng and cnlpO\\ enng \von1cn. CCT progranv; arc
u tng \\ 01nen a ·conduit of poIicy.· o r a · '' o rkh o r~e~ · 1n the na me o f ge nd er-based
development. Ba. ed on fieldv.'ork done in northern Bangladesh in 20 I 4, gu ided by fc Jn in1 st
qu alitative methodology. and through the analy is of h ' \IIJl0/110\ of 11 1110thcrs of the
benefi ciary children and girls, the prc~ent tud y found no cotTc<-,poncllng eJn ptnca l C\ tdcnce
to suggest any in1prove1nent in the we llbeing of won1 cn. On the contrary. won1 en recounted
concerns with the loVv qu ality of their children' educati on. and cx p ctt e n cc~ \\h en the ~o., ttp c nd
tnoney adver ely affected them. Tht study conclude that CC T progra n1 ~ arc at be t
ineffecti ve in n1 eeting th e tatcd goaL , and at worst, aggrct\ ating structural violence agm nst
wornen in B a n gJad c~ h .

II

Table of Contents
Ab ~ tract

II

..

Table of Contents

Ill

Dcchca tton

\

AcknO\\ lcdgctncnt~

VI

Ll tor .\ cron\., JTI ~

\ II

.

Map of Bangladesh
Chapter One

V Ill

lntroducuon
\\.hat I ~ Condtttonal ca~h Tt an~fCI )
tudy Context
pproach
\1) Enltghtcninent l cdrning through l nlearning
Q\ ef\ Je\\

Chapter T\\ o

J

)

X
II
I3
14

Conceptual Framing and Contextual Fran1ing
Critical and Refle\.1\ e pproache~
Contextual Framtng
tructural Ytolence
Gender Mainstrean1ing and Etnpov.. erment
Hou ehold Power Rel ati on
Enrollment and Access to Educatton
Developn1ent-fed Politics
Re earch Que ti on

14
)5
37
45

Chapter Three

Methodology and Methods
Why I Adhered to Fen1ini t and Qualitati\e Methodology
Irnpot1ance of Field\\ ork
In the · 1~ teld ·: Application of Method~
In-Depth Interviewing and Te.\lllnonzo.\
Ethical Issues Invol cd and Mainta1ned
Data Ana lysis and Interpretation
Limitations

46
47
50
55
63
70
71
71

Chapter Four

Education-as- Devcloptnent. Faith" '. Realit y
Education in ' Devc lopn1cnt'
ub idi;ing the hado\.\ Educat1on y tcn1 and th e
Guidebook Bu incss
Quality Fducation
CC'T-fcd Politics and Co1Tuption

7)

Ill

16
16
26
26

12

76
79

X7

Chapter f·n c

Gend er Mmnstrcan11ng lgnot eel
' Quiet Rc, olution· or · ~tl c nt "tiler·

91
9--l

\ 'to lent De' clop tn cnt

9X
99

Int e n~ dics Don1 e~ ll c \'tolencc a~at
n ":, t \\'on1 cn
....

Chapter

1"

\ll ak tng u ~cc ptthlc to I 'e-tCcl'-.tng.
CT Dell\ cry \1 cc h,tnl '-. tn c1 nd \Lttcrnal \llndclrng
fc1lsc ._ Cn '-.C of [ 111p0\\ Cl 111Cill

101
106

Conclu'-.ton
( (I'<-.. J~ duLctti o n. I~ tnp tn\t:ti11Cnt and · Dc\clopJn cnt '

120

Con ti 1button~

I 14

120
121
127

Refe re n ce~

Appendt\. ,\

fh c RI B \ppro\ ct l l cttcr

144

Appcnd1x B

The l cttcr of up port fnHn ES 0()

145

Appendt\. C'

Participant In fo nnat tnn and C' o n ~cn t Fonn

146

Appendix D

150

Appendtx E

Partici pan t Infonna tJ on and Co n ~cnt Fonn (Bangia
\ 'er ton)
Guid1ng IntcrYie\\ Quc~tton

Appendix F

Guiding Interview Quc~tton (Bangia Ver'-.ton)

157

Appendix G

Re earch As i tant Confidenttalt ty Agreen1cnt Fonn

158

IV

156

V~e<L- t"o- the, J11UU!"ty V} who- "haN~ ~-a.o--~ ~ ~ UYv the,
L~Ctt:'thYVWCt¥ of13cu

) 1971

~. . . t"o- v~ ~ }ClCV~ theiY ~ fo-v

(cieNelop VJit£-Y\r

v

ckno\' ledgen1ents
an a pe1 so n be an tn ~ tttutlon '} I he:n c hea rd tt tnc1ny tin1e' tn ITI ) Ide that they ca n
O\v I
ca n ay ror sure that one can. Through 111) gracluc1tc JOUII1e) at LT B I had the fortunat e
opportunit) to \\ Ork '' 1th a ·one per~o n tn ~ tttulton·. 111 ) ~ upcn 1\0r Dr Catherine Nolin. In
the last t'' o yea r . ~he hd \ a1ded 111) de\ elopn1ent. as I h<td clh\ Cl)\ dr e<1n1cd. a~ cln cH.•ade nlJ C
The method .,vou tau t?.ht n1 e of ·lcart111H! th1 nUt!h unlean11111.! " til be a lifel ong a~~ct for n1c
ndoubtedly . your e\.pel tl \C and kno'' ledge" a' fu ndatn ent al tn pt od uc1ng n1 y th e~ 1 s wo1k.
It ha been a tru e hono1 to'' 0rk '' 1th on1eone "ho 1s a~ 111\ ptrational nnd pn ~~ ionnt e as you.
Your untlnng dcd 1cat1 on to ) ou 1 ' tudcnh n1 <1de tn) '' 01 k po~\1 hie
"-

-.....

'-

'-

To 111) co n1n1tttee. Dr ~ e ll Hanlon clnd Dr Ch'' ' Op1o. thanks fo1 )O UJ \u ppnrt, knowledge,
cncouragctncnt and t11n c Your thoughtful gu 1da nee '"a' 111\ ell ua hI c 111 n1 y progtcs~ 1 on I
\\Ould lik.c to thank to the entire ·"\ olin group·. par1ic.ularl) \lcxandra J>edcr~c n and athan
Etneblndct \\ ho both helped 111C rorn1ulate co n c..c pt ~ through theu ow n the~·~\\ O J k
tncerc grat1tudc and respect for Dr Zan1an. the cltrectot of' F· SDO W1thout yout c.;u ppot1 the
tnten, iC\\ tng or 111 )' rc~ p o nd c nt ~ \\ ou ld ha\ c hccn unpO~\I hl c I al~o \\ ould like to thank Dr
Ranjana Btrd. the \ ' ICc-Pre I dent or Re ~ carch an d L'"~ BC 0 lfice () f (II aduatc Pt ogt atnc;; fo t
proYid1ng n1c fundtng support for fi cldv. ork
I wou ld al o like to ~ay th ank you to tn y fan1tly tn c mb c r~ My tnothc1 dc~cn. c~ ~ r ecta l th a nk ~
for her pattcnt and clflc
upport frotn Ban glade~h A ~ pcc 1 al thank~ to Dr. A~a h1t Bardhan.
Wahedul Llam, and, Lou and lll eene Zerebesky for maktng rn y Ide 111 Canada po ~~ thl c
To my bela\ ed, Ad iba itu. · 1.51(11¢ 1.51(11¢ flrtJ</711 a ~!H<fl>t/', \\ ithou t ha' 1ng yo u a~ a co n ~ta nt
ource of love and encouragen1ent tn my ltfe. I could not hcl\ e con1plctcd n1y th e~~~
To my dau ghter. Arisha, I would like to say your recitals of nursery rhytnes were the best
background music to write my thcst to. thank you. To my rnonth old ~o n. AraC I look
forward to the inspiration you \\ill provide n1e tn my furth er acadcn11C pur utts.
Finally, I would like to say thank you Matt Part yka, Shane Danoch and Atnit Bagchi for thctr
assistance in the con1pl cti on of thi s projec t in th eir own special \\ ay

VI

Li t of
ADB
BB

cron'.. n1s

sia n De\ cloprncnt Bank
B a n g l a d c~h Burea u of

ta ll ~ltc~

CCT:
C ID A

Canadian lntetnatt nnal De\ clnpn1cnt 1\t!ency

DFID

Dcparttn en t fc)J Intel nattonal De\ elnptncnt

E DO

[ co- octa l De\ clnpn1cnt Ott!ant(',attnn

FFE:

Food For l·ducatton
Fctnale cco ndaf)

chool \ ~~ ~~tan cc Pt og1 an1

GOB

HDI:

Hun1an De\ cloprncnt Index

IFI :

Internatio nal Ftnanctal In tttullon

IMF·

Internati onal Monetary Fund

MDG

Millenniun1 Developrncnt Goal

GO:

on-G overn1nent Organi att on

PESP:

Pritnary Education Stipend Project

REB :

Rc ea rch Ethics Boa rd

SAPs:

Structural Adjustn1cnt Project

SMC :

School Managetnent Comn1ittce

UN :

Unttcd Na ti ons

UN DP·

United Na tions De\ clopment Progran1

UN ICEF:

U nitcd Nations Chi ldren' Fund

USA ID:

nitcd States Agency fo r Intenultional De\ eloptnent

VII

( 'ha pter ()nc: Introduction

c ontenl porar) de\ dopnlenl P' tlCt ice" "ugg.e~t tlhlt the g.enclet "pee tlic target In g. () r
Condttional Ca~h Tran "let (CC r) is a ·n,agtc bullet. lot \\Oillcn·" de\elopn1ent and
en1po\\ern1ent (Bohont~ & Cc1"tto. 2010) \tnLe 1997. Conditional 'ash Transfet-ha"cd
de' e Iopn1cn t pt ngran1" round popul a tt l) mnongst the de' e lnptnen l organ 1;all on" and the
gt)\c rnnlenh ofthe1r p,lrtner count11e". and t,lptdl} "Plead to C\C I} p,ut of the \\otld a~ a
dc,clopn1cnt tntcncntion. In the l<.t"t dec(.tdc. ( C l's g1e\\ "o f,t~t that e\clu~t\el) ca~h
tran'-) l~r-ha"ed "oc wl <.\'-)""' "tdnce prn1 eL h progran1s ha' e llf IeL ted I ")() 111 iII ion hou se hold~ and
ncarl) half a btllton people (Barn en to'-) tlnd II ultne. 200X) I IO\\ C\ ct. en tt cal de\ c Iopn1cnt
re~earchcr'-) h<.l\ c found "trong C\ tdcncc. through the c\pcncncc~ ol ( (

I progr,uns in

f\1c\ico. Bra;tl and other countie~. that ~in1pl) tran~fcrring ca<.,h to \\Olllen doc~ not guarantee
thctr enhancen1cnt of cnlpO\\ ern1ent and de\ elopn1cnt Rather. in son1e ca<.,e~. the<.,e
dc\elopn1ent project atnpliJ} \ iolence again'-)t '~on1cn Arter re\ ie~tng the rclc\ant
literature. I found no critical

tudie~ on the gcndcrcd inlpaCt'-, or (

c I projech Ill Ban glade~h.

though n1an1 such project~ exist. I here fore. in~pi red b) critical de\ elopn1cnt theories. I
initiated pnnlal) re~carch in northern Banglade~h on the 1111pach th<.1t thc<.,e project'-. had on
won1cn. additio nally. I recorded the li\cd experiences of ll hcncliciar) ~on1en through thetr
{('\{/11101110\

Bangladesh is well acclai n1ed in the "'de\e lopn1ent indu tr) .. (I I ancoc~. 1989. p.42)
for offering it~elf a a ·de\ clopn1ent' 1 laborator) Since 1971. the Independence of
Banglades h, n1any devclopn1ent pnn iders such as Asian Dc\clopn1ent Ban~ (ADB).
Departn1cnt for In ternational Oe' elopn1ent ( Dl I D). Canadian International De' el<.lpn1cnt
Agency (C IDA) etc. ha\ c provided fundin g for de\ clop n1ent project" rhe largest pn)\ ider.
1

Throughout the document the \\ord "de\t.:lopment · 1.., t.nn ... HJereLl as .1 Lontro\l.?l..,ial is..,u~

1

I he \\'orld Bank. ha~ al one prO\ tdcd ~ 16 hilli on in fundtng lor the llllplcn1entalt 011

or

·dc\clop n1cnt' proJech on ddTc rcnt ~ ~~ u e~ all O\ er the Bdngladc',h ( Fi gure I 1) 'I h e ~ o1ld
Bank ~ u pported t ie\ c Iopn1cnt pro 1ec t1.\ t n he,1l th . cd uc,ll ion. ge nder. ru ntl in ft a~ tru c tu r c. and
hrna d - ha~cd cconotn ic g 1O \\ th tn Btln g l atlc ~h ( \\ orld lt1 nk [ \\ B 1
. 20 14 )

0'1

orl d B,ank
Figure 1. 1: World Banh. ProJect Map ol Bangladesh ( "4 rindnccd actt\ ttie() \\ orh. IIH!
.....
in 1.2 18 mapped locattonc,)
~ource World Banh.. 20 11 ( ht1p. m a p~ '' orld banh..org, c,a bttng,ladcsh ).

2

Despttc co rnp o~ •n g half of the total populatton o f Ban g l adc~h ( Ban g l ndc~h Blll cau or
. _ tati. tr c~ [ 88 l. 20 1Oa ). '' otn cn atc not en 10} tng equ al ~ ta tu ~ to n1 cn 1n th e ~o c t o-c u ltUJ al
se ttin g~ of thc countr) (

nttcd ~cttton s Chtldten·~ lu nd fl i\ICCF. 20 10]). C\Cn thou gh

gcndet -based 01 gcndct nl cltn ~ tJ e,Hning de\ elopn1cnt projects hcl\ c becotnc de\ cloptncnt
hull \\ ords atn ong th e ·cJc\ cloptncnt · C\.pert~ and pn)\ tdcr ~

"omc ucndc r focu~cd ed uca ti on-

cconon1t C de\ elopJnent or\\ 0111C n hcl\ e been unpl cJncntcd in Bangladc~h a~ 111 othct p a rt ~ o f
the \\ Orld (\\ B. 2009) ll o\\C\Ct . the 1111pac t ~ of cJc,elopment pro1ect~ are not "gcndcr
neutra I" ( ~ l o n1 ~c n . '004)

onh! \C ho l ar~ cIa 1111 thtt t in the at en a of· de\ c lopn1cnt' \1\ on1cn arc

c-.cploitcd a 'de \cl opnlcnt \\ Orkh or\cc;," ( lu ca~. 200 1. p IR 7) or U\Cd a~ "c.ondurt<, or
...,

poli c) .. _ (Molyneux. 2006. p. 439).
The Unrtcd Nations De\ eloptnent Progratn (l ;\DP). via ttc;, \lltll cnnJurn Oe\elopJncn t
Goal (MDG'c:;) cmphac;,i;cd \\Onlcn· de,cl opmcnt. as three out o f the eigh t goals ((Joal 2:
achie\'c univer al prin1ary educati on: Goal 3. pron1otc gend er equali ty and crnpowcr wo 1n e n ~
and Goal 5: impro\e maternal hea lth) are ~p eclfica ll y dedtcated to cducat ron and ~oc1oeconotni c developtnent ofVvomen leading to etnpO\\ Cnncnt (U DP. 2013a). Although, the
Govemn1ent of Banglade h (GOB) clain1 noti cea ble progrc~c., 111 ac hi ev Jn g these goa ls
(Planning Comtnission of Banglade h. 20 13 ), the country 1c;, ~tt ll ranked 146th tn the cou ntry
ranking of the ll urnan Development Index [HDI] and find c:; it~clf an1ongst th e low hun1 an
development countri es (Internati onal Hun1an Develop rnent lndt cato r~. 2013 ).
The state of violence against won1en i alann1ng 1n Bangladesh (

EF, 201 0). and

the Pens;uin Atlas of JVon1en in the 11'o rld shows that 68° o of the don1cstic \'iolcnce at?.a rnst
~

"Although women acquire a key role an generatmg soc tal pmtcctton. the sattsfact ll)l1 of theu tnd n tdu.tl n~cds
ts not pm1 of the policy obj cctt vcs" ( f abbush. 2010 . p 4 i 8 )

2

3

\\Ol11Cn ts under tcpoi1ed 111 Ban g ladc ~h ( .. eager. 2009. p 2R) Ra~htdcl Man.Jnn. the

nttcd

attons ~rectal 1apporteur on\ tolcnce aga tn ~ t \\ cHnc n. tn hct 20 11 \ 1 ~ 1t to Ban g ladc~ h .
\\ an1~ the pollC) n1ak er~ clnd GOB h; tatt ng that

the 111 0~ t pel\ d~ J\ c fonn of vio lence clgatn t \\ 0111CI1 in Bclnglade~h I ~ d o tn e~ tJ c
\ tokncc. \\ 1th a h tgh pet centage o f nl cll11 eel \VOnlen t cpn rted hct\ tng e'\ pcncnccd
\ tol encc at the hand ~ or a ~ pou sc and ot tn-lcl\\ ~ Othct n1antfe~tatton~ Jnclucle
dlfTcrcnt fonn~ of '-.C'\Udl ' tolcncc tncludmg 1tlpc and cvc-tc,l ~tn~ 3 ( ntt ed Natton ~
II utnan Rt ght ~. 20 11)

C011d1 tion,ll C a~h fran ret'-. (the '-.OC ial ~cl fcty net pt ogran1s) ha VC hecn \\ td eJy
operattonali/ed h) de\ clop n1cnt age nc1e~ all O\ cr the world f<l t po\ ct t)' ail e\ wtJon, and
educational and ~oc t al de\ elopn1ent of\\ on1en The target n1e c hani s n1~ of beneficiary
selection of the~c prog rarn ~ arc ~e t on a gender (girl/won1an) ha~tc:. ( B ohon t ~ & Cac;tro. 20 l 0)
The proponents and upporter or CCT. (1 homa , 1990, WB. 200 I a: DuOo. 2003: WB.
2009: DFID, 20 II, Kabeer. P1za & Ta) lor, 2012) helle\ e that dclt\ ering rcc;ources to v.. otn en
v., ill auton1atically

trength en thctr CinpO\\ ern1cn t \\ tthtn the household as\\ ell a~ withi n the

co1nn1unity (Bobonis & Ca tro, 20 10): but a lack of consideration of the potentt al negative
con equ cnce of the gendcr-ba ed targeti ng of the~e progra n1 ~ ts C\ td ent \Vhtc h n1i ght
exaggerate incidence of do1nesti c violence again t \\omen ( Bohon1s & Castro. 20 10)
Because .. unexpected change in \\ omen ·<; economic o pport un 1tte~ n11ght increase the
tncentives for male partners to usc \tolencc or threats of\iolence to (re)gain control O\er
household reso urces or decision tnaking" (Bobonis & Castro. 20 I 0. p. I ).
Two education-based CCT progran1s have been execu ted in B a ngl a d c~ h for v.. on1 en ·
developtn cnt and etnpow cnnent: Pri1nary Education Stipend Project (PE P) and Fen1c1lc
3

U()ually eve- teasers .. wa tt tn front ofgt rb' schools and colleges and as soon as the) stght the g11ls \\alk pa"t
them they start passmg bad comments, dill] JOk.es, sly\\ htstles, unct\ tl11ed laughtct. and "omettnH~'- tettchmg
the extreme of rude publtci ty"
:· Accordtng to a rcpo11 from ·Bangladesh at10nal \\ omen l a\\) crs
Assoctatton · (BNWl A), the p10bablc cve-tea"er1.1 on the sttcch of Bangladesh ate teenage bo)". traCiic pollee
11cksha'' pul lers. buo.., dn\ero..,. o..,upcr\lo..,oto.., ot colleague.., of\\Otk.tng \\Omen .. (lslc1m. 20 1~. p 6).

4

ccondar} chool \ s 1~tan cc ProJect (F . \P ) Pf . P ProJec t 1 ~ full y f'und cd h} the
go,ern mc nt ofBan gladc \ h and I ~~ . \P \\H \ J O rntl~ fund ed h) the '\k\cl oprn cnt credih" of
the \ \ rB and GOB ( \\'B , 2002b) In th e r . ~ \P pl OJeLl C0111pk tio n Ieport th e \\ B

\P pt ojcct fnr attai ntng pl ojeL. t O b JCC lt \C~

c nthu s w ~ tt ca ll ) c1 pplaudcd th e u cce~~ of the F

(\VB , 2008a) li en\ e\ cr. to th e h c~ t o f 111) h. no\\ !ed t?. c. no ~u c h qu a!Jtcl lt \ c s tud t c~ ha\ c been

rna de to en tt cdll ) C\. atn tnc the p1 ngt c1 111 1111pacts o n th e Ii vcs p f \\ on1cn It 1~ also C\ 1dcn t
from the past that. the \\' B ( 1 ri !Tin . 2006. p I ) and th ci r C'\ petts together f onn
.. knO\\ ledge -~ pa ce~ .. and legit rm ate partJ cul ar de\ cloprncnt program '' hr ch later en1 crgc a<) a
..de' elopn1cnt truth .. (l ,1\, \ O n . 2007) f or c\. an1p lc. 111 ~o n1 c dohal <)outh countr JC5 th e
argun1 cnt of ·o, crpopulation · a a de\ ~ l o pn1cn t prnhk n1 ot harn cr ha. bee n u ~cd a<) a
rationale for forced bir1h co ntro l ( L a~ . on. 2007) .
For th1 the i re. carch. I cn1pl oy. a en tical refl ex I\ c de' cloprncnt p e r~ p cc ll \c to
examine the progratn d e~ i g n ofF

~ i\P

· P E P program and thetr un p act~ on the II\ e~ of

women in Bangladc h, I adopt a fcn11ni t qu alitati ve tnethodology and coll ect pnmary data
from thu1een bene fi ciary tnothers of gtrl and chtldrcn tn the COinrnu ni ty or T hakurgao n in
no11hem Banglade h. Thi

fi e ld~ ork ~· a

carri ed o ut in the \\ tnter of 20 14 to reco rd th ctr

lived experi ence5 of CCT progran1 . I hope tny re5ca rch lind tng rn1 ght infonn th e poli cy
planner of Bangladesh and the Internati onal fundin g agen c 1 c~ to re- d c~ t gn the CCT
progran1s in operation a well as for dynan1i c designin g of any such progran1 in the future

W hat i C onditi onal Ca h T ran fer?

Conditio nal Cash T ransfers (CCTs) arc regarded a the n1ost cfTcc ti\ e tncan of
tackling poverty and socia l exclusion in rn any de\ eloping countri es around the \\ o rld (\\B.

5

2009). CC'Ts have been adopted as n tncans of p<n crty ct ncllcatton 1n O\ ct 45 c ount11 c~ 8nd

111\ oh c apprO'.ll11atcl; I )0 nldiJ on fclllllh c~. fundtng ~ upp o n fo r th c~c progratn\ CO illC rronl
International (· tnancwl I n ~ tttutt o n~ (II J ~) and othct dono t agcnctcs (Batn cnto<:, c IJ uln1c,
200 )

CT prngt an1~ u~uclll) dcltvcr Cd~ h tn pt)ol f atni Iics to he u~cd d S 111\ e<:,lJncnts in th e

hurnan capttnl cnhancctncnt of thc11 children (\\ otld Bank . 1 00 I c) CCI s chffc t 111 dctcu l but
~ hare 111dl1} L01lln10J1 fl.?,ltUIC~

\dhctlll g l O the L'Oil\CillionaJ \\iSdO ill "t!l\ tn g ·~orneth in g ror

noth 1ng· ~ ~ con~ td c red unptoductt\C and not · ptnpcr' cJc\cl optncnt' (llall. 20 12. p 2). almoc.; t
all CCT p1n gran1 ~ tran~fct the C d~h to the n1othcr n f the household in exchange of c1 ttainting
ccrtnin ·conditi on . (~0 111C CCfs termed th c~C cond tti on<:, a ~ ·co-rc<:, po n ~ thtlill c~·) ~ u c h a ~:
cn<:,uring children· <:,chool attendanLc. '1 iung health care pnn td er<:, for child ren·s heal th and
participating in" acc tnallon and nutntt onal progratn s etc ( Boho n1 s & Ca\tro, 20 10. 1Ia] I,
2012).

CCTs a, a dcvclopn1ent in ten cntion arc f~1 1rly ne\N, but th ey arc growing at a htgh
rate a one of the maj or \Ocia l protection progran1s in the\\ oriel \vith the financwl ~ upport
frotn IFI (WB , 2009) . In 1997, CCTs 'Nere in operation 1n JUSt three co untries. Brevi! ,
Mexico and Bangladesh (the Bangladesh CCT started a a conditional food trans fer)
Afterwards, CCTs stat1cd spreading rapidly and by 2008 . nearly 30 CC r progran1s \NCrc
itnplcmented across different region of the world (Figure I 2)

6

1997

2008

Figure I 2 Cond 1t1onal Ca~ h Tran sfer in the Vv orld 111 1997 and 1 008
Source 'N orld Bank. ' 009. p 4.

CC [ s differ in ':>cope and design · son1e of the CC I are national progr a tn ~ operated
cou ntr) -~ tdc: ~o tne target a spec i ti c scgtnent of the populatio n: and ',Ot11e are in1plen1cnteJ
as sn1all-scale pilot progran1s. There arc clear-cut differe n ce ~ in CC I s de pending on the
nun1hcr of benefi ciari es. For exan1ple. CCT progran1s in Bnv il a ss 1 ~ t 11 rni ll ion fmnilie~
~ h e rcas CC f s in Ken;a and Nicaragua CO \ cr o nl ~ a fe\\ t h o u ~a n d ~

In contc"\.t to the

percentage of the total populati on CO \ crage. the) ' ary fron1 .fO percent in l·cuadnr to one
percent in Can1bodi a. The progran1 itnplcn1 cntati on n1cchani srns are also di ffere nt for
7

\\ htl c al n1 o~ t all CCI c;; 111\ oh e ht !.!h of'fi ctal\ cl nd consul ta nh lot th ctt

dtffcrcnt CCT

particular li cld lc\el opcratt on. ( hdc· <\ Soltdario onlv tclt e~ on \OC Jal \\O tk e J ~ l· tnall y, CCTs
differ dt a~ttcall} on the bel \ ·~ 0 f the henc fi t cllllOUlll: the \ 1c\. ico

c r PI 0\ tde\ I() pel ce nt () r

rnean hou ~e ho ld cn n~un1pt1nn \vhtle tho~e 111 Bang ladesh. C,unhodia and P a kt ~ lcln p! O\ 1de
less than one percent (Kabccr ct al.. 20 12)

S tud\• Contc'\t

.. Unlike 1110\l de\ elop tnenl1111llall\ e\. l011UlllOI1al ca~h lran<..,k l rro .t!.r<llll~ ha\e bee n
~u bj ec t to n gorou~ C\ al Udtlon~ of then cl'f cc tJ' enc<..,\ u~t ng C\. pet i tnenta I or qu asi-

e\.peritncntal meth od .. ( Ra\\ ling..., & Rubt o. 2005. r I). ·r he J>l ~p and I~~ '\ P prog ra n 1~
ha\ e been ht ghl y rrai ed at th e Internati onal IC\ cl .I he Fetnalc Second<ll y Educa ti on
Progra n1 (F

AP) rccel\ cd a \\'orld Bank ( ,old \1edcll 1n 2000 an d the f SJ\P \\.a<., u<..,ed a<.,

an ex a111 p Ie of ucc e ~ fu l i ntc n en t1 on in '\ o 111 c n · <.., J c \ e Io pmc nt in t hc .. Red uLlll g Po' c 11}
and ustaining Jr0\\1h .. conference. v, hi ch \\as held in . 'han ghai and co-o rga n11ed by the
Chine ego\ etnn1 cnt and the \Vorld Bank n1 2004. Alread;. the FS '\P ha heen rep l1 ca ted a~
a role 1nodel in different countri e around the \\ orld by the lr I<.., (Schurn1 ann. 2009).
ln 2013, whil e conducting a l iteraturc revic\v on the CCT of Ban g l adc~h fo r a
resea rch report fo r a cour<;c ... Reth ink.ing Je\ eloptnent geographt e : A ri ght - ha ~ed approach
to th e anal y<; is of international devel opment" and a qu e~ ti on ca n1e to 111) n1ind : "'\\hat i~
educati on?" I started loo king for dcliniti ons o f edu ca ti on and I fo und a definiti on b\ a
~

philosopher, John De\\ e)' ( 1966): "edu ca ti on i~o., the dc\cl opnlent or all tho e capacttie~ 111 the
individual which wi ll enable hin1 to control hi ~ en\ ironn1cnt and fulfill his rc~po n s ibilit1c <·
(as cited in Aggarwa l, 1981, p. 6). l ~ducati o n ca n be both a proce~s and a product. ·· L\' a

8

proccs , edu cat ton ts sy~ t e tnallc. organ11 ed and de\ tgneclto enable the learn er to ach1 e\ e
cet1atn goal" c1nd o bJ eC tt\ e~ \ \ c1 pr oduct. edu ca ti on nl CI) he operalt nncllt led a~ c1 de" 11ablc
change in the learner'" bchrn ior brought about h) lcn rn111 g or th e acquistll on of nc\\
1-..no'' led ge. clttltu<.Je, and , J...JII <. ( \ 1hc1. 200 I. p. 20).
As one o f the p1 e"c11bed rcad111 g' fn 1 the "'un c co urse. I had the npportun1ty to read

language fo r de\ clo pn1ent) and clepll ted the f ~lCe 0 f de\ dop1nent f r O Ill hI \ It ved e'< pc11 ence.
li e co n s id e r~o., cdu catJ on to be a co mpone nt of· hJJ...a, · a' \Ut. h oth er oh JCt.l\ of de\ clopn1cnt:
road\. atrpl anc'-1. dan1\. ho\pltal . and fane: hutldtng"' I lc l!.OC\ fu t1hcr and unn1 a"J.. "'
educa tion 1n de\ eloprncnt
Educa ted children '' ere ' l C\\ cd a future age nt<:., of hik. a". and ou1 ptt rcnt<:., were
u uall; seen a, ab1ka i 4 . True. th ere \\ CJe thin gc:., our parcntc;, d1d that had l1ttle
scientific ba.. i · or made any log tcal sense. But there \A-Cre al<:.,o n1a ny thJng\ they d1d
that had n1 ore prac ti cal' aluec;, th an th e theoretical ·~o.,cic n ce· \\C \\Cn~ learn ing at
chool ~{ et. in the eyes of b1k.a~ I s . \\hate\ er hun1an cap1 tal. productJ \ c fo rce\ or
know ledge our parent had acc u1nulated over the yea r~ d1d not co unt for n1uch. Many
student felt ashan1cd to be ccn in puhltc \A. ith their parents The nc\\1 educa ti on ga\ e
u th e itnpres ion that our parent ·manual labour ,, a~.., ant ithet ica l to bik.a<:., ~ ") \ \ C
sneered at rn anual v. ork, thinking that 1t was somcth1ng only an ahtkasi or
intellectuall y 'underd eveloped ' tnind \Vo uld do. It \ \U S not fo r th e hi gh-n1inded
bika~ i s. The ne\V edu cati onal sy tern \\ as producing a \\. hole ne\\ \\ ay or thmk.ing
about the ' alue of labour. Bik.as meant. to appl) h an lllich's ( 1992) logic. den) in g a~
well a uprooting th e existing labour u e system, tradtti onal b o nd ~, and kno\d cdge
base, rather than bui lding on the1n (Shrestha, 1995. p 269 ).
There is an alread y established con e n ~ u ~ that oc Jal protecti ons ~u c h a

CCT~ are

cffecti ve solutions to poverty and vulnerability in de\ eloping countries and it is he lie\ cd that

cc I s should be the integral pat1 or a developn1ent --~ tra tcg) to \ec urc grea ter econon1 JC
4

·r he Nep al1 wo1d ll \Cd fo 1 undcrde\el oped 111UI\'Idual \\ 1th no mo..,tl tllllon,ll edulat1on
9

c0 111 rctl t 1\ cnc<; s. ( \\ 0 rId B c.l n " c Itcd In \ 1() I~ 11 c ll \. • ') () () R. r X) [) I I f) ( 2() I I ) dc \ Ig 11 at c \ c c I <;
a~ a "quiet rc\ olution.. 111 bnngiiH! de' clo pn1cnt to the poor 1\!anc) Binl,a ll. pll'\ tdcnt o lthe

Center for G lob rd De' clopn1cnt. c1 nnnp1 o fit 1C\Cd rc h t' n)up 111 \\ cl(\h 1ngton. cIa i rned that
"th e e program\ [ ('( f\ l ell C d\ c.IO\C tl\) Oll ca n COI11 e loa lll ttgi<. bullet in dcvelop111C11l" ( cl \
c1tcd tn Shrhu ya. 2008. p 7X9).

prO\ td ed \ lrong groundtng to the l}LIC\ tl o ns that ca n1 C to 111Y tnincl regarding tht: c CT\ or
Banglade\h Looktng at the progran1 objC<.tl\ C\ or the Pf SP (reaching gt:nd eJ p<l lll )' Ill sc hool
enrollrnent ) and the F

,\P (dcla) tng n1 arria ge age. co ntrolling populntion gro'A lh a nd

cn1pO\\ cn ng \\ on1cn ). I \\ "' cornpcll ed to que,uon \\ hethet ed ucation \\"'an end or ju\t a

n1 ean fo r c'\pcd ttlng the ach1e' cn1 ent of the goa l ~ \et forth h\ the project ohJ ec tJ\ e~ in order
to hurry the co untry to\vards n1ect1ng the targets set h) the 1\1!)(, . ., (Molyneux, 200S ). Let it

be noted that the ~1DG s arc htghl) co nte~ tcd dnd cnll ct;cd h; n1 an} cntt cal n~\ca rc her\

(Ariffin. 2004: Gold. 2005)
U DP ( 1990) in their Hwnan De\ elopment Report cla tnl s that
the basic obj ecti\ e of de\ elo ptnent ts to create an enabhng en\ tronn1cn t for peopl e to
enj oy long, healthy and creatl\ e li ve5 (p. 9) ....... It i ~ about tnore than G P gn)\v th,
more than incotn e and wealth and n1orc than produci ng con1n1od itte5 and
accumul allng cap1tal (p. 1)
Central to developrn ent principal should be "enlarging hu1nat1 choices" (UN D P. 1990, p 61)
and should be recognizing an individual a a hurnan being and not a~ a tn ea n ~ to fulfill other
ends. The succe5s o f PE P and F.. SAP should n1anifc~t noti ceab le cha ne,e in \\OI11en·,
""'

socio-econotnic co nditi ons in Bangladesh. But the recent reports on structural , tolcncc
against women in Bangladesh, such as inetd ent or evc-teas tng, don1 cst1 c '1olence, actd
attack on girls, hi gh tnaternalinotiality rates, and IO\\ nutritt on lc\ cb o f'' on1en ( U ICEF.
10

20 10. L lmn. 20 11), cau ghltny attcnlt nn II O\\ at e thc~e gc nd ct nn cnt cd pt OJCCt5 tca ll y

pcrfo nntng'> \t c the} I ca II) bn ngtIH! ~Oc.tO-eLnnntn IC de\ e lopnlent r() I \\ 0111en? Ot' I S there
so n1ctl11ng cbe go mg on undct the gut~c o f\\ o m c n ·~ de\ cloptncnt and ctnp<)\\Crn1 cnt ?
I c h o~c rhakurgaon. one or th e no11hern di stri cts under the Rangpur di vis ion or

Bang Iadc~ h. n~ th e ~ tud) area rot n1 \ I C~Ccl l c h \ LCO IclJ ng to a 11 ll pclatccl j10\ CJ1y tnar () f
Banglcldc~h .

rhdkurg<H)ll nlll" bdnw the high p<n crty Z{) llC ( BB~ . 20 1Ob) Pove rty is nne of

the basic ca u ~c~ of n1 alc \ tolcncc to\\ ntncn (.J C\\ kcs. 2002)

\ u:.nt cltn l.!. to Stephen I e\\ ~ ~

(2009). Canada\ forn1c1 l ~ tlnlbcl""tlclor and mternattoncll envoy. poverty and vio lence

agat nst \\ on1cn arc 1nlcrltnkcd a~ he ~ttt tc~ "\ 'tolcncc breed ~ ! ron1 po\ ct1y an d pove11y breed ~
\ tolcnce "(a"' Cited in L hlcr. 2009. ptl t cl 4 ) The r ~ \P and PI SP have been JJ11pl cn1 CillCd In
Thakurgaon rrotn the da) of thctr btt1h in Ban g l adc~ h Mol CO\ cr. I \.\a"' bot nand grew up in
Thakurgaon and ~ tncc I ha\ c tnttn1atc connect t o n ~ \Vllh loca l c.o n11nuntt\ and tnc.,tttutton~. I
~

J

find Thakurgaon, to be the be t ca ndtdate fo r n1 y c.., tud y and for the pur~ lllt of tny rc~ca rc h
.

que tton .

Approach

As a resea rcher and writer, 1 feel it is tn y rcsponsib tltty to gi' c n1 y readers tn ~ t ght Into
the approach that I ha\ c adopted for n1y re earch . Intcrnattonal tudiec.., a c.., a disc tpltn c 1
in terd isc ipi inary in nature ( llettne. 2002 ). As a Master· s ~ tudcnt of the Intcrnationa l tudi es
program ( International Developn1cnt streatn). I atn be tO\\ ed \\ ith the ii·ccdom to u"'c
tnatcrials (i·orn rnultipl c di sc iplin e~. Fo r n1y thcs ts, I ctnbracc th e aspects or critica l rcthinking development, hun1an geography, fen1ini ~ t n1cthodology, anthropolog}. and

11

soc tology Us tng rnulttpl e dt ~ciplt n c~ for the re~c arc h enabled rn c to look at the top1 c frotn a
broader per~pcc tl\ e <1nd hd pcd tne to conc;; tl lute rtgo rou<; tle<H.Icn1JC ''or h.
r den\ eel (!gene\ {ronl hunl,ll1 J t ght ~ and ~ocw l Ill~( ICC I he clorntnant tnod c or
~

~

~

de' cloprncnt ho\\C\ er 1 ~ eLononllt ~ I'O\\ th anJ ts co n. idered as .. inhe rently good ror the
people as applc-p1e .. (PO\\ er. 2001. p I 6). ·1 he t.e ntral cnnt.e rn o f de\ clop1nent t., hould he
enhancin g .. "e 1f -e~tee rn . "elf- rc ~peLt and 1111prnvin1.! cntJtlcrnent·· ( l) c~d t N.. Potte r. 1()02. p 2).
rather thCin 1u ~t eco non11 c gnn' th C'tttJcal re thtnk.tng de' clopn1ent is C\pousccl by n1an y
\C holars . uch tt~ Han c) ( 19..,1). CJctkttno ( 1974). '->hrcstha ( 199')), Pcct ( 1998). Rt \ t ( 1999).
Pov. cr (2003) and Lav. ~o n (2007) Cnttcal thtnker ~ 'tC\\ de\ elopn1ctlt at., the artt culatJon of
Clge nda oftho"e ''ho acc rue benefit frotn tt De,eloprncnt hctt., ahvay." tgnored or C\en
repressed the\ OJCC rronl the J11Ci rgtn Cl nd the t cc tpt ents or de\ elop nl ent ( RJ <;t. 199<), Power,
2003 ). Betn g en1pO\\ ered by- cnttca l thtnktng and ha' ing look.cd at the de\ elop1ncnt

progran1s in1plcmented tn Ban gla d e~ h . I agree vv tth \\ hat Marxtst-geogr apher Pcet ( 1977)
argue
The essence o f the Marxi t argument. therefo re. is that ineq uality ic; not a ··tetnporar)
abe rration .. nor po\ ert} a .. t, urpri si ng paradox .. in ad\ anced capitalJ \ t oc t e tt e~.
instead inequality. and pO\ erty are \ita] to the 1101111a l operati on of capita lJ t
eco non1i es ...... Unetnpl oy- n1cnt. under-en1pl oyn1cnt. and po\CI1y arc inc\ ttabl y
produced by 1ncchanization. auto1nation. and the uneven co ur~e of econorni c
developtnent. Inequality underli es our 'A hole econon11 c \\ ay of Ide (p 11 6)
I have accutnulated tny reli abil ity from criti caltre-thinking de\ eloptnent and fetnini st
ideologies which have pro\ ided n1 y research \\ 1th theoreti ca l groundtn g and \\ htch ha\ e
etnpowered n1c by pro viding a dia gnostic eye to analyze the power or the unseen \\ ork.1n g
hands of develop1nent. Fen1inist qualltCiti\'e n1ethodology has further gl\ en n1 y rc~earch a
n1ethodological base for co nducting a systen1at 1c 1nqu1ry. 8 y usin g en tt ca 1theoncs, tn y aun

12

IS tO bnng !Jght to thC\Ot Ce~ that arc ll\tllg 111 'de\Ciopnlent' and to ptO\e thtlt cl ll

de\ c I0 r111 e 11 t p ract I ce a re 11 0 t c 1\ ~ c IH 1(1 II : . g0 0 d ' dc \ c I() r 111 c nl ~ ( I ~ tc \ (\. I 9 92 )

1y Enlightcnnu'n t: Learnin g through l nl ca rn i ng

I '' ac;; bon1 and rm~ecltn 8dngladc,h. \\ ht ch. ,\s I tn ent ioncd C(lllt ct. ~ ~ hi g hl y occup tcd
h) the de\dopn1cnt dCtJ\tltc' of \C\ Cicll int~rnational dc\cloptnent agenc ies. Bt ea th1ng and
It\ 1ng 111 Bclnglade\h \\ 1thout j nha I ing the fttn1e\ () r d~\ elopn1 CI1 t I\ I111 po\\1hie. I I 0 111 n1 )

personalll\ed c'pencncc. I ca n ktHH\ that tht \ cn\II Oillnent '" h1 ghl y tnfluenttal in shaptng a
perc;.,o n'" mental ~ ltlle and thttt it letl\C\ a long lt1 tm g and unquc,ti oncd irnpact In 20 12.

dcfinit1on \\a \Cr) ~ implc and trai ght for\\ard : "dc\ clopnlcnt 1 ~ a proccc;.,~ of \oc toccono1111 C cnhanccn1ent. .. l atcr I \\J~ told to lind a dclinition of dc,clop111ent ftorn any ~oLJa l
thtnker or organJLa tt on. I c.,earched and tn ed to find a \ Uttab lc de linitton of de\ cloprncnt and
end ed up~ ith the foli o\\ ing:

··oe, eloptnent con~i t of a \t:l of pra ctice~ . \O tn et i111 e~ appearing in conflict\\ tth one
another, 'Nhich require-for the reproduction of ~OC t cty-th e general tran ~ f0 1111at1011
and destruction of the natural cnviron rnent and of social re l atio n ~ Its atnl ts to
increa e th e production of co rnn1od1t1e~ (good~ and ~en tees) gea red, by\\ ay of
exchange, to effec ti\ e demand .. (Ri "t. 1999, p. 13)
Arnong many other available definJtt on I liked thi definition. although. at the t1n1 c. I
did not ha ve the capacity to apprehend or desc ribe \vhat it \\8~ th8t Ri ~ t \\ a actua ll y trytng to
co nvey. I· or th e book rev ieV\ ass ignn1ent I dared to rc\ ic\\ the hoo k " I he Hi ',tOr) of
Dcve loprncnt frorn We tern Origin to G loha I Faith .. h; Ri t c;., inee the definiti on '' c.1 frorn th i~
book. For the review I had to rnake and present a poster on Gtlhcr1 Ri sl Man) audience

13

rnctn bcr 0 r the prcsc nta tl on a<;kcd lllC \v hat . \I tern all\ e De\ c lopmen t. (one 0 r th e tCII'll <; I
U\CJ) tneant'>" \t the t1111c. I hcJd no ahtltt~ to an\\\er the quc \ lton in a nlc,tntng ful "'')
In the fall ~CI11C\ l C l o r ~O l 2. I ton k the UHII~C "1\cl\ancc ()ualttali\C Rc\e<:lllh
\1 ethodoloe.\. ··taught
h\. Dr
......
'-

athcrtne "\ olin . Fnr the fir ·t time. I rcLCt\Cd a Llea r tdca ,tbout

ho\\ a Ma\tet·· ~ th c<;i\ ~ h n uld look I ,1l ~o karncd ,thou t the' ollllnc of e ffor t I \\ ould ha ve to
put 111 \,1; unkan1ing "tdt ted at tht" pn1nt ! I ~ I n\\ ly stai1ed l<) h ~con1 c hopeful ahnut Ill y
degree and.\\ tlh the progt C~~ l 0 11 of the CO Uf~C. 111 ) ~tud y c1 11d th C~ l ~ I C~CC\ I'C h bCCcli11 C Cl
t the end or the LOUI \C. I \\ d\ tthlc to con\lJtutc the 111Cthndolol.!ical
frarncwork of
...,
tn y research In th e\\ tntct ~c n1 es t c r of 20 13. I too k another Lou r\c " Rcth inktng de\ eloptncnt
geog raphi c~

Catherine

\ right~- hd \ed ttpprodch to the ana lysis of tntcnuttional d ~vclo ptn c nt ·· '' ith Dr
oltn . \\here I had the tn\ aluablc oppot1un Jty to ge t ttHrod uccd to cntt ca l

de\ elopment thtnker
E~ te\ a, Marcu

uc h a~ Eduardo Galeano. \, and a Shrc\t ha. -\rturo l· \co bell. ( JU \ tavo

Power and n1any n1ore.

hort filtn s, docun1cntanes and photograph !-, alo ng

\\ tth their\\ nting prO\ 1dcd tne a nC\\ and effcc tn e \\a) of learning - that 1 ~. "learnin g
through unl ea rnin g". I unlearned tn ) lif'e-long cx pcn cnce ofd c\clop n1cnt and stat1ed to
apprehend it un een reallttc . I \Va able to identd). the htdden pO\\ er" \\ orktng bch tnd the
t,cene of· good de\ eloptncnt' (Power, 2003 ). I ca n also nO\\ co nn ect the ongoing
de\ cloprnent issues at the national and International le\ el I an1 happy to lcan1 the learntng
through unl emning.

Over view

My th esis is organi/ed into six separate but Interconnec ted Chap ter" FollO\\ tng thts
Introductory Chapter, Chapter Two desc ribes tn y conceptual rran1 e\vork and co ntc'\tual

14

franle\\ ork of kc) autho1~ and 1dea. ~u n ou nd tng en ucal nnd 1etht nktn g de\ cloptncnt the u ~c
and pcrfo nnance of ConclJtional Ca ~ h I ran ~ fer progrmns a~ Cl de\ elopn1cnt tn cehanistn and ,
ITI) rc~carc h qucs tt o n~

Chapter Three o utltn c~ the Jn cth odnlng) and n1 ct h n d ~ ~ u c h a~

field\\ ork. 1nten IC\\ 1ng. h '11111onTo\ thc1 t I ddopt ecl to cany nut 111 y r c~ca t ch

haptcr I~ our

and F1vc togeth er fonn th e nuclcu~ o f the thc<;,ts. the a n ah\ t ~ h a~cd on my 1 c~ca rc h
participant · \ iC\\ po111h tlnd fron1 thc11· II\ cd C'\pcrtcnLc"' in de\ clo pm cnt. Finally. 111
Chapter

1'\ I dt CU~\ the \U tntn ar)

or Ill) lincltng and try to I ci(Hc \\ tth the cxistm g 8\ aila hl c

literature in the fi eld or Ill) research and co nclud e the ~ tucl )

15

haptcr T"·o:

on ccptual Framin g and Contex tu al Fran1in g

Unlcarntng or rclcarntn g 1\ one of the 1110\ l e fT~ct t\ C and tC\\ atdtn g lcanltng
procc C\ (~oltn. 2011)

ln tht ~ ~ec tton I dt~c u'' hoth the co nLcptual and co nt c\tual ft atnC\\ 01 k that I
undct1ook for Ill) thC\15 1C\Ctll c h B<l th toptL' benefit rn c h) pHn id i ng cn nceptua I g rnunc! rngs

rot 111) rC\C<lrch Of COUr\C it I' the 'th CCli'CliL,l l ori entation that guides the l.OilCCptua l
fratntn g ofrc earch. Its qu c,tJ on,. and the cho tec o f delle\ collectin n ctncl <lll c.ll )\1' tcL hntqu c, ..
(O)ck. 1991 . p 51) ·r hctclotc. tht' 'cction wil l discuss critical and rc ll cxl\ e apptoac hc\
"h1ch I adopted a' Ill) conceptual ft ttn1cwnt k lor Ill ) thc\1\
M y contcx.tua l fratl1C\\ ork I ' 111
focLLe ~ on the educ~.Hion hc.t,cd ( ( I

nUCilt.-Cd h] th e thcon C\ [ re\ I C\\ cd an d It pt I nlan ly

progra n1 ' for \\Oillcn·s dc\clopn1cnt in Bangladc , h. It

also touche\ on the dc~i g n' and irnpctch of CCT progran1' unplcn1en tccl 111 other p al1~ of th e
\\ orld uch a Bran I. Chile. Mex tco. , outh Afnca. and Ecuador I rc\ rcw the \\ ork') o f key
author , go\ crnn1ent and tntcr11attonal agen ctc~ data \Ource and tncdia account' to JU'lify
n1y argu n1 cnt and to create a 'aluablc doc un1cnt for future rc,earchcr'

Critica l and Refl exive Approachc

At the end of the Second World \\'ar. the \\ Ord ·de,el opment' hccan1e a hu /L\vord
and was frequ entl y used by politician , acadcn1ics, cco non11st~, political ~c i e nt1 ~b ( E co bar.
1995~ Parpar1 & Veltineyer, 2004)

De elopn1cnt n1ost often refers to progress. prospent) or

peace (Dodds, 2002) and offers olutions to povet1y, tncquality, and access to se n i ce~
(Loker, 1996) but PO\Ver (2003) acknowledge ~ .. that the idea or ' dC\ elopnl en t' i' di1licult to
defin e. since the tcrn1 ha<; a \\h ole variet) o fn1 ca nin g(;, in different tim~' and plac ~", . . it
n1i ght be said that the tern1 actuall y has no clea r and un equi\ocal n1ea ntng and~~ 111 a ,cn"'c
16

trul) the tufT of 11l)th. 111)\tlquc and llllrttge''( p I) Cnt1cal dc\clopnlcnt th1nkc i ~ <u g uc that

the 1110ll\ c of de\ cloprncnt \hould he vis thlc dlld de\ clopn1CI1t "hould ensu Jc IU"tiCC rnr tho"e
bcmg ' de\cl oped' (~ lu nk. 1999)
o. poo1 tlnd hungry I certainly was But undcrdc' clopcd'l J never thought · not d1d
dn) hod; cl\c- that hc1ng poo1 tncant hctrH! 'undcrd c\ eloped' and laCKing hun1clll
dtgn1ty I rue. the1e '"' no co tn fort and t?.lo t \ 111 po\ crt y. but the \\hole conce pt of
de\cloprncnt (or undctdc,cl<)prncnt) \\H S totallyal1cn to n1c (\hn:stha. 199'), p 26X)

De\ elopn1cnt ( ..ttcgory .. '' hct c he dcl1hc1 <11\..:ly s kctc hc~ IHnv dcvclopn1ent is hrought to th e
'de \ clop1ng· cou ntrie

h~

the ·de\ eloped· \\Orld and international de\ clopn1cnt at?.cnuc~

rron1 ht li\ cd C'\pcnencc~

fhl') PO\\ Cl ful tc~tllllOllial CO lnpcl s us to rethinK and unlearn the

concept of ·de\ clopment ·.
Econornic globalt;atton ha" bccon1c the don11nant rnodcl of prc\cnt day dc\clopJncnt.
a y~ten1 fueled b) the behef that a tngle global cc.onnn1; \\ 1th unl\ cr~al rule\ \et up
by corporati on and finan cial n1arkct IS 111C\ 1tablc Econon1Ie frcedon1, not
den1ocracy or eco logtcal te\\ ard~hip. \\a c., the dcfintng n1ctaphor of the po\t-cold '''ar
penod for tho e 111 pO\\ er (SarlO\\ & Clark. 2002. p XI ).
The World Bank and lntcnlcltional Monetary Fund (lMF )" tn1t1atcd free n1arkets and
nco liberal eco notnic trateg1c as dominant globa l policy tn the nmne of ·c.Je \ elo pn1ent · hut
only offer negligible benefit to the n1aj or portion of the v.'orld population (Power, 2003. p.
132). Anthropologist Wade Oa\ is (2009) goes fut1hcr and a rgue~ that

the Western model of developtncnt has faded in so tnany places 111 good 1neasurc
because it has been based on the fa lse pron1ise that peopl e"' ho folio\\ it prcscnpti\ e
di ctate wiJl in tin1e achieve the n1aterial prosperity enJoyed by a handful natton ~ of
I he World Bank and lMF were c~tab!Jshecl in 1944 at the Bretton ~'omJ .., conference rn Ne\\ ll amp ... llllc lhe
marn obJective hehrnd therr c...tabli"hrnent wa ... the recon ... tructton or the I ut opcan countne.., after the\\'\\ II
Currently, they ate pnmanly mvohed tn po,crty aile\ tatron \\Oiid\\lde b) pro\ tdmg lin ..mual and technr cal
"ollpporh to the clc\elopment pro1ccto-. tmplemcntcd tn the dc\clopmg count11c-. But. thc\ ,\lc highh tlltttr /ed
for therr role rn the development proJeCt\ a... thc"e prOJCCh \Cl) often rat! ... to meet the loL,ll need" (P ..llauo-. and
Perc;, 1999).

17

the \\'e t Ill rcallt~. dC\CJ Opt11Cill !'o r the \J ~ t lllaj o ltt~ o f the people of th e \\O tld
hn ~ been n proce~~ 111 \\htch the tndt\ 1du a lt ~ totn fion1 ht~ pc1 ~t. propelled tnto nn
unccrtatn future. on! ) to sccu1 c a pl clLC on the hott on1 tung of nn cco non1t c laddet that
goe~ nO\\ hct c (p 196 ).
The V..'o rld Bank and I 1f clnd oth et II I ~'' nrk ns agent" (or fot c tgn 111 \C~ lor~ hy
re ~tru

tunn g the pol tttcal ~..,~ \ te nl~ of the ·cJe\ elop iiH! uHJllt ll e\ thet ehy mai--IIH! thctn ''ann-

hecb for fol etgn lll\ el..,tJl1 C11l The \\'() rst pclll is that they 111akc the Jei..,OlJ ILeS or·uc\e lo ptng·
c ountnc ~ cxhau. ltblc fot nlultinationc11 C\ lt delton conlpcl nics ( ll nlt-( rJJ11 CI1e/, 2007) ~I he

trOll) Is that the go\ crnn1enh of the de\ eloptng countries. it-re"pective of dictalotl..,htp ot
ckn1ocrac\. dct a~.., local a t!enh for \\ B or fo t et t!ll in vcstn1 ~
J

~

coli b c ralt ~ n1 rccet' eel \\ c1rn1 \\ elcon1c 1n BanJ.!.l
...... adc~h 1n 197 5. "' hen the na tiona!
poltcie or Bang l ade~h \\ere tnteJ1\Vll1Cd \Vith the poliC) rcc..on11l1Clldations or the World Bank
b) the President at the t1n1 c. \1r ltau r Rahn1an . ccordtng to Rc1h1nan (2001) thc~e poliuc~
V\erc in tituted through the '>lru ctural adju'>llllCnt programs· (', /\P~) rolil)' package. Jh c

AP generall y rcqutre deregulation. reducti on of go\ crnrn cnt control and znarkct
liberali7ation Bhattachara)a. Rahn1an and Kh atun ( 1999) po1 nt out that
the principal policy 1nstrun1ents of th e SAP 1n Bangladesh included, 111/er aha,
cutback in public sector expenditure. reducti on of anti-export bJa'> in th e tax structure.
tanff rationalization and 0 \ crall trade liberaluatl on. Incorporatio n of flexibility 1n th e
exchange and interest rates, privatizati on, price decontro l and dc-substdi /ation ( p. 6)
Bangladesh was credited for expediting tariff-llberaluatton and pnYati/att on
progran1s, for reforn1ing econon1ic poli cie by making them n1ark ct friendly and for
restructuring the finan cial and fiscal sector tn accordance \v 1th APs rccon11nendations.
Following these policy change . Bangladesh "'a , best<)\\ ed \\ tth the C\ tended structural
adjustment faciliti es (ESAF) for successful in1plcmcntation or th e APs ( Kabir. 20 11 ).

18

~

Ar.., a pat1 o f the ad)u ~ t nl c nt Jcndtn g ctcdtt a total of l
B a n g l ad c~h hy the \\'orld Bank bel\\ ccn 19RR X9 and 1995 96

) I 76 hd lion '' ar.., dl'hu tr..,cd tn

The pttn1cll y ob.J cclt\ c fot

gt\ tng tht r.., crcdtt '' ar.., ~ tru c tural and r..,ectoral adj u ~ ttne nt such cl' th e cnct g\ r..,cc tot ,ldJu r.., ttn cnt
cieclt t ( 1989. DR I 17 0 n1tllt on). the tndu stria l scc tnr adj ustnH:n l ctcdtl ( 19X7. ~DR 147.X
n1dlton). and the finctnctal ...,ector adJu r. , ttncnt ctecltt ( I <J <JO•• DR. I 12 7 tnillt on) (Rahtnan,
2003) The r. , peed o f the .. \Pr. , 111lplctncntati{)J1 in B,tng ladesh \VaS fas ter th dn 111 nny othct or
tt ~

outh \ r. , tan pcctr.., Indi a and Pdk.t r..,ttl n were j ust c tn h t~ t ki n g on the<) \Pr.., in the late JCJ XOr..,

''here a ~ Banglader..,h undertook tna "'"' c n1 at k.el rc fo nn ' It on1 clS ea rl y Cl~ th e I CJ XOr. , ( Ka h 11 ,
20 l l ).
In 197,... . a 11C\\ tndur.., tn al polt L} \\ cl ' cHloptcd h} the coverntn cn t () ( Bang!ader.., h whi ch
apprO\'ed lllaS i\ C cJ e- natt onalll aliOI1 of q atC-0\\ necltn, tltUtl OI1 ' and p o lt l.le~ fo1 th e
protn otton o f prl\ ate tndu , tr) and tn \ e~ tm e nt C'\ uren1owla. 20 12) The JUte n1a nuf actunng
sec tor policy refonn \\ a ea rn ed out to fulfill th e co ndttt ons o f the IFi r.., The puhlt c sectorr..,
were acc used of vva ting pub he n1oney.

ot onl y have JUte tndu ~ tn es been pn va tt/ ed hut

\\ orker tn this ec tor ha\ c al o bee n laid ofT. \\ h1 ch 111 tum contt 1butcd to n s1ng
uncmploytn ent. It\\ a e\ ident from th e fact th at the protnise or prl\ atl/ati on fa tl cd to bnng
forth the co1n 1nitted fruits (B haskar & Khan, 1995: Kahir, 20 11 ). The cntreprcncur5 did not
take on the risk of running the pri\. at17ed indu5tri es: rather. the} u5ed th e~c publtc propertt c'
for their capital gain (Sen, 1997).
In the earl y 1970s a total of 250,000 workers ~ ere cn1ployed 1n nearl y 80 JUte n1tl b

in Bangladesh. An1ong thern almost 200,000 \\ orker~ had to (.) ufTer forced uncn1plo; n1cnt hy
2008 du e to the neolibera l restructuring of Bangladesh. , l daniJCC Jute M tlls, the largest
cn1pl oyer in the industri al sector in B a n gl ad c~ h , \Vas closed d O\ \ n in 200 I. A~ the hon1 c of

19

SC\ cral JUte rntlL . Khulnc1 u ~ed to he the 111dJOI' 1ndu ~ ll I<
ll ct t) o f B a n g lad e~ h

In 2007

hO\\C\ Cr Khulna lo ~ t tl glot) a~ ctght ~ tate O\\ ned JUte rnill ~ \\eJc c lo~e d that ;ea r a~ a pa rt
of II Is Ieco n1tncnddtt on unplerncntatinn (Kdhtt. 2011 ).
The neolt bet ct I poltC) a e.c ndtl attacked the b,ll!... hone n f Ba nglade~h - th e agriculture
~ec tor - bet\\ ccn the 19

Cha nd the 1990~ \II <ll!J
... tcultu re related hu~tnesse~ ~ u c h as the 111ain

agnculture tnput the fertiltler hu 1ne~"· the ~ccd in1p<)J'l and distrthutinn bus iness. ct tH.l the
agnculturdl rnac h111 et) bu~tne,,e wet C (111\ atizccl \!t hough 80° n of the total popul ation nf
Bang!adesh ts d u·cctl; ot uH.Itr ectl) dependent on the tlgri cu Itu rc sec tot. the go\ e1n n1 cn t of
Bangladesh
had to reduce cH!tt
.....
._ cultute 'ub~tdte' (~uruzzan1an. 2004) The food ttnd fc r111JieJS
sector ufTercd fron1 n1a ''\ e 'ubsJ(.h- cut durin ......e. 19'7-X4 ( \hn1 ed. 2002 utcd in
uruzzatna n, 2004. p. 46) as par1 of the 1n1plen1 entatton stratcg; of the ~A P ~ reronn
The neolibcral poltc) began to rnterfere rn the financtal sector Banglade~h in the ea rl y
19 0 . The neoliberal poiJCy e". p ert~ fo und out that the\",. eakne~' of the banking ~ec to r or
Banglade, h ~ere due to 1nc fTic1ent rnanagcrn ent They ~ugge~ted that th e banktng ~ecto r he
denati onalt?ed. The L ·lfara Bank and the Puha/1 Bank \\ ere pnvat11ed and pn\ ate
cotnmercial banking tarted to flouri ~ h a the then go\ cnun ent or Bangladesh ISSUed pti\ ate
banking licenses (Kabir, 20 11 ). Bhattacharaya (2002) potnts out "it \\ as also dunng th e n1id
1980s that the money, banking and credit con1n1Ission can1e Into being to define the scope
and lnodalities ofthe early phase of reform

II

(p.3). Extensi\C financial sector rcronns or

Bangladesh were initiated in the beginning or the 1990s und er the World Bank"" ht ch
assisted with the Financial ector Adjustment Credit (F AC) ( Kabir, 20 II) A~ Bhattachar\a
"'
(2002) states:

1 he FSAC or the World Bank also se t S0111e objccti es 111 1990 IJk.C gradu al
deregulatio n 0 f interest rate Slructu re, provicl ing 111arket oricn ted incenti\ CS, Ina!... 111l?,....
20

s ub s tdtc~ 1110re tran~parcnt. adopt1011 of c111 appropndlC 111011CtClr\ poltC\ , inlpl0\ CI11CJ1t

of debt tCCO\Cr) cltllldlc. and "ttcngthcning the ccl ptl cliJn <Hk e t~ tn pttcc up the refotnl~
procc"~ ( r 4 ).
The neoiJbcral poltC} gUJdcd I clptd I cfnnn 111 th e finnnual "cctOJ of B n n g l cld e~ h and
prod uced hu ge cli11 0 Ul1h or lo,\n default. The loa n tkrault ha~ been the ht Pgcst prnhle tn Ill the
cou nll") ·s financtal "ector "tncc l nf'nrttll1dtcl:. lo,ln dcfnultcr~ hcca n1 e th e don1111 an t

co ntroller" or the bankllH.! and 111 "U I at1l c "cctnr (l r the countrv ( Kdhll . 20 I I ) and "thi S Sinal I
~

~

grou p of bank tng cl nd 1n"u ranee bout g. en 1" I e cn nt inucd to llou 11"h Iurth cr and tut ned into the
Bangladc ht e4lll \client 0 r )()hbcl bttt ons" 0 r n inctcenth ce ntury Eu rope" (N Ull.l/ ;anlan.
II

2004, p 41 ).

The pnn1t1r} educ,lt tnn "ector o1 Bangladc" h \\ c1" lthc1al11ed during the 1990s. f or
1iberalt ~i n g the ~ec tor

~a d ( 2009) cla 1111 ~ that the ex p a n ~ 1 on o f p11 \ at11ed rr11n ary eel ucati on

and the deten orat ton of the quaht) of ruhlt c pnnuuy. educati on hccatnc 1an1pant The
pri\ a ti ~ed pntnary educallon ecto r wa~ rl o un~h1n g as a co n1n1 erc1al produ ct w hll c e n ~ urcd
and quality public prirnar: educatton lo...,t the B a ngladc~h gc)\ ernrnent ·..., pttonty. The pr11nary
education was subju gated to an

GO ac ti vity.

colibcral poltcy refon11 facilitated WB and

I~1 I to use the pub I ic pri n1 ar: education a a laborator; · gu inca pig· ' ' h tc h in turn led to an
inefficient and inactive educati onal sy~tcrn (Asad, 2009) .
The n1tssion of the econdar) Education ector Impn)\ etnent Progrmn ( ES IP ).
which was suppottcd by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), wa to stop th e educa ti on
sector subsidy. Asad (2009) tnention that the de\ a~ ta ting step of pr1\ ati11ng textbook
publication was itnpletn entcd under SES IP (sec al so Asian De\ elopment Bank [ADB],
2008 ). The tex tbooks published by the Na ti ona! Cu1Ticulun1 and Tc:\t-book Board ( C rB) of

Bangladesh became an open n1arket con1n1crcia l product. As a result, tex t-book purc htt ~ tn g

21

costs added C'<tra educational e'\pcn\C\ to the poo r f~Hntl1 e~ for th e1r children ·\ education .
fht\ ts a glaring C'\atnplc o f hen\ th e edu ca ti on \Cc tor ha' been LOtnn1crcial11cd tht ough
ncoltbcral poltcy Instead o f organt 1111g th e ecluca tt nn 'ector to tn akc cduc. cllt on a 1 tght. 1t \va ~
organvcd to n1 c.l~ c cdu cat in n into a pn,J uc.t ··c nl ) '' hn h ~n c 111Pnc~. c. ttn h,l\ c th e cdu c.a ti on..

(I'a Aa Jar. SluAJ...ha tar) hut the co n\tl tutJ on o f B ~.1n g l adc\h rcdds th at ·cu uc.a tJ on 1\ l'l l.! hL not a

The go\ ei11111CI1 t\ 0 f th e de\ clopt ng CO LI Ill II c~ ~u c h a~ Bangladc\ h ell e ~0 gJ<ttcru I to
the \\ 8 Or 1\11 fo r pnH HJII)g th C\C c.harisn1atl l J11,lllli'J\ ·' of dcvclo ptnent that th ey arc too
"'tiling to adopt th e ·poiiC) or rc pn.~\\ t o n · and cnc.c1ge 1n ruthlc "'~ ac tt on!-1 111 ord er to supprcs\
~

any, local dt s\ldent \ o tcc"' aga in t a range of ·de\ elopmcn t· pn>ICC. t\ ( II olden and Jacoh,on.
200 . Man;, 2005). Thu ~ cntt cal geographer \ll arcu\ Pen\ ct (2001) a\\et ted

De pitc all the tall-.. o f ·empcn\ crrn en t·. ·dc\elop rnc nt· '"' \ ttl l \c ry n1uc.h \O tncthing
that 1s defin ed and cnunctatcd b\.. the · f-Jr\ t \\ orl d' Ju~ t a\ m co loni al lime\. the
framework and strategie of' de\ cloptncnt are authored ouhi clc the co untry concerned
and arc grounded 111 foreign (ncoltbcral) td cologie\ (p 112)
Although, th e~c dcveloptncnt initiall \ cs railed to find any rc<ll \O IUtJ On\ to the prohl cnl \ of
the tnajority population of the \\ orld. they ucceedcd to eli\ ide the \.\. orld hy naming FJr\ t and
Thtrd.
Little attenti on j<:; gi\ en to the rec ip ie nt ~ o r thi <:; de\ e lop tn ent. "the \ le\\·s or v. Ol11Cn,
the \ icws of people in the outh. the "icv. s of peo ple who arc c\.cluded socwll y, and the
views from ·below· (Power, 2003, p. 41) becau c the proponents of de\ clopn1ent polieic5 are
(., In tht"> the"''"' I con">tde red ncoltberal pol tcte.., profe'\c.,ed b) If Is as ·mantra'->'
r 0 1 Example "On the 26th of Aug u ~o,t :W06, five people cit ed and many other.., \\ere tl11l11Cd \\ hen ..,ecutlty
fo t cc~o., reportedl y opened fi re on ~o.,omve 50,000 people gathctcd tn a ..,mall to\\ n tn Phulb,111. a -;ub-dt-..tnlt of
DtnaJ pur 111 north \1\C~o.,tern Banglade..,h 1 he gc.lthen ng ,,a.., t1 ptote-..t tn re-..po n-..e to a piOpo-..al b) \ -..ta Lncrgy. a
U K-ba~o,ed mm tng co mpany, to engage 111 open-ptt coal mtntng In 199X l he \ -..ta L nerg\ C.orporatton
(Bttngladec.,h) Pty, a wholl y ov.ncd ..,ubc., tdtaty of Global Cottl Management Rc,outce-.. pic (GC.l\1) \. ,,,t..,
awatdcd a conll act by the Govetnment of Bangladc-..h to mtne coal tn Phul ban r hc Phu lbdt t coal mtnc ,.., .111
open-pit coalm1ning proJect wh1ch in vo l ve~ dtggtng huge ptts \\Jth he4l\') machinery to accc~o.,!) the mllll't,ll ore"
(Nlll emov. Ia, 20 12, p 5 ).

22

" n ch and pO\\Crful. [and! a~~un1c a tc\.thook \\ orld 111 \\hilh produ ce r~ <.HHJ co n ~u n1 c r ~
operate at ann~ length and reLCI\ e equal benefits.. ( \hell. 1999. p 40). In tltl<.lltJon. l e~"
attention and su pport ha" heen channeled to th e lol,tll )-llJn 1nstitul10l1 '-t On th e cn ntrarv. <Ud
fi·orn the ~ ort h ha'-t hcen cl lined ted htl'-tCd () Jl thci I PI ern eel ita ted tenns cllld PI CSCJ l heel pt nj ccts
(Judd. 1999)
The Crlll Ldllc-thtnklng ( P (H\CI. 200'"") rhlladignl came IIll O being in I <JX(rs in the
de\ cloptncnt arena 1n~p1 1eel h) th e ..,c hnl,u " ~uch cl S "-,nl \1 c1 rx . .IUI .f!C il lla he11nas. M 1e hcl
Foucault and l d\\drd a1d (<)LI1rij'e'"'· I<J<J3). ,ri tica l devclop1ncn t thinkers adhered to the
argument that de\ el oprncnt cannot be .. 1!.1\ en .. to a countr)'. 1t has to co n1e fron1 '' ithin.
·· \ttenti o n . hould be pa1d to the loLa I kno'' ledge lmd cillUmtrlated '' 1~don1. rc'-tpcc tful
pat1ncr~hip. and pat11CipatOI) practJ Ce'-t \\ hic h \\ I II enlpO\\ Cl the poor hy rn ea n ~ or alloVv tn g

· thcn1 to define thc1r O\\n dc\cl opn1cnt problcn1 ·· (Parpart & \ cltrn C)C r 1004. p. 52).
Femini sts denounce the cun·cnt pro ces~ o l de\ cloprnent. h ccau~c they bel ic\C that 1t
benefit the ;'\!orth and nnlltinati onal co q1 o ra ti on~ on I~. \ s Judd (I t;99) state~ the ··ren1in1 ~ t
perspecti ve on the current conjuncture a ffi nns that de\ elopn1ent rroces~e~ ca nnot and ~ h ould
not be directed frorn the out ide. nor should they be left to the \\ o rk1n g~ of the un. cc n hand
of the tnarkef' (p. 224 ). Fen1in1st al o strongly oppose m easunn g de\ clorrn ent using
econotnic scale like gros national product (GNP) (Kerr. 1999) A~ Galeano ( 1997) a l~o
pointed out that .. tati sti cs admit. but do no t repent. In the la ~ t rcsot1, hun1 an dignity depends
on cost-benefit analysis, and the sacrifice of the poor i noth1ng but the ·~ocial co t' or
progress" (p. 222). Ongo ing developn1ent progran1s and poli cies prioriti;;c trade and
econornics over hurnan life (Shiva 200 1).

23

Critical de\ clopn1ent ~c h o lat (,tlbcrt Rt ~ l ( 1999) a rgu e~ th at de' eloptnent ha ~ been no
n1 orc than a colk elt\ e f,llth IJ~ c rclt l!io u ~ be Itch pt o fc, cd hy the ·de\ e loped ' co unttt e..., for
·under de\ clop· co untn c..., Cttll cal de \ eloprncnt gcographct \ tcton a l "'' \ On (200 7 ) cl ain1 ~
that an~ fonn o f J c\ c lopn1C11l Kl1 0\\ k J l!C I\ ··...,ou~l ll: produced and ~o u ,lll: pt oduun g or
parttcular configurati on.. , o f pnlltJ ccl l. cpt . ., tetnologicnl. dncltn.. , titu tt onal cn nlc\t nne! po\\ et
rc Iat ton ·· (p i 1) <.. rt tt L a I "L ho la r.. , \ Lte h as E...,te\ a <.\.. Prakash ( I <J9X). \\ 11 gh t ( 2004 ). La,vso n
(2007, p. 33) al. . o argue that. by an; tn ecl n". cle\clop tn ent kn o\\ lcds..?.e ~tc 1 n~ fton1 culturall y OJ

ht ston call ) or co ntc\tu al l) "r cc dic c\pCtl cncc..., It is not kn< wledgc hcyo nd th e hun1ct n
cogntllon (La\\ SO n . 2007) Th c~c ate the \ JC\\ f1 0 tn h thnt tnade n1c to tethtnk the \\ay 111
'' htch de' eloptncnt 1 p1 ac t teed. and fo r who n1 it hc...,t . . ervcs.
The n1a tnstrcan1 de\ eloptncnt td ea ~ tcn1 ftnn1 th e etghtce nth-cent ury Enll ghtcnmcnt

, thtnktng '' hich ad' ocatcd a \ Ingle rat tonal and obJCC. lt\ e k.nO\\ ledge about the\\ orld ca n he
achtcvabl e. The uppot1crs of enll ghtcnn1 cnt thtnktng cla1n1ed that scJcntJ fie dcvclopn1cnt
kno~ ledge i

a pace-le ~ . nonpoltuca l phenomena and free f ron1 cul tur al hras and <t hl c to

reap the san1e re ults regardl e

of place. But on1 c co nte1nporary geographers such a~ Pcct

& Ha1twick ( 1999) belie' e that Enlighten1nent thought \\as a l ~o a product of parttcul ar

geography. Undoubtedly it ori ginated fro1n th e eighteenth-century Europea n culture, h1 story,
and geopolitics (as cited in La\\ son, 2007 ).
Critical geographers such as Turnbull ( 1997 ), Mitchell (2002), Wri ght (2004) claitn
that some instituti ons ( such as WB , Inter-America n De' eloptncnt Bank [ IADB]. Lr \JD.
DFID, IMF ) and their experts toge th er form developrnent ··k_no\\ ledge -s paccs" 8 , , htch
lcgititnatize particular ·deve lopment' program

a~ con11non ~o luti o n s to prohl en1

1 he en tical geographers cla1m that development 1deao.., do not on g mate 111 1o..,olatton but they are al"o p1 oduu:d
111 spec1fi e geograph1cal and cultut al conte \ t - what geographer I urnhu ll ( 1997) termed as ' l·d10\\ leth.!.c o..,pace~ ·

M

( l a~ o..,on.2007. p

42)
24

tJTe~pec tl\e ofthett pm1tculat ~p ace dnd co n1n1untt }

1he} then es tdblt ~ h th c~c pr ngran1" a" a

''dcvclopn1cn t truth" ( La\\ SO n, 2007. p 41 -47) , tncc 7001. Bnn g ladc \ h ·~ I ctnal e Sttpcnd
Pro.J cct ha" been replica ted h) th e \\ B 1n the Pu nj ah pt ovi nee or l\1k1 ~tn n as a gend er
on en ted program \\ tthout cn n ~ td c ttn g the po()J' gender tndicntors of th at region ( \\ B. 2007:
churmaan. 2009) (1nd tgnnttng the polen twl ll ~k or\ tnlcnce thdt the patt ic tpatin g gi rl" Jni ght
race The f'c tn ale ~c hool ~ll pend pn)) eLl \\ cl~ ,\I~() opc ra lional ised in the Sll h <)aha ran '\ fr ica
co untn c~ of R\\ and a. Congo. ,1nd (,h,u1a with an C\.lJ,t goal <)f ill\

\ID~ con ttol ( \cadctny

ror Educational De' cloprncn t. 200X. ~chunnaan. 2009) I dtd not find any ~uc h cxtc nstvc
~ tud y that hc1s been undertdkcn on the gender irnpach of the J ~~ \P ptogran1 to pr<l\tdc a

platforn1 to r-ccon1tncnd the I

~ \P'~ potcrltt,ll orrclt cthtltt}

<;o, tcpltcation of' the F-SSJ\P

and PE P prograrn \\ tthou t constdcn ng the place gcndcr-"pcclfic contcx t r cq u 11 cs cntJ ca l
tnqutry.
Tht ~ i

\\ hy en tical de\ clop n1cnt thinker~ tr) to lind out ho\\ rn ain~trea rn

development thought ha corne into hctng along with drav.tng out the don11nant power acttng
behind it itnplen1entation to tn ake it a ··regin1c oftruth" • La\\~On l/007) tn entJon~ ~e\cral
1

·regi mes of truth · dominated the m id -t\ventt eth ce ntury t.,uch at., p O\ et1y. tll1 teracy and O\ cr
population . Critical thinkers al o try to a ses the politt cal ancl tn ateri al unpa cts o f
de\ elopment thoughts and their actions on the society

·} Robert McNamara. the \Vorld Ban" pre\Jdent ,., ho 1ecogmzed the population grO\\ th tl" the main hindranLe lor
the progress of Lat m Amen ca states that·· T'hc \\ orld Ban" '" Ill gl\e pno11ty 111 1t~ loan-.. to count11e-.. that
1mplement bu1h contro l pl ans" {Ga leano. I 974. p 5} Lyndon B Johnson. the pres1dent o f l .\ . \\ ent a step
ahead to support the \V01Id Bank ·~ claim b) mak1ng a 1cmar"ablc -..tatement "l et u-.. act on the fall that le-..-.. than
$'5 Invested 111 population con tJoll'-~ \\Orth ~100 111\C\ted 111 econom1c giO\\th"(Galeano. 19'"'4. p 6) Gakdno
{I 974) claim that "van ous U. . llli SS IOllS hcl\ e stenll7cd thousand~) or v..omen Ill Ama/OI11tl, although thl\ I\ the
lcac.;t populated hab1table ;one on our pl anet. Mo"'t Lc1t1n Amencan countne" hcne no 1edl -..urplu-.. of people. tHl
the contrary. they have too fe,., B1 alll ha" th1rt y-e1ght t11ne" fe\\el 1nhab1tanh per -..qudiC mile th<ln Belgn11n.
Paraguay ha'-1 forty-nine tllne\ fev..e l than r ngland, PeiU ha... thi rt y I\\ 0 tllllC'-t le\\ er th.m .l.lpan ll aitJ and Fl
Salvador, the human ant heaps of 1 atm Ame11ca, have lower population de11-..1ttc~ than ltdly I he p1 ctc\t-..
1nvokcd are an msultto the Intelligence: the rcal1ntent1o ns ange1 u~" (p 6} I t~~ an e\fllnple. hO\\ de\elopment
1deas become ·regime o f truth ' and t11e Implemented 1uthle-.."'ly

25

In tht~ part of the chaplet. I intend to give an t<.ka on the theorett ca l qand p<Hnt o f n1 v
resea rch In the ne'\t part of tht~ chapl et. l 1C\ JC\\ eel cl\ aJiclhle lttc1atu1 co n ddTc1 cnt

Cnncll t1 ona I C a~h Tt dn ~fet p1 ogran1s and thc11 i111pdcls on the hcnc fi ci ari cs <.) f thc"c
progran1~

Ob\ IOU~I) th e cnntc'\llWI f'lclll1C\V()f"k i ~ powered h: the cn nu:ptual rr cllllC\\Oik I

dcscn bed abo\ c

Contextual Frarnin g

Do \\ C e\e r real!) knO\\ a pl ace or do drffetcnt a~pccts revea l th c tn ~chc~ onl y \\ hen
\\C arc read) to ~cc thc1n ') ( \ oltn. 2006 tn Reticle and No lin. 200~. p 2)
The co ntc'\tual fran1 C\\ ork I tllll prc~cnt tn g hct c IS an C)C opcnct and a po"" crful
ource to unlearn dOOUt the ·n1)th o f \ LILU~ '-1\C \. or thC \C ( ( f prog ralllS clairncd by th eir
proponent~

I rcce t\ cd gutd ancc fron1 the en tical thinkers in f1an1ing my co ntextual

fran1C\VOrk . The cnll ca l thconc htghl ] mOuenccd n1 c to 111\ e\tJ gate the 1n1pach oJ these
program on their rcc tptenb Here. Ire' Je\\ the publicly a\ ailahk IJtcrdtUIC on CC T
program s and di ~ cu ~ Ill} finding on th e in1pach of thc ~c prograrn <)· goal \ under th e
following sub-h eading : ( 1) structural\ tolence: (2) gend er 1n a tn ~ trca n1In g and
en1powern1ent: (3) hou ehold po\ver rel ation . (4) en1 ol ln1en t and acce~~ to educat1on : and
( 5) develop1ncnt-fed politics.

S tru ctural Violence

When an individual suffer du e to th e en1beddcd systcnl and tru cture or the OC ICly
or of an institution, it can be tc1111ed as structural v iolence (Ga ltung, 1969). tructural
violence i ~ a con1pl cx phenon1ena to de fin e and de cnhe. That 1s \\ hy, in co ntra. t to

26

hcha' 1oral \ 1olcnce. 1t IS dtf fi cult to blmnc c1ny "pee di e pcr'.o n for '. tructural \ 1olcncc 1
'' ou ld l1k.c to quote Dr Paul Fannc1 hct e
I he tcnn "<\tructural 'to lcncc .. 1~ nne ''a) n l ck'.c rthiiH! \OLta l arratH.?.c mcnl " tlwl put
111d1\ tclual " dnd popula tt on" tn harn1'~ \\tl\ .•. . 1he arranPc n1 cn t ~ ,11 c '''ucturol heca u<..c
th ey arc cn1hcdd ed tn the poltt ica l and ccnno n1ic (1 rgan tl.clltnn n l out socia l \\O ri eL
the) ate , .,ohn1 hecHU\C the~ C<Ht\C tlllllt")' to people tFa nn et. '\rt.cye. ~tulac &
Kc5lHl\ JCC, 2006. p 1686)
He further tc1tc' that
nctth er culture not put c tndt\ tclunl wi llt ' ,lt l~1ult : ra th er. ht '.lOllcally g1\C il (<lncl often
econonlt cd ll) dtt\Cil) ptoce""c" ,tnd J0rLcs con\pttc to constratn indi\ tdu al ngcncy.
tructura I ' 10 lencc 1' ' 1, . ted upon all those \vhosc '\OC ia I status denies then1 access to
the fruth of \CtcnttfiL c1 nd \C1Lial pr ogtc"' (Fanner. 2001. p 79)
\Votn en l~1cc ~ oc to-c ullural. cconotnic. and political structural vio lence Bt nck-Utne
( 1989) cia

died \lructural '1olcncc aga11ht \\Onlcn tnto t\\o ha,IL cdll:l!orics: .. prcn1atun.:

death attributed to tnequttabl e lt fe oppo t1unttt e\ and a tcduccd qua lt t) of life 1n \\hic h hun1an
potential i din1tn 1 ~ hed .. (J\ c1ted tn \1 ajura na & \1 c. Kd). 2001) and \\hen a wotnan \u ff ers
fro n1 tructural 'tolcncc for bctng a \\ orn an '-;uch a" don1e~t1c vio lence. tt ca n be denoted d~
patnarchal tructural \ iolencc ( Brock-L'tne. 19 9) In patnarch}. \Ociall y co n ~tru c tcd gen der
inequaliti e are used to anction tnalc dorntnation (Eben. 1996 ct tcd tn \ll a/u rana & \It c. Kay.
200 I ) The male domination tn Bangl adc~h can be better excn1pl1fied by the tenn

"nuu;/u.sJno .. \\-hich is used in Guatemala and which Reade and

olin (2008) descnbed 111

their boo k ·'F tnpo\verin g Wonl en··. ~They defined the tcrn1 \\ ith reference to Gutn1ann (2003)
and Soong ( 1999)

The defining characteristics of n1ac hi 1110 arc exaggerated agg rc~~ ' ' ene s. arrogance
and sexual aggregation in rnal e to fetnalc relati onships. and the abil ity of a tnan to
··compl etely dorn inatc his \\ife and children··. Machi sn1 o inside the J'an1ih unit i" th~
husband '') ability to contro l and subjuga te hi ~ '' ifc . I hi ~ uhju
. .....ca ti on ca n take the
physical fonn of cconon1ic ' iolcnce or it ca n be ~ ubtl e (Reade and oltn. 200X. p 5)
r

27

E\ en 111 our pre~e nt da~ oc1et) dotncstic 'tolcnce ~ ~ the tn o~t tht e<t ten111 p. ~ ~~ u c
against'' omen' s ccunt) 111 Ban g la ch~~ h \ l

I l I { n d ) repo rt rou nd that ''c'\ttcn1e

ph) ~ t ea l abu~c at hnn1e that led to dcd th accounted fo r n1o1 c than 70 pe1 ce nt or the repo t ted
d o n1 e~ll c ' 1olcnce c d~e~ 1nvo h t ng youn g h<'li S~\Vi vcs and gi rl s aged I '

I X·· ( p ..., ) I he

Ban g lad e~ h De1nogra phtc and llealth ~un C) ( J()()4) 1 ep() J'ted th at ~ 5 pet cent o ( rn <lll Jed

1nale

111 Bang.Jade~h
hd\C .JUStified hittitH!' - or bc<llint?. their wi\cs as rcasnnc1hlc (as ci ted in
'~

N IPORT, 2005. p 4 7) In the "'1n1c "uncy. tt ppn,xin1atdy one in two rn cn clai n1th llt
\to! cnce agatn ~ l thctr \\ tfe 1~ Iu ~ tdi ab Ie I r thc ll \\I\ e~ l!O out ~ Id e () r the hou~e \V ithou t th ctJ'

pennt .. t o n ( ~ IPORT. 2005. p -+ 7).

L' ' ICEF (2010) found thdt n1 n1c than')() pe1cc nt ofn1arricd won1cn fron1 the age
grou p of 15-49 utTered . on1e fon11 of ph) "'cal and or ~e'<ual violence ft on1 th e11 hu ~ band ~
In ciden t of ·c,e- tca\ tn g· and ~c\.ual 't olen cc \\Cre \Cf) high and fr eq uen t wh ich' " a
eriou threa t to the \ec unt) or adole~cent gi rl \ 111 Banglades h Thl~ 20 10 report I ~ troubl ing

in Iight of the claitn n1ade b] the 200 I 'W' orl d Bank ' c, B angladc~h- F SA P proJect
infonnati on doc ument (PID L in \\hich it is . tatcd that ·conlrnLtnrtv a\\arcne\~ · n!t?.ardin
t?. the
.....
._
~

bene fits of girl' s edu cati on in B anglade~ h \\a\ ~ u ffic ient ( \\ B. 200 I b. p. 4 ). If co rnn1 unit)
awareness is sufficient, how ca n there be high in c id en t~ of violence agai n~ t girls in the forn1
of ·eve-teasin g'? Ei ther the clairn of co n1munity a\varen e~~ ISO\ er tated o r coinn1unity
awareness alone is an insufficient solution. Don1e tic \ iolence also nega tJ\ ely co-relates \\ ith
development of the children of the hou sehold (Edleson, 1999). These chddren sutTer fro1n
different social and ernotional problen1s such n~ . aggre~~ l\ e belun 10 r . dept c ion, arT'<iet).
decreased social con1petence, and ditnini shed ncadetnic perfon11ancc ( Fantu?zo & Mohr.
1999).

28

An
Ban g ladc ~ h

ct1on .\tel co nducted t1 \ tu ch- on ....l!.e nd eJed 'tnlcncc 111 edu ca tion 111

GO

I 01 thclt ~ tUcl). I c pond en ts we re "elected f I 0111 cld<llc\cCnt ho\ ~. gi II ~. teachers.

parents, and Cl\ II SOC iet; g ~tn.lp

The rincltng" o f the \lUd) "hP\\ ed that X6 pClCC nt of ri rl s

face h,u a ~ n1ent on the \vay to . c ho<) I. and 97 percent of hovs <Hilni ttcd t hal they eve-tease
girb on the \\ cl) to chon ! Sc\CtH) three pc1ccnt of the P<llcnts s,nd th clt due to C\C ·tcasi ng
the) "'topped the "choohng of thcu daughters ( Karin1. _ oo~)
The plC\al cnce of dO\\ I) clnd d0\\1)-Iclated \IOicnce such d~ aud lh JO\\IJl!:!, (llld
··ren1u1I C1de.. ( Rc,ldc and '\ <)lin. 200 . p 21) arc' cry high in B<tngladesh. 1\ ccording to the
2013 annual report of the lllunan nght'- organ11ation ·ouhikar' on hun1a1111ght~ \ J olatlo n ~ In

Banglade
h
....

•

In 2013. Odhikar reco rd ed that 4 16 fcn1ak"' ''ere \UhJcctcd to dowry violence Of
the ,c fc 1n alc~. 430 \\ere\\ on1en and I"< '' e1c unde1 at!ed hndcl.\. It ha' been alleged
that atnont! the 430 '' ornen \ tct1n1 154 \\en! k.tlled hcc:au sc of d<nvrv.
- 261 \\ c1e
abu ed In 'anou. ''a\~ for dO\\ r'r dcn1ancl~ and 15 \\ on1en co1n tn itted \UJcJdc due to
dov.'ry related \ iolencc An1ong the 1x under aged bnde~. Jour \\ ere ktll ed and two
C0111111ltted uicldC becau e or dO\\ ry. Fut1hcnnore. dullng the dO\\ I') \ IOience a 40day old baby g1rl \\a~ killed b; her father and one fi \ e- ) car old girl \\as phy \I call y
abu cd along\\ 1th th e dO\\T)' 'tctun. On the other hand. one n1a lc rclati\ e \\a~ killed
and l\\ o \vere phy icall y abused for not gtvJng do\\ ry f urthennot c, one 'WOtn an
relattve \\a killed. another wa<; phy Jcally abused and one comn11ttccl <;uicidc 111
humiliation for not gt\ tng dO\\ ry ( p. 1? 2)
'-'

J

J

Econon1ic forms of structural violence against \VOincn include l c~s pa y for cq uttable
Vvork, lack of recognition and sanction for their \\ ork (of\\ h1ch roughl y 50%>of\\ on1cn are
engaged in worldwide), and labor 1narket discritnination (Wanng, 1988 ). According to 2005
report of the Planning Con1n11 ion of Bangladesh, 'Women constitute aln1ost 20 percent of
the paid agricultural labor force, but arc paid 30 per cent less than tnen do1ng the san1 c V\ ork.
In non-agricultural ectors, \\IOinen constitute 22 per cent of prlld \\ ork '' hilc recen 1ng less
than half of what is paid to n1en. Be it noted however that public servants nrc the onl y one

29

\\ ho rcccl\ c equa l ''age~ ( p 22) .. F0r one 1n c i d1t '' nn1en '' ho ca rn a ''age. ~nn1co n c c I~c
decide hO\\' that'' age'' 111 he ~pent

1orc tlwn t\\ o 111 fj, c dec1cle '' tth ~ntncnne c l ~c. ~uch

ac; their hu~band .. ('.. IP R I. 200') a~ cllcd Ill l ~I

r I . 11. d p 1) \ ccotdtng to l l\ IC I·J·

(2010) the nutnttOncll ~tatu~ or\V0111Cil 1'. \CJ\ poor in Bclngladcsh. \Vhich ~ ~ c lo ~cly related to

the lnaternal health or\\0111en The lnatel1l(ll 111011Cllit) tate i~ ~ tJII ht gh a~ 120 \\O lllCil dH.! per
I 00000 II\ e hu1h\ 111 Bangladc\h (p I).

Indl\tdual\ (.1nd \OCiet) both \~.lluc n1cn ~task pcrfonnancc. In contrast. \\ornen's
'' ork is thought ca~) and k~~ 'aluahle Th( Pu1~UIIl lila\ of Hon1c.11 111 the Jfrnld ~ hO\\ eel

that .. \\ OnlCI1 ~pend lllUCh nlOfC of their tin1c than ll1Cn in infoi'Jll<ll. llllpaid. and household
productton \\ O r~ . \1 ost of n1cn· <\ total \\Or~ t1n1c I\ paid. n1o .. t of\\onlen·s is not 0\crall.
v. on1en · ~ \\ ork n1orc hour~ cac h da) than men. rcc;tle'.c; and per Ionn a !.!I cater \art ety o f

\\ Ork·· ( eager. 2009. p. 70) L ~ uall) daughter~ help thctr mothcrc; tn hou~chold ta~k<; Aclato
Ct a I. ( 2000) found that \\ OlllCn. \\ ork. load lllC rcac;ec; If' the\ '.end theIr l h Jldrcn to c;c hoo I.
~

Mother alo ha c to spend C:\.t ra h ou r~ for t, upcrvi c; ing children' <; school \NOrk (a~ cited 111
Molyneux . 200 ) I ha\·e not tdentlficd any ~tudtes \\ h1ch exan11ne \\. ho \\Ill take ca re or the
children·~ household education and care before implen1enting thc~e ahcnc-tnenlloned

projects. T hus, increa ed pressure i put on the already overburdened n1others of households
Studies on the Mexican and Ecuadonan progran1s she)\\ cd that for col lecting the bttnonthly stipend money. recipient tn others have to tra\cllong d1<;tance to the collection potnt
and have to stand in the queue there to collect the cas h (Figure 2.1 is an exan1plc) which ts

30

~-

Figu r~ 2.1 \1 other.., l1r~ \\aiting und~r the sun fnr rccei \ ing stipend nHlll C) in Ban g lad ~ h

ourlL'

Prothom \ lo . .lui~ l.:.l. 20 13. p. .3 .

usual! J tt n1 e co nsun1 ing and patn ~taking ~ on1e t t n1e the; ha\ e to ~ r e n d th e \\ hole da} Jot
CO lJectt l1 t! mone .\ at the CO~l 0 f the n da\. . " \\ ork. ~ 0 n1e 0 f the n1 ha \ e to \\ <.ll K the \\ ho Jc \\a\.
~

to and fron1 collecti on point a" the: are unahle to affo rd transpo rtation co~t ( \ 1ol: ne u\..
200 8).
G <.) \ ernn1 ental poli cies and ·de\ elopn1ent' projech h: n1ultinatio nal co rp o ra ti o n ~ are

also potential sources of tructural \ iolencc aga 111 ~ t \\ OnH:n S u h ~ t ~t e n cc l ~1rn1 ing ts a
cotnn1on prac ti ce for 'A On1en all O\ er the \\ orld . t\lthough suho.., istence fa rn11 ng doe5 not n1 ak. e
n1onetar; proJit. it produces ~O nle rood to cat for the \\ 0111Cll and her children . But th e \\ orl d
Bank find ~ that expediting e'\port grO\\th through o.., tructural a dju ~ ttn c nt poltcies ( ~ \P ") to.., the
onl; 'AU ) to itnpro\e th ese \\Ol11cn 'o.., li\c ~ ('A'arin g. 19RR ) f\1a ; urana & t\1 cKa; (200 1) clat nl
that '"these "unproducti\ e·· \\Oil1Cn and their children are drt\en ofT the land to tn ak.c roo n1
for the new nHtl tinat tonal corporations and expanding n1 ono-crop plant a ti o n ~ . I he \\ Onlcn
and the ir f'an1i lies then tn igratc to urban areas \\ here the; contrihutc to gr<.)\\ tn g

Ut1CtnplO) I11COt and help fill the pool o( chCclp lt1b0r fron1 \\hJLh the nnJiltllaltOllc\1\ dtcl\\ .. (p
5) La rgo;a-Ma/a ( 1995) ai\O lllCilllOll'-1 h()\\ ' dc\clopnll'lll. pl <H! ranl~ ncgali\Ciy arrcct the

\\O tncn , he clai n1\ that ~tncc the~ \P\ Inlpletncntcd in Phdiiine. C'. port p1ocessin g and
touri, 111 becatnc the don1tndnt eco non1i c ac ti\ it tc\ \\ on1 cn '' ere tthu"cd as .. a source <)r
chea p. doc II e Ia hor and \C'\ ua I comnH)d tllC '-~ •• in this I<1 1111 o I dcvc Iop tn cnt ( I <ll l!.O/H- Mella.
1995. p 61)

Ge nd er !\lain tr c~unin g and

n1pO\\ Crn1 cnt

cotnm ittcd to e'\ccute '' on1cn·"' n ghh dnd cqua I it: and ho\\ l~tr the: dctnon\tt,llcd thc '-lc t (.ka ~
at the 1n1p lcn1cntatton lc\ cl L'. ua II; . gendet ha ~e de\ c Iopn1cnt prog t Hill \ refct to those
p rogran1~ \\ hich tncorporcllc the pnnctpk"' of gendct equality into thcll progran1 d e~ 1 g n .

Molyneux and Thotn on (20 ll) go further b; \ tat1ng th at ge nder on en ted progran1 <., <., hould
feature the follo\\ ing:
that train tng and rc'lourc e<., are a I loca ted to 'l trcngthen \\ otnen ·"' ca pahtlt t tc s: the
soc tal and eco non11c en1pO\\ cnnent of\\ on1cn 1 ~ explicit 1n the goa l of the
progran11ncs: they include farnily-friendl~ policie that acknO\\ led ge \\Omen's role in
ca rcgi' ing but also promote alternatt\ e chtld -ca re atTangetncnh. they a1n1 to
transfo1111 gender relations by encouraging greater equal1 ty and, \t\ here app rop n atc,
involve n1cn in the activ itie of the progra1nn1cs Finally. pa11icipant ~ h o uld hcl\ c
voice in the progran1 rnes· dc ~ ign, in1pletnentat1on and c\aluatton (p. 199).
Many of the proponents or CCTs strongly uppo rt trans rcning ca~h directly to~ Otnen
and argue th at it helps to elevate wo tnen · s cconon1ic condition and the ir hou \ehold
bargaining power and a] 0 C111p0\\ cr then1 by enhanci ng the capability of ~ pcnd1n g 111011C)
(Barrientos & DeJong, 2004. Raw lings. 2004 ). Bendcrl y (20 11 ) cross-c'<atnincs the
shortcotnings o f the above n1enti oned clai rn by stating that ·'the ~ t ipenli'-1 do ge neral I;
increase \\ 0111Cn. ~ do tn e~ tt c p urc h a~ ing PO\\ cr. but \\ ithout a ltc ring the rundan1cnta I ba\C'-1 0 r
32

thc1r ocial and cconon11c c., uh (\en Jcncc rhu s the~ l,tnnot1nu c,l"c \\OJncn· ~.., eq ua lIt) or
autonotn:y. '' h1 ch cnt1 c '1C\\ a<; C\\Cntwl to t1 uc cn1po\\ cnn cnt rathct than the fcelu1g 01
appcara ll CC 0 f Clll j10\\ enncnl .. ( p 3)
\l ol~ n cu \. (200R) <.kfi ncc., ctnpO\\ Ctn1cnt a~

the ,1cqui sitinn n f cclpabdttics that lw vc

the potent tal to <l\\1\t '' on1cn 111 ach1c' tn g. nutonon1~ (lega l and matc1 i<ll). cqu <lltt y (~ocw l and
pc r~onal. le ~talU\ clt1d

cl r. l"\ lCCill ) and \nice and lt1flUellLC (over dcciS1011\ th<ll affect th l: ll

li\ ec..) .. (p 45). Fcn1tlll\h LI<Itnl thdt \VOn1cn arc included in CC T p t ojec t ~ hac..ecl on th e
.. deep!} COil \C n att\ C notl onc.. of \\ Olll,lllhood .. (

O rll\\aiJ. (J Jdcon &

"'dso n. 1 00 X. p. 1 )

\\ on1cn arc not thought 0f de..'' ot k.c1" 0 1 Li lt/ e n ~ or a n1 crnhl:1 or the c..ociety. rat her the
Cnteti a ('or thetr 111clUS1011 111 the ('HOj eC t ~ We1C arc cl\ th e tnother of the futUI C genet alJ011
Mol:ncu\. (2009) acknO\\kdgc .. hO\\C\er. 111 rncct 1ng ch ildren·" ncedc., h: depending upon
and reinforcing a 111atemal n1 odel of ca re and household rcc.,pon\ thdtt y. th e~c PI ogt atn~ r \ IL]
n1i ght fall . hot1 of their cla1n1 to ctn pO\\ er \\Otnen" (ac., ci ted tn Bender!: . 20 II . page. 2).
Tabbu h (20 10) found that_ to include in a CCT progra n1 in Mextco the v. on1 an ha<; to be a
·good mother· . Project \\ere ori ented to deal '' ith inter-generational po\ ct1y and no
initiative

'A

ere taken for th e mother\· hun1 an capital rormu lation to en hance their soc io-

econorni c co nditi on. This j a glaring exa tnple ofh O\\ cc·J.\have been designed usin g
existing socially-a cribed gender roles. Rayner and ChO\\ dhury (2004 ) claun that the F, , AP
has received co111munity support in Bangladesh. incc it \\ as hcl! c\ eel by the con1n1unity that
the project pro1notcs wo tncn as better wives and n1othcrs, but it docs not address the1r
individual ernpowennent (as cited in Schun11aan. 2009, p. 5 11)

33

II ou chold Po" cr Reia tion
'N on1 cn' cconon1 tc and ~octn l conJttion<; ate the n1t.t1n o b~taLic rnr rat\IIH!.... thci t
\ o1ce agc11 n~t n1en Pat i iaH.: h; enlpO\\'Ct ~ nH:~ n n1 on~ than \von1cn and i l 1~ c 111 bedded 1n the
~OC I Cl) 0

r Banglclck\h ( Khdtll n .

Ol"ll\\ cl L 1 009). In Bdnt!l ndcsh. 111en recci \ e j10\\ et.

po~t tion. and prl\dcgc clue to C\.t\llng gcndct dlfretcntt ,ltt on in snuct\. \\Olllcn u ~ ua l l y ha\ C

lcs. control or re"'ourcc" I hcorctt c,11ly. ir rncn and'' orncn ha' e shared ohJectt ves and equal
bargatntng PO\\ CI. CO I1\tructl\ c hOU\Ch<'11d decisions can he C'. j1CL:tcd. I r unequal hctrgm ntng
po\.\1 er and sk d Is pertmn~ bet\\ ecn then1 the 1C\U It \Vi II he u nduu btcd I y cldngcrou ~ In
tradtttonal octette\. n1cn lul\ c n1ore bat gai nin g and clccision rnaking power reg<ucltng any
tssuc

111\ oh tng pO\\ cr rc ld tton"' at the fatnd)

I C\ el ( Kh<1tun <.\: Cnrn\vcl L 2009) \\'hercas

·· CT progra rn pro\ ide a 11C\\ ourcc of 111lH1C) that J) controlkJ h: \von1en. they ca n up ~c t
authont) relationshtp

111 patnarchal hou

ehold . par k1ng co nfl1 ct bet\\ ec n pou ~c~ and

e~ace rba ti ng dornc<;,tic \ i o l~nce·· (~1 o l)neu\.. 2006). I:,ptno ~a (2006) found ~tro n g co-

relation bct\veen delivering rc ourcc~ to won1cn and in c rea ~c rn \ rolcncc agatn~t the1n (a~
cited 1n Molyneux. 200 ) It 1 reported in ~c'<.i co that \\ on1cn fron1 tndtgenou~ co rnmuntttcs
face violent demand by their hu band for the recei\ cd ca h (Rl\ era et al '005 and
Maldonado ct al. 2005 cited in Mo lyneux. 200 ).
Fetn ini t scholar strongly oppo e the notion of transfcntng ca~h dtrcctly to\\ on1cn
will auton1atically enhance their etnpowerrncnt and cla itn that only dclt\ cring ca~ h to\\ otnen
docs not guarantee the money pendin g power (E p in o~a. 2007 ci ted in Tab bush, 201 0).
"'Who· the boss at hon1c afte r recei\ ing the Condi tional Ca h 1ran fe r~? .. (Ca rnacho &
Rodriguez, 20 12, p. I ) is di fTi cuJt qu estion to answer without an cxtensi\ e tudy on the
household spending power. In Bangladesh, I have no t identifi ed any studic undertaken on

34

hou.. ehold pcnd1ng p O\\ et bcfot e ttnplctnenting th e abtn e n1ent1oned t\\ o p1 o1cc t~ So.
,, on1cn en1p0'' cnn ent ...,,n1pl y tht nu ~ h t1 ,lJ,, f ct ring ca'h to thc1n r cn1tt in' qu c~ t ton,l hI c.

Enrollrncnt a nd

ccc

to Edu ca ti on

The \\'oriel Bank (200Xa) ICLogni;e' thc'c CC T p1 0JCL tS as tnil c,tonc..., fnt h1111g1ng

HO\\C\Cf. The

on,o11iun1 fo1 Rc,Cd iLh on Educationa l \ Lccss. Transitic ns an d l qu1ty

[CRF .'\ TE] 1 put lighh on the C011LCpt

or (\LU.!\\ to education in Banglctd cc..;h. L '-,Ucl ll y. in

Bangladesh, acces~ to eductttion 1ncan..., ph) \lUll access to ...,chon! and the ace e...,..., to
n1 ean ingfull ca rnin g is O\ erl oo"ed (ll o...,...,all1 & /cnl~n. 20 10) \ . ., ··1t dncc; not ~Imply n1can
that chtldren mu t be 111 chool - ''hat happcnc; tn the ...,<.hool is tnlportant too .. (I Jo...,...,a tn &
Zeitl yn. 20 10, p. 1) :Vlo t o f the p o hctc~ unplcn1c nted for the educatio n oJ children 111
Banglade h, \.\ere not foc u ~cd to the actuallearntng c;tt atcg1c..., 1athct the polic1ec; \\ e1e a1n1ed
at rneeting the family needc; 1n tern1 of rood or c..a h ....., he prcu...,c l) pe..., of ...,up port needed
for poor children at ...,c hool are nei ther identified nor pro\ ided .. ( ll o...,...,ain & / citl)n . 20 I 0. p.
1). According to Lewin (2007) accc

to educati on i useless unti l it re...,ults m:

1. Secure enrol n1ent and regul ar attendance:
2. Progres ion through grade at approp riate age...,.
3. Meaningfullean11ng vvhich ha~ utility.
4. Reasonabl e chance of tran ition to lower secondary gra d e~ . c pec 1all y \\here th c~e
are \V Ithin the ba ic education cyc le.
5. More rather than less equitabl e opportuniti es to lea n1 for children from poorer
households, especia II y girls, wi th lc \ nri a ti on tn qua It ty bet'' ccn ~c ho ob ( p ? I )

···1he Con~ot tium for I ducat tonal Acce~\, Tt an\tlton~ ,md Lqutl} (C RI \ 1[} '" a Rc-..earc h Programme
Con<,ottt um ~.o,up p o rted by the UK Depart ment fot lnternatJOnal De' dopmcnt (Df ID) lt~.o, puq1o"e ,.., to
undertake rc~carch de\tgncd to tmpro'c acce"" to ba-..ic cducatton 111 deH~Ioptng countne~.o, It -..eck-.. to .lLhH~\C
thtc;; thtough gcncratmg ne\>\ kmn\ ledge and encolltagtng th appltc.lt ton thwugh cl'klli\C communtLJltLm and
dtc;;~em t natiOn to nati onal and tntcrnat to nal development age nctc\, ntttt ondl g<.n emmL'I1t\, cductttiOn <llld
development pt ofe"~ i o nal l\, non-government orga ni !'>ation.., and othct tntcn..'\ICJ stakcholdet.., .. ( Ilo-..-...un ~ ·
/ cttl yn.20 10,p t)
10

35

.\~adullah and Chaudhur) (!009) found thnt the F

so cia I proh lctn b: genera t 111 g a · rc\ cr~c gender ga p·

11

S \P pr ojec t ha~ ueatcd anothct

1n ~c hc)o I c nrolltnent.

I helle\ c thdt C\ cllUclting the "-LH.:ce~~o, o f r . ~ \P ,lnd PI ~p only on the hct ~ i s o r

quanlltatt\ e targ.eh (enrollrncnt and ptt ~ tclle!') 1 ~ -.. 11nph a rhetorical nH)\' C designed h\ \\ B
and U DP to rctnforce th ett clmn1 '"' to '-tUpp()tl thc tt pt e~o,u thed pt ogt a n1 ~ Although the

guarantee ht gh-quclltt) cdLJCcl tt C) t1 al ac ht e\ Ctne nh rhese pt ojcClS igno t e the ll1 0S t llllportant
a~pect that ts the quallt; of educa tt on (

c hunnann. 2009) I he s uh~tandnrd cu t tt culun1 of

prnnar: educatton ka\e ~ one rn e\Ct) three lhtldrcn ·non-lttcttt tc· o r ·~o,cnli-litcratc eve n a ft ct
(j, e }Car ~c hoo lin g ( ..\ ad. 2009)

of Bangladesh for f~Hitn g to pro\ Ide any technical kno'' ledge 01 ltfc-~ktll~ c:1 nd they a l ~o
clatn'l that the S)StC111 1 unabl e to enhance the capah tltt y or gt t l'-t for etn pl oyrncn t ( Raynot &
Cho\vdhury. 2004 c tted tn chun11aa n. 2009. p 513)
Th e nun1ber ba e evaluation tgnorcs the ri ght~ based ~~~ucs ~ uc h as cclucatto n fo r
girls· ca pabllitic cnhancctncnt. itnproYeincnt ofth c qualit} of ltf c. 0 1 d oc~ not ach ocatc
education i the constitutional right of thee' cry ci tucn of B ang l adc~ h Rather. gi rl s arc
consid ered as the rneans in achie\ tng developtnent goa ls and as the ~o urce of th e 1nfonnal
~ orkforcc and the n1othcr~ of the future generation ~ (

chunnaan. 2009. p 513} Marco\ cr.

the data collection process of the CCT progran1s of Bang lad c~ h \\ere hi ghl y contested and

11

"In term" of enrolment "tatu'-. and year'-. of "'chool1ng completed, boy" are found to lc.1g beh1nd g11l..., 111 the rural
a'-. well as 111 the urbcm area" ( .'\~adullah & Chaudhur) . 2009, p I) ll O\\C\el the 011g1nal prog1,1m goal \\,1" to
ach1cve gendet panty thmugh 1ncrca..,1ng the enrollment of !!.Ill" 111 o..;chool I he fault\ de"l!!.lllnc. of the qronl,\111
t
b
affected the bo) s · ~c hoo lmg A.., they we1 c not gettmg '-ttl pend mone). the) kit dcp1 1\l'U and hl·~ ,1mc
dl'-tJntcrcstcd 111 go1ng to "chool1n turn generated rc\el"e gcnde1 gc.1p 111 h1gh "chool enJollmcnt 111 Bangi,Hic"h
(Asadullah & Chaudhu1y, 2009 )
~

36

~

~

contro\ crstal 1s~uc a"' 1t 1. cIa uned h) 111 an] t c~Ccl rc hc1 that the e n1 o lltncnt tlJHI pa ~"' fi gu 1 c~
\\ere n1an1puldt cd ell the c;;c hooll c\cl (Rcl)I1C J c C IH.nvdhur). 1 004) \ "' Po\\CI (2001) cl cllll1~
lnternatronal tie\ elnpJncnl tH!CilLIC"' in\ cnt. construct and nan1c ·pnoJ· unmt JJ C~.
place~ ,111d peo ple"' \\ C hcl\ C "'CCil th at the picllll C nl pl ogress held hy "'uch dgenC ICS is
often an 1nco n1pl etc c1nd \CJ\ partial one duel<) the fragditv o f th c11 dttta co llection
p1 occdurcs ,lJH.l thc11 dJ"'tclllLC fr ) Jl) C\ cnt ~ ·pn the grnund ( p 41 )

De' elopn1ent-fcd P o liti c~

re~o urce~ CaS Jl): accc"'"'lhlc to the pOOl

\!though one () { the llldln ohjeclJ\e"' of the ('('r

progran1S I ~ to diiC\ Idle llltCJ-gcnCicll1 011dl ptncrt):. Kh cl ndk cJ. Pitt dlld r uwa ( 1 001) found
that F .. AP progran1 d 1~propont oncltcl): hcnc ti ti ng the Iand-ri ch fan1 iIics in Bangladesh Due
to the fault): target n1 ccha n1~n1 and poor dc~1gning. th1"' donor s upported costly pt ogl(un
•

railed to reach the poo r fatndJe .
While several of the ad\ crsc e lTect~ of th e large~t C'C I progratn 111 Bra/l l ha\c been
di cu ~ed by d1 fferent researc her~. 1ts polttt cal d 1n1cns1 on"' reg<u ell ng the Bol \a Fann I! a

12

ha\ e large ly go ne untouched ... The~e include, for exa n1ple, the una~harned u~e of Bol"'a
Familia for elec toral purp o~e , the ~prea d of cli cnteli. n1 and patronage, an d the grov~ tng
dependence of Brazil' s poo r on incotne tran ~fe rc;, rather than producti\ c en1plo) n1ent"( Hall.

20 12, p. l ). The Bolsa Fan1ilia ·s in\ olvcmcnt ha c., becon1 c a penn anent. n1ain c;, trean1 ~oc i a l
policy 1n Brazil rather th an a hort-tcnn interventi on to address urgent hun1 anitari an issues
The Bolsa Fan11/ia has con sol ida ted pov\ er by pro\ iding citizens wi th short ten11 solut1ons fo r
their probl en1 ~ via stipend depend ent project rath er than long tenn productt\ c and

1

Bol.w Fam ilw ('famtl y st1pend ' ) ts th e world'<.; lat ge~ t cond1t1onal cash tran "ifer pt ogrmn. llall (2012) -.,t,\tl'...,

that the program include..., app!O'<Imately 11 mtllron fa mtl1 c..,, touche..., 50 rmllron pL'oplc. about one-quarter l )f
Bra11 l' "i total populatron (p 3).

37

sustainable anangcrncnt to aile\ tate the ~0 un -cco non1t c co ndttton of the people It\ tng in
distrc

(ll all. 2012)
One of the prllnC obJCCll\ c~ of r ~. \P · ~ t o dcld) the ,\gc at 111dll'ia ge for gi d~ /\ \\r'B

(2002a) report cl,un1~ that the pr0grarn ha ~ 'c1) quick ,t ncl not iccahlc influ ence on dela} tng
111arriagc a the report "'tate"' .. fhc 0\CraJJ propor1i 011 o ! lcmak(., \\hO matn cd dcllincd frorn
29° 0 in 1992 and 14(Yo 111 199') (fot I' 15 ) CC:ll '-,old girls) and rrorn 1 2° 0 to 64°/cl (for 16 I<)
)Cars gtrb) (the "'tlld) de(,tg n and '0ll rLC orclaLJ not Lltcd)'' (a s utcd in \LhUri11C.ll1ll. 2009. p
5 I 3). F tnd1 ng arc not rc nee ted 1n the recent 1cpon"' n f Bangl<tdc~ h Dcmngrnph tc and I I ca lth

un e) .. an1ong '' on1cn aged 20 to 24. thct c he\ ~ been c1 negl igthlc 1nu ca~c in the 1ncd ian age
at n1a1Tiagc. fron1 16 )ear~ 111 200-+ to 16-+ 111 2007 and 16 6 111 20 II"( a(., Lt tcd 111 PronH>lln g
Child Right to End Child Po' et1} [Plan]. 2013. p 4 ).
Controlling population gro'' th 1n Bangladc"'h \\a~ al"'o arnong the ma_1or obj ecti ves of
the FSSAP project The hypo the ts \\as that del a) tng the marnage age for gir l ~\\ ould
automatically contribute in controlling the population growth rate of Bangladesh. One o f the
main funding agcncie of thi project \Va the V\' orld Bank. 1 hough on the \\' orld Bank ·"'
official website (a Figure 2.2 illu. trate ). "'c can sec th at dunng the yea rs th e FS AP project
was impletnented, the percentage of annual population g r O\\ th rate of Bangladc~ h began to
decrease slightly until 2008 at which point it began to ri se again Thus. the goa l of controlling
population growth is unsuccc sful.

38

2.5

0~

2

·-....c

-.....~ 1.5
0

lo.,

et

c
·.-:;
0

-

1

~

~

0.
0
Q..

05

0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

rigure 2 2 .\ nnual Poptll,ltton GtO\\ th Rate c of Bangladesh ( 199 "~() 14)
~ource (omptkd b) f\1 d \ bdur Rd;.,hrd from\\ orld De\C:Ioprnent lndicatms (\VB, 2014)
htto data.\\ orldbttnk.on.!

The \\'orld Bank ga\ e the 111011e) for the r . A. r pl OJCL t d~ (I . Ue\ e Iopmen t L red Jt'
(\VB, 2002b) to the go\ ernn1 ent of Banglade h but it i ~ hemg UJ'-Ihur~ed a~ ·free rn one; · to
the bencficlarie . The problern \\ tth thi practice )~ that thl~ strategy e'\te nd ~ the burden or
ex ten1al debt of Banglade h

o such effec tl\ e 1nitiati\ e'-1 have hecn taken hy the g<)\ crn1n ent

of Banglade h that ca n help to pay thi deb t back to \VB through 1nea ntngful tn\ cstn1 ents. By
focu in g the progran1 on gi rl ~· ca pabi Iit; en hance1nent through 1ncorporat ing Iife c; k Ill s
(financial management. agricultural techn1quc ) 111 th e ~cco ndar; school curnculun1 \\ ould
have enabled girls to get inco1ne-ca n1ing opportunities ( chunnaan, 2009 ). Another
concerning issue rega rdin g these projects is the hi gh adn1ini strati\ c and operational costs
(See WB 2006 report fo r details of the ad tninistrati\ c costs of the e proj ec ts ).
Though FSSAP and PESP pro grmn ~ have been hi ghl y lauded by the go\ crnn1 ent of
Bangladesh and found cndor~cmcnt fro rn the international donor agencies. The ad\ er-.,e
in1pacts of th c~c program s on the beneficiaries ha\ c been \ o luntaril~ hidden rron1 the ·cple or
39

successes· l ht~ lttctatut e rc\ te\\ ptotnptcd tne to utti call ] C'\cl tntnc th e llllpcH.; tl;) of the
P and Pf . . P pt n grarn ~ on the henc fi cicll) ' ' on1cn.

Educati on-ba,ed Conditional Ca ~ h Tran,fcr Prognun ' for \ Vo rncn '' Empcnvc rrn cnt
and Dc, cloprncnt in Ba ngladc h

relying on cash (J\,1or"hed. 2009) \tno ng th en1. PI <) P and ~ ~~ \P \Vcre th e pt ogtan1" whi ch
had selec ted bcne fill an c" on th e ha~'" o f t!l: tH..J~: t l\n d \ \ I: JC on cnt cd to \\O tnc n's dcvc lopn1cnt.
tnce the Independ ence o [ Bcl ngldde"h. J.he gt)\ ermnc nt cnclc tcd a nlllnhct or Ia\\ ~ in
ord er to prO\ Ide qualtt) prunar) edu Lation . O lll C notd hlc Ia\\ " ell c the p, llllat) ~c h oo l J\ Lt
( 1974 ). the Pnn1 ar) I:.ducallon Act ( 19 I ): and the Co tn pu l"o ry Pritnary Educat ion ~c t
( 1990) The Pr11nar1 , chool . ct of 1974 pro' i~ t o n ed Cree pri n1<1r) ed uca tion lor al l and

pri1nary . choo l teachtng \Nas tn adc a go' crnment JOb A "choo l hy ~c ho o l ha"ed managcn1 cnt
sy tern tn prin1ary sc hool and a pro\ 1 10 11 for a chool Managcn1cnt con1tn tttec (S MC ) were
introduced by the Pnn1ary Education Act of 198 1 The Con1pul<:.,ory Pnrnary f-Jduca ti on Ac t
of 1990 wa fonnu lated in order to tnateri ali ze th e co n ~ lltu tio n a l pro\ t\10n for free. un1 ver"al
and cotn pul ory educa ti on. The 1990 ac t ga\ e the GOB the au thority to initiate effec ti \ c
Ineasurcs for the in1plctnentation of the Con1pulsory Prin1ary Edu cation (CPE) Act (A\ad.
2009).

In 1993, in suppo11 o f uni versa I pri n1ary education. the GOB launched the Food for
Ed ucati on (FFE) prograJn to Increase the nun1ber or pri inary ~c hool go tng children rron1
landless and ultra-poor fa n1ilics. The FFF provided a free n1on thl y ration o f rood gratn" to the
poor fan1i lies or the pritnary school going chil dren 111 rural areas ( htncd ·
40

re nd ~-

Kucnntn g. 2003) 1 he prog1atn \\a' 1c~ tru c tu1 cd and 1cnarncd ""' th e P11t11Cll) I· duca t ron
Upend PrOJ CCl (P[· P) (, ee Table 1. 1) in 2002. Ill OldCl to cl\ Old th e co rnplrcn tJ On\ o r rood
clt ~ tn button

The a 1111~ 0 r the PEsp \\ etc to I lll.l C<l\C the en J'() llncnt. clllcnd ancc. J11 ogrC\1.\IOll.

and pcrrorn1ance of prt111 Cll} \Ch(lO I-aged c.hrldr en rrorn poor l~llnilics thr nughn ut Bangl<tdc\h
by pro\ tdtng ca"'h pa) n1enh to tar geteel hou~ehnlcl~ I he ca~ h was tran~le 11 cd to the n1 oth cr~
o f the children '' tth the d\~Un1pllon thttt the ~pending ctt pdhtlrty will cnh<tncc thcu
crnpO\\ crn1 ent '' tthrn the hou,ehtlld (TtclJen. 2001)

41

,

Prograrn
Natne

PESP

fVlaj. or Objectives
of
the Program
I. Increasing the
nwnber of children
into prirnar) school
fron1 poorfan1il)
2. Increasing

attendance to and
reducing dropout rrotn
the pritnar) sc hool
3. In creasing the rate
of con1pleti on of the
pritnar:J education
C)C ie
'-

4. Controlling child
labor and reducing.....
poverl:J
'-'

5. In creasing the
qua I it) of p r i 111 a r)
I education

Adtninistration/Financiers
Deparimcnt or
Primarv, Education.
Ministr·,.. of
Education
Financed bv GoB.
"

Value or Benefit

\nnual Costs and
I
"J un1 ber or Bene fie iarics
---+-I . Dc ~ ti lute \\I o n1an head ed a. f k.. I 00 (o ne
U~$1 00 n1illi on:
ran1 i 1\.
student
O\er 53 tnillion
., ( desti lute rnean\
fan1tl))
\\ idO\\ cd. separated fron1
henelictancs per
I
hu sband and d i\ orced)
ann un1
b l k. 125 ( n1 orc
'\Jn1tl1t\tratne co\h
2. Principal occ up"tllon or
than
doout 5° o o f
the hou ~e h o ld head i '-~ da ,\one ~tuJenl
progran1 costs but do not
labor.
lan1th)
include
,
Bene li l Ll111U 1tiona I aJtnllll\lralt\ C C.O\l~ of
3. I· atn i h. 0 rIO\\ 111C l>I11C
0 11
ll)\\er k\el~ or
pro re\\ iona I<) ( \ LIC h (,1"
n1ecllnob
governn1cnt.
.....
li\htng. po tt~r) .
allenlt.tnL c '"1nJ
black.~tnithing. \\Cavmg~
c \a nlttWlt l) n
and cohhling)
critena
.f. l ,tnJk"~ or h(HJ\eh o ld"
( ~.hh i~ hetrH!.....
that 0 \\11 0.50 c.tere" ol htnd tr~.1n" Ierred
(nlc.lrgtnalor \h~.tre ­
t o hcncliu~.nte"
croppcr) .
t!Uardt(.lll\
....
bank. acc ount\
I throue.h
....
bank."
I argeting Criteria

I
I

I

Table I I _PES P at a ...!!.lance
5oun.:e \\ orld Bank. 2006. P -l6

42

'ccond ary education in Bcl nglade'-.h COI1 \ l\l\ of \Ch()O IIll g rron1 cia\\ gtaclc \ ' ]to
cla ~ grade X . cco nd dr) cclucatton pt ovide' the Itnk bet\\ cen the ptttn<H) cl ncl h1 ghe1
cducat ton 111 Bangladc'h T he '\on Crrn ct nn1cnt Ot ganizat io n ( ~ CrO ). Banglade\h
1\s, oc wtt on for C'on1n1untt ) l ductlt ton ( B \ Cl ). 1nttwtcd the Fetnalc ~c h on ! <; tlpcnd

Progrmn ( F P) 111 19X2 at the loca l Je, cl ·r he pt ()gran1 g<uncd Jn,p n <ll lon f'rn1n dcn1 ng raph y

tn an·Jagc and ca rh chil d hecu 1ng ( chu rn1ann. 2009) Foll<nving the success of I ~ P . 111 I 994.
-.......

the F

J

.._

.....

AP ''"'JOtntl; '-.tarted b) the\\ odd Bc1nk dnd the ( ,OB fhc ptngtc\111 was also

supported fin anc tall ) h) \ cl riOU\ fo 1e1gn clgenc I C\ \ULh as the

11 I ted ~tel t e~

\ 1-!.Cll CY f"or

lnten1 ati onal Dc, elo p1ncnt (l' :\1 0). the \ \Ia Fnundation. and the 7\on\ cgian Agency fn1
Dcveloptnent Coopcratton (!\O RAD) Imlla lly. the progra tn \\<1\ JJn plcmen tcd 111 \elected
upaztl a ( uh-d 1 tn cts) and the gtrl ' fron1 the poorest fan111Ie<; \\ere tm get eel a\ hcncfi c1an e~
rhe 111ain objccti\ e~ o f F.

\P \\C r c to upl ift girl< ()CCondar) \t.hool cnrollnH:nt. rdent ion.

delay or tnarn age. reduce fc rtdlt}. and tncrca e C111plo;ahi1It) ( Schurn1ann. '009) Al l
second ary chools fro1n rural and non-tnetropoll tan area \\ere mcludcd 1n the proJect and
girls who enroll in grade 6 in a junior 1hi gh school were auto1n atical1y co n<;idcrcd eli gtblc for
the stipend. The stipend was awarded to all fetnale students 1f the fo lJ <)\v ing co nditions arc
rnet:

( i) th e girl stud ent n1ust attend at least 85 per cent of the classes tn acaden11 c 1ear.
(ii) they tnust obtain on a\ eragc 45 per cent n1ark s at the half yearl y annu al
exa mination: and
(iii) they 1nust ren1 ain uru11anied until pass ing th e S C (second ary sc hool ccrtt iica tc)
.
.
cxa m1 nat1ons.
Stud ents fulfillin g all three criteri a recet\ c stipends up to grade I 0. ttp cnd ~ CO\ er
full tuition and other related costs .. , the total stipend atnount rcceiv cd bein .....g
progressive <1 cross grades. fhe tuition part of the stipend i · patd direc t!; to the ~chonl
and the rest 0 r the Sll pend is paid direc t Iy to the fc n1alc pupil bene lie 1(\ r; ( \ ta a bank
account whi ch is opened und er her nan1e) (Asadull ah & Chaudhur). '009, p 1363)
43

Progran1
.....
Natne

Maj or
Objectives of
the Progran1
I. Increasing._
the number of
students in the
secondar;
sc hool

Adn1 in istratio n Financiers

~

FSSAP

2. 1ncreas in ._g
their prospect
as etnplo) ees
and of se lfe tn p Io )' tn ent

Ministn of Education
"'
Directorate of Secondar\..
and lligher
rducati on
.._
Financed b\. GoB.
USAID. and A ~ ia
Foundation. NORAD.
World Bank. ADB

I argeti ng Cri ten a

Value of Benefit

A II L111n1arried gi ri - G ~li pend . I k. 100 ( G6),
~ lu lknt ~ \lud;in g tn
J60((,7). 4 20((,8). 720
reco~n
1( CJ9<.'<: G I 0)
..... i;eJ
in ~lrt ull on at
~cco ndan..

le\ el

b I ree tu ition

L Book allo\\anLe
d I \.atninati on ke\
Bene li l cond it inni:tl nn
tneetttH!
.... altend'"tnLe .
C\.~lln tnatton itnd tl1itrriat!.C
....
cntena.

3. Controlling
under aoe
.
n1arnage
._
~

( c.l\h '" he tnt!.
... tran -...k rn:d

tu beneliL 1,1ne-... h,tnk
Table I 2 FS5 \P at a .._glance
Source \\ orld Bank 1 006. p 46

44

-

Annual Costs and '\un1ber
of Benefictane ~
l_ ~ $4 0 tntllion: O\C r

4 111 II I ton Benefi ctane~
' annuallv.. .
\dtn in t\lratl\e LO\l\ ~.1bout
18° o o f prognun co\l

Rc carch Quc~tion
l tntttally de\ eloped tll)' tc~eclr c h quc<\tlon~ tn 2011 "llllCJ <\Cl11C~tct '' hdc I \\<l~
conducttng a lttcraturc rc\ tC\\ on the (

I pr ogtan1 ac... ..111 intel\ en ti on for \\otnen's

' dc,elopmcnt ' for \\rrtin g a rc<;eatL h papet for the ··Rethinking dc,elopn1cntl!cngraphic<;
nghts-hascd approach to the anal~"'' of tnlcrnati onal de\ clopmc nt" Lo ur<;e at l J BC M~
the t. rc~carc h tntcJe~t. C'on(!Jtional Ca<\h Tra n ~lc r ' (C C T's). is hi gh ly influenced by tny
March 2013 \t ~ tt to Bcln g ldd c~h. th e cu n ent ~ Jtuati o n ofviokncc agai nst \\ Otn cn in
'-

'-

BanglacJc h a . . \\ell <.l '-~ O \ercrnpha ~ ' " on the BJn gl~.lcJ c...,h· s ( C I projects h: \\ orld Bank to
rnake thcn1 a~ rnod c l~ for rcpltca tton I gat hered lirsthand tnforn1 ati on on CC r progratn<) or
Bangladc h fron1 111) l\1arch. 2011 \t~tt to B a n g l ade~h I· xpenerH.. e fr on1 111)' Mm ch. 20 11
visit. n1y conceptual and co ntextu al fran1C\\ o rk ~ and ca rcful d11 ec tJ on f rnrn tn y th e~ t~
upen tsor also helped n1e to de tgn th e~c que tt o n ~

I. Do Conditi onal C a . . h Tran...,fer prog ran1 ~ contnbutc t o \\Omen·<; empo\\Crn1cnt
when u ing ex 1 ting gender relations in Ban g lad c~ h 0
2. Do ca h transfer progran1 exacerbate ~ truc tura l \ tolencc aga111st wo tnen'?

3. \\hat do ·de\ e lopn1ent ·. · cn1 po\\ crn1cnt · and · cducall on· n1can to the benefic iar)'
wotncn of the 'e project ?
4. Is Conditi onal Ca l)h Transfer )' et another · dcvc Iopn1ent truth· in the .. de\ c Iopn1en t
i nd u<, trv"?
~

45

C hapter T hree:

'l c th o d o l og~ and \lcth ods

The PUJVO ~c of rn y thesis re~c a rc h \\Cl~ to cntt c,tll y c'\arntnc the 1111paeh of the
•(Je \ eloprncnt' progrnn1

pro,cct on the II\ c~ or th o~c hctng ·de\ eloped · h~ I eLord mg

(aud 10 '' n lten) the11 cxpctt cncc wh de pat l iu p,Hi ng in thc"e projec ts \1\ 1c~c,tn. h \\ d~
gutdcd by a fcn1tnt~trn c thodolo g) ctpproaeh (\1ndg.e. Ra gh utdtn. kelton. \\' tilt~ c · W il liam~ .
1997). ln order to collec t d,lla fot 111) th e~ I ~. I c1nploycd qualit alt\ c 1escarch 1n e thocl ~ ( J I C~y,
20 10. Ktrb\.,

· \1cKcnna. l9 X9) diH.l tntcntC\\ Cd (Dunn . 20 10) thinccn n1othcrs of

beneficiary chtlclrcn or gir b of PI· P ttnd I .. A P prn, cc t~ withtn one tegton 1n l3 ang l adc~h J
abo rc\ Ie\\ cd rc~carc h n1cthod~ and publtd y cl\ ai lcJhlc lltcrc.ltLJJ c regarding CC I ~. f S~A P and

PE P progran1, 111 order to ha' e a broad unclc1~ta n cltn g. and rnunc 111) 1c~can. h proJec t
Guided by the seco ndary do c un1 e nt~. tny cx po ~u rc to the .. loLal 1--n O\\ ledge .. (1 ~coha r, 19XH .
. p. 439) through the IC\IIJJ/01110\ o f n1) pai1J L lpant ~. a~\\ cl] a~ 111) 0\VIl field \\'01 k expcr Jt;llCel.,,
helped n1e in doc un1enting the ·Ji ,ed c'\pcncncc~· ofthe \\ OI11Cn 111\ohcd in thc ~e progra n1 ~.
I tri ed to contribute to th e exi. tin g knowled ge on m) rc<;ea rch topi c h) l'ocu<;ing on ·on-t he-

ground· realitie that are u~uall) ignored h) th e co ntcrnporar) UC\ elopn1cnt <;tuclt c~ (PO\\ cr,
2003~ Law on, 2007).

In this chapter, I describe in detail the rnethods and tcc hntque~ I used dunng n1 y
fieldwork in Thakurgaon, Ban g lad e~ h a v. ell as the proce s of anal ] nng the collected data
that was catTied out in Canada. Throughout the entire resea rch proccs~. l atte1n ptcd to rcn1mn
self-re Ocxive and took care to maintaining rigor (Batl ey, White & Patn. 1999. Ba'<ter &
Eylcs, 1999 ~ Bra(bha\v & Startford , 20 l 0 ~ England, 1994 ).

46

\V h~ 1 1\dh ercd to Fc n1ini ~ t and Qualitati\ c :\l c th o d o l og~

For my th e~ ~ ~ re. ca tch. I u~cd f c n1tnt ~ l tc~cntch n1 ct hod o lo g t c~. hcca u~c th ey
challenge the 1113111 \trearn dCadcn11C clpp1OtllhC~ 0 r cc) ncluctJ ng I e\CCll Lh. This appl oach
tnclud e~ e'.plonn g t1C\\ 111ethod

ll\Cd rot lC\Carching socially relcvn nl defined ptoblelll\ and

by en1p loymg gend er a~ a pt' ota l ana l) tical tool 1n ~t ud 1e~ o I 'pace pI ace. en\ 11 ontncnt nnd
lancbcape (rY1adge et al.. 199'. r ( 6) Katz ( 1 004) ckfinC\ fcll1111 1 ~t tncthodologics a~
Con1111lltCd to challcngtng oppt e\\1\ e cl\pCLtS or socia ll y const ructed }.!.Cndcr rel ati on()
(\\ hethcr tht' dCt ,tlone or 111 conJunction'' tlh other oppressive relatton' ha~cd on
rnce. cln~~. ~cx u a l1t v, etc) It rccogn11e' the \Ocialtclcttlon~ of t c~ca rc h and ha~
en1811ClpatOr) goal'-. f'or all thO\e 111\ nh cd Ill the JC\ea rch prOlC~~. leadtng to ',(K tal
chn nge f·en1t i1J \ t n1ethodolog) a1n1' lor n1utual undct "'itancltng and lcarnt ng about the
1ncaning ru I d 1flc rcncc bet'' ecn the t c. . carchcl and the peop lc \\ ho arc the "ubJcc t o f
re~ca rc h '' 1th rc~pect to ~tructure" of dnn11 natton (a' u ted 1n \11 ctdge et a I.. I 997. p
99)
J

....

dd itionall y, fen11n1q re,enrcher uttl11c re,can.h n1ethod() on en ted to the ob ject!\ c~
and locatton of the proJCCL frame the rc carc h pro1cct eye1ng on tn tendccl aud1cnce or
rcc tpi ent (Madge ct al. 1997. p. 90). The 1clat ton het\\een the rc~ca rL her and re~carc hed
are gi\ en apprO\ al by fen1ini~t n1cthodolog} Fcn1llll\l rc enrch also a(l\ ocate~ for dialog1 c
research process\\ hich ca n JO intl y be fran1cd by the rc~earchc r and the re~carc h c d . What r
fo und e'.ce ptionall ) important for 111) re ea rch projeL t designing i~ that ··re 1n in i ~t\.
therefo re, have tri ed to de\ clop a 1nore hun1an. le ~s e'< ploitatJ\ c relation~hi p bet\\ ccn
researchers and rc~ea rc h c d 111 wh1 ch explicit con ideration of th e relc\ ance of the rcsen rch
is n1ad c" (Madge et al. . 1997. p.92).
The idea Caine to 111 Y tnind whether it \Vas possibl e ror 111e to usc fe n1ini . . t
rn ethodology. Mndge ct al. ( 1997) challenge the definiti ons of fcn1intst researc h as
"resea rch on. hy and for \\ on1 cn' a~ they be I ic\ e tha l .. fetn in i' l re~ca n: h can rc~cJrch bnth
1nascu liniti cs and fetniniti es and the way in which they arc produced si n1ult ancousl) \\ tth
47

other attribute<; of~oc taltdcntit). ~uch a~ age. ph) c;tca l abil1t~ dnd location... The autho1~
a L o n1ention that ~on1e fcn11 n1 t n:~cardH~r

. ,,] ~o c. onduc. t fcn11 n 1~ l

dl'l!UC
"n1cn n1tt \
...

I had a finn ob.Jectt\ c to\\ ot k for the ~oc.to-cc.onon11L bcttcttnent of \\ on1en in the ~octcty
ofBanglade~h. \\htch 111 turn\\ tlltc~ult in thc11 etnpcn\enncnt 111 tc,dt tv

Madge ct al. ( 1997) ~tate that fctntnt~ t rco...ca1c.h can cn1pl o) any tc~eaH. h n1cth ocb
but the) ernpha~uc that the n1cthodc; utilized o..,hould he c.apc1hlc of answering the 1 c~ca rc h
quc~llons bctng n~kcd and able to c.ontttbute m achtc\ in!! htoad fcn1inist goa ls ... , lenc.c no

one particular t) pc or re~carch rncthoJ ,..., an) more km in ic;t than another .. ( \taehc It &
La\\SOn. 1994 97 a~ cited 111 f'v1aclge et al.. 1997, p 99)
Rc.. earch de~ tgn 1~ dctcrn11 ned by the ohJ cct1 \ e~ or 8 1c~eaH. hcr PI anntn g and

conducting IntemC~tl o n aL co Jnn1untt y-ba~cd rc~carch \\a~ nC\\ to n1 c Ac, the n18tn
re earcher. I de tgncd the re~earch proJect. and the rc~c<:lrch que~llon~ \\ere dctenntned hy
rny per onrtl \a lues and the studte~ taken by the other rc~earc.hcr~ 111 our 1nterprctt \ e
con1tnunitics (Bradshaw & tratCord. 201 0). Then th e approach\\ a~ refined \\ 1th the
assistance of tny supervi or, Dr.

olin, with t\\ o decades of ficldv.,·ork invoh 1ng

con11nunity-ba ed research.
Qunlitativc resea rch n1 ethods alTe r the oppo rtunit) "to convey the tnner hfe and
texture of the diH~r~c socia l enclaves and per onal circun1sta nces of ~ocietic~ .. (Jack on
1985, 157 as cited in England, 1994 ). Although qualttati\ e re ~ea rc h i~ crillci/cd a~

subjective research, tnany Cetnini st resea rchers clain1 that "quantitative rc ~ca rch tncth od~
also co rn e fro rn subject positions as the design and content or qu esttonnnire sun cy,
usua l! ) con~ i dercd unbia ~c d , are, in fact a product or the suhjectiv it) or the rc~earcher"

48

(T\1adgc ct al . 1997. p 91:)) QualitatJ\ e re~e(11 c h tn c thod ~ ate a l ~o qu c~ llnn ed on the
ground of credlbtlt ty, \ CI Itcl 1ty and ltan fcrCi bllit) h\ the po ~ tli\I S t ',OCt<ll ~c i c ntl\t <-\ but th e
.. rctlc~l\ c .. I.. ol th e re~ c ,lrlh e r dt ~ l11t ' C C\ th e oh~c l\ at io nal d1\tancc o l nco pn"' ttJv t\ 111 nnd
sub\ et1<;, the 1dea o f the o h ~c n cr tl ~ ~.111 11npct 'o nalrnach111 c .. ( l lnndc.H!ncu- otclo. l9XX.
Okcly, I 992: Op1 c. 1992 a" ctted tn [~ n g ldnd . 1994. p H2 )

Qu CI IJtatt\ e rc~c,H c. h co tnpr e h cn ~ 1hl ; d c~uth c~ hun1 an c n vi rn nrn c nt ~ and their
ll\ cd e~pc ri cncc~ \ tel' ar i o u ~ co nceptu Ci l Cratn C\\ 0 1k ~ \\.hen qu antita ti vc rc~cc1 rc h 1 ~
co ncerned \\ 1th reIall o n ~ h 1ps bel\\ cen phcnotnena. qu alitatl\ c resc<ll che1s put cn1 pha\1" on
social s tru c ture~ tlnd llldl\ tdual e~ p c n e n cc~ ( \\ Jn c h c~tc r & Rotc. 20 I 0. r 5) A~ I \VaS
auning to doc un1 cnt hO\\ thc._.e CCT~ 1111pac t the\\ nn1cn a._. we ll a\ the soc1o-c ultural
structures of Bangladesh. I ctnp lo; cd qualttat t\ c rc\carch n1cthod s f 01 data coli cc ti on 1n
an atten1pt to dra\\ out n1ult1pl e n1 ca n i ng~ and e xpl (tn a t1 o n ~ f rnn1 the pcli1JClpant\ through
their indl\ 1dual C '\p eri e ncc~ rather than a '. tngle. obJCC ll \ c cxpl anallon Fron1 n1 y p a~ t
re earch, I leatn cd that ga thering a broad \Jew on any topic ts qutte 11nposstblc by sin1pl y
a king yes no qu csllon .
The integrity of any kind of research reli es on the degree of opcnn es5 and ~ys tc tn a tJ c
evaluation of the research process. I hough . .. \\ e fold our O\\ n \a lucs and b e li ef~ into
resea rch and they can in flu e nee both '"hat \\ e

tud~ and hO\\ \\ e interpret.. ( Brad ~ h a \\ &

Stratford, 2010, p.7 1). By o ffering a rationale and detail description on i ~~u es . such as
respond ent selection, key changes in research di rec t1on and analytical procedures help
qua lita ti\ c research to estab lish credibility, transferability, dcpendabilit; and co nfon11ahtltt\
~

(Bailey ct al. , I 999, p. 169). In the later part of this chapter, I \\ ill desc ribe in dctatl. the

49

rc~ea rc h technique, that 1 adopted, the h1ndran ce~ I encountc1 eel dunn g the (i eld \\01k and

hO\\ I tackled thcn1 and p1 oceedcd fu11he1
I agree '' Ith Rt1tl e; et al. ( 1999) that it 1' not net.:e,~aJ') to ndopl 1.\ landardl/ed

e'a luat1 on n1 e thod ~ fo1 qualltclll\ C Jc,can:h fo r ih \clhdtl\ hut 1esea rLI1 el' ' hould follow a
systctnat1 c prnccs . The e'a luat1 on ClltCita t) f an Indi\tclunl ploJect hould f1an1e fron1 th e
resea rch pro ce~~ tt\elf. a. tt is\\ ell kno'' n that tnullifaccted epl~leJno lo g J c~ and n1 e thod ~ ate
used 111 quahtcltt\ e re,earc h \\'c1rd - chofield ( 1993) ''rites that
at the heat1 of quaJitall\ C clpproach 1\ the cl\~U 111 pll ot1 that a pleCC o f qualitatl\ e
rc ea rch 1. \ Cr\- n1u ch 1111lucncl:d l-)\. the IC\Cclrchc r·'\ IIH.ll\ 1du'll attn butc"> and
peL pectl\ e~ l he goa l 1 not to produce d \lclndcu d 1/Cd ~c t of 1esult'\ thcll any othct
Cc1 reful rcscc1rcher 111 the '\clll1e \ItUcl tion 01 "'tud\., 1111.!
the "'cllllC 1\...,uec;; would have
'-'
produced Ra thcr it i~ to produce c1 cohercn t and iII un11 nCl tl ng cle,cn pt1on o I and
per peel I\ eon a \ Ituatlon thcll 1 hct...,ed on c1nd c.o n ~ 1 ...,tent with dctc1d "'tudy o f the
situation (as c 1ted 111 Batl c:y et al . 1<J99, p 172)
I docunl ented all tagc of 111} re...,carch proCC'\~ to all()\\ Jl1 Ctnhe J~or the tnteq1rCll \ c

and parti Cipant cotnn1un1t1 c to check and confi n11 that the finding~ can he co n ~ 1d e rcd
dependabl e (Brad ha\\ & tratford. 201 0)

Importance of Field Work

The ubj ect of soc ial resea rch arc usuall y draw n fron1 the geographi ca l space
therefore it

cientific explanation require a distinctive n1odc of ga thering knO\\ ledge, and

fi eld work. The te1111 · fie Id\\ ork · \\a introduced in the ~oc ia I sc 1 c n ce~ h\- forn1 cr zoo l og i ~t 1\.
~

C. Haddon (Gupta & Ferguson. 1997' p. 6 ). Fieldwork 1 ~ a pa11 and parcel or ~OC i a l \C lCllCC

resea rch by bein g the only source of pri 1na ry data .
From the ex perience of n1y litn ited re earch career, I ca n assun1c that, tt ts d1 rfi cult to
c>..p lai n the rea l \\O riJ ~ ituati o n on!) b) te\.tbook ha ~c kn o\\ ledge, .. it i" 1ca~icr] to accept the

50

\\ Orld or \i <; ton o f our delcg,lted c '\p c nr ~l rath er th at to tnuck tthout tn n1 C<;\) ~ itu a ll o n ~ ! ..
(Ze it n ~ k ). 200 L p 1) \ 1any, ~oc t ct l ~ctc nt l'.. t <; ( Bu II ,u d. ! 006: England. I 994. Pt tcc. '00 I :
tc\c n ~. 200 1. \ 'ccc k. 200 1. le ltn ~ k \. 2001 ). who involved t h e t n<;c l\ c~.., tn fidthvo tk.
~

co nstd er Jt a' the n1o't gkll IOU'-. c1nd t11n c worth) part of their acadetnic li fe . I he hutn tl n
clJn1Cl1SI011 Of fi cld \\ Ork 1<-. ofte n de<-.cnhcJ c.l \ .. 111C\<-.) and problctna ll C. an d ll is generall y
1nuch ~tl lc r to th co r11e the pet ~pcct1' es <.) f '' on1cn. 1111no11 tte,, or su baIt e rn~ tha n to talk \\ 1th
then1·· (Price. 200 I . r 143) Bc.l\Cd ()11 111) I eccnt fora) into .. the field.''\\ hich I und ertoo k fot
th i re~ea rc h proJec t. I agree that field'' ork 1 .. t i1ne-eonsun1 i ng. rrustrating. ddTicu It and
potenti alI) d a n ge rou~·· (Bullard. 2006. p "5). hut ha the potential to n1akc audib le or\ i~thlc
the unhea rd and un ~ce n rca lt lle around u~ (\'ecck. 2001 ).
I got th e oppot1uni ty to salts fy tny long chen. bed de<; 11e fo r cl otng qual itat1v e fi cld

· re earch in Fcbruary 20 14. ''hen I '' cn t to Banglade<;h to do the Jntet-v IC\\ <; fo r the data
collec tion pot1Ion or n1y re~ca rc h The recent field '' ork da te~ hack to n11 i\.1arch 20 13 \ 1 ~ 1t
to Bangladesh. at \\ hich potn t I \\ cnt to sec 111} fa tn il y after cornp lettng the cou rse\\ ork fo t
·Rethinking de\ eloptnent gcograph ie :
intern ati onal developm ent·

11

r igh ts- h a~ed approach to the anai}~J~ of

with Dr. Ca th erine

olin at U BC' to \\ hon1 I atn indebted fo r

enab ling n1 e to ·unl ea rn· and unm ask th e dece i\ ing rn ake-up of de\ clo ptncnt. I already
tnenti oncd ea rli er th at ITI Y Interest to inquire into the in1pacts or CCTs on \\ O lll CI1 111
Bangladesh cn1erged when I reviewed publicly a\ adahlc li terature fo r \\ rit tng the fi na l pa per
for the above tn enti oncd course. To j ustify the idea I rccci \ ed frotn the literature rc\ tC\\. I

The course outlme mtroduccs the cour<\c by statrng that·· I hr~ cour"c: e\,lmrne" theme". concept". theon~..,
and tn:nd"' whrch define the ~tudy of mtcr nallonal de\elopment from a geogr,tphrcJI per..,pc:Llr\ e. tutknh ,, rll
garn an under\tandrng of the hJ..,torJcal and contemporar} Llltlllengc:.., of global mequ,tlrt\. debt. for c:rgn Jtd.
dro.;astel\, dr\placcment, and dc\clopmcnt a\~Jst ance . Ca~e ... tudre.., f'1om around the \\Orld are u ...c:d to plO\I<.k
contcx t -~pec 1 fie. gender dlfTercnt1 ated 111 ro r matron about 1nter nat1nnttl de' c.:lopmc:nt ptobkm.., ~md pwmr"e ·
(Nolrn. 20 13. P I)
13

51

talked to n1an: people. includ1ng ddTcrcnt ~tdkcholdcr~ (l1gurc 1 I i~ an c'Xan1plc) of the

C I ~ of Bangladc<,h. and the pcrcepll on~ I t ccc1 \ cd l1 0111 thcn1 con' tnccd n1c to 1110\ c

Fig ure 3 1· Tall-.in g to a \\Omen (mother ora st tpend rectptent girl) \\hen r...he v.a() \\Orl-.tng in a potato field
ource Ra <;htd. "'0 l..t

After coming back to Canada. Dr. Nolin and I di~cu~~ed \\hat I e"pericnccd during
1111 trip regarding the F

AP and Pl~ SP progran1s of Banglade ~ h . I \\U~ able to n1akc her

understand that 1 ''anted to rc ~ca rch an i ue that I rcalh care about. \\'c n1lttual h• dec1dcd to
•

proceed to cxan1inc the in1pact Of education-ha ed ('(' f Oil the life of the \\On1Cil of
Bangladesh.
1

Dctcrn1ining the ·re~carch location· (i.e. '"the lield.'' ~) \\tb the lir~t point of our
discussion . rhe licld refers to the contextua I rran1C \\ ork \\ ithin \\ h ich the re~carch i~

14

" I he 'field',.., not natlllal11ed tntetms of ',1 place' or 'a people' itt\ 111\t~ttd locat~d .md delin~d in term<.,t)f
spcc.tlic pollltcal obJecttvc<; that (a" <; uch) cut ttcror...r... t1111~ and r. . p<~ce" (Na~o,t , 1994 . p "7).

52

underta"en. the geographic boundar) or hoth 1 he field 1'\ u~Uc.lll) dete1 n11ned h) \ art<Hl'\
factors ~uch a'\· ~pecific cultural regton. the rc~earcher. fundtn g agencte'\. parttcipanh. and
g<n crnnlen t sector.

r

10'\l 0 the ti l11C. the fie Id i '\ deternll ned h) the I e'\edrc her hi 111 her~e I

r. It

re~carchcr (}u pta and I crgu'\on ( 1997) c I,1i tncd that c hoo'\1 ng an appt opn a tc fi c Id 1s

choo tng a place .. \\here tntcllcctuallnterc'\t'\. pc1"nnal p1cdilcLt1nn'\ ttnd ctttccr outconle'\··
( p 1 1) can ea~ tl) 1n terpla) \\ c "c Icc ted our lie ld for cond Lllll ng the re"em c h he) ond the

of the stud) could be tnore c1pplicahlc to "octetal hcnclit (,uplc.l and I crguson (I 997) also
C111phasi/ed that ··a good field "tte '" 111ade. hO\\C\CL not onJ) h) the COil'\ideration of f'undtng
and clearance hut b) it~ suitahilit) ror addre"~ing l ~"UC" and dehatC'\ that lll<.ltlCr to the
discipline·· (p. 10). Before 1inalJ7tng the '\tUd) an~a. \\e al"o con"tdered that the J'\~uc of
re earching and ask1ng re pondent ~ · que"llons ahout \ tolcnce again'\t \\Ol11cn and other
related issue

\\3

a\ Cf\. eJ1')lli\ e tnatter in the C\l"tinl!. "OCIO-CU!tural eonte\t of
~

Bangladesh.
We both finall) agreed and decided to conduct the field\\ or" tn one ol the northern
districts ofThakurgaon. Bangladesh. Through birth and upbringing in this region. I had direct
attachn1cnt 'Aiith the communit) that allo\\-ed for intin1ate connection~ \\ith the local
con1muni ty mcn1bers. non-go' ernn1ental organi/ation~ ( N GC)~ ). and \\ on1en · ~ right ~
wo rkers.

53

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Figurl! 1 ..., PoiHilttl \1ap of Ban!.!ladl!sh and \1,lp or ·I hakur!.!aon
~ourcc The at ton " Onlml! Proll!Lt. 2014 and (,oogk \1ap 20 I 4

After con1 i ng hack fron1 Banglade"'h 1n \ pn I 20 13. I "rent "'e\ en n1onth"' \\Tit i ng n1 y

propo"'al defense COl11111lltee arranged b) the l)epartnlent or Intenlationa) ~tudte"' (J"'\ I~)
ln~tantl) after the defen"'e. I applted for apprO\ al fron1 the l r~ BC Re"'earch EthIC"' Boc.lrd

(REB) A iter recei \ ing appn)\ al. I appl icd for a l r ~ BC ( .radu(.ltc Re"'carc h Tra' d \''a rd.
pro\ iued by the Dean of Graduate Studie~ . Since I recei\ cd the confirn1at1on of the ·Tnn el
J\ \\aru · in the la~t \\ee~ of .Januar; 2014. I dectdeJ to lea\ e Canada for Banglade"'h on the

lir~t \\ eck of r~ chruary 20 14 for 111) field\\ or~ 1:' Be Iore le«.n i ng Canada I had "'e\ era I
hratn~torn11ng n1eeting"' \\ith Ill) ~upen t"'or about hO\\ I "'hould proceed \\tlh n1} field\\ Or~

Mj lield\\OI~ \\a\ funded b) the Re~etltch CJ t,mt of'li~Bl Vtce-Pre ... tdent Re ... L'Mch ,1nd L ~Bl C•tttdllc.liL'
Rc~.,earch Travel award I \\Cll) able to cove t almo\t allnl\ tra\l!l c\pen\C'\ ttnd a...... oclttll!d co"t"l1\ the"L' Iundin!.!
.... .
1

54

after rcac lung Banglacle~h and al-lout the i~~uc~ of concetn that tnight a 1 1~e durin!:! 111) fickl
\\Ork

I al~o had the C\.cclknt opportunity to li"'ten to the first hand e\.pcttencc~ fron1 Illy
· olin 1roup. 16 n1atc"' and thcit ~uggestion~ tcttll: helped during the licld\\Otk
Ren1ctnbcnng the "'uggc~t1on"' and dt1ect1nn"' Ill) ~upct \ 1"'<H pro\ 1ded during our rncet1ng.~ 111
( andda. I n1u"'t n1en tion that '' h tic ctHlduct 111g the lie ld '' ork her ex pert i sc ''as an invalutth lc

to gl\e a hundred percent ertort fot Ill) rc"'e(.uch

\ ~ an C\.arnplc r \\Ottld like to quote Dr

(\olin
···I hank :ou (Ra h1d) ~o nntch for "'cnd1ng the"'c photo ~ ...r he photo \ reall y illustrate
''hat a grc(.llJOh )OU arc dotng \\tth the lield \\Ork You look engaged 1n the \\:ork as
do the \\OI11Cn -\ ou arc 1ntcn tC\\ 1n g . I lo\ c to ~cc that .\ ou ha\ c -\our 'o1cc recorder.
nack~ and \\ ~llcr ror the \\Onlcn. and \OUr rc~c<.treh a~ ~ ~ ~ tant. I h1~ l ook ~ l1kc \Cr\
't l
t·· l i
•
•
ucce~~ u ''or~
.
'-

I spent rough I) one n1onth in BangJadc ~ h for tn y field'' ork. ~1orc than one month

\\Ould be hencficwl for con1n1unit) -ha~ed re ~carch (Stc\cn ~ . 200 l : ..I a: lor. 2007) But. due to

the tin1e and tnone) con tratnt~. I \\a~ unable to extend nl) ~ ta: in Banglc.1de ~ h ..I he Utnc I
en1plo)ed ~een1ed to n1e appropriate tor a f\1a~ter· s le\ el re~carch . I belle\ e thi~ one n1onth
pro\ ided n1e sufficient tin1e to in ten IC\\ enough in ten Ie\\Ce~ to reach ~aturatton ( Kirh: and
McKenna. 1989) on the kc\ then1e of 111\"' research.
~

In the 'Field': Application of Methods
I \\-a~ pron1pt to reach rhakurgaon after rcachtng Bangladesh. I he l)a) after arrl\ 1ng

Thakurgaon. I contacted Dr Shahid-lJ/ -7 anlan. the I. \.CCUti\ e Director

or ''1 co-Soc tal

·1he member~ or the Nolin gtoup are the g.raduate \ tttdent ~ \\Otl-.mg unclet Dr 1\olm
11
I tom t I1c e-ma tl communtcatton I had \\lth 111) <:, upetvt ~or Dt Noltn dunng m~ lteld\\ OrJ.. 111 B.mglade ... h
111

55

Dcvclopn1cnt Organi1at Jon ( I S0()) 1x.. ( I"'igurc 11) and ~c t up a n1ccting with hin1 FS I)O 1 ~

one or the tnorc proJnincnt

CIO" in I hak.un2.aon
'-'

•

F1gure 1 1 f co- oc1JI De\ clopment Organ 11at10n ( E- ~DO)
ource l SDO. 2014 (http esdo-bangladc\h org )

During Ill) n1eetings \\ ith Ill) uper\ i or in Canada. \\Chad di~cu~sed th e need for an
entry point into the field as the re~ca rch topic \\as a \er] scnsiti\e one. We \\Cre also
concerned about protecting our respondents fron1 an} kind of ph ysica L ~oc i a l. ps] chological
and legal risks that the; n1i ght ufTer for participating in th e rc ~carc h project. I aking
IK ·'A group of;ou ng c;ocia l '~orkforce ofThakurgaon D1~tnct 1111t1ated E. DO pnmanl)

111 order to ">Upport the
1988 nood v1ct1m s Aller\\aJds the clo~e as oc1ation and mvo iH?ment \\lth the commu111t) e"pec1~.lll) \\lth the
di sadvantaged sect1on ofthe ~oc 1 et) in!>p lred them to feel and rea lize that a planned and organ1 zed effo rt 1<-i
imperative to change the fate of the poorest people 111 general ~.md the ''omen tn particular. Out of the mgc and
the1r heart- felt rca lt7atlon , [ ~ DO emerged as a oc1al lnslltution 111 Bangladesh Red uct1on 111 1ncorne povert)
and human poverty o f the peop le in LSDO's v. ork.mg area through undertak.ing ma\sl' e 1ncome generation
activities, literacy programme, nut11t1on and health programm e, hum an righh and good go\erna ncc progr,tmme
giving proper importance to environmen tal protectiOn and regeneratiOn L ~DO litml) bcllc\e"> and 1'-> act I\ el)
mvolved 111 promot1ng human ri ght ~. d1g111t) and gender equal H) through people\ ~oc1,1 l. economtc. pollt1cal
and human capacity buildin g Women 111 general and children arc the core tlm.l central lncth ol 1!\ ,lctl\ ttiC">
~trengthe111ng the orgunllat10nal capacity carne\ tmportancc to en ~ ure qua Itt) of 1h ~e 1 "1ces I \tcndmg lh
<>ervtces to the ullra poor is 1h mam ma111fc!>to" (LSDO. 20 14).
56

e\ er) thing in to con~ideration. 111) ~upcr\ t~o r ~ugge~tcd that a local ~ ( J() 1n vo h ed 1n · n gh lha~cd· act l\ itie~ \\Otlld he the he~t chotec f'nr a pntnt nf cont<.H:ltn

I hakurgann. l)uring the

\\ rit ing 0 r 111) re~earc h propn~al i11 Canada. I COil tac ted Dl I (lJllllll tn n:q uc~t he I p for Ill)
fie ld\\O rk lie cnthu~ta~t t call) accepted tn) rcquc~t and ga\e \etbal con~cnt O\C l telephone
for an) po~~tblc help\\ tthtn ht~ dt~cretton . \\ hen I <.lppltcd for <.lppto\ttl fnHn the Rl · B at

l

I3C. the) re\ tC\\Cd n1) <.lppltcation and. shO\\ ing high 1111portance on ha\ tng a contact

potnl tn the \lUd) arc<.\. <.l~kcd ror a .. I cttcl ol ~uppor(' fnHll the~( rl). I 111c.lllaged to rccet\ c
the letter rron1 the I '\CCUll\C Dtrcctor and tCCCl\ed final <.lpptoval (i\ppendix \)only after
~uhn1i tti ng the .. l cttcr 0

r sll pport'' ( \ ppcnd I'\ 11) tn the RI B

During our n1ccti ng~. I \\a~ \ cr) clear ahout 111) prnpo ~ed rc~earch \\ 1th J)r I an1an
(Ftgurc J..f) . I clahoratcl} dc~crihcd 111) rc~carch ob,cctt\C~. g~l\C hitn an H.lea ahout the
Crtteria of a potential pat1JCtpant and told hitn that the re~pondcnh \\ill he contacted U~tng the
connection of ht~ Jicld\\Orkcr~ I lllCntioned that I anl tl\\are that the ~ ~~uc or fal11tl\• \ tolencc
i~ \ef! ~ensiti\c and a~ all the re~pondenh \\til he \\Onlcn the) rnight hc~ttate to talk freely

about their e'\pcrience~ in front or lllC. I talked ahout 111) plan nl en1plo) ing a fcnlale re"earch
Dr /an1an1 C'Xten<..led hi ~
assistant to ass i~t the inten ie\\ S in order to aile\ iate thi~ anxict\.
•
kind he lp by providing n1c a lctnale staffn1en1her of I· SD() nan1cd Mar1ina Bcgun1 Ri;a to
~crve a~ 111} Re~earch A~si~tant. I also requested this addttional ~tafT in order to pnn tdc
~upport and debriefing to the re s po n dent~ j f thC) hccan1e UnCOtllfOI1ahlc or en10tionaJ dunng

the tn ten ie\\~ a~ a rc~u l t or retelli ng trautnatic e'\periencc~. I took hl" \Uggc~tlOil~ regarding
the selection or the place of the inten iC\\, \\here I \\OUid he able to cn~ure "arct) and pnn tdc
a honle I)' and CO I11 fortahlc en\ iro nnlent to 111) rc~ponden t~. I I e 0 ncrcd hi s 0 ni c i<.ll l sf)()
n1 eetin g space to conduct the intcn icws tn.

57

Figu1~ 1-t '\t th~ ~nd ofa lon!.! m~etmg and just htfore ktl\ing. I \\as talking to Dr.
/am~m out~1de of h1~ olfiu~ at I \DO
Olll <.~ Ra~ h 1d. 20 14

1\fter doing the field\\ Ork.. I rcali;ed that ha\ 1ng a contact potnt. ~uch a~ thi s local 1 (J(). \\U'i

in\aluable for the "ucce~sful con1pletion ofth1~ international n:"'earch.
Theda\., after I n1et Dr. Lan1an. I \\ent to the L ,' f)() office to rneet the lield\\ork.er"
\\ ho \\ere suppo~ed to help n1c find potential rc ~pondent~. I n1et then1 and ga\ c thcn1 a
thorough explanati on oltn} rc earch in order to help thcn1 under~tand .. \\hoI 1\\l~hed] to
in, ohc in 111) re~carch .. (Bradsha\"- & StratJord. 2010. p.75 ). I ga\c thcn1 Ill} phone nun1her
(the phone I 'Wa~ using dunng 111) sta) in Bangladesh) and told then1 that hoth the) and the
potential participants could call n1e any tin1c for an) thing the) \\Unt to inqutrc ahout I also
contacted sotne or 111) friends and connection~ to help\\ ith 1ind1ng potential participants.
()nc 0 rIll) r ri end~. N ur Islanl let llle knO\\ that he tn Iked \\I th ~O nle \\ Olllen 1n hIS local it~
and that the) sho\-vcd interest 1n parti c ipn ti ng in 111) proj eel. /\s 1 \\ ent to N ur I"' la1n · s hon1c a
nunlhe t oftinle~ before (to vl~it hts ranltl) ). I \\U~ rmniltar \\ith the localit\ and residents.
58

()ne ignificant in lance re111111dcd 111e the 1111porl<.111CC of ·po~tltonaJtt). dunng
con1tnunit)-ba~cd field resea rch. t l ~uall) <.1 re ~earc her t\ postttoncd ddTcrentl) h) hi ~ her

gender. age. race. color and. ~ocial and sc, ual identtt) \n\ one of thcn1 ca n tnakc the
~

researcher an in ~ ider (1 ngland. 1994) or an ouhtdcr ( Koha) \ ht . 1994) to hi ~ respondents
[ ngland (2006) defined po~tttonaltt)
t ~ about hen\ people\ H?\\ the \\Orld fron1 dirfctent etnhodted locattnn~

J he

. ituatcdncss kncn\lcdgc tnean" \\hcthcr \\C arc tC \Carchcrs ot partictpantc;.,. \\C arc
difTerentl) ttuated h) our \OCtal. tntellcctu<.ll c.1nd "pattdl locatton~. h) our tntcllcctual
h i ~to r; and our Ii \ cd e'\ pcncncec;.,. all 0 r \\hI ch c;.,ha pc Oll l undct ~landIng~ 0 l 1he \vOrl d
Positlonallt) al\o refer to ho\\ \\Care po~ttioned
and the ~110\\ ledge ''e produce
(h) our~ehes. h) other\. h) particular dl~courc;.,c\) tn relation to n1ulttpl e. relational
soc ial proces\c~ of d ifTcrence (gender. c LJ\\. ·race ethn tc it) ·. age. "e' ual it). and c;.,o
on). \\htch aho n1can<, \\C tire dtfJerentl) positioned tn hterarchtcc;., of po\\er and
pri\ ilcge (p. 2R9).
It happened that the \\Onlcn Nur hlan1 contacted \\antcJ tne to go to Nur I ~la tn '"

hon1e to It ten and tal~ to n1c face to face before the\ t!.H\ c thctr final Jcctston for
*

....

participation. I \\a taught 111 Canada that flc\:Iblltt: ~~the kc} during fieldv~or~. ~o I accepted
their proposal and \\ent to

ur Islan1· hotne on the earl} tnorning oJ Ja) four. About ten to

fifteen \\Omen gathered at

ur lslan1' hon1e. ()ne intcrc\ting thtng happened before \\C

started our con\ ersation: the \\Ol11Cn that gathered there requested that a gcntlen1an nan1cd
T-: ntaj ul lslan1 (I· igurc 3. 5) \Vas to be Vv·ith us during the n1eeti ng.

59

I \r\a ~ talk.tng \\ tth [ nta1ul {Rtght ) and ~ome potent tell rarticipants dun ng our group
dt ~cu~s t on ,lt 't\ut ! ~;,lam·\ h om~
ource. Ra~ h1d . 201 4
Ftgure.., .:;

•

The) n1entioned that if l ntajul could . ta) during our con' er~at1on~ and that if 111) propo~a l
fo r their participation could t.,ati ~ f) hin1 at., \\ell. then Entajul ''ould he ahlc to con\ 1ncc thc1r
hu band to ~upport their participati on. Since the) needed thi ~ ~ upport. l \\arnll) \\Cicorncd
Mr. Fntajul I lan1 into our di~cu ion . ¥.:e had a li\ cl) d1~cu sion and con\ ersation \\here I
e'<plaincd v. ho I v. as. \\hat 111) re<:; earch \\as about c1nd ''hat the objecti' e~ of 111) re ~ca rch
v.-ere. I elaborate!) disc u sed their role ~ in there earch. the' alue or their participation and
their rights a~ a participant. We al so discu ed the ~ afet) 1 ~ ue~ and the steps I ha\ c taken to
address then1 (Go ldman. 1999: Manz. 2008). I told then1 that I ''a not e'-.ploiting thern as an
inforn1 ation n1inc (Allen. 2003: BrO\\·ne. 2003: Do\\ling. 20 10: Fngland. 1994 : Ciilbert.
1994 ). J\s Steven ~ (200 I ) poi nts out ··earni ng re earch Jegitin1ac) re\ oh c ~ around the

perce ption of ) ou and the purposes and 'aluc of ) our '" orl . If people fee I the n.: ~ carc h i~
\\!Orth their tin1e and attenti on. its ~ u cccs s corncs to rnattcr to thcrn and the} help r"llhcr than
60

only tole rate~ ou ... The" otncn and l nta;ul ac;,ked ~on1 e quec;,ttonc;, nnd I recl lt;ed th<lt they
\\Cfe ~alJ~fied \\Jth Ill) clll~\\el\

I cli\O 111Cl1tlOI1ed that the partJLtpanh \\Ould not tece t\C an y

'i n1n1cd tate· henefih for l'hHttupating in the rcc;,c,uLh pt oiCll. hut that thcll shared pcrc;, pcclt\C
111ight \\ Ork a~ d 'hralll lOlllC. for tk\ clopn1cnt ptdCtiti onc r~ In rr~llniiH! such de\ clop111Cill
prog ra n1~ fot Banglndc~h ct~ \\ell ,1~ oth e1 co unt11 e~ 111 the fu tut e

I hu e;,. the pc1c;,onal benefit.

1f any, ''til he long tcnn in 'cope
Dunng our dt\C U ~\ 1011 I ac;,ked thctn if they finally c:tgrecd to pattiupc1tc in th e proJ el l
and ''here the) '' ould like to \ tt fot doing the tntcn tcws. I told thcn1 it "lotnplctdy \\ 1thin
the1r d tscretton to c boostng th e inten 1e\\ place I " Ic;,o let then1 know about the c;, pace that th e
Executi\ c Director orE DO offered Inc fot dotiH!..._ the tnten Je\\ \ During
...... O UI co nvcJc;,a ti onc;,
\\ ith the won1en, I abo ca n1e to knO\\ that tn oc;,t of then1 '' ork a~ dall y agncultural lahorcrc;,,
so, I tnstantly dec1ded and let then1 knO\\ thdt I \\Ill gl\ c then1 the n1intn1un1 dculy v. age to
compensate thetn for the \ aluable tin1e the; '' tll allocate for 111 ) rcc;,cardl. I also con finned
that the transpot1ation co5 t~ back and forth fron1 thetr hon1 e to the ES DO o ffi ce\\ ould be
compen.. ated and to ld then1 that coffee tea c;,nack~ \\ill he pro\ ided ac;, rcfrc~hn1cnh dunng
our interviews.
Thic; group di sc uss ion helped n1e learn ho\\ a per ~on·s gender, \ocia l c;, tatus and place
specific socio-cultural conte'\t d e t c rn1ine ~ one· po iti o nalit~ . Bdo re Ill) introd ucuon to the
field . I had a firm belief that I \-v ould be \\a nn I) accepted b) the partictpantc;, J~ an · in c;, idet··
since I am a ' local hoy.' /\ t the end of th e di sc u ~~ i o n. ho\\e\er. I found tn) c;,c ll'po"tttoned
dtffc rcntl y to the disc ussant v. on1cn: it ic; not qui te possibl e for n1c to bccon1c an· in\ldcr· to
rny respondents since I atn a university-edu cated rnale tndi\ id ual It was n1y tntentton to
bccotnc a ·parti al inc;, ider· to Ill) rcc;,ponde nts. \\ hich ic.; .. not to c;,ay that tn y ~ub.Jccb nrc part o l

61

111) proJect. hut that I an1 pJrt ofthetr<:. ·· (1\.oha)J \ hJ. 199-l. p

7X) The da) after I \\ent to

ur

blatn ·\home. the"\( ,o field\\ orket \contacted me and arranl!ed a group tneetlllg "tth th e
\\ 0111en the) contacted In cln open \ pclCC ell I

0() offi ce. That n1 ecttn .....l!. ttl \ n '' ent '' ell and

Po'' c1 rcl atton \ bet\\ ec n the 1c pnnd cnt and th e 1c<:..ca t chcr al\o aff ec t th e 1C\ca rch

at ddTcrcnt t11n c~ and hcl\\ ecn d1l fc tcnt pcnple (\ 1ddge ct al.. 1997. p 101) 'lhctc <He tn ainl y
three types of pO\\ Cl rel atiOn\ fC\ed rLhCl \ ll \ Ucl ll y f<lC.C during th eir J'CSCcl rLh includ ing
reciprocal. 31..,}111111ctncal c1 nd. potentt cl ll : e\ ploi tatJ \ c (Dowling. 20 l 0 ). I n1cnt1 oncd th<ll. I
round 111 y elr po. Jll oned dtfTe rcntl ) to 111 ) re<:..pond ent'

J\ t the he gill n Ing. I cnco u n tCJed

asyn1n1ctncal re latton~hip ~ \\ 1th n1y res p o nd e nt ~.., dunn g tn y fi eld \\- Oik I atet, tnulttplc
· n1eet1ng \\ 1th eac h pa11ic1pant (In a group and tndi \ Iduall y) all ov. eel n1 e fo1 a rnore 1n-dcpth
understanding and dunng thc~..,e n1 eet1n g~.., h} bc1ng refl e'\1\ e. open and acco untable ( oJJn.
2006) and. defining their role. and rcsp o n ~ Ihditt c~ clearl y.. I \\ <l' able to es ta hl, ~.., h Iec iproca l

relation ·with then1 ( Dov~' ling . ?O 10 ). The !.., UCCC'-,' of e~.., t a bli (_)hzn c nr of rcciproc tty \\ ith n1 y
respondents resulted in gathering of te\'I IIJion ios 14 with powcrf'ultnfonn ation ( Ha r g- Bro~ n,
2 003 ~ No lin 2006, 18, Nolin Hanlon &

hankar, 2000 ).

To gain deep In s i ght~ into the research toptc by rnten JC \\ ing a ~ n1 a ll nUJnber of
parii cipants hi ghly depended on choo in g the · ri ght' people. ~o I adopted purpo<) i\ e ~a tnplin g
for selecting respondents for 111y research. There are SC \ eral types or purpo~ 1 \ e atnpl in g.
such as: typical case san1p ling, rnax1n1un1 variation san1pling, snowball san1pling. cnteri on
samp ling, opportunisti c san1pling, and convenient san1pl1ng (Bradsha\\- & tnrtfo rd . 201 0)

19

Tes t111101110 '"' defined by Nolm Ilanlon and Shdnl-.a• ( 1 000) a~ "coll cc tJ \C •cmemh1 ance 1.llhe• th<ln inJt\ldual

tcsllmo n) .. and 1ts \ aluc " lies 111 the co nttlbutJo n" to the I CLOil \ liULllo n o f hl ">l OIIL.tl m e m n 1 ~ ·· (p 26S)

62

The resea rcher ca n choose an} of then1 \\ htch he ~ h e find ~ ~ utt ab l e tn contc'<t to ht~ hct
re carch. In fir~t place. I in ten te\\ cd the\\ on1 en \\ ho \\ere contacted b) n1y ga tckccpet "·
lat er. I u~cd a sno\\ hall ~cunpltng techni<.]Ue. <1~ etnpl nyccl by '\ oltn (200(1), by u~tng the
co nn ec ti o n ~ ofth e \\Otncn thctt I cllt cad) tnlct\ te\\ed T ht ~ cl ppt onc.h fa cilitated gc lltng a ccc~~

to key 1nfonnanh
ltnten tC\\ecl thu1ccn n1 othct ~ olthc benefi cial) chtldrcn 0 1 ~ ttl " l·ronltn y
Ban g l adc~h fi eld \\Ork expct1 cncc. I agtce \\tlh Btad ~ haw and ~llat f o td (2010) that. tn

qualttatt\ ere care h. ~a tnp lc ~ 1 1e need not he 1cpre"cntatJ\ c. 1dthc t 1t need~ to be co ntext
pecdi c and tt co tnplctcl y d epe nd ~ on the rc~ca rc h c r ho'' he JU"t lfic~ 1t I lo\1\. e\ ct. as nunlherba cd quantitati\ c re ~ca rc h cann ot ~o.,ketch the real \\o rl d p1Lturc. e\c n a ~ rn g lc n:~ pondcnt '~
"e~ pcri e n cc

can elin1tnate ~t ru c ture and stru ctural changes. Fot cxcunple. an au to-

· biographical account by Regtnald Go !ledge ( l 997) on ht~o., nla.Jor ph y~o., 1 ca l d , ~..,abtlt lies gave
birth to a di tinct fi eld of\tUd) · oi <;ab ilit)

tudic ~ in I ILIInan Gcograph:- ... (as ctted in

Winche ter & Rofe, 20 l 0, p. 8 ).
I accept th at the enttre tory cannot be obtatned through JUSt thtt1een pcoplc, I hope to

ga1n a much better und erstanding of the situati on through th ei r te.\tzJJzonio\. My goal 1 ~ not to
have a generali?able repre5entati on of the con11nunity, but rather to ha\ e deeper
understandings and pcr5pec ti\ es of the wotnen invo lved 111 thc~e proJects.

In-Depth lntervic\ving and Testi1nonio.\'

Quality data collecti on and its va lidity depend on the prolc~s 1 o n a l ahdll) and
competence of a resea rche1 Therefore I tried to prepare n1 yself adequately by 1111pro\ tng 111)
knowl edge on the va rious data collec tion tcc hn t qu c~ and the research pro cc~~ as <l ''hole

63

\\' JnchC '-,lCr and Rotc (10 10) llH.~llllOncd three llltlJOI t~ PC" or quall tall\ c n?'-,Cdi'Ch in '-,()CJa l

the ob"cnationa l (p 8) I planned to dll~\\CI Ill) JC'-,CtllCh l)lll'StiOJl'-, h: the ·"pol-.cn \()ICC'-,. or
Ill)

res pond en h. there Iore 1 adopted 1n-dcpth 1n tc1\ 1C\\ 1ng a" a n1cthod o f d c.lta co llcct 1on
I could lune cho~en 1111'\Cd lllCtlHH.I'-. rot Ill) IC'-.Cc.liCh hut I \\tl" hlghl: COil\ Jnccd h)

the arglllncnt Brannen ( 1992) nlc.ldc that .. data }.!CllL'I (.llcd rroln eli I lei ent ll1Cthod ~ cannot
~1n1pl: he <.lggn:gc.ltcd. hccc.lU'-.C the: c(.1n onl: he undcr"\tood in relation to the purpo"\es for

\\hich the: \\ere crcc.Hcd .. (cttcd in\\ tnchc...,tcr &:. Role. 2010. p. 17). In addition to that. the
u~c of tnultiplc tncthod..., cnahk~ triangulation hut h: '-.llllpl) using t\\o or n1o1c n1cthod" doc"

not guarantee n1orc rigorou~ rc"\ulh ( Ba'\teJ & I: lc~. 1999).
All 111) pdrttctpanb opted to conduct the 111ter\tl'\\ tn the ·n1cct1ng place· ( I 1gurc 1.6)
pn)\ ided b: the I 0 of I , D<). and the: let 1ne k.nO\\ ahout thc11 chotec \\hen the: ga\ c

Figure 3 6 'I he ' mcetmg ~rhlce · ol I ~DO ·1he I \CLUll\t~ D1recto1(1 D) ol I \DO p10\ 1ded me
th i\ \pace f01 d0111g Ill) I lllCI VIC\\\
~o u n;c Rash 1d, 20 I I

64

n1e the1r linal con~ent of participation. I "cheduled to ·tart 111~ tntet\ tc'' " tll 10:00 in the
n1 orntng "o thtlt the re...,pondenl\ need not hurT~ to cornplcte thctr daily hou"c-hnld chore\ .
'I he da\ I \tarted doiiH! 111\. tnten IC'' "· I \\Ct1t to I ~[)() Ctlrlier then the \C hedulcd ttnlc lor
~

~

(Figure l 7) at X 00 that n1o1ning. at \\htlh l1111e l tk"c rthcd 111~ tc...,e,uch and tc\ea rch

tntcn JC\\" and e"\pllcitl~ n1et1linned hct role Then. 1 rearranged the sp(.1cc to hctter suit our
i ntcn ie\\" b~ accon1n1odat i ng n1~ c ~.unc t c.l equ i prnent and at least th rce chairs to sit on.

During the da~" I dtd 111~ tnten Je\\" one or the "tdl f tllllllCd Palash ( handra helped rn e h~

purcha\ing and pro\ td 1ng ...,nack. \ and \\ ater

fJ gtue 3 7· In the call] mo1n1ng olthc day olmteJ\JC\\ , I ,,,1~-, mtrot.luung 111) rC\CMLh pro1cct to Ill\
rcmalc rcscar ch ac,c,Jstant. Ma11ina lki.!.Ulll
Rl\"" a and \\as dc~o,cnhuw.
her role dllllll!!. thL' 1nten IC\\ c,
.....
~
~our te Rac,h 1d. 20 I ~

-

65

I u~cJ open-ended and ~cn11-~tructurcd Jn-dcpth-Jntcn IC\\ n1cthod fo r n1) data
collect ton . "Sen11-~tructurcd tntcr\ J C \\ ~ cn1plo) an I tHen tC\\ gutdc I he que l) t J on~ a~kcd 111
the i ntcn tC\\ arc con tent- focu~cd ttnd de,\ I '' 1t h the 1~~uc" 01 ~11 ca~ J ud gcd h) the rc'-lcarchcr
to be rch~\ant to the rc'-lcdrch que'-ltion .. (Dunn . 20 I 0. p 11 0). Furthc11n ore. inter\ t C\\ ~ help to
fill the k.nO\\ ledge gap that othe1 tn cthod<;,. "uch t.l'-1 oh"c' 't.ltton or censul) data a1 c unable to
bridge cffictentl) lntcn tC\\'-1 can tnqunc dhout cotnplc'\ hun1an hcha\ 101 and the n1oll\ atin g
fo rce ~ hehtnd it

It can docun1cnt nndtilold 111Cdn tn g'-~. op tn1 on~. and e'\pe n c n cc~ too

~ · hen a tnethod l" rcqutred that "hO\\" rc"pect lor ttnd en1po\\CJ ~t h e people Vv ho

pn.n tde the data In c.ln 1n ten H?\\. the 1n t<.)rn1an t·" ' 1C\\ of the \\ otl d ~ho uld he 'alucd
and treated'' tth rc"pcct. r he 1ntcn te\\ rna) c.dso gl\ e the tnlorn1ant cau~c to refl ect
on their e'\penencc" ,1nd the opportunll) to find out n1o1c about the rc'-learch pro_1cct
than tfthc) '"ere s11n pl) he1ng oh~ened or il the) \\Crc con1plct1n g a questionnaire
(Dunn. 20 I 0. p I 02)
I ll1entioncd earlier that I intcn te\\CU thirteen 111other~ or the hene liciar) chtlcl rcn or

girls engaged in Pl:SP and ISS \P prOJCCt~ ~ on1c ofthcn1 \\Crc hou'-IC\\1\C~ tnvohed in
hou ehold c hore~ and ~o tn e \\ere tnfonnall) cn1pl o) cd d'-~ dati) agncultu ral lahorer~ J\.n1ong
thetn. eight \\ On1cn \\Crc the tnothers of the children of Pl SP project. I intenie\\ed fi,e
n1othcr of girls enrolled in the eco ndar) ~chool ...,tipend project I tnten te\\Cd the tn other~
because 1 found it unethical to ask question abo ut ~e n s itl\ e i~~ues like' iolencc to ...,c hoolgoing girls. e\en though the ~t ipend money at the ~eco nd ar) lc\ el i ~ deli' cred to the gi rb
directl y. I abo considered that b) in ten ie\\ ing the n1 others o r the girl s I " ould he able to
achie' e multi plc vie"" s. I V\Ould be abl c to gather data ahout their daughters· e" pericnces a~
\-\ell a~ hoY\ the project is in1pacting the tnothcrs. and thi ~ \\Ould fall in line \\ith the broader
pers pective~ of 111) research. \,\:hich V\Crc to e'\an1inc the 1111pacts o r these projects on all

WOJ11el1.

66

I \\a~ ahlc to "tart the i nten 1C\\..., 1n the g 1\ en t in1e a~ the parttc 1pan h cmne 1n lt n1e to
I SOC) I he di...,cusston..., intenic''" \\Crc long ranging ftonl fort)-li\e rninut<: . ., to one hour

and thts fonn of in-depth Illtcn lC\\tllg j._, alc..,o ktHl\\11 a._, l<!\1111101710 ( olin 2006) in c..,octaJ
sc Jcncc re catch According to I Jai g- Bro\\ n (2001) the tc...,ttn1onJo .. hac.., the potential to create
~race for other Jnlpo...,...,Jhlc kno\\ ledge

that arc undcneptcc..,entcd ot tn\ t~thlc \\ tthin

con\entJonal aCt.ldcnltl dt~cour'-,C~ .. (416) ~olin Il anlon and ~ht.ln~,u (:~000) refer the
te\111nonio a~ .. collcctt\ c ren1etnhr,1nce .. as through thi~ n1cthod it i~ poc..,~Jblc to get the
hi~tone~ of a con1n1untt) \\tthout inten te\\tng C\er) single pct~on (p

2o7). \ c.., c..,tatcd h)

l Iaig- B rO\\ n (2003) .. Centra I to the tcc..,ti n1on 1c.tl 1c.., the f t.lCt that the It Ic "tot) prcc.,ented 1c.., not

sin1pl) a per~o nal n1attcr: rather. tt tc.., the c..,tor) of an indt\ idual \\ ho tc.., al"o a part of a
communit). A testi1nonio pre~ent~ the life of a pcr~on \\hose c-...pcncnce". \\hile unique.
extend bC)Ol1d her htlll tO represent the group or\\h tch c..,he he I<) a ll1Cll1her.. (p. 420).

rigurc 1 8 l ntcrv iC\\ 1ng. KO I IINOOR
~ourcc Rash 1<.L 2014

67

I do rca l11e the ~ ~~ u e~ of\ nltdtl y and accu rae; th at ',UJ 1ou ncl the U ',C or 1n depth
1ntcn I C\\ s, or /c'\lllnonlo. and l c1grcc '' tth Jnn1c ( lilford ( I 9R6) in that all. "cthn ogrclpht c
truth ~ arc thu

1nhcrcntl; part tal

com nltttcd and ttH:ompletc" (p 7) \c;; ',la tcd hv

olin

(2006). " In-depth 1ntcn tC\\ tng can he clll c' cclk:nttnnl ilthc rcscarchet 1 ~ fl ex tbl c enough to

allo\\ for ~o n1 c tn co n ~ t ~ t cncy.. rcpctttion. c,,1ggc1tl tt nn. 01 nn1t'-~'-~tnn 111 ordc t to undersl<lnd lht;
SUbJCCt o l th ctr re~carch prn,cct Ill more ucpth" (p I X) \he tll so mcntiOJl~ tha t ··,\hen the
lln11tatton" of tc,tunonlo and tn-<.kpth tntcn te\\ 1ng dJ c unde1~tood and ackno\\ lccl.u.ed, then
the tdcntdi cd ~ hort corn tng~ can be dea lt \\ 1th through ~uppkn1cntatton \Vith seconclat y
n1atcrial ~ u c h a~ nC\\ ~.,p,1pc r~.,. JOurna l! q rc account\ and other\\ 11tten tn atc l ~ttl '' (No lin . 2006.
p. 18). , heal o cn1pllll l.,t7C~ .. , al tdrt; become~ the goal. then. rather than gcnc ralt;abdt ty and
rep Ii cab i I it) .. ( o It n. 2006. p. I 7).
Before I ~ t artcd all or tn y 1nten JC\\ ~. I ga\ e tny re~ ponclent~ a part1c1pant con~e nt and

•

infon11a t1 on forn1. \\ h tch I tran 1a ted fro n1 English (A ppend tX C) 1n to Bang Ia 20 (Append tx D )
befo re I tm1ed n1y field\\ ork. The co n ~c nt fon11 con~istcd of the re~ca rch qucstton~ c1nd
objec tive . , steps taken to ensure confidenti ality to the be'-lt or ou r ah tltty, a ~taten1cn t on the
right to\\ tthdraw fron1 the researc h proJeCt and ha\ e all a~~oc t atc intcrvtcv. tnatcnal
destroyed, a statement on th e ri ght to co ntac t the rc~carc he r a f'tcnvards, and a statement on
the right to see copies of any photographs, tape or tran cript ( Bryn1an, 2008: Dunn, 20 10 ). I
also sought thctr pe1111tssion for audio/\ ideo rccordtng and for taking the1r photographs
(Gadc, 200 1: Price, 200 1). Obtmning \V ritten consent is a sensttl\ e t ~s u e tn Bangladesh (du e
to hi storical and cultural context) and \\ c found it unethi cal to ask so n1 eone to s1gn a ronn
that he/she was unabl e to read. Therefore, I audio-recorded the tnatcn al dcta tl ed on the

20

Bangia 1"- the national language ofBanglade"h

68

con~e nt fonn and pla;cd tt Cor the pa111 c1panh be fore "tart1ng the tnten te\\"

I he11 vel bnl

con~e nt ''a" al"o aucho-r cco rded 111 place ()r" 11tten "igncltut e"

\IJ 0 r the \\ Ol11Cn that pdl t l C tpated In 111 )' I ntCI\ j e\\ \ \\ ,lntcd 111e to Ll \C th e11 I cal
nan1 cs and to ld 111 e to "h cH c t hc 11 c \ pc 11c ncc" clll d vic w ~ pub It c Iy w i t ho u t an v hc" 1tat Jon I n

rny the~i . I ca p1tnl1/ed the entuc ncHne" nf 111\ 1e"pond enh 111 ord er lot the read er to Jci entdy
and clt ~ tingu1"h the1n ca" tl ) f1on1 othe r name" U\ccl \!though all th e int e l\t e\\CC~ \\ Ctc not
fron1 the ~an1c ~Oc lo -cco n n n1 J C h<1ckground. 1n y intc1vie\\" \VCre gu ided hy a stand ill d \cl of
quc::,ttons ( \ppcndt\ F c.\: \ppend1\ F) I d1d not cl"k the qu estio n\ 111 the san1e ntdct to all n1 y
pat1ic 1pan h. rather I a 1tct cd th cu "equcncc 111 o rder to kt the con\ CJ \H tion\ flo w organi<..a ll y.
A I anttcipatcd earlier, ~o n1 c or n1 y rc~ pond c nh bcccunc hc\ Jtant and unco n1fortahl e to talk

about the touc hy 1 ~\UC I Ikc donl e~ ti C \ 10 lcncc and th eIr rela ted ~ u rrCll n g~ In \ UCh ~ I tua tJ On\,
· I found that \\Ork1n g 111 pmr \\ 1th n1y fetnalc tC'-ca rch "'-"i~ta nt :V1ar;ma Bcgun1 R1 ya \\otkcd

exccpttonally \\ell to n1intn1tze thc1r an\Jety. he also helped tn c by taking not e~ during th e
.

.

tnt en 1ew ...
I used both an audio reco rder and\ ideo cmn era to reco rd the in ten t C\\ c; beca use 1t

was unpossiblc for an aud1o reco rd er to keep a record of the non -vcrhal data. non-a udible
occurrence~ ~uch as gestures and body langua ge \\ ould ha" e been Jo ~t unl e~~ I u ~ed the \tel eo

recorder. I realized that, a~ \\as the case \\ Jth

oltn (2006 ). ~e\ era) n1 cettng" \\ ith the

interviewees helped rne establi h enough tru t to inittatc vo1ee \ 1dco recordtng (p. 27) .\n11t
Bagchi assisted n1e with all of the \ideo reco rding and photographs Mar;tna BcgUJn R1;a
and A1nit Bagchi were in vo lved in the research only after they signed the · Resea rch A 'i" i ~., tant
Con fid cntial ity Agrccn1 cnt' fonn (Appendix G).

69

t the end 0 r th e ln ten IC\\ ~. I gel\ e eac h 0 r the pel rlll.l pant ~ th ctr 111111 I 111Uil1 dad) \\age

and the n c k.~ha\\ fd te a~ I hc1d plOl11t ~ccl l <1l~o ptO\ 1ded ~ na L k. ~ clnd Weller'' l11 ch '' cl" hi gh! )
apprec iated b} 1111 P'li1IL1pclnh '' ho cnJO) eel ea ting and talk.t ng C'J itical t?.eogJapher '\loln1
(2006) <;a ~ ~ that " ficlu\\ O t~ rcc tpt oc tl! i"' \ltal to ttn cngagcu qualitalt\c rcsca tch pt oJClL

moq c~pccwll) \\hen partJ ctpdnt <:. ,1re tho~e oltcn Jucn ttficd a~ II\ IIH! on the nlal .L?.i n"' ... (p

24 ). Be rore I lc n Bang Ic.ldc~h l gtt \ c thenl Ill In c ,\J1U Ill) ~u pel\ I~or" s con tall lllllll he I 111
Canada . . o that the) could contact u~ c1t any titne if they should need or wan t to.

Ethical I uc In, oh cd and :\laintain cd
The ~uccc~~ of an) ~octal re~ea rch 1 e~t~ on the un1que app roaLI1 of handling ethi ca l
i ~ u c~ 1n\ oh ed 111 1t. Dun ng the licld \\ork. I '' a~ carefu l about 111c-u nta 111 i ng "'ound

relati on h1p ~ '' llh 111) partteipanh, re!:>earch a~"' ' ~tanh and the organuat1 on~ that'" ere
in\ oh ed in Ill) rc ~ca rc h a<:.. the collectio n and Interpretation or data gathered ~o l cl y depend on
the 111utual interaction\\ ith people:·· 'oc 1etal nor111c;. c\pcctations of rndi\ 1duals. and
structure ofp O\\er influence the nature of th o~c interaction·· (DoV\I in g. '1() 10. p.16).
Ethi cal is ues 1n research are clo~e l y as~oc i a tcd with C\ cry phase - fron1 topi c and
Inethod selec tion to vvriting and con1Inum cat1 on of the resea rch result. Throughout th e
resea rch proccs

\\IC

can rc1nain ethi call y sound by tnaintain1ng the cnnlid ent wltt ) and

pri\ acy of our paJ1ictpants. by taking info1med consent fron1 thcn1 and b) k.ecptng then1 ~dfe
fron1 any physical or psycho-soc ial harm . I tri ed 111) bc~t to rn akc sure that each n: ~ po nd cn t '<.,
safety and ri ghts rcn1aincd well protected. The audio/video recordin gs \\ere regularl y
upl oaded to th e UN BC H. drive through the secure\ t C\\ unbc ca lnten tC\\ notes and
transcripts "' ere kept in a locked de ~ k in n1 y office at the uni\ erslt) ''hen.: I teach 111

70

Ban g lnd c~ h

\\'hen I returned to Cdnadd, hard cn pt e

d c~ k dnl\\ et at 111\- l "'\ BC ()nice

or an) dncun1 cnt \\ Ct c kept 111 a locked

r he\ \\ til he dc\tJ'()\ cd a net (j\ c \cat<;,
~

~

Qua It ta tl\ c H.:\cal c h co n1 p Jete Iy depend ' tll1 the in tet ,1c tion bet\\ ccn the 1C\Ccll chcr

and the parttctpanh I hi ~ l) pc or ~OC icll Interaction invo h C\ sub ,ccti\ It) d tHI inter, ubj CCt t\ It} i\.1au1lcllnll1g the rcll c\.1\ c tnanagctn cnt 111 the rc\Cclt ch ptnCC\\ "1111 portant tn
order to achiC\ c \ tllidtt) 1n qualitatl\ c 1c'ea1ch . Thi~ t c ll e\.t vi t) ' hnuld he n1corpouttcd 111to
the rc ~ea rc h p1 nee'' c1t each and e\ Cr) \ldge ( B,tll y et a I.. I 999, p I 7 J) Eng.ltmd ( 1994)

defi nc' reflc\.1\ it} ~1' ·· c If -e n tJ cd I ') n1pa thcttc intro, pec ti on and the sci f-co n\c tou "' analytical
~c rutlll \' of the . elf d\ fC\edrchc r
J

Indeed I cilc'\i vit\ )<;,critical to the cond uct or field\\ ork. it
~

indu ce~ ·elf-d tsCO\ cr) and cCl n lead to tn\l ghtt., and new h}l">othc~c' ahout the rc<;,ca rch

questi on ·· (p. 82). Ren1aining cnttcall) rcll e\.i\ C throughout 111) rct.,ca rch pr o\ idcd me new
dircct ton Clnd 1n~ 1 ght dunng the e n ~ • ~ penod
te\ en~ (20()1) en1pha 11e' that one of the tnaJor rc p on"' JbJlJtJ e~ of a re~ca rc h cr Jt., to
return re earch findtng to the co n1n1un1t) 111 whtch the; ha\ c re"earchcJ . 'I ht~ <)hou ld not he
lirnitcd to just the publi c;hcd artic le onI) ... The rclati on, hip C\tahli t., hcd. the dial og ue ~ that
ensue, the institutional tn ea ns to support or publicize con1n1untty issues or activities arc all
\\a) s to acknO\\ Iedge the ki ndn c~~ bestO\\ ed on u. " ( Pn ce. 200 I . p. I 50). Y ct. tn o(;,t
researchers 5impl y collect their data and lea\ e to use thctr findin gs 111 acadcn11c \\ nting.
project reports and teaching I\\ ill try to give t.,O tne sort of feedback to tTI} pat11Ctpant . It
!night be a presentati on or a written SUI11n1Cll)' or 111Y findings\\ hich I \\ill tl a n~ l ate in Bangia
before l hand then1 over to the con1n1unity for furth er dt aloguc.

71

Data Anal y i and Interpretati on

iv1y data analy~J p1occ"s " cnt through th e gutdancc of 111) '-.Upcn 1'-.0r Dt

ath eJtn e

oltn 111 Canada I an1 tndehtcd to K11 b) and Me Kenna ( I 989) and l id)' (.! 0 l 0) for pt ()\ idtng

tnc dtrccllon 111 findtn g out c1 '-~)'tcmaltc apptonch lot clotng a tn cctn tngJu l analy"'

1v th c~ t ~

re~ea rc h ~~ ltkc 1nost ot hc1 de\ clopn1ent '-.tud te'-. 1e'-learch in tha t it is ct O'-~' cultural tn nnture

For tncthod ologJca I gt ou nd 1ng .. 1n ana I) n ng the Lolleucd dtlla and in tcq11 eltng th e Ii 11<.li ng,,
I u ~ed fc n11nt st tncthod o log) cl'-. 1t e n1 pht1 '-.l/C'-~ that 1e'-.Cd t ch lind 1ng' ' houl d be 1nterpt cted

\\tth tn the co nte'\t ofthe cul tu1 al Cran1e\\Otk. ol the tc"ecuch Lotnn1un1tv an d v.tthtnltc.., own
-'

au tonon1ou

~ y ~ tc 1n or\ a Iueq heha \ tor, att 1tudc', and bel tC\ ec.., 1n ot dcr to Lon te'\ tua luc the

data and <n erco n1 e any ktnd of colon tal rcp1 C'-lcnta tt on ( I ancle1, l 9X7 and Roc..,e, 1 99~ c1ted tn
Madge et al., 1997, p 106)
I ~tarted \Vtth tran ~c nb1n g the chgJ tal file~ 1nto Word docun1ent. v. h1ch tc.., n vet y
labori ou, and n1onotonou. proce~ . On a\ eragc. I had to ~ p en d at lea~t c;cven 1111nutc~ for
transcribtn g one line of text. Before transcnbtng the tntet-v I C\\ ~. I had to repl ay and lt ~tc n to
the reco rdings ~cvera l tin1 c~ tn order to get the co rrect \\O rdtng I \\ta~ abo care ful that the
tran . . cribecl text~ should co n\ ey their etnotions and inflection~ proper! y. Son1ettn1 cs I had to
refer to the vtdeo recording a v. ell. There were so1ne reno\ at t on~ happenm g tn the l:S DO
when I \v a dotng the tntctv I C\\ s, so dunng the data tran~criptton stage, I O\ erca1ne the issue
of background so und ~ by playing the rcco rdtng at different\ olun1 e levcb
I transcnbed each in ten iew 111 a eparate \\ ord fil e After co1nplettng th e
trnnscript tons, I printed out all the in ten ievv s I read and re- read th e tntcn 1e\\ tra nsc nptt on~
and found son1 c key words such as educati on, pn\ ate tutor_ don1 e tt c \ tolc nce, ~c h oo l

72

managetncnt cotnn1tttec. ~ ttp cnd tn oney, soc to-econon1tc de\ clop tn cnt. and gc)\ crnrnent JOb
were pro nounced by th e parll ctpants frequent! y
I developed t\\ 0 then1CS and Se\ era I ~ ub - th e m cs \\ 1th the help o r the abo\ c Jll enti oncd
key ~ord s In order to so rt out th e thcn1c . J con\ ttlntl y c on ~ ult cd n1v <., uper\ 1 ~or and
re\ t c ~ ed the rele\ ant JOUrn c1 1 a rtt cle~ and ~cco n da r } ~o ur cc~ (Dunn. 20 I 0. Kit hy and
McKcnnn , 1989). A fter td entd) tn g the thc n1e~ and ~ uh t h c n1e~ I started cocltng the key
quote .. by u tng a ht ghhghtcr and a pen T he tnatn t h e nl e~ r de\ elo ped \\ et e
l) Educa tton a~ De' clopn1ent f·cnth \ ~ Realrty

2 ) Violent De' eloprncnt

ln the analysts and dtscus5 tOn chapter of tht s th e~ t s, I \\ til pre<.,ent th e analys is o f these
thcJn e and

ub - thcn1 e~ a

a natTn ttve. Wtthtn tht s nmTall \ c. I ~e l ecte d son1 e dtrect quotattons

fro tn ITI Y re pond ents to 111ake thetr \ te\vpotnts \ I. tbl c to the reader and to JUStl ry the
rati onale o f n1y tnteq1retatt ons. As Morgan ( 1997, 64 ) rcco n1m cndcd . .. th e researcher o.; hould
ai tn to co nnect the read er and th e ori gina I pani c ipants through ·'' el l-chose n· direct
qu otati on "(as cited tn Ca n1eron. 20 I 0, p. I 70). In th e anal; sis and di sc u<,<., ion chapter, J
attctnpt to answer n1y research qu estion within the co ntex t o f the a Coren1cntioncd th cn1c
and I al so tr) to ·fit' the findin gs \\ ithin th e broader literature (Bryn1 an, 2008).

Limitations

There is no destined way o r doing fi e ldw ork ~ a Delyscr and tarrs ( ?QO 1) l11enti on
·· fie ldwork is not innate but learned." As a researcher, it is in1por1ant to nckn O\\ ledge 111}
lin1itations and address thcrn . For one, [ onl y intcn ie\\ eel thir1ccn tnothers f'or n1y re~ca rc h ,
and as the popu lation fo r thi s proj ect wa sn1a iL there still rern ain n1any other pcrspcclt\ es on

73

the toptc /\' Bn'\.ter and I~ le" ( 1999)

a~. ··there 1 ~ no " Ingle real It) hut rather n1ultip le

realitte<· (p ~ 12) \\ htle 111~ projclt could btl\~ llllluded 111 0 1~ \\Oillen (rn rn '' 1th111 or
outstde of r hdkUI gao n. I \\ tl\ llllllted h\ tinl e (lnd 11H111e\- 't L'l. thc\e lllnttatiOil\ do not detra ct
~

~

fron1 the \aluc ornb.J CC lJ\ c nfnl) pt OICCl. \\ ht ch \ \ cl\ to open the arenn fo t tntnc <1 nd fututc
rc earch
The 1ntcn 1C\\ " I 1ecot ded ''en; done 1n Bcngla. To U\e the 1n ten 1e\\" Ior 1ny th c~ t \, I
had to tran\ ldtC thcnl 11110 Englt\h ()f C<Hil \C. I iH... ccpl th(ll the trans lation or the IIller\ JC\V
tran. Cnpt hd\ C 111e\ 1tab l) CdU\Cd '.0111e dt\tol1ion of the words. OJ' general pet ccpt1011 of <1
re ~ p o ndent· , an\\\Cr. hO\\C\er. I h,l\e Jonc rn ~ be't 111 ordc t to stay !~1 ithful to thc11

\OICC\

The I i 1111 ted a 1110U nt l) r tllne I spen t 1n Bangladc'-th (o ne 111011 th) can he <-011\ ldered a
hortc omin g of n1~ rc ~ea rch. GaJc (200 I ) cldinl\ that "1dca ll ). a fore1gn pro1ect ~ho uld he
about a ) ea r· ~ duration to perm it a lca rntn g period before the realtnqutr) hcgm~·· (p. 170) r
coinplctel) agree \\tlh Gade. hO\\C\Cf I bdte\e that tn )' hackgtound a\ a lifelong n1en1bct of
the an1e con1n1un1tv
ga te
., tnitt ....

thc~e concerns

Despttc all or the 1 ~~ u es that aro~c durin g n1 y fi cldv. ork. I attcn1ptccL to the hc~t of tny
ability, to act ethicall y throu ghout tn y resea rch, and in the end J ha\ c cotn c to agree that
"field\\Ork is about racing chall enges and doing thing<-~ ;ou n11 ght not norn1all ) do" (Bullard.
2006. p . 62).

74

hapter Four : Educa ti on-a -Oevelopn1ent : Fa ith' ' · Realit)'
Thts chapter · ~ a pn 11 0 r the and I )'~ I ~ clnd d I~c u ~~ IOI1 0 f 111Y th c~ t ~ II CI C I C\111

di scu .. tng the cx.pcttcncc..., ofP l·. P and F ~ ·. \P ( edu ca tton - ha ~cd) p l oJ cc t ~ a ~ pcJeel\ cd hy

n1 y rc pondcnts \\ tth the help of . ., cholm ly lttcraturc. I tccct\ cd h ''"nonto\ frnn1 th1rtecn
\\-O rn en \\ho a1c rnothc r~ o l hcnelictal ) g 11l ~ and Lhllclt en o f th e~c proJceh OUJ1ng 1n y
ana Iy • ~ or the tnt en Je\\ . ., t\\ o n1a1n th c n1c~ e1nct gcd and th e\ arc · cduca 11 on-a.. ,
de\ elopment · and ·, 1olcnt de\ elopn1ent' In th1 " chaptc1 I an1 dJ \C U ~..., Jn g th e thern c
·educati o n -a~- Je\ c l o prn e nt '

'1he le\IIIH OJI/o\ of n1 . . re~ p n nd e nt ..., helped n1 e to ·rethink '

education as · de\ clopn1cnt· and to un ea11h the h1ddcn re al1ll e~ JJ1lerpla) mg hchind the
ccnc
Fron1 n1 y current lield\\ ork C'<pen cncc, I he:\\ c k arn cd th at le\llln onto\ or in-depth
intervic\\ S arc 111\ aluable and dctatl ecl n ch ~o urce~ of1nf on11 all on, vvht ch open up tnulttpl c
a\ cnue · or thou ght for a re~c arc h cr. In the an a l y~ 1 ~ stage of n1y rc~cn rc h , I have hccn careful
to concentrate on n1y research ohJ CC ti\c~ and th eon e~ . fhou gh tnany thcn1 es and suh-thcn1 cs
etncrged, I strean1llncd n1y a nal y~ i

c hapter~ to t\\- o n1a1n thc1ncs and used fi eld n o t e~ and

quote to tlluintnatc those then1cs. Dunng the tran ~c riptton and anal)'~ I

procc~~. I often

que tioncd th e defintti on of educa tion and how 1t rel ates to ·de\ elopn1ent · and ·de\ clopn1ent ·
intllati vc~ such as the PE

P and FS AP. Prole or Gaycn (2014) c la1n1 ~ that the n1a1n role of

cducatton should be nation building by crcatlllg inlo n11 cd and en1pO\\ creel cttt;en . Y ct, so n1 e
people stil l bclteve that education is a neutra l phcno tn cnon, ~ tthout cultural or polit1cal
in1plicat1ons. As a result, the Ban glade ~h educall onal ~ys tc n1 often races cnti ct::,nl and
rc..., t ~ tan cc fron1 tts c llt zcn ~. and thus ha ~ bccorne a hand y too l for po~ t -co loni a l nco-ltbcral

po\\- ers (AsacL 2009) I 1<.1. \-v C\ cr, before, in1p lcn1cnttng any cducatton-rcl atcd p1 og rmn ~.

75

pos. tbl e ou t co n1c~ ~hould be ancli)!Cd thtou gh the l e n ~ of co l n nwlt ~ n1. glohali;attnn. cultwal
unpcnall 111 . n <Htonalt~nl ttnd othet pol tti cal ~ ~~ u e~ ( \ '-.ttd . ~009) I let e, de\ elopn1ent e'\pcJt ~
ca n pia) an itnportant role he)ond ~ 1111pl) funll n,ning as a ·rubbc t-sta tnp · fot the

n1atcnalt7ation of the' 1 ~ 1011~ and 1111~~~on~ of II l" (L<nvso n. 1 007). It I \ pt ohl cnlatic \\hen
the notion of educa tton ah\ Cl) ~o n I) con t ,un ~ po'-.ttt\ e Lnn n otatinn~ l ienee. e\ en \O n1e of th e
n1o ~t cnll cal per. t)J1~ c1b~tc1in fron1 bctng u tltc<tl about edu catto nal inttt at l\ c\ hecau\e th ey

think that 311) anHHII1t 0 1 qualit) of edUL<.ttion is ~l 'gtHld. a lll Oli iH l L'l. L3 11 jUS l any qu altt) of

1

dntded tnto ti'e tn ai n '-.Ub-thcnle\ cducntion in dc\dopn1cnt: suhsidt;ing the ·~hadO\\

education

)~tem· and the guide hook bu~ine\\. qualit) education.

cc r -fed politic\ and

corruption: and gend er n1 a 1n ~ tremn tn g . [· ach of thc~e thcn1c" I\ cxpl<un ed 111 grca tc1 depth
belO\\ The chapter end '' tth a bncf general dJ\cuc;~ton and \O tne cn ncl ud1ng rcn1<U k~ und er
the headin g of ·qutct re\ olution or ,iJent killer'.

Edu ca tio n in 'D evelo pm e n t'

Both the F

AP and PESP were 1n1pletncnted in Ban g l adc~h pritnanl y as education

based development projects with educa tion attainn1ent a~ the1r central goa b . I lcnce I fou nd 1t
important to ~ tart 111) inten ie\\ s b) taki ng the opportunit) to learn th e beneliciar; n1other~ ·
perceptions and d c5c ripti o n ~ about educa tion All of 1111 respo ndent\\\ ere \ er) en thu sta~tt c
and flu ent when d e~c ribin g and defining education, \\ ht ch they rega rd ed a~ a tnea n': l of
obtaintng a fon11al paid job through whi ch better socio-cconotni c status ca n be ac hi e\ eel.
When I asked Vv hat does educa tion n1ean to yo u'? BEAUTY prornptl y rcplt cd
r und erstand edu ca tion· ~ good It IS a \ Cry good thin g I \\ ill tl)' Utl110 ~ t to edu cate 111\
child . My prior concern is to educate n1 y child 11' I could educate 1111 child propcrl;,
~

76

he'' Ill he ahlc to get a job \ 5 I \\ (Hk a~o., an agrJ culturall ahnJcr. I don' t ''ant he '' Jll
do the 5an1 c I don' t '' ant he '' Ill he '"l dtl\. laho1cr I'' dltr\. 111\.. bc~ tt o n1atHH!.C a .job
for hun \\hen he \\Ill grO\\ up I \ lrongl) hclr c\ c tfh c geh cductlll nn he ' 'til get <l .J nb
I \\ant to educate h1rn JU "l to get a JOb
Atnong 1111 t c~o., pon<.lent " on l) \\ \ ~ \ R \ L0111p k tcd ~o.,ecn n d a r; '-l hoo I Fu rthc1rnorc. f·
,\

If ~\ . '\l Rl '\"- \H ~ R . T \Ill

CY ,

R \ . \1 \Ril \1.\1 \R.l l"- \ . \1< ) "-f)\\ \R ,\ .

1\1 K t- D \ dnd II \ [ I\1 \ d icl n() t cotn p Je te pr11na ry sc hPol ing ( ~o n1 c of thcrn had j u~o., t

co mpleted g1t1UC c l tl '-~ 1 ) I \er~o n e C'\Lept ~ \\ \R \ Llaimed that the) arc· \lur/..ha·
(' illiterate· 111 Bangia) although · illiterate· d oc~ nnt (0111p l etel~ c\ pl,un · ifJ(J/\ha' I a\kcd
F E~ ( Y. ··h<.)\\ Iong bcJc k ) ou go t n1,1n Jed >..

he 1ep l1ed tha t ~ h e ''a~ man 1ed 20 ) ea r ~ ago

and th at he hd~ bee n lu lfi JJ ing het ra n1il) I C p o n ~o., J bd lt le\ \ l ll CC th en. incJud1ng rn ai nt ai nin g
hou, ehold c h o re~. tdk. tng
..... Ldre or childre n. cook.JtH!
....., food and '-tO forth . In addition. :-,he works
a an tnfo nncl l agn cultural lc1 horer and ~ h d t cs the hou\chnld e'. pcnditurc But. agai n. "he
claitn cd. " I am a ·,\/ur/..ha' beca u ~e I do n' t ha\ C lo rn1a l ~choo l ed ucati on" .., he ~ ta t e rn c nt or
FENCY resonated\\ 1th so mcthtn g

hre~ th a ( 1995 ) sa1d

edu cated chtldren \\ ere \ tC\\ Cd a~ future agcnh of hi/,a.\ [th e Ncpalt \\Ord fo r
"de\ c lopment · J and our parent \\ere u ~ u a ll y ~ee n a~ ah1ka'1' True. there \\ ere t htn g~
our parent5 d1d that had l1ttle cient iii c b a~ t ~ or n1adc an) logtcal ~c n~c But there
were al o tn any things they did that had tnorc practi ca l \ a lu e~ th an the theo reti ca l
·sc ience · \\ e " ere lea rning at choo I. .. I he ne'' educa ti on g~n c u the 1n1pr C\\tOn that
our parent<). tn anu allabour \\as antith eti ca l to h1/..a\ . So \-ve ~ n ec red at n1 anu al work.
thinking that it \\ a, !:-,Omcthing only an ah1ka\1 or i nte ll ect u a ll~ ·u nd c rd c \ c l o p~d ·
mind would do. It \\l as not fo r the ht gh-n11nded h1ka'1' The nc\\ edu cational ~y tcn1
was produ c1ng a whole new way of'think1ng about th e va lue of labour ( p . 26R)
The US-based Pe11 Rc:search Center (2 0 14) publi !:-, hed a sur C) report on "Cilohal I tc Hs on
Opportu n1ty and lncqua It tr. Emerg1ng and De' 'C.'Iop1 ng /:~c ononn e., ,\ /t (( h Afore Opt 11111.\ /I(
than Ru.:h Countn c.\ ahoutthc F"uture" in late 2014 . ·yhe\.. co llec ted inl'orn1c1llon fron1
B a n g l ad c~ h along with C)CVC il other 'developing' co untri e

o r th e \\ orld . One or th e

detcrn1ining variables th ey used was based on wh at th e respondents thought \\ as unpo11ant
77

for getting ahead 111 Ide f· tft} perce nt of the Banglacle"'h1 respondent"' co n ~ icl c rcd ed ucation
a the n1ost tn1po11ant key to nH1\ e up 1n l1 fc ( p. l I ) I h n\ C\ ct. 1t \\a~ not n'-l kcd how
education\\ ou ld pe1forn1 th1"' feat nor\\ a"' the1e anv JndJ ca tJon 111 the rcpo1t or why the
respondcnb thou ght '-lO I cc rtmnl) agree" 1th th e outcntnc of the report a'-l nil of tny
rc~ p o nd c nt ~ thou ght cdu ccltton. b) It~ O\\ n \ trtu e. will nu tnnl <l tt cal ly chan1!.C th e <.,OC JO

eco non11 C ~ tatu'-lofth c tr c htldre n h) pnnJdingct rottn al, oh JI O\\C\CI. I \\Ollld atgue that.
bc)ond .JU ~ t acqUiring a form al job. ed ucat tnn ~ho uld cnlwnu.: an tnclt\ idual '<.. capablltt) to
apprchc ncllu ~ her '-lurrou nd1ng en\ 1ronn1ent and to <.. hapc 111 '-l her bcha\ tot (De\\ cy cited in

Aggan\ aL 19 1.

; her. 200 I ) 1 he edu ca ti on "')<..tcn1 o f a country '-lhou lcl he built upon

ex isttng tn ch gc n o u ~ k.no\\ ledgc-ha~c~ rc1thcr than tgnon ng thcn1 It <., hou ld be re<.,pec tr ul of th e
fa ct that th e b8 ~ t c lahor u ~c ~)'~ t c n11 1111portant 8nd Ill\ aluahl e 111 It<.. ov. n right: Instead. the
cutTent ht crarchical perception of land u"'e pl ncc~ 1t 111 8 11 tnfcn or po<., ttJ on (Shrc~ tha , I 995)
A 1975 76 stud y on rural cn1pl oy1nent fou nd thtlt eight percent of the un en1ployn1ent

in B a n gladesh i ~ ·v oluntar) ·and the n1aj or po1t 1on of this co n ~ t sts of educated tndividuals
who consider \\ ork in agn culture a beneath their ~oc ia I s tatu ~ (Ahn1cd, 198 1). The 20 14
repo rt on .. High unn ·cr.\1{) enrolnu:nt. loH graduate cn1plo.1n1cnt: Ana(~ ·.\lng the paradot 111
Af_e,hant.\lan. Banglade,·h. lncha. ,Vepal. Pakt\lan and Sn Lanf.:.a .. by the Ec ononll.\1
Intel hgence [ 'n1t (C I U) or the British n1aga/ine ·The Econon11 ,., . shcn\ s that 4 7 perce nt of

uni versity grad u8tes in Bangladesh arc unetnpl oyed (p. 10). We can C8sil) deduce the fon11al
paid en1ploymcnt situatio n o r the '-lCCO ndary sc hool graduates Ill Bangltldesh 110\\ . In the
2012- 13 fi scal year, Bang ladesh had to spend

L815 n1JIIion fo r the In1po1t ofca ptt8l goo d ~

(a maj or portion of\\ hi ch includes agn cultural n1 achi nery) con1parcd to JU"'t 4X2 n1dll on 111
2000-01 ( Ban g l a d c~ h Bank, 20 14, para. 1).

78

Acadctni c researcher Ton cs (200 9) a1 gu e~ that th e Jntcn1atJonaJ age ncies such as th e
World Bank, the IT\ 1F and ~o n1 e
world

agene 1c" arc promoting nco It hera I po ltc Jc<., around th e

oc tolog t. t Pt cchcl and llan1" (2007) td ent1 fy that n co ltb et a il ~ n1 "c '\pand[ s l n1arkcts

by clitninaltng gO\ Crntn cnt poltCIC<., J11tCJCc ltllg \\ ith 11la rk et<., .. and th e) also claim that
neo I1bera I po lt t1cs "com mod 1f} th 111 g<., Lhat \\ ere no l o rip. tna II ) prod uccd to be c'c hanged in
the n1 arkct (e.g henlth. educa ti on. pollution).. ( p ')) I hu \. th c<.,e pr oJeC t<., poli cic<., arc <., impl y
fulfill! ng the objec t1\ es set out hy 1ntcn1at1 ona I de\ clo pn1cnt 0 1 ga nu a t1on<., \\ hd c he]r1 ng
neolJberaJ CCO ll O ITII C poltctC. by O j)CI1111 g up a 11 C\\ 111arkc t fo r <.,e]Jmg th e produ ct<., of
rnultinati onal co mpani c . Bcca uc..,c o f th e negativ e pc rcc pti onc.., such a<., ··,\h o c.., tudr c~. rid e~
car .. (" Lik.ha para k.arc _1 e, ga ri ghora charc <.,c .. ) created b; current ed ucational ~) <., lenl to
manu al labor, the c prac ti ce~ arc cl en1o li~ ht n g th e largest Jahor-tn te ns1ve agri culture <.,ector of
Bangladc h (und oubtedl y the backbone o f the country). HALIMA re tnforcc~ th e general
mind et that he expect n1ore for her daughter 'N hen she says
o no no ...... Wh at n1; daughter v. ill do? 'A ill <., he be a busincssn1an? V.V ill she he an
agricultural laborer? Vv' ill she be a \ end or or shop keeper? o. She \\ ill undoubtedl y
be a govemtncnt or non-go\ erntnent paid job holder.

Sub idizing the ' hado\\' Education Sy tent ' and the Guide Book Business

The definiti on of educati on and the e\.pl anati on or educa ti on ·s inlportancc a
desc ribed b) m) respondcnb enabled 111e to dnl\\ a c lear ~ ke tc h of h O \\ ·educati on' is
co nceptua Iized by rec ipient<., of · de\ e lopn1ent · . 1 he pread o r · tn ark.ct-o ri ented cd ucat io n· in
so ca lied ·underdeve loped· co untri es is tnateria Ii1ed by interna ti ona l de\ clopn1ent agc n c i c~
(WB, 200 I a). What I can assum e fi·onl the \ oices or n1y rc. pondents i , th at the pn)\ td crs of
nco liberal edu cation are e\ aluatcd as succcss rul once rcc tpi ents of de\ eloptnent arc l11ghl )
conv ineed that edu cati on is a · n1agic- bullet' fo r soc io-cco non11C en1 ancipa li on or the pt)or. 1n
79

the ncol1 bera l econon1) . edu cation ts co n ~ td ct eel 1u~ t tlnothet tnarket product that 1~ \a lucd on
the ba~t . of lo~ s clnd pro fit ( \ ~dti. 2009). It 1~ helt C\ ed that 111\ e~ tn1ent in edu ca tton c rea te~
profit the ~<1 n1 e \\d) d~ 111\ e'-ltn1cn t tn the rnark et ( Oc1<.lric h. 20 12 ). li enee. I wa nted to kno\\

\\hat rn y rc~pondcnh dtd '' tth the \ltpcnd n1on c) \1o ·t of rn y participant' 1cpl1cd that th ey
spent the sttpend monC) to pay the pn\ tt tc tutor~ ofthe11 ch tldt cn /\\

A~ II ·A n1 ention cd

llpend n1oney) \1 \ '-~O n nnd daughtc t go fot prt\ ate tuition. I pay the prt\ ate tutot
\\ 1th the "tt pend n1nne:
I inquired furth er. '"do )Olll chtldr cn go to '-l<..hool'! .. "he rcplrcd tha t
Dcfinttcl). the) go to . choo l regularly But 1l ·~ all about JU ~t ~o tn g and co n11ng hack
The\.. learn d littl e tn the '-~Choo l heccJU\e n1o~t of the t11nc teacher~ ate cat cle"~ abou t
teac h1ng 1n the c hoo I. \\ h,H the) Iearn the: can· t app1chend dun ng domg the
hon1C\\ Ork ~ o n1 et1n1cs the <.. hildrcn c:;a\.. th e\. learn nothing and don· t undcr~tand \\ hat
the ir teacher~ taue.ht
then1 1n ~c.hnn l omet1n1e tea<.. her"» don ·t i.lltcnd the1r <..la"»"»t:'-~
....
\\hat \\ill 111) children do th en? I hat·"» \\h) I ga\c them priv,ltc tuitron.
~

BEA UTY g<l\ e another cx.planat1on abou t\\ hat "»he d oc~\\ 1th the <.,t tpcnd n1oncy
I pend the ~ ttp end ror n1~ ch ildren. s educa tion co~t. rho ugh it.~ not enough! La"»t
time \\hen I recei\ ed the ~ ti pend n1 one; I bought a ·guidebook· fo r m; so n hy addi ng
other tnoney to the ~t ipend
I bccmne intere ted in the"»e ·!:!.... uid cboo k ~· . . he d c~cribed it:
Son1c questt ons arc a ked after eac h and every l c~so n ~ taught 1n the "»chool to th~
student . It •"» hard for chi ldren to find ou t th e () Jh\\ Cr\ rron1 the te'\thook I he
guidebook ~ ~ a book with "»Olutions and an v. ers to thc~e qu c~ tr o ns. The chddrcn U"»e
the guidebook to qu ote the anS\\ er~ of the que~tJ011<:, a"»kcd. rhat is \\ hy I bought a
gutdebook for n1y ~o n. \\ htch cost Tk.400. I added 1 k 100 \\ tth the "»llpend tnoney to
bu) it. My so n's ~c h oo lmi <; tre~s told me to gi ve him pri vate tutoring and to bu~ hin1 a
gutd cboo k She abo told n1e that you hen e to bu y the gu tdcbook to n1ake 1ou r so n
· n1 cri tori ous · and to · progrcs · t<.)\Va rd ~ hi s stud ics.
Private <;upplementary tutorin g i<., rega rded a<., a ·"» hado\\ edu Latio n "») "ten1· (Bra\.
2007) The dcep-~ca tcd beli ef or the recipients on the PO\\ er or educa tt on ~ ~ e\ tdent rron1 the
viewpoint<., of my intcrvic\vee<;. f'hC) ~CC education a\ a ·n1agic-buJict' l'o r ~OI\ in g all '-~OCineconoini c proble1n s. However. rath er than providing quality educa tion. the cuiTent pract tcc
80

111 tcad helps t\\ o educatt0n related bu~tne~~e~ tn Ban g lad e~ h to gro\\ <:1 nd floun~h

·r hey me

1n on1c soc icttc pll\ ate tutonng is o wtdc~pl cad th <H tn o~ t household~ I eel n need to in\ cq
111 tutonng I r they p0 ~4.., tbl y ca n. Tht~ n b ~e n atJOI1 ha ~ been 111lld e 111 ~ctt tng~ (1 ~ dn et ~e an d

nun1ero u ~ a\ Banglade

h.. (~1" uted 111 Br<l: & "- ' ' n. 2014. p 1 7}. I he e\. ten\ tl) o f the ptt\atc

\tUdy or Ed uctttio n \\'atc h \\'hiLh round that over a firth or al l ptll11c\l) \Choo l ~t ud e nh
rece t\ cd p11\ ate tutnnng 1n 2000. '' h1 ch tnerCCl\Cd to 1 1°fo 111 2005 and 1X 0 o 111 200X
Thc~e rate<.., \\ere I C\ p CCl l\ CI) 50°o. 55°o ,tnd 6X 0 o an1ong the stud ent<.., of<..,cc..ond ary
sc hoob The fi '-'gure reachc..., c1bout X0°o fo1 cia...,~ :X.. Pt e-...,c..hno l stud ent\ arc al~o
subj ec t to prl\ ate tutonng. I he "tudcnh recct\ c pn' ate lc~...,on~ at home 01 111 tuto1 ~·
hon1e ~ or cottchtng centre..., fh c...,c tna) he one-to-one. nt tn <..,Jna ll o r 111 large group.. ,
(a cJtcd tn ' nth,20lLpma 5)
· Each hou chold .. pen d ~ half of thc11· pn\ ate e\.pend Jtut e on eclucatt on fo r pn ' ate tutonng in
Banglade h (Educd tt on \\ atc.. h. ?005. chu n11 an n. 2009) . The Banglaue~h Bureau of
tati stic (88 ) in their 2006 07 "-Ur\C) found th at 5.499 coach1 ng center~ tl re 1n ope ration in
Banglade h en1ploy in g 67 200 ful 1-titnc and 44.800 part-time etnpl oy ec

(~at h. 20 I 1 a~ ctted

in Bray & Kwo, 2014. p. 22).
f:ducati on V\ ntch (:~005) round that .. lin1ited teacher internctton and lO\V quality or
instructi on lead n1an) farnilte s to en list tutorin g. further in c rca~i n g e\ p en~e .. (tts ci ted tn
Schutmann, 2009, p 509). HALIMA n1 an1fest~ her grt c\ ance~ and JU~tdi e<;, pnvate tutonng
claitni ng that
As a paid public servant a school teacher should be rc"iponsiblc for attending c l a~se~
regula rl y. I he) should be ~ inc e rc about their ~ tudenh · acade1nic ac hie\ en1cnl\. It '" ~1
con1n1on practice th at in11n cdiatcly after ~c hool ~ t a rts, son1 e teac h e r~ go out~1de.
leav ing the stud ents alone in the classroon1 , and n.!n1a1n bu ~y doing other ~ tulT or
talking to outsiders As a result the children stat t to hue and c1) and th e en\ 1ronn1ent
of th e classro01n bccon1cs 1ncssy Son1e leave their sc hool benches and so n1 e e\ en

81

lea' c the ~c ho o l and go hon1c Due to <.., ULh pr actlcc~. ~o n1c children . ., ho'' ncga tJ\ c
attt tudes a hou t go tng to "Lhoo I . on1 et 11nc the . ., tudcnh go to their tcac her an d rcrnt nd
hun about tttk.1ng thetr cla...,..., and then the tedc her 111 c1 hun) finr . ., hc..., the cl<l...,..., \\ tthrn
the ~ ttpulat cd t1n1 e cll1d the pnor OhJCClt\ e of <..,C hoo lttH! <.., lUclcnl<..,. acacJcrnJL
achtc\Cnlcnt t\ co rnpl e tcl~ rgnorcd ll uh . .. .. no hope lot tc~K htn g at "L hoo l. n o \\a~ . I
ha' c to ptO\ rdc prl\ tllc turtr on I ccln 111dk.e d privclte tutor accnuntdhlc for rn y
dau ghter·\ tlcadcnllt. cJchtc\cmcnts Jt·..., dtrlit.ult \\ithinrn: ltn1ttcd c<lpactl ) to tn c\kc
the <..,L hoo l tCJlhCJ<.., tllL OlllltdbJc fnt 111~ daughtL• t \ tlltl<.lclllll j)lllt!IC\\ bcLaU\C rrom
rn~ pre\ i ou~ c\.pcncncc I k.nO\\ he ~ h e mtl!ht t cpl~ ·Jo ~o u pa; n1 c'>' I rccc t\C 111 }
<..,al<ll .\ rr0111 th e \ChooJ .....t!O\ Crl1111CI1t not 11'0111 .\OU .
In the <..,anle <..,lLH.l). I ducdtion \\ dtch ( 1 00.:;) round that. in 11H)St La<..,C\,l hildrcn·..., ptt\ate
tutor~ arc th ctr <;c hool t eac h er~

I he ~ tud : al...,o Lla11n..., that the rnonetd t'} bene fit ftorn pnvatc

tu1 tton unpcde~ ~c hoo l teac her..., f ron1 good leeK h mg du11 ng the "Lhool hout \ (a~ c 1ted in
chunnann. 2009. p 509)
It \\OUld not he unrca...,ondble to thtnk thdt the (JOB d!H.I the poltl.) JnakCI'\ or
Bangladesh are not a'' arc or the \J tuati on regarding P'" ct tc turl!on and the gurdchook
•

bu incs in Ban g lad c~h . Go' en1n1cnt .. ccondary ...,chool teac her..., arc p1 ohth1lcd to undc11akc
pri\ ate tutonn g or any fornl o r en1pl oyn1 C11l ou t ~ Jd c ~c ho ol by the Al1i cle 9 or the 1979 rule\
for teacher of Bangladesh ( \llint ~t ry of Fducatron, 2005 06) A 2004 Mtn l\try o f I:cluca ti on
circula r tate that "no teachers \\ orki n.....t! for tate-run cd ucal!onal rn...,tt tut1on..., could In\ oh c
then1 eh es di rec t!) \\ith pri\ate tuiti on in coac hmg cen ters" (a~ citeJ in Bra~ & K\\ O. 2014.
p. 45). Su rprisingly enou gh. in 2012, the GOB tried to bring tuition-pro\ iding coaching
centers und er certatn rules and regul ations thereby co ntradi cting thctr 2004 position. They
fixed and notified arca-spcc tfic tuiti on fcc fo r teachers, regulating ho~ tnuch they ca n
charge for pri va te turtion. They arc Tk. ~00 for ~ tud e nt ~ in Cl tt c~. Tk 200 for d J ~ tJ tct-lc\ cl
to\\ n ~ and for students of' rural area<; (Independent, 20 12 a~ Cited in Bray & K\\ o, 20 1-+. p
41) Ironicall y, the itnplc1nentation of controls on pri\ate tuition and coach1ng center.. , (b)

fixin g a ccrtcun mnount) gave, in one sense, indirect authenti ca ti on to the shad O\\ educatio n
82

.. y~tc n1 and gutdcbook hu ~ 1nc ~s

ft ct knO\\ tng that th e pri' ate tutt1on bu ~ t nc~~ and

gu 1clcbook bus 1nc. were 1nn1pant 111 Bang!adcc;;h, g1\ 1ng CC J tnon cy fo t ~c hon I a tta1nn1cn t
bcca n1C a guaranteed ~O U rcc 0 f I 11COJ11e for the ~ LI h~td II <l t10 11 0 f pn \ate tu I tJOil Cl nd en ~ Lll eel th e

gro\\>th o fthe~c hu ~ 111 cs c~ C\Cil at the tnargi n \ l orccn~ r . th e 1 s~uc o f'pri\atc tlllti o n ·~ in1pact
on gender abo drcv¥ tny attenti on Educatt on \\'a tch ( 2005) tdcnt tfi ecl that. on <n ct ngc.
hou scho ld ~ . pend I 7<Yo n1ot c on cduc,lllnn fot bo) ~ than on gttl" ( l k R.X7 4 pc1 111a Ic ch tld
and Tk. 7.411 per fcrnalc child per )C<ll ) (a~ cncd tn Schun11an n. 2009. p 509) The 1111pact
of pn\'ate tuttton 1s not gend er-neu traL male ~ tud c nt~ a1c pre fen eel O\ cr fcn1ale qudcntc.;
when prJ\ ate tuttton ~ ~ pro\ td ecl

ath (200X) n1ctHton~ that gr rl ~ arc l cs~ ltkcly to recci\C

tutoring than hoy at all gtad e lc\cls (p 58) An extended dr~cu~~ton on how the ~ had ow
educa tion systcn1 bu~1nc~~ 1s a(l\ cn~ely tnlpacll ng the ~t rp c nd 1cctpl cnt n1other~ wtll he
•

addrc cd in the l a~ t pat1 or this chap ter

Qualit) of Education

Depend ency on pn\ ate tutonng by parent~ such as n1y respo nd ents is con1n1 on in
Bangladesh. The O\ cr-dcpendency on private tutonng tnchcatcs that the acadcn11c cu rn culun1
of schools i percel\ cd to be sub-standard and defccti\ c. and that tcachtng qu al1ty is poor and
unsati fac tory 1n Bangladesh. Th1s, undoubtedly, questions\\ hcthcr tt is JUStified to spend
large an1ounts o f public n1oney Co r fin ancing the~c schools and aca dcn1i c cun1 culu n1 by the

GOB and IF Is (Khan, Rana & Haque. 20 14)
Bc111g curi ou'-1, I a~kcd II AL I M J\, "do ) ou kn O\\ "hat ) our child reads or \\hat 1s
'vVritten in his/her hook~?" ~h e replied that "' no. I do not kn O\\. But I helic\e it i'-1 .....~ood. It \\ti l
help t11) dau ghter to proceed in her life··. I a\ ked

83

l AK~ I D/\ ... Do )O U h<ne any td ca \\halt~

\\ rittcn 1n the book.' or , our chJiu ') Do \OU k.n o\\ ''hat .\Our chd cr ~ tea cher tcach c<., 1n
~

~

~

hoo l'? .. '\1 \~ . l D \ took. her t11ne. lo\\cred her hedd and'' 1th a confu\ed loo k. on her f~tcc

repl 1ed that " n1) children read .......

:e'. good thin!.!' 1 1n then· book.' '\1 } 'on ~<l}' 1f I 1ead

r

t hc ~ c h0 0 "~ l hc n~ ~ ult \\ Ill hc t hI '. I I IT" d t h0 \ c h0 () k ~ l hc () llll 0 I11 c \\Ill hc t ha t... L i kc

HAli MA and 1/\.KSF D \. tnoq o fn11 tnt cn J e\\CC~ tca ll y do not k.no\\ \\hCit i~ tn th c11
child· , ~c h oo l acauenliC LllrtlCUillln. I bciJC\ c the) del 111Jtcl: dC\CJ\ e a\\ ell orga nJ/ed
acadcn11C eurn culun1 for thcu chii<.II cn with high quc1lit) teaching ~ tnce. th ey hcl\ e \O 111LH.: h

tn orccn cr reach· to ~ac rifi cc a !.!red t deal 111 order to ach te\ e' tho\c end\ \' KO i ll 1\iOOR
~

~

1n entioned
I tncan \\ c arc poor. I told n1 y ~o n )O U JU~t con t1nuc you 1 stud). the expcn<.,e<., for yo ur
ed ucati on l ''iII tnanagc b: an) n1can\ Don ·t ''orr) about: our educationa l c\.pc n 'c~
•

Ho'' e\ cr. "cd ucat ion i not an a<.,~c t in ih O\\ n n ght It 1~ on Iy tn can1 ngfu I to th e
extent to \\hi ch it in c rea se~ the abilit} of~tudc nt~ to parti cipa te in ~ocicty and the cco non1y''
(Schunnann, 2009, p. 508 ). The ability to engage 111 C I\ ice\ ent n11 gh t 1ncludc ed ucatt on,
ound health, acce~' to places and goYerning tn ~t ttution ~ rnade, and acccs~ to 1nfonnati on and
engagetn ent in ocial n1edta (Sc hurn1ann. 2009). But. '\ \ad (2009) iucntifie~ that .. the
standard of pritnary educa ti on is ~o poot that C\ en after the fi\ e yea r\ of ~c hoo lin g. one 111
every three chi ldren retnain s ·non-literate· or ·~e n1i - l itcra te"' (p. 9). In addition. prin1ary
teachers arc poorl y trained and even 1110re poorly qualifi ed. The donltnant lllOde or tC(ICh1ng
in pn n1ary ~c h oob ts b a~ed on nlctn ori/dtion, the curnculun1 does n<)l pr"ctt ce and entertai n
ana lyt ical, practical or \-OCa tional ~kill ~ de\ eloptn ent In the encl. ~tud e nt~ or pritnar) \Choob
lea rn little and son1etin1cs achieve nothin g (Khan et al.. '0 14) The \\'8 (2002a). in theu
FSSJ\ P appraisal report states the fo llowi ng about the seco ndary education 111 B a n g l a d e~h
84

l11gh dropout rate~ throughout ~ccondat) cducdtlon arc related to ~~~uc~ of ~c hool
qual tty. cun tculat rclc\ a nee. and oppcntuntl) co~ t~ lot ~tu d cnh and thciJ f cuntltc~ '\~
noted abO\ C, the CUrt ICU!Utl1 I ~ gc,lrcd lO\\ ard ptcpat dtl011 fot ht ghct cdu ca ttOil
Cun tculun1 and cc t tJ fi c<'ltc cx atn ~ c tnplHt ~ t/ C la<...tual k.no\\ lcclgc and l11 Cil10 tl/atton
O\C t cnllcct lthink.tnu and ltfc- \ ktll ~ Stu111fic.dnth. n<)t c\e n the II ~C ce rtifi cate ts a
guc11 e:lntec of ctnplo) tncnl. t clt\tng 1111pot tdnt qu e~ li On \ about the' alu c and 1clc\ nnce
of the ~ccondat) \Chool cut11cu lun1 in the Bc1n g l adc~ h ldhnr lllclrk ct (p 1)
~

~

It t, C\ tdcnt fron1 th 1~ \\ B (2002a) ~ta tctn cnt tlw t the \\ B. (10 B and de' clopn1en t C\. pcrt c.,
ha\c long been tnlottncd about the qu,lltl) nfth c curricu lutn. th cfh;<..t t\ c n c~l.i in ptocunng
JOb. ttnd the teac hing quc1lity tn the pnn1,H")' and c.,c<..ondary cdu <..a llon ~c<.. t ors It tni ght beg th e
quc~tton. do thC) p ictn to t,\hC dl1 )' C f'fcc ll VC action\ tO Ct ttd ICcllC the d SSOC j a ted c., hot ll-01111 ngs

in the prin1ar) and \econd,lr) cduc,ltton \ectorc., > \1 y findtng" aft er re\ tcwing C10B
docun1ents nnd the \\"B '' cbsitc for Bangladec.,h arc that thc1 c ''ere alvv ay~ hi gh co~ tl y ~ t c., t c r
concern pro_1 ccts to the Pr P and F

AP on cntcd to the enhan ccn1 cnt or qual tty ~c hoo l

education uch a th e Pnn1a1)' Ed ucatio n De' elop1nent Pro_1ec t (PI::.DP-Jl) (total co~ t 1> LX15
n1illton) (\VB. 200-l). the PEDP-111 (stm1ed lb operatton m 20 1 I. c~ tun a tcd co5t ~5.860
1nillion) (\VB. 101 I a) and the cco ndary Education Qunllt; nnd Ac<..ec.,~ Fnhanccn1cnt ProJect
(SAQEP) (e~titnated co~ t ) 155 70 tnillion) (W B. 2008b) In all tho~c proJech. the WB \\a~ a
proud co ll abo rating partner with the GOB with both entiti es co ntributtng 1-i Jgnifi ca nt fundtn g.
I retne1nber one quote frotn the World De\ eloprncnt Rcpot1 that ensured ··good quality
serv1cc deli\ cry through 1n ~ tituti o na l action inv oh in g ~o und gcn ernance .. ( \\r B. 200 I a. p 8)
is essential to budd nsscts fo r soc ially-e'\cl uded p eople ~ \\'hat I found fron1 the publicly
access ible documents of the WB \\as that, rather than ensunng the quality of the in ~ tltution al
capactty before in1pletnent1ng the study projects. the projec t-itnplctncnting nuthonty nnd
GOB arc tryin g to do both nt the ~ an1 c ttn1 c. Con ~cqucntly, the CCT project benefi cta ri e~
(chtldrcn, gtrl s and benciictary tnoth cr~) auton1attcaJl y bccmne ~ u ~cc pttble to tnultif~lnou ~

85

n~ k s A~ 1t happened\\ tth n1 y rc~ pondcnt~ . thetr ~ uffenngs dtd not ah\ H)<.; dra\\ pub lt c or

social attent ion and. 111 n1o ~ t ca~e". the cletenoratton occurred tn ~tlence Fron1 tn y
respondent<.· poult or\ IC\\ , th e} were tn\ e~ ttn g titn e. n1 one1 and energ) and lea\ tng no ~ ton e

unturncd for thctr chllcr<; cd ucatton lienee. failure to achtc\c ~atis l~1c to n {lai n<. fron1
sc hooling\\
til he cle\ a<\tatltH!.
._
'-'

\Vhat I abo ca n ~ense lt otn ~o n1 e o l 111) t c~po nd e nr ~ \O t ce~ ~ ~ that th ey hope to fi ght
or at lea ~ t esca pe fton1 th e ~oc t a l C\ tl ~ ex t ~tt n g 111 thc11 ~octe t ). ~o they ~e nd thetr ehtlclrcn.
espectall y thetr d aught e r~ . to ~chool and \\ ant thctn to co ntinu e thetr ~ tudt c<, to hcco n1 c
ca pable enou gh to ~ upp o rt or reduce thetr \ ulner abdtt) to ~octal e\ tl~ I· or cxa n1ple. dO\\ ry
for rna rr) tng gtrl s ~ ~o n e of the tnaJor ~octo-~ tru ct ura l pt ob l e m ~ af'fecttng worn cn (ba~ t ca ll y
young girl ) and thetr fan1tlies tn Ban g l adc~ h (IR I . 2009: BB S. 20 13) Sotn e f'an1lltc~ tn
Bangladc h con tdcr education d\ ·n1arriagc ca pttal · for their dau t!, htcr~· n1arriagc (/\rend~Kucnntng & An1in, 2001. p. 129). Ff: CY de cnbed the latent ca u ~e of ~en dtn g her dau ghter
to school :
I ha\ e to matT} tn} daughter. I an1 rai sing a gi rl ... I have to tnarr; her to a boy of
another fan1ily. If 1ny daughter ge t ~ cducnted. ~ h e\\ Jll be ab le to a n ~\\ er p o~l ll\ ely the
que li ons a~ked b) the potential groo nl ~' ranlilics. incc the bo) ·~ fanlil} finu ~
instituti onal ' litera c}' a~ a plu"' point. the) think that at lea~t \\he n the gi rl \\i ll
becon1e a n1othec she\\ ill be able to teac h her k1d s. And al'Aays th ere ~ ~ a p o~~ Jbtltt y
that the parents of a gi rl recei\ c son1c rebate fron1 their d(n\ ry arnnunt Jf' an)\\ a) ~h e
can en1ploy her elf in a go\ ernn1ent or GO job, it defint tel y 'A Ill enhance her chn nce
of ·marriaginbility' \\ ith little atnount of d O\\ I">.
In Bang!ade<;h. " p<)\ ert y and econon1 ic in ~o~ec uri t} lead to C \ en } ou nger gi rl <.; being
JnatTied as they rcqu tre a lesser dowry. Dowries pose a huge finan ctal burden on fa1nllte~ nnd
leave little fun ds available for education or health" (. churmann. 2009. p. 507) Sin11larh to
Arends- Ku cnn ing & An1i n (200 l ), N UNNA I IAR mcnttoncd that the general relati on
be twee n dowry s i/c and n1arriage age for girl s in Ban g l adc~h is pro port to nate. ''the more ttge
86

at nlatTtagc. the n1otc dO\\rt C<.i ~ou ha\c to rw) f0r ~our daughter ·<; 1narri agc .. 1 he av era ge
age or1narT1age for g trl ~ tn rural dtca ol B a n g lc1d e~h is 15 6 ;cat~ (~ IPOR I, 20 11, p 51)
\\'hcrca . ira fan1tl~ \\ante;. to cont1nuc thc1rdau!!hte1·~ ~t udt c~ up to grade\ and tf th ey ''ant

her to C0111plctc the "ccondar} ~chooJ CC I tlfi cdtc. \ hC wi ll be 17 h} the lllll C of eotnpl cti Oll
Thi ~ 1s O\ cr the a\ et age nl arTtage age fn1 gt rl ~ 111 rural B a n g l <1 d e~ h

So. along wtth the

tnefTeetu a I educa tton, the l ~lln tl ) '' dl fi nd tt ~e ll und ct the pt c~~u re or ha\ 1ng to pt o\ tcl c an
1nc rca~ed do\\ t") for 1h

ddu gh tct II ct e, '' c L<l ll u ndet "it and the i 1nportance of 8dd 1e~~ ~ ng

cultural con...,1dcrat1on dncl educational qualit) '' tthin the ptog ranl~ tnlplenlcntccl in
Banglade h
Pr0 lc ~so r Ga) en ( 20 14) 1d c ntdi e~ that 1n B anglade~h tt ad Itt on a l val uc" and n1oralt ty

arc\\ aning '' 1th en cn,·heltnmg inlluencc fi·on1 edu ca ted tndt\ td ual~ ·r he . . octety today ha"
. de\tatcd fron1 It
cduca tton

cle~tlncd co ur~e lacktng l11U Ch ethtc . . Clnd <,OCtal \ctlues. The 111all1 put-pO',e or

to crea te tnfon11 ed and k.nO\\ ledgcahle ct tt /en<,

1.., bctng undcnntned by the poor

quality of edu cation prO\ td ed. He belie' c~ that the prcrequ1"ttc ofproduc tng c;. ktll ed \vorker~
is to have kno\vlcdgcabl c and jud icious c itiLcn ~. Son1c relatt\ ely penn anent ad' e r~e 1111 p Clct~
of thi s systc1n are evtdent in th e poor effi ctency of the educa ted people in th e work
enviroru11cnt and tn the corruption and 11111110raltty, \\ hH.:h arc rmnpant (p. l 0).

CCT -fed Politics and Corruption

In the rural con11nuniti cs of Banglades h, socio-structural p O\\ er relati on play an
ovcrwhcllni ng role in socio-cultu ra I acti vities. ·· Rura I c I i tes in Banglade<.i h d r C\\ pn\\ er rrotn
thc1r land, local relati onships and f'r0111 their poiJttca) influence Over key de\ cloptnent
resou rce~ con1in g f ron1 ouhidc·· (l~arr) -S haw & Jay, 20 12, p

87

l 04) 'I he Pr ' P pnn td e~

ttpend to roughly 40 percent o f <., tud ent<., tn d <., pec tfi c grade o1 a <., chool 1 he chool
Managen1e11t

on1n1tttee' ( \1C , ). togeth er \Vtth the hec1d teac her\, <li e olliuall y rec..,pon<., tbl e

for ~e lecttn g the 40 percent of c.., tud enl\ ( ft 0111 the pon t ec..,t houc..,ehnld c.., ) frorn all of the c.., tud ent"
em oiled fron1 grade<., I to \' I atc1. the lt ' t ol ptop n~cd <., ltpcnd Jcciptcnt

" t C\t C\\ Cd hy the

pa/tlla 21 Prunary [. . ducn tt on Of'ficc r ( l 1PC0 ) and app1 0\ed and counter<.,~ gn cd by th e
Upa11lla

1rbah1 Of1icet (l ~0 ) ( f ctlJen, 2001. p 5) ~ tilL it1 c.., \\ ell accepted th at th e head

teacher and ~\lC cha1rn1,1n hold ,1nd appl ) (;, LJpt cn1 c po\\Cl in the tcll pt cnts' <.,e lecti on.
TAl Il rR

e"\platned hO\\ c.., hc got enrolled fo 1 the c.., t1pend

I lc 1\ the brother o r 111\. rather in Ia\\ y C\ he 1\ the Lhai nna n of th e <.,c hoo l
n1 ana ge tn cnt co n1n11ttee \1 ) on, . ., th e Lhatrn1Jn ·<; gt,tn d<;o n /\ ftcr adtnttting m y <.,on
in pnn1ary \Chool I talked to 111) ra ther 1n la\\ . he told n1e to talk to th e <.,c hool
hca dn1 a ~ ter I then foliO\\ ed htc.., tnc.., truc llon and \\ cnt to <;c hool gel\ e n1y tntt oduLllon
and reference to th e headn1a ter I had no problen1: they ga\c n1 c an cnrolltncnt ca rd
for the ttpend n1 onc:y. It \\ a ca'-~) for rne to enroll lot \ tipend tnoncy for n1y ~o n for
betng 1ny f~llh er 111 l a v~ the cha1rn1an o f the \Jl C

•

T AH RA \\ a not th e onl y one \\ tth thl \ so11 of e'<pen ence, alrnost all of tny rc~ p o nd c n h
had to pur~u c the1r incl u ~ i o n in ~tip e nd through ~ itntl a r \\a;~ /\ ll'\! ICE F (2009) ~t ud y
clai1ns that. in n1 o~ t ca es, the MC chainnan and the head teac her n1i ~ u se th ei r pO\\ er and
tnanipulatc the process of selecting and di stnbuting the stipend 1noney U <., ually, the SMC
n1 e1nber arc po\ crfull oca l elites elected by th e ·rvJcmber o f Parliam ent' . They arc incl111 ed
to benefit their ov. n fri ends and relatives (Teitjcn, 2001, p. 16 ). Loca l and natt onal p o lt llc~
and c}ecti onc.., also Influence the sel ec tion proces~ o f rec ipi e nt ~ and the expansion o f ~ tip c nd
progra1n s The PESP and FS SAP proj ec ts ha\ e earned popularity atnong the general
populace as th ey de liver f'rce mone y. The politici an<; and local elites u ~e thi c.., ·popularit). l'or
their electora l purposes and for their support. They allocate ~ tip e nd ~ to thell supporters 1n
return for a guaranteed ~ ource or cash (Tcitjen, 2003, llalL 201 2 ) I-- ton1 thctr fi cld-lc\d
21

An ddmmt -..ttatl\ e unit of Banglade-..h {Go\ et nment of Bangltltk-..h. 20 14 ).

88

C\ tdence, Arend. -Ku cnntng and

\n11n (200 l ) cldlll1 th at th e popul artty oL and p c rccptton ~

about. the I 111 porta nee () r gi rl ~. ed U LCH ion i~ pn:dorn i nant I) depend ent on \ l I pend 111 0 n C)' anJ
not on the tndcpcndent 'c1lue o f the gtJ I" thcnl\eh c
Furthennorc. Jll <i,l Cdd of 1111pr()\ t ng the quality o r ed ucation. <.; \1 (<;, arc t) pl call y

co ncerned \\ 1th uuo/!Jncnt cnhancu7lcnt \0 th at the) can c0 llcc t n1o1c go\CJill11cnt fundrn g
\1 C" nl i ~ U \C the po\\ CJ o l choo\ Jng th e poorc\l h ou \e h o l d~ du e 111 part

( chunnann. 2009)

to the a b ~e n ce 0 r \ tl a i......ght ron\ Cl l d gu t de IJ ne\ cliH.l c riteri a
"-'

f' ra 11 \ p cll cncy r nlct na l io nal

B a n g l ad e~ h (TIB ) ( 200 I ) ( d"- c 1ted 111 1 cJClJen. 2001. p. 16) stud; identifi ed that ~ Vl C~ and

head t eac he r~ a~k fo r n1one) b nbc\. Fi gure 4. 1 t \ a recent nHxlia accou nt puhl i\ hed tn a

optnd \lont' Plundtrt d. 3 'ladra sha (Islami c r t ligious sc hoo ls) Tt achtr:dailed
StaffP.epoct er .RaJshalu Updatr> I ~- Jw1e 25 :01 4
•

Fo1plundenng and embezzhng supend m orey ot h., s·udents am:mg th em three te acht rs and
sch ool sta ffm cluding the careukerm h.uge are onpn..oncd rangrng from no to SLX m onths of a
Da.khil ~1adra ~.a of the Paba upa.zailla of RaJashaiu Toda y \\'~dnes day , they are purushe-d for
con fessmg theu gullt to the mobue coun The name of:he u1smuu on ts DaTUl idam Da~:}l]
. ladusa.., Th~ three unpnt.onedp ersoru a.re the ca.rl!take.rm chargt> Ab dul. laJm the assm:mt
t e a ~.. h et Rezati K.lrnn -1 (there ts another teacher "'1th the same n ame ts m tlus mstltuuon) and
the ,:lerk lsmau H os ~am The .. aretaker m charge and h e clerk are m.pn ¥n"d fm su; months
\\lthout an) la b01 and the assmart t e ad~r ts unpnson ed for rwo m o nth~ m the coun
TheJUdge ofthf' moblle coun \\ u Razzakull.slam the ~0 o fPaba Upaz:a:.la TI1e sup end
m o n~ \ of the ;.tudent! are ch mbuted- ha·mg 'u han ~- - the ID:O F. a..uaL.i Islam , em to the
Dal~hll~ladra~ ..,,th the pohces fr om •he ~J o u.hanhana f the B,~ hah ctt\ The ·tudents
allege d thatthe snpend mone ~ \\ astaken) est erda\ Tue.> da} Bytlus urne onl) tk :o 1s
pro• tded lo the studenl.S Th 100 1~ g,t\ en to th" s u dent from other cl.t · vs It IS sa1d to th em
toda y Tue.sday thar a ftertaking astde the mare for the teachers. brt:akiast on .:> pomon \ uuld lk
gl'·en to anothez <:ltudents mfom11:d that the 3-tudents of class ten recet• e taLl l thousand and _0
per m months Pt e,1owh $t.liH~.P.S oft,,.o students .,. ere shared to them lik e tJ.. 360 for one and
tk 1 :10 for another The students don t k-no\\ .a ~u there ·t o fth e mone' Som e satd th, rc 1d'a:r)
has takenas1de the rest of the money fortheu breakfast
A cordmgto the ruJes l.he supends are pro' 1ded the fon y p~rc eruge of srudert.s accorcingto
th e rrr esult~ and attendance• m the cla.:.s Th" total mont>\ of ~ Lx m onths 1!' prvnded to th em m
aggregate But not co n~1denng the m ent and attendance of the students the tea he r ~ di\ tded
th e money e\'en among the less ment o n o u~ and those \\ ho have J ~:> anend.an:.e> The te 1 her
a .J mo ·.vledged hat theu ·tuden ; r~ c ei'' e~ ~up e nds from tlv• • e.u ~OOv A.nd the\' .u e dmnb·.1tmg
t.lu. m one\ ft om _.; lu The\ a t o confessed the objeruon o t taking .a stde the m o ~\ for
breakfast The actmg catetaker s;ud that sup end.. for one ts to be d.lstnbuted among t\• o 0 1 three
to •amf\ e\ t'T\bod\ Othem1>e, the guardJan attackthtm Heconfeu edttb \ lum :~el fthathe
tahts tk _ from ~ a c h t01hls breal.fas

.

~

Ftgurc 4 I Recent mcdt a acc ou nt on CCl money embc; zllllg 111
Bonglade ... h
Soutc. c Rcpwlcr ( 2014 ) I he Dtllly Ptolhom r\lo. (onl tnc \ er..,wn)

89

Bang!C1dcsh1 ~ allonal Da II y nC\\ ~ pape r · Pro th orn r\ lo · on .I unc 25. 20 14. f 01 ~ ll pend
con <:, J<.lera ll nn
H 11 1

d e~c nbcd her ~ ufTe nn g" 111 ll }Jng to ge t ent <)llnlent fo1 the ~ llp c nd

ay. ''hen I \\ cnt to }OU c1 nd n1 enttoncd that I an1 a h c lp le~" \\ tdC)\\ 11\ C nn hand to
n1outh. plecl'-.e hel p n1e 111 enrolltng fo t the "upend tn oney fo t m; daughtc1 You ~cud I
8111 not the n ght pet "nn and ~ h t)\\ eel me anothe1 pe1~o n . I \\ cnt to that pc1~o n . he told
n1e that I need C'Hn e' ' ' 1 '-.clld whtlt.> l atct I und er'-.tood he\\ a" d\kiiH!. fo1 '\O I11 C token
n1onc) bnbe for hcl ptng me 111 enrollJnent. l told hun th at tt i~ not p o~~ 1bl c for n1 c I
a ked \\h ) I need to gi\ e :ou monc: It '" 111} hard foul!h t ea rntn g \\h) I \\ Ill gi' c
\ ou'? lle ~a 1 d that1t ·, a tokenlll (l llC\• l o1 111\• ~ n aL k " \n tndl \ ldualltkc n1 c ha\ no
•
n1 oney to pay th e bt tbc. hut n ch tnd l\ tdu cll ~ do not he\ Jtatc. they p el)' the ht the and
ea\ tl ) get the cmolllncnt You dnd I both an1 hutna n bc tng. tn ou1 body \ arn e colotcd
blood fl O\\ ~ . but n1oncy qu c~ u n n " ou1 equal tty dnd dt \ tdcs u ~ a~ n ch and poor.
n ~ 10 B cl ng l d d e~ h Rut dl Ach anccn1 ent Co tnnl tttcc (BR \ C) c la1111" th at \\ hen th ey
re que ~ te d that the pub Iic prt mar: \C hoo I" en II \ l the \ l uden ts rroJn "u ltra poor" fa n1 I lt c\. the

public choob re fu ~cd theu rcque\ t and Ill \ tead ~ h O\\ ed the lt '-.t of recipients. clai tn ing that
•

the ~ l ot arc full. I I0\\ C\ cr. through c I O'-.C Ob\el\ atio n () r the p l:S P I ec Ipi cnh II \ l. th e
identifi ed that the list include

stud e nt ~ frotn non-poo1 h o u ~e ho ld s

(I 0

Instead, ~ tud c nt <., fron1

poor hou ehold arc con ~ 1d c re d Cl burden on the o..,c hool (as c 1ted In Tc ttjen, 2003. p 16)
MAKSEDA \\ a deJected and ~ h O\\ ed defi ant body language I Inteq1rctccl thi s to 1ncan that
she had felt that soine injustice \\as done to her \Vi th a challenging '<.Hcc. \ he told rne that:
Once, they [schoo l teachers] cut a porti on ofnl ) stipend n1 onc: bec.a u'>c of nl) child's
fever Yes, anyone can he stck. He \\ as unable to attend chool. As ''elL I \\ ent to
sc hoo l and n1ct \\ith th e ..,choo l n1i s trc~s and let her kn O\\ about Ill\• ~o n 's fc\ er and
inabtlity to get up fro1n bed. I let her know, she repli ed it ok. and ; ou better go hotne
now. Your son needs not to con1c to ~c h oo l as long as he is not rccc)\ cring h1 s
sickness. But when the stip end \vas gi' en, they JU t ga\ c n1e fk 200 tn::-,tcad of the full
amount. I a ~ k ed that n1 adC1 n1 , \\ hy you gi' e n1c J u t rk 200 She replied that ) our ~o n
Ini sscd the school for eight to ten days. Then 1 rctntndcd her that I can1 c and let hct
know She ~Ci id 1 ha\ e notht ng to do. I belie\ c the n1oney 1 ~ etnbc/ / led by th e school
teachers.
MA RI UM suni laJl y desc11bcs corruptton dunng the tllncs ~ h e n.?Cel\ cs the stipend

90

I ha\ C to go to · , nlarhat' la 11c.1111C or a pLJce J \\ hi ch I ~ far frollllll) holllC fo r rcceJ\ in l!.

the . t1pcnd n1onc; I he ~c h oo l tcctc hc1~ 111 fo11ll u" ''hen to go to ~c hnol to rccc t\ c the
~ tip c nd In nncy I gel\ c Ill Y daughtcJ prl\ ate tutonng to a c;c hool teac hci At th e tllll C o r
dell\ en ng the cc I lllOilC}. th e tcclc hcr to \\horn I gel \ c pn \ cllC tu lOll ng. take nut hl "
pay for tutonn g 111 d el \ ancc f1 otn the ~ t1p e nd 1110nc; .
Pnn1a1) ~c h oo l tcdc hc1..; hold prc,ttl!.C. honor and respect fron1 the co n1n1unJl } f(H·

their se n 1cc. kn O\\ ledge. nlOrdltt \ c1 nd honc' t). C\ en thoul!.h the) arc not placed hr gh rn the
offi cial ht crarch) o f the btll ccluCtc1l) (\\B. ~000) \\ on1en ll '-ll clll ; have le~~ nppoJ1unJty to
get acqu ainted \\ tth the btu ec1uc J,tcy in B,tngladc,h. ,\,they arc tn\ olvccl in 1nf o1rna I and
hou. chold actt\ ttt c~ O ne or the n1cli n ohjeC lt \ cs nf t h e~e project<; l'. to empowcJ WOillCI1 .
lrontca ll ;. I can d~SUI11 C rrorn the e '\p ene n cc~ o r Ill) I e~ p o n dc nt'. thctt thei r intro ducti on to
CCT burca ucrac; at the ~,line t1n1 e tntroduccd then1 to the dark part o f ~oc1cty. It~ rn a1n 1e\ult

ha been train1ng th cn1 to ndopt un lat r rn ea n ~ ~uc h c\~ bnbety, f a\O tltt ~ tn and nepoti \ nl tn
· th eir goal ofacqu1ring ·de \ clopnlcnt·. \1 <)J'CO\er. the negatl\e prac t ll.e~ attac hed to the\e
·cash· based program c; arc poll utin g and <.. orrupti ng the ' encrated oua I in'.lt tut ion or the
tnargin ·pritnar) sc hoo b · in Banglade h. ·J his inclu des th e perception of prin1 ar) schoo l
teac hers a \\ ell (Teitjcn. 2003)

Gender Ma in strea n1in g Ignored
In fe n1 in ist I iterature on ·de\ c lopmcnt ·. ' ' otn en of th e '> outh ~1rc s ~ 111 bo I i;cd a~
havin g " needs" and ··prohl cn1 s" and th ey arc thought unable to dea l \\ ith th e1r di ~ trc<;~ and
deprivation alone without the help fron1 the No11h (Mohanty ctted 111 Escobnr, 1995, p X)
Histori call y, won1cn of the South arc e\ alunted through co tnp a ri ~o n to the \\ on1en of the
No11h (bscobcr, 1995 , p.X) It is evident fron1 the las t sec tions how the educatt onal proJec t ~
for won1 en · s dcvclopn1ent and empowerm ent ha\ c bee n rram ecl and progran1n1ed b) the

91

de\ clopn1ent pro\ td ers

fh e~e prn1ec t ~ cite'' ~l-..etche~ of the'' otncn of Ban g lad e~h \\ ithout

con~1dcnng theu per~pcc tl\ c. and conte\.tual 1caltue~ l n ~ t ectd . ge nd e r- bcl~ed de' elopn1ent

prOJect. should ptlOtttiJe gendct 1elation~ <1nd tnd1 ge nou ~ kno\\ ledge a~ ke) cletnent~ of the
project)· dc ~ i g n~
In 199 5 1n th e Founh l

\\ orld Confc t encc on \Von1 en. gend er rn clln ~ trea mrn g ha ~

been pnont11cd a~ d poli cy for the cnhn ncen1etH of gcnd et eq uah ty ( ,encl er In a Jn ~ tt ea nltng
cmphd~l/e~ gt\ 1ng 11npot tclnLe to the p c rLeptinn~. e\. per 1ence~. knowledge <mel Intere~ t ~ of

both\\ on1cn c1nd n1en for the plttnrung and irnpl emen ting o f policy. "I he goa l 1 ~ to achte\e
gender cqualit) through gende r lll lt in qreltm lllg \u.ord111 g tu "Jhe l ntted 'Jatio n ~· (l 1\)
Eco nornic and octal Council ([·CO OC). conc lu ~ i o n I 997 2 define~ .....~cnde t n1 ai n ~ trea n11n '-'g
a :
•

the proce~~ of as~e~~ tng the 1n1pltca tJ on', for '' ornen and rncn of an; plan ned action .
including legi latton. pol icic or progra rntn e~. tn all area s and at all lc\ el', It is a
trategy for rnakt ng \\ on1 en · s a~ "ell a~ m e n· ~ co n ce rn ~ and c\.pcncncc~ an Integral
din1 cn ion of the d e~ i gn, tn1plen1 entau on, rnon ttoring and C\aluatton of p o lt c i e~ and
prog rmnn1e~ in all politica L eco noinic and ocictal ~p h c re~ ',O that\\ on1cn and n1 cn
benefit equall y and inequality 1 ~ not perpetu ated. The ultirnatc goa lrs to ac ht evc
gender equality (as ci ted in U . 2002. p. V) .
Institutional infrastructure facilities and operational proces~cs ~h o uld consider gender i ~~ucs
with the hi ghe t concern Main~t ream1n g gend er p er~pec ti' e~ ~hould a ddre~s depending on
the 1ssue and contex t (UN, 2002}
I asked n1y respondents .. \\ere )Oll con\ulted h) th e projec t Jnlpl enl cntati tHl and
111on itori ng authority or hy their represe ntat i' c~ '?·· A II or 111) re \ pondcnts deni ed ha\ i ng
di scussed or consulted on th e project planning and des igning be fore 1ts in1plcn1entation.
did they hear of an y such thtng happenin g in nearby \ tlla gcs or sc hool s. In regard to

92

or

productng paper\\ 0 1k, de\ cloptnent C'\pert~ hd\ e detnnnstJ cttecl thc tJ ex pet tt se As the 'A B

(2008a) report on I

.\P cotnplcllon c lctin1 ~ that:

'I he (J(ncrntn cn t·, <.trong LO ill llllltncnt to the female \ltpencJ, progt<1n1 cnnttnucd
bC)O ild f :S \P, dU1111 g plOJCCl ptCpclldtion. C011"U i lcl l1011 ~ \\e tc held \\llh (lo vCrllln ent
l11111i '-l tC r~. '-ICI1 10r oflicta i'-1 of ltnc 1111111 \L ilC\. lcdChCl'\. ~tude nt c..,. COil1111LlllllV 111e111hCI \,
"'
tncl ucltng S \1C ~ PI\~ . C\ercll ftKu~ed \t~ll~ \\ere 1nade to project upa/llac.., to
dt. c u ~s \\ tth fi eld le\ cl c.., takcholdetc..,. tncludtn~ l Sl·Oc.., and cd uca tl o naltn c.., tJtuttonc..,
(p 1)

. o. I ac..,ked Ill ) rc~pondenh ... do an: high olfiulll~ frnn1 the l p/llla educ.(ttio n o rfic.e c.o tn c
and co nta ct :ou') .. loc;,t of then1 1eplicu that )C\. the: hdd c..,omc n1ectingc.., \\ tth th e hi gh
offi ctab of th ese pl OJCCt\ clftct the) \\ et e enrolled 111 the !-~ ltpcncl f' ot any c..,c.heduJcd \ istt f1 OlTI
the ht gh ortic tab. the\"' \\ere tnfo ttn ed ahec1d o f the lln1e c1nd \\ere told to con1c to c..,c hool to
~

n1ect then1 I \\a\ cu n ouc.., to knt)\\ \\ hc1t the htgh offiucdc.., c..,atd to the rcctptcnt tnothcr<.,
MAK EDA de cnhcd the n1eet11H!. ~he attended
•

""

The: ·aid. <.,O n1 e parents hu) ·ri ch· food or fane) dre<.,<.,es '' ith the c..,tipcnd n1 one) It i<.,
not j u t i fie d to do c.., uc h t h ing '' 1t h the 111 one) . V\ h) ) o u can · t rn i <., u(;, e the 111 one) '?
Cause \\Car~ gi \ing you the stipend no t to buy ·ri ch' rood hu t for your child' s
de\ elopn1ent Say )OU can bu; ~choo l drc for your child i\11oreo\ cr. you 1111ght need
to bu y pen, pcnctL paper. notebook or n11 ght need to pay prl\ ate tutors, to buy o r pay
the tutor \\ c are gi\ ing you the n1oney. You ~h ou ld not '' ac..,tc the tnoncy.
I found it conlpui\Or) to a~ k. nl) re<., pondents "d id they a<.,k ;ou about you r opinion\.
cotnn1ent or suggesti ons on the project ... A 0 WAR!\ rep I ied. no. "e ha\ c ne\ er been
co n ~ult ed or asked for any suggc<.,tions abou t the proJect dunng ~ uch tneettngs. The lack. or

evidence of gender n1ai nstreaming by the projec t in1plctnentatton authori t) ~ ~ extretnely
worrison1e considering that even the UN encourages gender tnmnstrcan11ng e\ en on act t\ e
projects in order to infonn chan ges in goa ls, strntcgies and acttons for hctter pcrfonnancc
(UN, 2002~ Mol ynucx & I'hon1 ~o n, 20 I I ).

93

~ Qui e t Re, oluti on, or 'S ilent Kill er,

Before talk tng to n1y rc,pnndent\, I had no 1clca htn\ much "cclucntion a<.;de' eloprn ent· \\a' 1111J1<.llllng fen1 ctlc pa11ic1pclnt(\ dnd hencli cwt 1 rnoth e r~ 111 Bang ladesh In
1110

t cases. 1111 tesponclenh c lain1ed that the) "e1 e th e ones'' hn dcctclcd to se nd thc11 k.td ~.

espec1all) theu girls. to sc hool I 1aditionally. un c, tn1 cnt 111 ed uca tion for g 11l\ 1n Bangladesh
''as nc\ cr populclt . bcLclU\e dny financ1al benefits c\ll ac ted fron1 the educa tion of girl s 'A ere
reaped b] th e hu sba nd 's htHisehold and not h: the L!i tl

pa1cntal household (~chunnann,

2009). ~· o. tak.ing dec1-.. 1011 regan.Jmg g1rl s · sc hoo lrn g 1s \ er: Lhallenging As the prin1ar::

stipend ts onl; gi\ en to the n1othe1. tht ', entlll cn1en t drO\\ n'-1 then1 in a sea of JesponsJhtlltJ cs
a oc iated to their chtldrcn's ed u<..at1 on I he re~pons1btlJttes 1,1nge fJon1 dai ly hou c:,e hold care
to chi Id care and the n1anagcmen t or academic C\ pen se<,. I I ~ CY ta Iked abo ut her h ushn nd · s
· attitude tO\\ ards her dau....L!hter'

'-~C hoo Iin ....
e..

\\'here\ er [school J you'' ant }OU can enrol l her. He has no such Interest tn ou r
daughter' s edu ca ti on. nor'' hi ch sc hool \\ Ould be good for her I fe does notLarc too
n1uch. ~' hen our daughter a~k her rather to bnng a pen or notebook, he often bnngs
the a ked Cor thin g~ if he has the 1noncy, but in tTIO'-It cases he dcni e5 her and t e ll ~ her
that he ha. none
A study conducted in 2005 by Power and Par1ictpation Research Centre (PPRC) of

Bangladesh identifies issues related to the acade1nic cx p c n ~c~ tn the prunary edu cation
syste1n 1n Bangladesh 1 he ~tud y ~ h ov. s that:
A well-ofT fatnil y with an average incon1e oCTk.l6.l36 per n1onth ex pend Tk 329 on

priinary education, whteh IS only 2 percent or ll 111CO I11e. On the othct hand. a 111tddle
class fmnd y \Vith an average tnon thl y tncon1e ofTk.43R6 pcnds Tk 279 on pntnary
educati on, which is 6.4 percent o r its incon1 c and a poor fan1ily 'A ith an average
incon1 e o f'Tk 147 1 per n1onth pe nd ~ Tk 251 on pnn1ary cducclllon. \\ ht ch ~ ~ 17. 1
percent o ( JtS 111COn1e. The nature or the burden or e\penditure espectall y on pont
f~unil ies r£1ises the question o f effec ti veness and quality of prinHtry sc hooling in
Bangladesh (as c1ted in Khan et al. , 20 14. p l)

94

pres. ut e on then1 8 E1\ U I Y dc~c1 1bes ho\\ ~ h e l~tce~ prc~~ UI e fron1 her hu ~ hand rath et than
eo-o p~.:rati o n ror her c.htld'<\ ac~tdctntc C'\pc n<..c<.,

Yc<\. I hd\ c to 111i.lnage b~ \VPrk.tng ~1 " tlgnLulturallahor ro r 111~ ~o n· ~ C'\ J1 C I1 ~C~ ror
pen . papct and ptt\atc tuttion. If I a~k.~.:d h11n to buy an} thing lor 111) ~o n· ~ education.
he say~ that you entollcd hun 111 ~c h ool. It '~ \ou r t~.:"pon~thiltl} to man al!C e\c r)thin g.
I can·t help Youl!ct the \ttpcnd n1onc} I an1 not cntttlcd t<) th ,t t You m,lnagc
C\ Cr\ thl11 ....
1!. .
.;

r'v 101\0\\ \R \ C'\platn~.:d hln\ ~ h e n1an,1ged th~.: hu t den ol her c.hilcJ' s ..tLadcmtc. C'\pe n ~c~

alone and'' tthout nny p(h tlt\ e help from het hu ~ha nd
\ 1; hu ~ h a nc..l ne' cr ''on 1c~ ctbout the acadcn1 tc. C\. pcn\C<\ or n1y chJid But. I rea r
eht cken. goa ts an d CO\\<., th en el l thcn1 to n1anagc acaden1tc co~ts and pn \atc tuttt on
Y c. . I ha\ c to tak.c rni cro-c. red 1t to hu y a LO\\ or goat~ I ha\ c to rn anagc the \\ cck Iy
tnstall rncnt of the 1111cro loan b\ hook or crook
.I

Hou.. ehold le\ cl co-opera ti on ·~ C~\C ntt al fot the conl pr ehcn~l\ c de\ eloprnent or a
fan1Jly and it n1cn1bers. Jhe e cdu catio n -ha~c d projects ht ghlight \\ome n· ~ dc\cloprnent and
cmpO\\ enncnt 1n their ob_1ecti' e~. therefore. <)Uch proJects ~ h ou ld tnc.lude gender

rnainstrcarning as a do1n1nant ~tra tegy. Gender Ma1n~trearncd projech typical!) and cxpltcitl)
rnention th e rol e of tncn along wtth won1cn. It is sUJvrisJng, then. th at these proJ ects hen c not
tnenti oncd anything abou t the roles and re'.po n tbdttt e~ of the father. rather f~1th cr~ arc kept
aloo f. n1akin g rnothers vulnerable to e~ tra \\Orkin the rnanagemc nt of th ei r children·"
educatt on (Molyneux, 2008)
Another ncgati\ c itnpact or these projec t'. IS their cx po ~ure or non-reclplcnt J110the r~
to corruption and bribery. Their cnforcen1ent is e-x pressed by I!ALIMA.
Ir n1y ~o n/dau ghter docs not rcce ive ~ ti rend th e~ don· t \\ant to go to "c hoo I or \ lud) .
The chi ld ask their n1other, why arc rny fncnd~ (or so nnd so) getting a st tpcnd not
me. Jt '~ difficult for a grade-! child or C\en for a ~cco ndary. \Chool chtld to appr ehend
why he/she is not getting tnoncy. In this Situation a rnothcr tn c~ her bc~ t to n1t1kc hct

95

child happy. If J ~cc that ~otnet lun g 1 ~ happ~ntn g thJ(nt gh the · bacK.uoor.' I "'til
definitely grab th,lt oppol'luntt)
I a~kcd 111 ) rc~pnndenh hln\ 111dl1) hour~ the11 chJI dr en ~ tay. 111 ~c hool l\1)
respondents rep It ed that on a' et age thc1t L h ddt en ~ p e nd tht ec Iour hour~ a da v 1n ~c h oo l
( p n 111 d I') ) \1 ~ 4ll ~ ~ tJ l) n I ~ \\ he thc I l) r n0 t that I ~ I t l)l) t c 11 0 ll g h L l) Ill tl Ll h0 Lll ~ • { \\ B. 2 () () () ) ro r
elcn1enta r\ '.tudenh to !.!et d<1 ne wit h thc1 1 s tudte~ \\h at I found in the Bdn !.! l <Hie~h educa t1 on
~

~

~

sector rc\ JC\\ pet fonned by \\' B ( 2000) 1 ~ that th e contact hour~ fo r ~chool~ 1n Ban g lad c~ h ~~
lc

thctn rcquued by. the "'tt1ndc1rd Yet. I do not ~ee that any ctrec tivc initiati' e"' IHl\ e hcen

taken to deal'' 1th that pt ohl enltn the ld~o,t 14 )Cdl'-1. ''hctca~. tnillions o fdollat ~ ha\c hecn
spent ~o lcl y tn the natn e of cdu ca t1on ~cc tot de\ clo ptncn t (a~o, ltnentJOned ea tll et) J· rorn my
n.! '. po n<.knt' ~ tntcn ic'' "'· tt '" C\ 1dcnt that lo\\ q ual it~ cd u<.atio n. bclo\\-~tandctnl tcac h111g and

con-uptton are '"' ~ u c~ that affec t then1 tn rnultda riou ~o, way~ All of the~o,e l'.~uc~ tnakc thcn1
subject to the corruption of prl\ ate tutonn g and to the prc~~ urc~ o r C\lUl tnco rn e
managcn1 ent. In additton. n1o th er~ h<n e to taK.c ca re of hou ~o,cho ld ed uca ti on care,\\ h1 ch
extend~ their daily working hou r~ along \\ 1th their dc1Il y hou ~o,chold c hore~. 8 EJ\ UTY ~a id

f\1y child uocsn·t ~ tud) or learn adequately 1n ~c hool. I put p1 c~~ ure on tn y so n nftcr
~c h oo l hour for hi ~ ~ tud y Ir) OLI ha \en. t \ tud ied proper!) in ~c hoo I ! ou ha \ c to
cover tt up at hon1c tudy at hon1c I ha\ e to help and ~o, up c n '"'c his ~ tud ) at hon1c.
I asked then1 finding their ~trugg l c to n1an agc c hildren· ~ educa ti on that .. ha\ e )OU
ever questi oned ~c hoo l teachers about their poor ~C r\ ice anu lack or COI1lllli tn1 CJ1t?" Some of
1ny re~ pond enh ~a id ye~o,, \\e often talk to tea c h e r~ and ask thcrn \\h) they arc not fulfilling
their joh properl y. A con ~equ en cc of asking question to teac hers affected H A 11~1 A terribly.
~h e described ·

School teacher a~kcd tnc that\\ hy your dau ghtct d oc~o, not con1 c to \)c hool rcgula1l) I
replied that you do not attend c la s~ properl y, at the t11ne of cla ~s) ou dt ~a ppea1
intentionall y. Aah' II ow con1e you say that'? Being an gry the teacher a"' kcd rne'>V\ ho
96

\\tll then') I replied I atn the gua1dtc1n ofn11 c hild. clefinttcl} I ''dl \ '-1 a co n'-lequence
or thic::, COn\ er'-latton 111} dc~u ghtct held to '-Ill ( fcJ It \\ (1'-, C011'-lldet eel that I C0111111Jtlecl a
',C ri ou offence. Being ang.r). the teacher "-lo pped tak1n g ca re of 111) dau ghter·~
'-ltudte~ Due to 1gnorance f1on1 hc1 te<1c he1 111) clclu ghtet ln gged hehtnd '' tth hct clac::,'-1
progre'-1'-~IOn .\ftc1 long ga p'-~ he'' d ~ cl ked qu ec::,tton '-1 about'' cek o ld kc::,~on~ If ~h e
ratlcd to an~\\ eJ propel I). ~he\\ (1'-, beate n by the tcnc het fh e teac hei a l ~o said that
oh I YOU I lllOthcr 1'-1 a btg li'-lh. ' PC elK ~ 111 d rud e tone' I [(HV lO Jlle you ratl to pel fotlll
) our c::, tudlc'-1'> Bctng a f1 dtd 111) dc1ughter s topped go1 ng to sc hool

n1 othcnng a~ \\O tncn·c::, pr11nar) ~ncw l role" (p 440) She al~o '' ntec::,. and thu c::,
do h ttl e [to he Ip '' o1ncn l ~cc urc ~ u '-I tel inc1 hlc II\ cllhoodc::, or de\ c Iop a h1 oadct
concept ton of thc11 role 111 ~oc 1 e t ) I hough th e progrdJn s ann to help the nex t
generation earn 1nnrc thdn thetr pc11 cnt'-1. they do not 1educe th e ''omen·~ O\\ n "n c::, k
for rcn1dtnJng tn pO\ CI1) for the re'-lt o f th c11 l1\ e (p. 440).

In thts chapter. I di'-ICU '-ICd the l111pach or ccluca tt on on the hcncficJaJ y In oth cl <.;o r
the e prOJeCt. fo SU111Inarlle. CrOJn the\ OICes

orIll Y respondents. edu ca ti on I ~ affcc tJng

\\ otncn. children and the O\ cra ll '-IOC to-c ul tural ~t ru c ture o f Bangladc'-lh tn rnany ad\ cr'-le
\vays. It is a\\ e ll accepted concept that n1oth er arc the archttect<5 or n nation In li ght or thic::,,
these proj ects arc n1aktng '~omen n1others suscept1ble to corrupti on, btJbcry, and ex tra
\\Orkloads \\ ithin their pursuit o f their chtldren ·l:) cJucation. I hesc pro,ccb arc also polluting
the soc ial-structure of Bangladcc::, h by pron1oting corruption and illegal bcha\ tor. My recent
fieldwork and rc~ea rc h expcncnccs tnade tnc re-thtnk the cu rrent bu; ;phra~c "ed ucati on for
all."

OV\. I think it ~ h o uld be "quality education for all". fn the folio\\ ing chapter. I'' ill

disc uss how ca<.; h transfers are in1pacting recipient tnothers, girls and th e fen1ale pop ulation
of Bangladesh as a whole.

97

haptcr Fi\ c: \'i o lcnt De' clo prn cnt
\11 v the~ I~ rc catch cnc1h led n1e to navi ~cl t e bet'' ccn tn~tt tuttonallled. n1a 1n~ll can1
~

the n1m·gin

~

1; fi1~t-hand field c\pen cncc tnllucnccd rnc to rethink Ill) \\orld 'I C \\~ on

pov~ cr and . de\ c lnpnlen t.

/(•\ II /JI0/1/(J\ 0 rIll ) I c~ po nd c nt ~ cotnpc II cd 111C to he Cll ti Ca I and

110\\ I ',lrongl) dgtcc \\lth c.a~pct (2012) that : "th e ga lll ~ ol so me gtoupc;; htt\C hccn direct!)

Th I ~ chapter I. the ~cco nd pa11 () r the dnd I) ~ I ~ cl lld disc u~~Jon () ( Ill) the<:; I ~ In the
pre\ tou chapter. I di ~cu~~ed on n1; fi1~t theme ·cu ut ,lli o n -a~..,- d c,c l o pmcnt faith'" real It)· .
Here. I showed hO\\ educatio n. 111 th e~c IFb fund ed cduca tion - ha~cd de\ cloptnent projcch.
advcr ely affected the bcnefi c1ary won1en. In th1s chapter, I dt~cu~~ tny ~ccon d thcn1e,
., iolcnt de\ clopmcnt'. I hrough th1

di ~L U

s1on. I ex plain hO\\ the hcnefictary wotnen and

girb \\ere ~u . ceptlhlc to\ tolencc for I..,IJ11pl) rcCCI\ tng thi~ ~l lp cnd or free 111011C)' SonlC
objccti' e of CCT projec t ~ behind dell\ cnng ca~h to" otnen ''ere cn1po'' ern1cnt through
control O\ cr CCT n1oney ~p end1ng: gend er equ ality. and fonnal e1n ployn1cnt How far thc ~c
objectives have been votced and materialized hy these projects in reality, and how they
affected the benefi ciary WOI11Cn, 'Were descnbed in the f<!.\ll/1101110\ or rn y re~ po nd c nt . In
order to bc~t tllun1 mate the re ea rch thctne, I de\ eloped fo u1 ~ub - th c n1 es ( i) tntc n ~ tfi e<:;
dotne~ti c \ iolence agatn~t won1en: ( ii) n1aking su ccpll blc to C\ e- t ca~ in g. ( i i1) CC I delt' ct)

mechanisn1 and 1naten1al n1odcling: and (iv) f~tl sc sc n ~e of cnlpO\\ enncnt I chose these ~ubthenlCS and desc ribed each oC thcn1 below in detail for the better understanding or 111 )'
readers.

98

lntcnsifi c Dome. ti c \'i olcncc again . t \ Vo n1cn
Dunng JTI) f ebntclr) 2014 th e~ t ~ lielch\ ork 111 Ban g lclcl e~ h. an unpnrtant 1eport on
' Vi olence \ ga in\t \\ Otnen' \\a\ puhll~hed h) the BaiHdade\ h Bweau o r~tatiq i C\ (BB~) and

the MintSl l ) 0 [ r lanntng. Banglade\h (20 I ~) .I hci 1 I cpnt t round that X7 pet cent 0 r
pa rtt c tpa nt ~ 1n the ~Ur\ C)' () r all Bangldcle\h ~ u f Icreel dnm eq IC \I 0 lcnce 11 0111 thci r tnal e
pat1ncr. fht~ counll) \\ td c \Ur\e) tepnrt or BB~ tn<.ll c dlC~ the e\.tent o f the p er~ t ~ tent \e\enty
of\ 1olence t~ga1n't \\ on1en in Bttnglaclc'th

liKe 111) ptin'le 1e'earch objcctt\ c \\a ' to find out

the rclatton bet\\ ec n C r n1one) and vit,lcnce <tga1 n't won1cn. I was intete~ted to knO\\ n1 y
re~pond c nl ~ perccpttOn\ dcfinlll011

or donlC'tllC \to knee \\hen I a~kcd 111) J C'tpondenh

\\hat they kne\\ about don1cst1c \ iolcncc aln10'tt all of thcn1 'tharcd one co n1n1 on parl ance
they had cxpcncnccd ph ) ~ t ca J ahu e by thc11 male partner

BE l TY de en bed d o n1 e~t t c \ 1olence a~·
Phy 1cal torture b; the hu~band. quand and confli ct bet\\ cen the hu 'tband and \\1 !c.
the husband not pro\ idtng dail y groccn es or oth er cx pen ~e~. the hu ~ h and not con11ng
hotne regularl y and bea tin g the\\ 1fe and kid'
MAKSEDA replied
Don1estic violence! Yes. I und erstand . It is like hu 5band phys icall y torture~'' ife.
ornctimc~ husband kick~ hi \\ i{c out fro1n household. hu 'thand \\\ car<; at \\ tfc U'ttng
vulgar \\Ords. All these fan1ily related\ iolencc co n't truct dornc tt c \ tolcnce or f~t n1tl y
viol ence against wotncn
As CCT stipend rcc tpi ents, I wanted to know whether the wo tn cn had ever ~uifc rcd don1 e~t t c
VIOlence. Mo tor Ill Y res pondents acknowledged that they had ' uffcred donlCStlC \ tolence
(though not in the ~mn c ronn) rn their conJu ga l ltfe Ff~ CY told us a \cry recent and
poi gnant ~ tory about an 111Ctdcnl of\ ro lcnce ~ h e ~utTe red fron1 her hu ~ band
Is today the 2211( 1 or thi s rnonth I February 20 14 p Then. Including todd ) foJ l a~t thrL~C
tnonths. n1y hu ~ band rcftmncd fro1n tortunng n1c ph )~ t ca ll ) Due to a i~1n1tl)' t't'tue I
quarrel ed with n1 y hu sband and left n1y hon1 e three n1onths ago. li e asked for ll1 () ll C\..
99

I told h11n that ;ou \\til \\ a~tc the rnonc} h} gmn bltng ~o. I \\ dl not let }OU nlt ~ U(;.,C
the n1onc) an) n1ore For ~cl} tn g thr ~. he hc,H rnc ruthl e~s l y I had grt c\ nus tnJurr e~.
blood \\as rolling do'' n f ron1 n1y no(;.,e and 111) n ght hand ''a~ hit in a wa y that rt
~\\ cllcd a lot On that occcl~ ton I thought thclt I'' til not co ntinu e Ill) co nJuga l Id e I
mn pd ~\ tn g 111 1 Ide clln1o~t tn the ~d rn e ' 'd ) for la~t 20 yea t ~ ~ 1n ce I got rnan Jed I
round no change Ill htnl' I ha\ c been ~ll! fcrlll g frorn dornC(;.,tt c \ JOlcncc for at lca~t the
Ja ~ t 19 \car(;., lt bcl!.all
......
.JUSt after the lir'\t .,\C,ll of 111\'
.., lllclllldl!.C
.

~

But

URll

~\I l AR had othct thoughh. ~he C'\ pl ,unccl dornc(;.,tJC ' rolcnce and justllicd Jt

fron1 dnothcr 'JC\\ potnt
Yc . \O tn ctJI11C\ I hc1d little con fl JLh with n1v"' hu\bcliH.I But. he J(;., nntltkc other
hu band" He doe" not bettt n1c ol f and on It ~~usual that) ou '' Ill hct\ e confl tct '' tth
-\our hu ~ha nd . Ir I an1 bea ten b\- rn\- huc;hanu onLc or l\\ iLc a month I <.lon ' t find it ha<.l
or \tolcnce rather tt ts u~uctl. }OU hct\C to It hc1ppen~ tn C\ery fan1 tl y. 1t '"a vet}
COI11111011 111attCI
Out ofcu n o~t t -\. J a ked'' hcthcr \1 .~\K ' [ D \had e\er beaten her hu~band rn retun1 \Vtth a
hmnef'ul blush on her (~tee. he rep Iicd
•

Oh no' I I O\\ cotnc') Anyo ne\\ ho can beat her hu~band cannot be a ~octa l betng Nly
p a rent~ hen e handed n1 e O\ er to rny husba nd Can I heat hitn '> Even tf he beat~ n1 e to
death I '' ill not do anythtng tn reply ~o. I canno t beat h1n1. Becau()e. I ne\ cr (;.,(\\\' n1 y
1nother C\ er beat rn y father. I ne' cr ~a~ 1111 n1other ~\\ca r at Ill)' fathe r If I do ct ny
such thing it wdl be socia ll y di rc~ p ec tful fo r 1ny parents. I \\ til ha\e no honor rn the
ociety. Wife is ah\ ays lov. cr than hu ~ba nd If a hu~hand can feed n1e. can pro\ 1de
n1e datl y n ece~~a n c then he ha n ght to torture beat n1e.

Tt is e\ idcnt fron1 the te\lln1on1o ofNURUNNAHAR and the finding~ of the BBS rcpo t1, that
n1ale to femal e do1nest1c " Iolencc IS embedded in the culture and ~oc t cty of Bangladc~h It ts
a structural phcnotnena ( Fan11er. 200 1) and not sotncthing that ju~ t happen~ b: chance \\'hat
I gather fron1 1n y respondents is that don1 estic vtolence is ~o n1 ethtn g accepted and
nonnali1ed by the society and culture. NAS IFA d c~cribcd her cxpcn encc o r f~unil y \ tolcncc
I have to hand collect g•a~~ cuttings fro1n the fi eld for our CO\\" \\'hen I retu n1 fr on1
out~ide, I u ~uall y feel t11 ed I sit for (c \\ tntnutcs to tega tn energy. lfrny husband
con1cs tn and sees I an1 sttting. he starts swea ring at 1ne and a~~s \\ hy dally household
c hore~ at e undone yet and I an1 ju~t \i tting do1ng noth1ng. on1ettn1c" due to the heat
under the ~ un 111 th e field I feel ~o tired thnt tt n1 a k. c~ tne outt tl geou~ and I argue If J
repl y he ph ysicall y tortures n1c and bea t n1 c. Sotn etun cs n1y netghhors try to ref1 tllll
100

hun fi·otn beating rnc But he hcco n1e\ n1orc \ 1olent if he sees outsiders It happened
on a nutnbcrofocca\1011\ 111 nur fmnll) ltfc Once I \ued hun lie ''a~ rn jad for sc\cn
da) \ fhcn I '' "' " ond en ng <1hout n1 \ t'' o cht klJ en and ''hat ''Ill happen to thctn t f I
Ic (1\ c the n1 r hc 1n () rc \\ () I I } I ng Js <.;, uc f() I me \\ a~ \\ hc I e I \\ 0 u Icl g 0 1r I Ic n I hcl\ c
nc1thcr a father nor 111)' n1oth er I ha\ c 111} brother and stc;; tcr 111 law. but they
~on1et1n1c co n ~ Jd c t tnc d hllldcn Con\JdcllllC. C\ ct \thing. I clec ldeclto continu e the
"-'
- '-'
rcli.llJ Oll'-lhip I httd no other cllten1atl\ e\ I al~;,o thou ght that tfl lca\ c tn y chrlcll en tl
\\Ill affect then1 ,ld\ eLcl} dncl their ll\ e~ \\Ould he p<1 1nful \\Jthout 1nc

The COI11pelhng and hcd rt-1cnchng 1<. \{IIJ/Oilio o ( ~ \ , rr \ I e\ eals th<lt the lack o r ~OC J O~ tru c tura l and Can1il} <.:. up port 1

rncl krng '' nn1 cn rn B anglade~ h \UbJeL t to unbe<ll able don1 cs tr c

'rolencc [~,e n though l,n, ~and p cnalt r e~ (u c pr e\ent there J\ a l ac~ of \OC ra] \ uppor1 that
rnake '' ornen ~u cepuble to\ tolcnce \\Then cle\crtbing her ~u iTc nn g~. F E1 CY mcntr oned
an itnportant point. \ he Sll ffer

d \ 10il:nt dctnand for I110I1e}

of the ca u ~e~ that 5he h a~ to u JTct phys tca] \role nee

rro1n her hu\ba ncL \\ h 1ch is one

he enurn erated ho\\ and \\ hy ~;, h e face\

'iolent dctnand for n1 one\ . o often from her hu\band ·
.I

M y hu band gan1hl c He regularl} goc~ for gmnbl rn g nnd ca rd ~ Do you undc r ~ ta nd ' )
He usuall y ea n1s Tk. 200 tn a day. He l o~es this n1on ey in ga tnbl1ng, so what will he
spend on groccn es? He d oc~ nothing After losi ng thi s Tk.200 he cotn es horn e and
a k tne that\\ hether I ha\ e n1oney and den1and~ 111 a cotnn1 and ing \ oice to gi\ e hi1n
\\hat I have. If I refu e, he ~ tar1 '"caring at me and later ph y~ t ca ll y to11urc~ n1e. Thr~
is the way I ha\ e to pa 1ny fatnily Ii fc.

Violent detnands for Jnoney fro111 hu~band \\ ct c a con11non concen1 '' ithin mJ- rc\po nd ent" \
replies. Most of thetn n1 cntioned that they suffered violent den1ands for rnoney fron1 their
husband . The only dtffercnce \vas in the extent o f the\ tolence.
Molyneux (2006) clain1s that '" tran fers paid direc t! y to v.'on1en ha\ e the potential to
generate conflict if n1en feel that they are entitled to control n1oney re~ources and resent any
underminin g of their authority" (p. 43 7). Therefore. I asked a foll o\v-up question to rn y
respondents about ~h e the r they sufTcr violent detnand s for the CCT tnoney I'' a~ a little btt

101

hesitant 111 a ~ kin g thi

qu c~ ll o n . but "'on1c of Ill) rc~ p o nd c nt \ · ~ po ntan co u ~ t c \·tun on! os led n1 e

to tntrud c the toptc BI \l fY tcpli ecl to tn ) qu e"' tton

y c~ . 111)' hu \ hancl cletnand ecl the cc 1 Ill Olley II c qu e~ tJ o n ed \\ hy [ \\a ~ I e ru ~ tng to
gl\ e hi Ill the 11HH1e) He a" k. ed 111e th (l t \\b ethel I cllll the onl ) pcll ent of Olll children.
\ n ) OU are no t. he "'a td . I c1111 ht ~ pcHc nt too I told h11n tha t the money ts not gn cn to
hu\.. ~ I nce n e~ O J f<.tm th., ll CLe""' i t i e~ I he Jl1 0 11 C\., I~ rn r our ~o n ·~ edu ca tt on I to ld hinl
that \ \ C ha\ c to tn anage th e c du c at io n Ln~ l o l ou1 "'on. \\ ho \\ ill pa; hi " tut o r ·~ c.;a lar)?
I menti oned that Ill ) hu \ hcmd ne' cr co t1lt tbutc" to h ts t u to r· ~ p tt) . l atcr on '' c had a
eonflt cl on lht" 1""ue dnd ell th e end he ph y~ J ccl l ly tol'turcd n1e
'-'

KOI IINOOR clescnhed ''hat happen\ ''hen "he ca me h c~c k hon1 c v. 1th the . t1pend 1noncy
\1 ) hu"'band take\ the

cc r lll 0 11C) Ye"'. 111)' hu "'hand ta k e~ the money In ~ t a ntl y a ft er

I con1 e hon1e '' 1th the 111one\ 111v hu ~ b cmd ta ke\ the n1onc\ On the l a~ t occa~ t o n 1
~

~

~

rcccl\ cd the 111oncy on aturclay. 111) ~o n too k fk I 00 and th e 1 e~t of th e n1 oncy tn y
hu"hand too k. On that d,l). elf ter CO Ill I ng honlc. Ill y hu "'hand n~ k. e d !TI C if I hi ought the
cc r 1110nC) I I cpllcd ) C\. clnd let hlln kilO\\ thdt our ~o n too k I k I 00 fi·onl there.
Then he asked f 01 the re\l of the n1one\ <tnd I hand ed 1t O\ e1 to h1111 . HO\\ C\ er, the
next rn ornin g he returned th e m o n e~ "'o I co uld pa) 111)' ~o n· ~ pri va te tutor. On tim e I
rc ru ~cd to gl\ c hin1 the cc r 1110l1e) 1\ ~ a re~ ult \\ c had a con flJ ct and he 1111~ hch a\ eel
'' Ith n1 e and U"'ed 'ulga r '' o rd ~ and at the end I '' a\ bea ten .'\ f tet that I thought th at
he 111aintain the fan1il y year round and th at he I S the head or th e fcllnll y, I found it
wot1hle s to argue O\ er JUSt Tk.300. So. I decided to gi\ c h1111 the n1oney aft er th1 s
incident.
~

WASARA. \\ ho i the only hi gh ~c h ool gradu ate mn ong n1 y respo nd e nt ~. also found detnand

for the CCT n1oney frnn1 her husband though v.. 1thout phy"ical vio lence Her hu ~ ba nd a k~
her to gi\ c hun a po111on o f the n1oney for hi ~ pocket n1oncy

he told n1c that she nc\ er

refu sed hin1 and ne\ cr suffered any physical torture for the n1 oney In son1e occa\lons.
though, her hu sband tortures her psychologicall y by using ' td gar \\ O rd ~ A 1 0\VARA also
told me that she suffers psychol ogical violence fi-cH11 her hu sband if she denies gi' 1ng hin1 the
rnoney. ll er hu sband take the n1oney and say~ that he \\ Ill rctutn 1t to her But tn n1os t ca"e"
he docs not.

102

Ma king Su ceptihlc to Eve-teasing
I he JOint ~Uf\C) of the Bcln g ladc~h Bureau of StatJ~tlC ~ and t\1tn lstr) or Planning or
Bangladc ~ h ( 20 11) on ·\'tole nee \ ga tn ~ t \\ onH?n · cIa 1111~ th,lt non-partner (he

tdc hu ~ hand)

'iolencc i ~ a con1n1on ~ccnario in Ban gladc~h In the ~un C). the) found that ) oung age
\\Oil1en (under 29 )Car~) arc n1o1c ~usccpt1h lc to non-partner' tolcncc than the other age
group or\\0111Cn of thc ~tUd)

~chunn ann (2009) found that Ill Ban g l ade~ h the Jllohlllt) of

\\ orncn and f.)C hoo 1-go tng g irl ~ hct \\ cen the hon1c ,tnd the pu hi ic place or ~c hoo I i ~ ~ u h1 cct to
harassn1cnt or ·c, c-tca~tng· (lt gurc 5. 1 1 ~ a ~an1plc p1ctu1c of ho\\ c\c-tea~ tn g occur~. tak en
Cron1 a recent tnedw accou nt of Bdn gladc~h) Ci1rl~ are e\cn hara~~cd 111 the Lla~~roon1 ~ 1n1pl y
lor bci ng a girl

~churn1ann abo c latn1~ th at a I3anglade"h i \\ on1an gt rl ha~ to 1ncur ~C\ era!

kind o f hara~~ tncnt in the public or pri\ ate ~ph c rc and her on I) ~a f cguard 1 ~ the ~e n ~c of
•

rigure" I ',amp le p1llUre of hO\\ 'e\e-teasmg· OC.LUr~ on the \\ a) to o..,chool
~ou rcc : Bang ladesh I ndepcndenl Nc\\ ~ Network ( B D IN N ). Apn I, 28. 20 I I

rc~ pcctabll ity . Kari 111 (2005) c lai n1s that t h c~c tactics of hara ssnu~nt : tau nting or teasing i

adopted not on 1) h) ho) ~ or n1al c ~ t udcn t ~ but al ~o b) teat: hers to dcn1oralt/C gtrls to 1c~tr<.t in
103

thcrn fron1 rai ~~ ng thc1 r heau. up Dunne. II urn ph rc) ~ and I each (200 l) argue that thc"c
tacttc~ of har'"1~~n1cnt 111c.lkc girb p~) chologtct!ll) \\eak to ern brace ~ubordinatton in the1r

dati) life hoth 111 the horne and 111 puhllc l\.c.1rin1 (2005) (.1l~o found that 71 percent of the
re~pondcnh tn hr~ ~tud) optned that .. the) ~ topped ~ending their gnl~ to "chool due to protect

then1 fr0111 e\ e- tea~ I ng and COn" I den ng the hut den n f 111tltT) Ing the II daughter~ .. ( p. 15)
Schurn1ann (2009) cl'"1in1'-~ that "ecurit) I\ c..ll11ongst the rnajo1 ~~~uc s that c..1rc rc~pon~1hle for
girb dropptng out of '-tChool1n the rural cnn1tnunitrc" of Bllngladc~h ··f\1or-co\er. if the
d i~tancc to ~c hoo I 1\ too l~lr. or the 1oute too pu h!Jc. a girl n1ay not be all O\\ ed to attend" ( p.
508). \\'hen I \\anted to ~nO\\ about ·e\e-tca'-ttng· ('-tee page lfor detatl s ) I !ALIMA

\\anttng to dtrectl) illl'-1\\ er the que~tion

not

"ttlrted de'-lcnb1ng \\hat happened to her daughter

At the tin1C or gotng to "chool. abO) U\ed to foliO\\ 111) daughter. 'I he bo) follo\.\.ed
111) daughter regular!). do ) ou undcr'-ltand > \\-'hen he f oll(n\ ed n1y daughter he nuH.Ie
on1e tea~tng \Ound~ li~e · h1 sh-h 1~h-ha'-lh-ha~h · ~on1et11ne~ he uttered .. , ha \ c to get
)Ou·· \\hen foiiO\\Jng 111) daughter I hen \Vhat the gtrl \\rll do. "he \\Ill con1c hon1e
and tell her parent~ . It'~ a regular happentng 1n our ~urround1ng~ . M) daughter told
n1e about the Incident. I \\ent to the bo) direct!). '-ttopped h11n and tried to n1a~e hrn1
under~tand do not do that and nH~ntloned that the gt rl 1~ Ill) daughter Y e~. 1t 1" a \ er)
con1n1on happening\\ ith g1rl" on the \\<.l) to ~chool.
l 1stcning to her. I \\a~ curiou~ to learn about \\hcther the "chool n1anagen1ent con1n1ittce. the

local adn1ini"trati\ e hod) or the pro1cct in1pk1nentation authortt) tool-. any tnJtratJ\ e ~ to
protect girl~ rrotn . C\ c-tea~i ng. on the \\ 3) to ~c hool I II\ I IT\1A replied :
I ne\ er sa\\ an; ~uch thing that the; tool-. an) ~tep to protect high ~chool going gtrl"
fron1 ·cvc-tcasing ·. Such i ncidcnts/hant~s n1ents son1etin1es re~ul t tn scnou:-,
occu rrence~. Son1eti1ne<:, bo) ~abduct girl" on the \\ ll) to school 1\fter abducting the)
torture or rape girl~. Son1etllllC hO) ~ pull the "'carr or '-IChool gotng gtrl~. '-!On1ettn1e
the; rnake \v hi ~tic~ fron1 the 1r n1outh I he bo) ~ l orce full) tr) to 1na~e lo\ e \\ ith the
sc hoo l goi ng gi rl s Yes. I think it V\Ould be \er) helpful for the parent" of the school
going girls if the tH.hnini ~trati\ e hod) 01 projcch 1111plcrnent1ng authont) hc.t\ e been
taken ncce""ar; tnitiati\ e to pnn ide protection to g1rl~ on the \\a) to '-tChool dunng
~c hool hour~ . { l ndoubted I). It I" \ er) dangerou~ to the "ecun l) {) r ')Choo I goIng girl"
When no one takes any step. I hn\ e no altcrnati\ es \\ ithout ta~tng n1ea~ures
per~onall;. It t'-t n1) daughter I ha\ e to protect her .
104

~1 ()

0 \\ \ R \ ga\C 111C another idea ahout hO\\ ~ he deal ~ \\lth protecting her dau ghte r fron1

'C\ e- tca~ i ng · :

\1 ) daughter goc ~ to

l adra ~~o.,a (hldn1t c rc lt g 1 o u ~ ~c hool) and she rccci\CS st1pcnd

tnonc\ 1he \ 1 adra~ ~a , ~.., \ e n neat to our h o u ~e and 1t take ~ fi\c to ~c,cn n1inutc ~ to
get there I or pr!\ tllC tutottng ~ h e h<.1 ~ to go a htt furth er. 1t n1t ght he haifa ktl on1etcr I
ha\ c ne\c t ~ccn tn~ daughter sultct fron1 ·c , e- tc a ~ ln g · . (She n1entioncd Vvi th a sn1Ji c)
f~1cc) I lll tldc 111~ daughte r to u ~c · hoJk.hd.(\\ h1 ch tnean ':> \ e il) She \\C ar~ ' ho rk.ha' and
thc.lt prntech her II nn1 h,lrtl.. ,. ., nlcnts t ca~t n g on th e ' ' tl Y to \ l a dra ~~a or pri' ate tutonn g
*

10

1
() \ \ ' \

*

R.\ n1ade her daughter u...,c ·hot k ha · in orde r to pro tee t her fron1 ~o c i o-~ tru c tural

\ io \cncc \\ hcreas \ Clltn g I ~ predollllnantl ) CO!l <;, !dC! ed a prilll<.lf) lllCC han! Slll of SOCJttl
c'cluston tor \\ On1en ( ~ c unna nn . 2009). ' 'h1ch ltn11 h thcn1 fron1 part1<.. 1patin g in the publ1 c
sphere. '1he SC\ ent~ or th e ad\ Cf'-IC inl pach or ·c\ c-tca~tng can he und c r~ t oo d fronl I igure
5.2 v. h1c h " as p uhl1 <;, hcd i n a n a tJ o na I ne ' ' "paper · ·1hc Da II ~ S tar· in Its on l1 nc vc r ~ 1on on

October 11. 20 14. If a n~ one fo li o\\ " th e dail y ne'' "' P ape r~ . C\ en today. th e) 111 ight find
incidents of · e' e-tea ing · in Banglade<,h \\'hat '' c ~o.,ce i"> th at ho th th e PI · ~ P and th e I SSAP
spent fi ve percent and e ightee n percent rcspccti ' e ly of thc1r total prog ran1 c o s t ~ on
adn1inistration ( \\'8 . 2006. p. 46) hut th e ~ con1plctel) ignored one of the nl tht in1portant
is ues in their project de<,ign

the ~cc urit\. of the he n e fi c i a ri e~ .

105

Eve-teasers kill youth in Dhaka
Swr Onlmt Rtpurr

r

•

\youth ditd CMI) toda) bour after be\\ as cnrcly bcaleo and su.b~ b) mJs.::rcants for protc nng

tcasmg bis t:5ter an Bhashanack area of Dh.al.a

•

td asir Hossam. 25. is~ son of Abdul Mann Suder. Mo:Jwraf S~r. clda brother of the deceased.
told The lml} Star.

At lost agtu to nine )'Owhs ancluding Mam\Dl.Ala.m.. Sobel. Sujon and Bablu ha~tc been tea.'iing Nasar"~
matcrmJ cousm a student of Clw VII for \'traJ months in the area. tosharraf ~d.
~ fto- ~) oulhs tnsrd her again yc lCfd.a) afternoon.
further h~ bi~ Cotlitn, be added

till scolded them wamod of legal act ton af the)

••The youths arc tn\ohed m drug trndc.- MoshamfaJlcgcd
man o.round 9.00f'm called on '11511 and &ool: hJm to the youths. he claimed.
The )OUths first beat and later saabbcd 'llSu. lea\ mg rum inJured cnucalJy.

Ftgure
5 2 New.., on severit\ or 'e ve-teasin!.!..
.....
....
. ource fhe Oath ~tar (onltne \ erston). Octobet II. 1 0 1-l
~

CCT Delivery• Mec ha nism a nd Ma tern a l Mod elin g

In the Pnn1ar} School Stipend Project (PFSP) the "'tipcnu n1one) i ~ deli\ ercd to the
1110thcrs or the hcnc fictnry children . rhc assurnption he hind deli\ cri ng ca~h to the 1110thers 0 r
the beneficiar) children, not the f~1ther~. 1~ that the n1othcr ~ arc n1ore careful about their
children than their fathct ~ ()n the other hand. the cash n1ight enhance the C111pn\\Crtnent of
106

the benefic wry '' on1en h) enhanctng thc11 co ntrol powct O\ cr l;) pcnchng 1non ey (TcitJ cn.
200 3)

1ncc. tt \\a"\ e1) 1n1portant to learn about th e dell\ cr; n1 ec hant ~ n1 of the ca<., h, I

\\a nted to knO\v hO\\ th e \\ OJ11CJ1 co llec t the cc r 1110 11 C\t• B I·!\ l f i y dc<.,c n bed
\\h en the ll10ncy CO ITIC\ . th C) f ...,choo ltCcll hCr\ ] tnl nnn U~ \\'c go tO the <.,c hool and
g i\ C d ~ t g n a ture Out Lhtl cll en let u" kno\\ The) ""Y th at the <.,chool teachc1 to ld you
to go to ~c ho n I for collcct1ng th e <:. tlpcncl n1onc; I hen \\ c go to ~c h o ol We go there.
g1\ c our tgn<t tu 1c 1\. o. th e\ do not gl\ c U \ JlH)ne) on th <~ t cl ny. th ey gt\ c u ~ th e tnon cy
anothei del) 1 e". I go to l!. t\ c 111) \ le.nature one dcty th en I ha\ c to go anoth er day to
co llect the n1onc) h) 111) O\\ n The \L hool t\ f ell f 1 on1 111) h o u ~c I go th ct eon foot It
t a k e~ at lc a~ t hall an hour "a lk to teac h the sc hoo l fron1 n1 y hou\c To go and to
return I ha\ c to Wcl lk dl lc,l\ l for one hout . I hen c to \ pend the clay J r I go to collec t th e
n1one) ~ o. not JU <., t one del) I lul\ e to "Pa' e e\ en the day that I ha\ e to go fot givtn g
the \ tl!.nature to "chool.
'-

Ye\. l \\ Ork cl\ ,,n agn culture laborer on da ily ha\ J\ So n1Ct1n1 c \\C take \\Otk <., on
contract ba~ 1 " too It u~ u a ll y 111 an a\etage Tk 150 111 a day I catn1 f l \vOJk If I go to
co llec t tipcnd m o n e~ I ha\ c to ~ac r i fi ce th e da) ·"' \\ Ork th at I hn\ c to gi' c up t'v\ o
da) " \\ ork Cor co ll ec ting the 1nonc}
fh en. I \.\ anted to kil O\\ ahout the en \ ironn1 cnt and the fau iJtJes 111 \\ h1 ch JTI ) rc<.,pond enh ·
ha\ e to\\ a it for collec t1ng the n1oney. BEAU I Y ga\ e n1c a rough idea\\ hrch ~ ~ <., tnl ilar to the
other re~ p o nd c nts
During rain y d ay~ or C\ en in the unbca rahl e hea t o f "un1mer \\ ego to th e ~c h oo l to
coll ect the n1oncy, \Ve uc,c utnbrella to protect u<.,. After reac hm g to the <.,c hool \\ e ~ 1t
and \\ a1t for the <., tat1 of dt stnbutlon of the n1oncy T here arc <.,On1e roon1s tn the
school where Jt IS possible we can sit hut they do not open the rootn s. We s1t on the
floor or on the open fi eld on grass. Sotncti tnes \.\ c s1t. I;)Otn c tnn c \\ e ren1a1n stand ing.
Y cs. it ts hard and \ ery p a u1 ~ t akin g. Y cs. there arc "orne \\ a\hroorn in the \chool. the
sc hool teachers u ~c then1. l f \\ c need to u ~e '' a hroon1 \\ e do not usc the \C hoo l'
washroom, we go to the nea rby houses or the sc hool They do not let us u ~e the
sc h oo l' ~;) V\ a<., hroo nl s. [ \e n if'\\ C beco me thirsty 'v\ C ha\ e to go the nea rh) h n u ~c . fo r
water It is Jahon ous and tnnc consun1ing to co llec t th e n1oncv
NAS IFA al so descnhed the cond iti ons at the collecti on point:

It doc<., not tnke the smne mnount or tunc to collec t the st1pcnd n1one) 1n e\ ct)
o cc a ~ t on . Son1ct tn1c tt t a k e~ li\ C to~ '' hou1 ~, ~o n1 c tun c tin1e tt t a k e~ lc"s l t!.O to and
fron1 there on root Son1 clllllC I hcconle hungry 1 here arc S0111C lllObtle \ endors \\ ho
sell snacks. pota to crackers. chocol<.1tcs, cooki es Ir \\' C go wtth our chddren \\ e bu;
'-

107

tho .. c and ca t thcn1 and dt tnk '' atc1 fh ct c 1~ 110\\ hc1c neat h) to ha\ c a decent Iunch
or to dtt nk '' atct I ha\ c ll C\ cr u"cd the \\ cl ~ h1 oo n1 there. although I ~ d \\ \\1 a ~ hr ootns
tnsidc 1 hey r~c h oo l offi ce] a l \va y~ loc k tl. I did not find any such Sitting
arTangc n1enh. \\ e u ~u a ll } ~ tt on the fi eld to \ \ d t t. l r ttt ~ a hot ~unn y cla y \ \ C ~ tt
undernea th tree~ 111 the "hctdc

\1 ol) ncu \ (200X) n1 cntt nncd thclt \1 cxican CCT beneficia ry wotncn found 111ccti ng
progrmn clcn1 a nd ~ hatd dnd that the) ctcct tccl co n!lt c t~ \\ tth thctr ptllnary tnco n1c-gcncrating
ac tt\ ttt c~ (p 49). I tried to do d n elen1cntar} lc\ d calcula ti on and fo und that n1 y rc~po nucnt <
1111111111Ul11 \\ dge ro r t\\ 0 da)" I " I k 100 (as the} rnc ntioned ) So. th e (\1110 unt they arc
reccl\tng a~ a ~ ttp c nd . at the co"t o f thctt t\\O cl ay~ of \\ Otk. ~ ~ th e ~<lrne 0 1 ~on1 c tim c even
lc s

d·,, c co n ~ td e r othet c'.pen<..e" lt ke food and tra n ~ po t1a tr o n It'" 1dent th at the
C\

oppot1Ut1lt) co"t for recel\ tng the n1oncy afTcc t ~ the rcc tpt ent n1 o th e r~ nega tive ly h)
con fl ictt ng '' tt h thctr 1nco n1 e-generat1on ac ti \ 1tt e~
•

The Center fo r Polley Ot alogue (C PO ) of B a ngl a d e~h 111 thctr late 20 14 repo11 on
..£ tnnat111g lf'cnne n \ Contnhut1on to th( Econonn ·· n1 cnti oneu th at on a\ erage a fen1 ale

person in Bangladesh works three tun e~ n1 ore unpatd ho ur~ than a tn ale p e r~o n on a gl\ en
day. Through a nati on\\ td e cornprchensl\ c sun ey, the stud y IdentJlied that a \\ otnan 1n
Bangladesh i heavily burdened with h o u ~cho ld ac ti vities and sp e nd ~ 12 I h o ur~ in a typical
day in contrast to onl y 2.7 ho ut ~ for n1en (C PO, 20 14, p. 15). The tnatcrn al n1 odel of delivery
adopted by CC f s. promotes a 111atern al 1110deJ or chtld care that ex. tcnu s \\Ork hour<; fo r
pal1icipating won1en. Ichou (20 14) arg u e~ that " n1 atcrnal responsibdJllcs ret nf'o rcc gender
ro le ~ and stereotype<;. Ind ccd. c a ~ h tra n ~ fer<, reIy on '' on1 cn · ~ ~o c ia l idcnt il~ a" n1 oth cr<·

(para 23 ).
I wanted to kno w what 1ny respondents have to do tn a typ1 c'll day to support thci1
fan1d y. Above all, I wa nted to get an idea or ho\\ tn any hout s the:y ~ p e nd <1Jlc1 \\ ork on

108

household task~ and otiK'r tncon1c gcnctatinn .

lnHht all of 111) tc~pondcnt~ arc engaged in

household \\Ork and SOI11C tnfotnlaiJOh ()nan c.l\Ctage UH) thC) ~pend t\\el\e to fourteen
hour~ '' ork 1ng ( th rce to four hours a da: n1or c than the 1r tna k part net~) .

I tt~kcd then1 to gl\ c

details or their d(.llh. roultne~
Bl \l I Y dc~ct1hcd (~ec Figure') 1) hln\ ~he 1~ engaged 111 c.l t)ptc<.tl da.J

I \\c.lkc up at "I' tn the tnorning. I start\\ ith C<Hl1pul.;;;or: hou ~e hold chore~ ~uc h a~
s\\ecptng the ) c.Ud. cleaning. cooktng and ~o lorth \fter cotnplcttng. all of that I then
go to \\ ork ror \\hOC\ cr \\til hI rc nle 1 ha \ c to take 111 J ~on to ~c hoo I too I feed hi 111.
dtc~~ h1n1then go \\Jlh h11n to ~Lhool. I hen I hc.l\C to go ~Lhool at Llo~1ng to hnng n1)
~on hon1e Ye~. 1nclud1ng all of that I \\otk c.l" an 1nfonnal da) lahorer I \\ork etght
hour" d" d dd) laborer For 111) hou"chold tc"pon"lhllttte" I htl\C to "pend at lca"t fi\e
tnorc hout" \1y hu"ht!nd 1" '"l "trcct 'end{H that "ell" "naLks and nuts. I Ie ~pend" etght
to nine hour~ at \\Ork ,\Iter I con1e hack ftonl 111\.. \\ork J al"o take care of 111\" son· s

h gun.: ~ 1 Bf 1\lJ I Y 1s ~ho\\Jng her '-,Ctlrl., 111 hand that ~he "utTered" hen \\Orkin!.!. 101

'\epara tm!.!. Iea ve ~o, o I ~ ug.mL ttne
~ource Rtt ~o, hHJ ..,0 I 1

When de ~c ri hi ng her dai I) act1 \ tlle" I I'\ I II\1 \ 111L'11l ioncd lhat ~he lo"e" het ltntghtct ·" help
~hen she sends her to ~c hool. She said:

109

the da) Ill) dau ghter doc" not go to "chool "he help~ tne around the hou"c Say, I 'Aen t
to the k.ttchcn to coo k rood, 111) dctu ghteJ helps lllC Ill cutlt ng \ eget ab l c~ Sonl ettnle
she h e lp ~ tn e b; co llcc tm g fi re'' nod and lccl\ C(\ fot cnoktng She t a k e~ the covv
ouhtdc f0 r granng and bttn g~ tt h,lck hon1 c , he ,d ~o cut" gt a ~~e~ and hnng" thctn
hon1 c for the CO\\ . On \OU not thtnk the " nt k ~ he docs i ~ a h1 g hel p fo r tn e'}
Fron1 Ill} re~ pond c nt ". tnten tC\\ ~ tt hcLcli11 C C\ td cnt th,ll the <)pportuntty c o ~ t for ~e ncl1n g
their chtldrcn to o..,c hool not onl) I edu ce~ thctr chance of' Clll'lling C'\lJ'Cl 1110nC} fronl their
children's labor but tt al ~o create" e\.tra h o ur~ ol \\ o rk fo1 th en1 .
HAL 1~1 \ alo.., o n1cnt1 oncd that on I; n1othet ~o f the hencfi LJa ry c. hddt en arc told to

pa111ctpate tn ~c h oo l tn cc tm go.., rcgct rdm g prog rc"~ o f ccluu ll ion of thcu· chtldrcn a~ the
tnoth e r~ are the rec tp1 cnt of the ~ up end n1oncy

She al o c l<u rn cd that:

n1other" are acc u ~ed f0 r the poor pcrforn1 ance o r thc11 childt en o n1 c tun c~ n1 oth crs
are dcnoun ccd In front 0 r a II b) th e sc hoo I teacher.. , ror th eIr Lhi ldrcn. <., cdu cat l Oll .
It i C\ ident that the CCI n1one) enforce..., the ~o l e res pon\ ib ilit; o f Lhtldrcn·<., educa ti on care
On the lTI Other~ only. khou (.:~ 0 14 ) a rgu e~ that:
targett ng v.'on1 cn conditionall y to thctr tn aterna l re"ponsth d 1ll es retn forces gender
ro le ~ and ~ te reo t: pe(\. Ind eed. ca\h tra n (\ f~ r~ reI: on \\ otnen ·" \OC ia I i d ~ nti t; as
In oth e r~. It thu ~ retnfo1ce" gend er cit \ is i o n ~ \\ ithu1 h o u se h o ld ~, expec ttng n1 others to
se l fl e~s l y undertake reproducti ve chores (para. 24 ).
No n1ention ts tnade 111 the design o f these proJ ect~ about the ex tra hour add ed to th e
mother's duti c~. fh erefore. I bee arn e intcrec.;ted about'' hether their hu ~ ba nd ~ help then1 in
their household work KO III NOO R replied that "No. he ne\c r ' 'ill. No. he \\ til do noth ing.
'-

Even i r our child ren a t ~ \ ick. he IH~ \ er he Ip ~ me ... rA Ill I R/\ c Ini ll1CU th at " throughout th e
day I a l w a y~ ha\e (\0Jll ething to do E' en if I sufTc r Cron1 fe\ cr. no one 1 ~ there to hel p n1c I
have to coo k food and perform household chores C \ en if I an1 ~ i c k. ".

110

1 RJ I 1A. tned to J U~td y '' h; hu "ba nd ~ do not help '' tth hou ~chold '' ork hy
Incntiontng th,lt tl J, a ~oc t o-s tru c tural occ urrence It i
help'' tth hou\ehold '' ot k

unu ~ ual for a hu ~ band to pcrforn1 or

he n1 enu oned that:

I ha' c tn \\ otltnore tht111 111) hu"hand J lc wi ll onlv do one th1n g that he t<; " upp o~cd
to do I ha\ e 111 0 1c thIn ~"' to do clnd I ha \ c to do thcn1 \\' til a 111 (1 n \ \01 k lot'} w e ha ve
to do tn orc \Ve hd\ c to '' ork fot oth er peo ple to cat n tn oncy and th en we h CI \ c to
fin1 \ h out O\\ n hou"'chold '' 0 1 k It 1"' the usua l prac ti ce 111 out \OC tet)' that n1 cn do not
pcrfonn h o u ~e h o lcl " 01k
<...;

BE L r·Y . tn h e r tc\{/11101110 , C"\ pl tt tned \\ hy bet hu"lband tefU "lCd to hel p \vt th hOU\e hold

work
o. n1y hu <;band doe not hel p me Do n1 cn C\ er help tn hou\ehold '' ork'>1 hey co1ne
frOITI their \\ ork then a rtcr gett ing I e fre~ h cd they go tO nCcll hy 111ark eh and ~ p e nd t1111 e
there in the ted qa ll . But I ha\ c to take ca re of coo ktng and o f tn ) \o n ·~ home
cduca tton after con1ing f1on1 \\ Ork 'o, he nc\ er help\ in cooktng nr for fetching
" ater fo r coo ktn g. He rather telb 1nc that I will do the cooktng It •~ )O Ur
re p o n ~ tbtlJty. he'' Ill ~ay Do I need to cook'>Is tt tn y rcs p o n ~ J b tlJt y'>
I then a ked her\\ hether her hu \ band C\ er tnqutre<, about or ta ke~ ca re of the1r \O n ·~
chool ing and educati on

he rep! ied th at

No. he nc\ er as k<; th at how n1y ~o n '<) educa ti on i<) go in g. I lc rath er a ~ k s rne \\h at I do
\V ith n1 y labor" age a \\ ell as \\hat I do '' ith the "l tipend n1oney He qu e~ ti o n \ n1 e
about \\hat I do '' ith all o r that tnoney. and \\ant~ an account of each exp e n ~e
Molyncuex (2008) cntt ci;cs CCT progran1 s on their deli' ct y tnecham"ln1 b) clai tning
that these progrmns arc breeding the fcn1ini zation of rcsponstbility Soares and th a (20 10)
argue that CCI progran1 ~ would hen e been an excd lent oppo11uni t) fo r pron1ot1ng
transf'onnati ve gender rol es if it \\as incorporated cxplicttl y 111 the cote progratn de\ tgn
Looking at the dtffercnt CCT pt ogran1s designs. Son res and S th n (20 l 0) nssert th at

111

Marco\ cr. It 1' nccc,,al'): to 1ncoq101ate <l gcnclc1 chn1 ensJon to('(' I progrmn,, to
O\ et-reac h trdd 1ttonal hou,cho ld d): nan11<. . ' It ~ ~ not enou gh to d t sc u s~ Jna ttcr~ wt th
bene lie tary \\ on1cn on!):. tnen , n1o ~ tl y th eu 'POll 'e partner~. shou ld a Iso he 1n vo l vcd,
othen\ t"-e ,u,ttlJndhlc Lh<lnge' With Ill the hou,chold ,tnd e\ en dt the con1nlunJty le\el
nl a): not be achie\ eel ( p R)

Rathel than tnclud1ng (~llhcJ or tn alc n1 en1hct,, \\ ho n1ctke up the other hniJ of th e
fa n1tl ). thc ~e piOJ CC t ~ IeinO\ C th en1 fro1n taktn g le"-p0n, JbJIItl e" related to the h0use hold and
chlldn:n·~ regular and i.l ladcnlll Cd l C

Altet lcd tn1ng the detml~ ahout the dell\ ery

nlechant ,111~ 0 I th e~e cc r pl ogJc\111 ~. I h,td to cl \ k 111) I e\pond cnt' I r the): ha \ c any td ca \V hy
the stipend JllOlley \\ (l~ not dell\ eJed to the rather o( thCII Lhddren I I ALIMA rem force~ the
ju5ttficat1 011 o( dell\ Cling

(' f' n1011C) to the l110ther' by cla11111ng that:

1f the ~ tl pend lllOllC) I' g1\en to th e father..._ 0 f ehtl clr en the) extra\ aga ntl y 1111 ' ll'C and

\\a tc the 111011ey I an1 \Urc th ey \\ II I not lnake proper u'c () r the 111011CY \11 other<.;,
u uall) ~pend money 1n a rcaso n<1bl c \\Cl)
•

MARJI~A ga\ c to the f~llh er~ of the bcneficwry children a ne\\

1cknt1ty hy n1ent10n1ng that

My hu . . band 1 ~ an df-,pcnclcr He 'pend ' the 1noney purpo~ele~~ l y and he 1 ~
\\a tcfull\., too
MAK EDA, iews the reason for not deli' ering the CCT n1oncy to the tn ale n1en1bcr'-l of the
hou ~e hold :

o, ne\ er' Fathers arc not gi\ en the stipend n1one) 1 he n1oney 1s not gl\ en t0 the
father~ because they \vastc the n1oncy by ' pending purv o~eles~ l y Mothers nrc n1ore
re s po n ~ ible and u"e rn one) for their children· " ca re. Mother~ ~ ta) at home. the) knO\\
better hO\\ and \\here tO . ._ pend the 1110 11C)' than the father~ o f the hou,ehold
These projects gave the fathers or th e benefi ciary children a 11C\\ identity and nan1 c. nllhers
are ·If/-sp enders', rather than em brae i ng thcn1 \\ ith in the circle or ch ddrcn · "-~ educat1ona I ca re
and related re,ponsibiiJtte' in a ~)s t en1at1 c n1annet The 1ron) •. ._ thtll conte'\ t ~pectfic
knowledge ha s a l way~ been ignored by devclop1ncnt ex pel ts {Escobar, 1995, PO\\ cr. 2003.
Law ~ on, 2007). It JS COI111110l1 \\ Jth CC' r pro gnun ~ that the lnalc lllClllber

112

or a hou ~c h o ld ·~

1nargu1ali;ed fron1 children care adh enn g to the 1dca that n1en arc l e~<., careful about thc1r
children· education. I IO\\ e\ er_ It 1s not a un1\ c r~ al rcal1ty thnt nil ntthcrs <uc cnrclcss about
theu chddren, undoubtedl y,. thet e arc f~tth cr<., \\ ho tl l c Cell cf ul about the n11 ~ 1n g of theu

chtldtcn T \Ill ' R holdh defe nd ed her hu ~h a nd b\ <:. tcltin f.!. ht <., attitude and rol e tn then
~

J

~

children 's ~c h oo lin g and edu cati on:
""'

[ f 111): chdd a'-l k. (or pen and pdpel hy an)' J11 ed t1~ 111 ) hu ~ h a nd \ v Ill Jll anage to prO\ ide It
ror the11 ~c h o oltn g I Je ne\ er gl\ e~ a hard t11n e to our child for pen and paper. Son1c
peo ple\\ c11t unttl the; 1CCC I\ c '-~ llpc nd n1 one; to pd)- the p1 1\ ate tuto1 " hut he pa y<., 1t
rcgul cll I; fron1 h1" p(K k. et
The lindtng~ of :\1olyncu\ (2006) though <uc ec hoed by the \O I CC~ ofn1nn; o f rn y
respondents. Thc~c prOJcc ts not onl y den1orall/e those n1 cn who <ll e ~e l f-1ntcrc<:,tccJ 1n takin g
care or thetr chtldrcn dncl hou'-lehold ta'-lk. "· but al'-10 lllakc thcin vulncl able to he cll ~ p cll aged (1':,
·feininine · . Jch ou (20 14 ) argue(;, th at "\\ hcrea..., the Internati onal co mn1 unit; ha..., recogni1cd

the need to\\ ork v. 1th n1 cn and boys to achJ e\ c gender equ ality, the cxcl u ~ Jon of 1ncn fro1n
CCT progra n1 ~ ~ ~ notahl c Antagonuing n1 cn and \\ on1cn O\ erloo k... , the co tnpl exit) and
d; nan1 ics of gender rc Iat i o n ~ .. (para. 24 ).
After recordm g 111) re(;, p o nd e nt ~ · h ' \lllllO il lo.\, I ~tro n g l y agree~ ith Bey (2003 ) that 111
additi on to their co mn11tn1ents to their h o u ~e h o ld chore(;, ... th e~e \\ Omen arc co n\ erted into d
new ~oc ial ca tegory\\ ith n1ore obligati on.. , for th e . ., implc rea5o n that the; rece l\ e a \ Lih~ i d~ ··
(as cited in Mol) neux. 2008, p. 52). A.. , \\ith oth er cc r...,·. an inherent problem \\ith the
design o fth e~c CC f progran1 s i ~ that .. the; not on I: depend on th e condtt io n<., th at n1 <1 k.e
vvotnen vuln erable hut th ey n1n y ac ti ve ly reinforce then1 " (M ol: neu'\ . ">()OR. p. 58)

113

Fal c Sense of En1p o" crm cnt

Fn1p0\\CJ'ing \\ 0111en I'-, d co ntc"tcd 1'-,'-, UC and It) ~ diffi cult to 1111pllfy the d Cl

or

cn1pO\\ enn ent h; onl; c1nphd"l/1 11g a "pec di c co nd1t1 on 01 1ncc hdnl "n1 ( 1ol ) neu\ , 200X, p,
41 )

clnto. Ronpn arat nc and Bec ke1 ( 20 I l ) 1denti fic~o, th dt a ltno"t all CC I proguun

111Co rporntc onl y \\ 0 111C I1 a'. thcll bene fi ctan c'. The mec hal111., 111 or Including \\'0111en as
b e n c fi c tan e~ I ~ ddh cred to on I) On th e h) pot he<; I" thdt \\ 0111en " tend to put f'unJ \ to better
u ~ c than \\ Ill 111 C ll .. ( \\ lHi d B,ln k. 2009.

r II). ·r he undeJi yi ng intent ion behind ddt \el ll1g th e

C T rnone) to \\ Otnc n e'\clU"I\el) I" th at the ca\h wi ll elevdtc thei r en1po\\ennent hy
extendin g fi nanc 1al autonon1 y I he 1ro n} 1\ that. \\ on1en <ll e 1ncluded tn th e\c pt ogranl '.
based on thct r ~ocw ll y a"c rihed gend er role. 1no th cnn g and care \\ o rk . not a\ 1ncl1\ 1clual'.

Holtnes . .l o ne~. \' a rga~ and Veras (20 I 0) chlltll that cc r prOJeCh extend the burden
of re~ p o n~ tbdtt ) on the hcneficw ry \\ o1nen ( r 5) One study co nfi nns. by exan1inm g the
Mexi can C T progran1 that dell \ enn g the CCT n1 oney to n1 other" 1ncrea"ed the1r auto non1 y
to son1e degree. hut did not n ece~sa nl y enh ance thetr en1pO\\ en11ent

1nce etn pov. ennent

depends on tn ultira rio u ~ 1ssucs rather th an the control over a ~n1 a ll amount of free n1 oney
(Molyneux, 2006 ).
'I he Bangia \\O rd for cmpO\\l!rtn ent i~ ' Khanwtayan·. It i~ an unl an1iliar tcnn to 111 )
rc~p ond c nt s . even though it ~~a Bangia\\ ord : as a re~ ult. It '" a

hard for then1 to apprehend

For every inter\ 1e\\ , l had to cxp la1n the tcnn in ord er to tnakc the'' ord n1 ca ntnglu l 1<.1 r thcn1
so that they can apprehend and defin e the term When I \\ anted to k.nO\\ '' hat

NURUNNAII AR thought about cn1powcn11ent. She gave me her de finiti on of en1po\\cnnent
a ~.

114

8) cn1 po'' enncnt I undcr"tand th at if I pt n po ~c "on1cth1ng to n1 y hu"hand rcgardtng
fa tnll) t "~ ue. dnd tfn1) hu ~ bancl g l\ c~ h1 ~ consent I feel cn1pO\\ Crccl Ifrn y h u ~ ba nd
t g no rc~ tn y pro p o~ a ll fi nd tn y~c lf \alu c lc~"

KO I IIi\ 00 R Iu ~ tdi cd ClllpO\\ Cli11Cnl In clllOlb ct \\ cl ) s he C'\ plm ned C111p(.)\\ cnn ent a ~

l\ 1) t:n1pO\\ cnnent 1" \ C~ t c J to 111) hu ~ h ~.1nJ tha t 111 Cc.ln ~ it I" acco rd1n g to .. 1fad1th"
[blan1t c 1 c ll g tou ~ boo k. ]. n1; hu ~ h d nd 1 ~ n1; pO\\ Ct tn ltfc I h<t\ C to talk to h1 n1 hy
lO\\ Crt ng dO\\ n 1ny \ Otcc [_., \ en I atn not eli gibl e to talk 111 a loud er vOJ CC to hun No, I
i:ltn not authot r;cd to ~ pct1 k. loudl ) w1th 111) hu"hand

In n1 o~ t c a se~. 111) rc~ pond c nt ~ try to t elate cn1pn\\ enncnt \\ 1th thct1 power and cont rol over
h ou ~eh o ld clcc t"ton"

, 1ncc I '' d~ tntetc"tcdtn tecord ing thctr c '\p e 11 e nce~. I \vantecl to know

''ho bct\\ Cc n hu ~ b a nd and ''1 fc tndkc nHn e d ec 1 ~io n " \..1 1\ KSED'\ cx pla1ned that hou"ehold
dec t ~ t o n tnakt ng patt ern depend 1ng on co ntex t and 1C<.;pon ~ ~ bd 1ty
\\rc both n1ak.c dcc t t o n ~ I n1 akc household and chtld care 1elated dec t"ion" hccau"e I

ha\ e to take care or scndtng n1y chtld to "choo L to a pri vate tutor and when n1 y child
''ill pia; M) hu ~ b a nd h a~ to go out in the earl y rn orntng f(H· \\ ork So. I ha\ e to take
care all those c1c tt \ tt1 e~ and I dcc 1de \vhat to do In other ca"'c" tny hu"band tn akcs the
dec i ~ t on s. o, crall tn y hu ~ h a nd tnakes tn o~ t d cc i ~ t o n s .

Hi toncall y 1n the soc t o - ~ tiuc tura l ~etttn g~ of Banglade"h patria rchy ts the don11nant cultural
norn1 and the tn arital ~)~ te tn <; limit \\ O tn c n ·~ autonotn) in th e hou"'chold . l '"> LJa ll y. ''hen a
hou sehold is fc tnale-hcaded it 1s a .. n1 ale-a h ent house hold" (Joshi . 200-+ ).
Acco rcllng to Fneden1 ann-Sanchc1 (2006) the O\\ nc r~h1p o r property '" one of the
most itnportant assets in giving wo n1en the po\\cr to barga in \V ithin the household
Fu r1hennorc, tt gtves th en1 the authonty to protect th cn1 scl ve~ fron1 dotncs tH.: \ tolence After
recorcllng sc\ cral 1£: \ lun onio.\ or n1y re"pondenh, I bccatnc tnqut sttt\ c and '' anted to k.no\\
fron1 W ASARA (she was the onl y respondent I asked thi s questi on to hccau sc she ts th e onl y
person who ha"' fatntl y land s), that Since they arc d c~ t gn a t cd to rCCC I\ C the <.; tlpcnd 111011C),
did "he get consulted ot designated fo r the rccordtng of the O\\ nershtp of theu· f~11ntl ) l,1 nds
during the last govcrmn ent land survey She replied that·
115

ro. 111) hu ~ b a ncl dealt'' tth the ~un eyo r~ '' ho \\ere t ecord1ng the O\\ ncr htp of th e
land \Ve ha\ e ~ rnall arnou nt of Iand 1 he In11d '' c ha' e '' a~ recorded tn 1ny fnther-t11la\\ ·~ narnc. ot C\Cn 111\.. tnothcr- tn-ln\\ ·~ natn c ''a~ included in th e land reco rd .
The O\\ ncr h tp ctnd co11tt ol O\ ct pr opert; h; '' on1 cn t n B a n g l ade~h t'-. ' cry lo\\
lthough th e lega l ~)'-. l e n1 e n ~u t c~ cqualtt g ht~ lot 111en and'' on1en '' tth rega rds to propet1y
in Banglade \ h. ·· tn 1996. on l) 1 ~ pcrLc nt (0 62 tnt Ilion) out of 17 8 million agricu ltura l
hold tng<; ''ere f'ctna lc O\\ ned \\ on1c n · ~ O\\ ner~ h tp of h o mc~tcad~ 1\ on I} \I tghtl) h ighcr than
thetr O\\ nersh 1p o Cagncu ltura I land and '' otncn ell e 11101c It kely to ow 11 the hon1 c~ tca d 1fit ~ ~
not attached to L ultt\~.lh lc land·· (Rural Dc\clnpn1e nt In ~ tttutc [RDII. 2009. p 12). A~ v.tth

.,,
the ca~e of n1atTJage. tnhentancc of propert; 1c;; regulated h; \11u'-.lt n1 per<;o tutl lcnv- or the Ia''
of the reli g1on that the perso n !olio\\ ~
\\·on1 cn 111 Batu.?.lade~h at c u ualh 111\ oh cd 1n nurncrou ~ hou\chold act1' tlle~ '-.uc h
~

J

eoo k111g. cleamng. collecting the fire'' nod fo r coo ktng along'' 1th chtld ca t c thus they ensure
food and nutritt on fo r thctr fatntly n1 c n1h er~ (ftgurc 5.4 t ~ an cxan1pk ofv.o mcn·~ n1ultita king) (RD L 1009) Therefore. Anfftn (1004) c rnph a~ t/ C\ that a" long a~ adequate and
trust v. orthy chi lei-care '-.Upport ~ y\tetns arc not created for \\ on1en '' orker~ in their locality.

the pres ure o f child care wi ll retard \\Onlen fron1 111\ ohi11g thetn~clvc s in rncorne gc ncrattng
acti\.lti es actt\ ely and they \\Jll rctnain the prey or ill-paid. infOJ111allabor. Dclinitely. the
lack of proper child ca re affec ts the older daughters of'' ork ing n1othcr b; forctng thcn1 c;; top
their ~c hoolin g ll1 order to look a ncr the younger chlldrcn ( p. 16)

r hc M u~lllll law of Inh<.:JJtance '" tldoptcd from Qui {Ill/( (the hoi\. J...,lamJC bno!..) law that dc'-lgnatl'-. the -.h.lll'
of each hctr c...peuficall} JJKiudmg ft:mak membe"' 1n the ptOJKtt) ol .t dl'LCt1"-l'd JK'r"on \ !though \\Omen he11"
(w1vcc..,, c.., 1c..,terc..,, grttndmothL'I" 01 daunhterc..,) mher1t, they arc not entitled to an equ.ll "han:'"' thetJ mdk
cou ntc 1partc... (RDI , 2009. p H) Allhough Mu'-.IJm \\Omen h.ne the ti ght to miK'IJI propert\ the} u,u,tlh forgo
that t ight to the11 brothers rll 01dct to 1!.1 111 the rrght too l \1 \ lt t h ~u p.u cnt·..., home n<.:LtlC...It)n,tlh In B.mgl.tde...,h
thc 1e 1c.., no unrf01m tJ\III,n' to tcgul<tte famtl} p.,...,ue" "-LILh ''" mdnl.ll!C dl\on.c .md propt'Jl\ mhctllanct'. I he
Family ttnd Pmpe1 tv 1nht:1tt.mcc Itt\\ Ill B.mgi.Hicc..,h I'- dllcLtL'd b)' the pcr"on.tl l,n\..., .tdoptt•d b\ c.K h con11nuntt)
Muc..,l lll1, Ilt ndu, Chn"'llan. Buddhl'-.l, ttllcl t11bal com mun1liC\ (RD I. ,009)
22

116

-

f l!.!.lll~ 54 A moth~' ulOkin!.!. and Luddlm!.!. he1 c.hlld
....
~ourL~

Rd'h 1d. 20 13

-

'I he C'enter for Poltc_:l f)tulogue ol B anglade~h ~trongl) acl\ ocatet..; for child care
<;;upport for \\ otnen . ·yhe) ad\ t~e ~etti ng up da) care center~ \\ nhi n the n:ach of\\ on1en in
order to reduce their \\Orkload and tin1e burden~

\~a n~~ult. all \\Otl1Cn can engage tn

incon1e gcnerattng acti\itic~ and can forn1all) contribute to the econonl) (C PD . 2014. p 20) .
I did not find an) tnit1atl\ e~ to ha\ c been undertaken. for the pnn 1~1on or child care ~upport

for the benefic tar) \\Otnen. b) the~e pn11ect inlpletnenttng authonlle~ I agree\\ tth CPD tlhll
provi s ion for child care. if included in these projech. n11ght benefit the heneficiar) n1other~
or girl~ h) decrea~ing their tin1c burden~.
'[he IC!\IIIJ101110\ of 111) n:~ponclenh and thetr C'\penence.._, do not rellect c1 gnn\ tng
gender-equal it) or cn1pO\.o\crn1cnt as clain1ed h) the project clescnptton. I a~k.ed 111)
rcsponclcnts Joe~ the CCI tnone) enhance thctr en1po\\ errncnt. V.. \S 1\.R \ replied h) a~ktng
a quc ~ tton to n1e ''hO\\ cotne') No I he ~ ttpcnd nHltlC) doc~ not cnhttnce Ill) enlpO\\ern1ent"·.
NAS IJ ·/\ di rect!) rejected the clc:tllll oret11)10\\ertl1ent by "'lating that

117

To 1 he ~ ttp e nd tnone) doc~ not tn c rea~c n1y pO\\ er \\ ith tn the farntl y It JU~ t goes
t O \\drd~ 111) children·~ education co~ t \\ h~ it'' Ill nu ~e 111) em pcn\ermcnt? II O\\ c t~n

Tk JOO?
Reade and

olin (200X) round . that cc rtdll1 CO I11111LII11ty de\elopnle nt prOJeC t ~ 111

Guatctna la \\ ere pron1otmg \\'Onlcn ·' ctnpO\\ ct n1 cnt b) 1ecognu mg th ctt ,ef f -\\ or1h and
changing their hu ~ hand ·, and chtiJn:n·, attitude' l <H\ ~liU \ thcn1 anJ to the1r rc <. . po n <... ihi l itie ~ in
the con1n1untl) In cont1 cl\L thc\c \tl pend pt ogt clll1 \. authn1 ed by 1ntcn1attonal de\ elopmen t
orga n 11a ti on\. rat~c q ue,llon<... \ ttn ilar to tho\c d\kcd b; \1nl ) ncu '< ( 200R)
Is ea rn1ng n1oncy tn the tnarkct ccononl} eq ui\ <llent 111 ~e lf -e<...teen1, ~ tatu ~ and
bargau11ng pO\\ Cr to rccCI\Jng a \llpcnd ft o n1 the go\ernn1 ent h ecau~e you arc a
tnothcr and )OUt h ou~c h old ~~poor'> II thee' 1dcnce on \l1gn1 a <... u ggc~ t~ that thi ~ i ~
unlikel y. In othe r '' o nl ~. tht~ ~ ~~uc cann ot ~ 1111 pl y he reduced to th e e fTech of
con trolling ca\h per ~c. but need~ to take account or the ~oual rcla tt on\ \\ Jthtn '' ht ch
ca. h ~ ~ea rn ed or gt\ en. the n1 eant ng a~c t 1hed to tt. and the purpo\c to" hi ch 1t i<-. puc·
(p 3 7)

I hope

l !Rl ' "All \R ·~ e\. piJnJti on might help polt cy 1n aker~ rethink that contcxt-,pccdi c

knO\\ ledge fron1 the n1m·gin ~ h ou ld be pnoriti1ed befo re tn1plcnlent1ng any de\ clopn1c nt
proJ ect~ . As she tnention ed:

I don ·t think I need too n1uch pen\ cr O\ er n1 y hu~hand '' 1th1n the hou~chold ·r he
con1n1un1ty people\\ ill take it nega tl\ ely and will consider n1 e 11l-heha \ ed If' I try to
O\er-cxercisc pov~- er wi thin the hou sehold Yes. it 1\ hahi tual1f I exe rc 1 ~e pO\\Cr O\er
tny hu ~hand peo ple\\ Ill conside1 It unsocw l
In thi s chapter. I tried to docun1ent hO\\ the c.; tipend tnoney is ad\ erscly itnpactJng the
benefi ciary 1nothers and girb throu gh the tc.\l1111oi1Jo\ of n1 y 1espondents and \\ 1th the help o f
avai lable rele\ ant literature. It~ ~ e\ ident from the \Oicc\ of 1ny rc~p o nd e nh thtlt the \ tlpend
money is 1naking thcn1 vulnerabl e to don1cstic vio lence and c\. p o~ Jn g sc hool gi rls to C\ ctea5 ing and ex tending thci1 tunc burden \Von1cn cn1po" cnn cnt. the '' 1dd y ctcceptcd and
we ll defin ed conce pt for \\OnH:n·~ ue\ clopn1ent. \\<l ~ not u ~cd C\. plt <: Jtl ) tl" tl goc1 l1n thc . . e
projec t s~ rather, ' the \ ub ~ id ) tn ck · for cmpo\\ crm cnt u ~c d 111 th e'e pro1ect'-; rc\ cal'-; that

118

"' on1cn 's cn1pO\\Crt11 cnt '" not Inagtc, but that cn1pO\\ ern1 cnt depends on qual tty cducatt on,
crea ti o n of fon11altncon1c gcncrat1ng ncti\ Jltcs and crcattng proper chtld ca re ~upp o t1 for
'' on1en

119

haptcr Si\.: Co nclu ~ ion

C' T,. , Education, Ernpo\\ crrn cnt of\Vo n1 cn and ' ()c, clo prn cnt '
Aftct rccordtng and anal;/lng the' otcc~ or n1 y 1C'-.pondcnh, I '"'as c unou~ as an
lntetllattonttl , tudte" 1C'-earcher c1bout htn\ th e tenn de\ clopnlcnt 1 ~ co ncc t\ cd hy th c~c
111arg tnalt;ccl people \\ho a n~ the r ec rpi cnt ~ o ftht ~ t; pe ordc\elop nl cnt a~ststancc As I

Ga 'per (20 12) a~
·· u~\ ~JOpllll:llt . . -

\\ hcthet undCt'o tOOd d'o fu nddtn entaJ tJ Hil '-. fonnation<.; Including
tndu~lltali7ation. urbdnt....:atJon. glohct lt /dlton and more: a" pl nnncd Jntcr\cntton: a<.;
unpro\ etncnt in hUinan \\clf~u·c, or a~ C\ pan ~to n of va lued attainab le o ppo rtuniti e~"
(p I I )
In order to ga ther 111~ rl:'-.pondenh · 'JC\\" and definttton" of de\ cloptncnt. I a"kcd then1 hnv.
they und c r~tood thi ~ tcnn.

s \\ tth other tcrn1'-., <;.,uch a~ cn1pO\\ cn11ent and educa ti on, thctr

rc pon~c~ dtd not rc'-.cn1blc the defimtton~ U'oCd by tntcrnatlonal de\ cloptncnt o rgan11a ti o n ~
In 1110st case , it\\ a" hard for n1y respondents to cotnprehcnd the \\ ord. The Han{!,la word
u ed for de\ eloptncnt t~ · L·nna\ 011 •. but that \\ ord i. hardl y C\ er U'-.Cd by co n1n1o n c r~ to n1 ean
developn1cnt: rath er. 111) respondents used · [ 'nnall' another Bon{!,la \\ o rd. When I
approached W A A RA , ~he dc~cnbed her" te\\" on de\ clopn1ent a"

Arter I go t lnarri ed, I was lt ving \.\ ith tn y in law" Now well\ e sepa rate rrotn tny Ill
lav.- s I had to hear dotn e'- tlc \ iolcnce during life \\ 1th tny 111 Ia\\ ~ . O\\, I feel co n1 fort
hecau~c there ~ ~ nobod) in the h o u ~eho ld to heat tne. 1o rnc tt i" ·uc' elop n1ent" .
It is evide nt that W/\SARA ·s definiti on o r ' ucve lopn1 cnt" wa qutte dlf'fcrent rron1 that used
by contetnporary de\ cloptnent prac titi one r~ and IF Is fhe confltct tng dcfinttton" of
dcvcloptnent, by tt s tec tptcnts and providers, lead n1 c to po~c se\ ern! qu est tons \\that is

consulted, who is not') Whose' a lu es count'>" ({la~pcr, 201 2, p. II X). l'hrough tht s firsthtlnd

120

cxpcncncc or tht prunm) re ~ c arc h . I 1c thought de' clnptn cnt and tt enabled n1e to find
po, ~th l c an ~ v~ er~.

O\\

I ngrce \Vtth \ l Cl ndana . hi\ a' <; (2 00 I) ~ tatcn1cnt on de\ cl optnent

'' hich 1 ~ a pcr~ pcc tl\ c . ,, 0111 bclo\\ ·

Globall;atlon1 ' I ~ a \ tolcnt \}\tCill. llllpo ~cd ancltnai ntaincd through the u ~c or
\ tol cnce

~ tJ ad c ~ ~ clc\ cllcd abo\ c hunldn n eed ~. th e tn ~ clll clbl c appctttc of global

tnark e t~ for re~ourcc~ ~ ~ 111ct b] u11l ca~ ht11 g 11C\\ \\ a1~ O\'et rc~o urces ( 1).

Thts th e~ I ~ 111 lght he ~ee 11 by ',()Jlleone d~ ~ l cl11d ing in the \\ (l y() r girb. WO J11 C n ~.
cdu catt on. I '' ould like to clanf :J that I und ct ~ la nd the 11nportance of qu ality cdu catton 111
\\ OI11cn · dcvclop1n ent and en1pO\\ Cnncnt I Clcccpt th at the IClc k of cdu ca ttnn t ~ th e 111c.u n
ob tacl c pre\ cnttng \\ 0111CI1 fr0 111 pa111Clpattng in publtc and prt \ ate ~CC t O I ~ ctncl CICCC~~ 1n g
re .. o urc c ~ in Ban.....g l a d c~ h . \\ on1 cn · IO\\ -lc\ el cducCI tl on 1~ al\O correlated wi th high
'-'
percentage o r child t118111 Clgc, prcg n a n C t C~ 111 CCl rl y Clge, ht gh fcrtJltty rate, poor hea lth
•

condttt on. and low nutntton of rn o the r~ \Votn cn \\ ho rccc t\ eel an} fo rn1 of fonnal cducallon
had lov. er rates of n1ortalt ty than tho c \\ ith no educati on (II urt. R o n stna n~ & Saha. 2004 ).
o other oc to-cconomt c tndt cCl tor i a5 11nportant as edu cati on fo r tnatcrnal Clnd child
suni\ al (Cleland & Van Ginnckan, 1988 ). Educated mo th er~ arc 1nchned to ~end thetr
dau ghter to ~c hoo L del ay marri age and initiate child bem·in g later (Bates. Masclko &
Schul er, 200 7). Jensen Clnd Thornton (2003) clain1 that \\ on1 en \v ho get n1 arn cd In thc1r ICltcr
age ha' e more C1 utonon1y on rcproductJ\ c i ues and arc lc~~ susccpt1 ble to rnaten1al
mortality (Schun11ann, 2009).
My co nccn1 ~ ~ that thc~c cduca tt on-bascd proj ccb, 1ather than concentrattng on
prO\ 1ding qu ality education, arc busy \\ ith acht C\ tng and f'uJfil1111g t a rget ~ "et b) llltcrndtio nal
dcvcloptncnt organizations: for cxan1p lc, the targets set by MDGs sc hool cnrolhn cnt. gcndct
panty 111 pt 1111ary and ~cc ond cll y ~c hoo b and so ro rth (Ra1 n c nto~ & lluln1e, 200c,
,

1

(, loha ll/aliOJl has bt.::conH: the domlllalll nll'L htlnl .... tn or d~: v~:lopm enl ( B.u h)\\ (.'- CIJt k, 2002 ).

121

1ol:neue\.. 200 . \~acl. 2009) 1\10 . ~ .th o u gh . dJ C h1 ghl y cntl cJ; cd b) l e minJ ~ts on the
grounds that the target ~ ~ct by MDG ~ me ba eel on nutnb e r~ and not on qual1ty (Ariffin.

2004)
In Ran g ladc ~ h . girl' edu cation h a~ not histori ca l I) been priont11ed

\ ~ a pnlt cy

tntenent1 on. these CC 1 proJec t ~ and th c11 co ntc\.t ~ r cc lfi c program destg n could plO VJdc a
stgnlfi cant oppo11unity to hcncfit g trl '-~ tl JH.I ' ' o n1en b; enh anu ng th e1r ~oc t a l and econon11c
de\ clopn1ent \\here a" 111) re~ p o nd e n t\ · h \lllnnii/O\ depleted th at th c~c pr OJec ts. 1ath er than
enhancin g '' o n1 cn · <\ cn1 po'' cnncn t and d C\ clopm ent. ell e crcallng neg a ti \ e con seq uenccs. I
found fron1 the ' o tcc" o f 111) IC'-Ipond ent" th at '-I tt pend tno ne: bccmn e guaranteed ~ ourcc of
tncome for th e ~ h ado'' educatt on "Y~ te n1 . educa ti on ts n1 ade 1nto a co rnn1 od1ty rather than
right The~e progra n1~ c rca ted a new co n 11 1ctmg ~oc ial ~trm die at Jon, rec 1p1e nt ~ and non •

rec1ptcnt n1 other . on th e ba "'" of rece1' tng <\tJ pend rn one:. teac her" and ~L hool offi e ia ls
beca n1c prone to co rrupti on Moth ers. a'-> the onl y rccip ienh of th e '-> ttpend. found th e nl '->C i ve~
so lei) re pon'; ibl e for th eir chiiJren·s edu ca ti onal <;ucce\<; J or recc 1vi ng <;tJpend money
\VOtncn are found suiTenng frotn don1e<\tt c \ iolcnce and g irl ~ are found C'\PO'->Cd toe\ etea ing. Recipi ent 1110thcrs uccumbed to the extended burden o r I e~ po n s Jbillti e J U ~ t for
recei\ ing a sn1all an1ount of free tnoncy. It is cla11ncd 111 the rele\ ant literatu re that wo1nen · <\
empoVv ennent can be ac hi e\ cd through pro\ iding qualtt; educa ti on, fo rn1al cn1ploy tncnt and
by entitling thctn to a respectful status in the soc 1ety. But. the c stipend tno ni cs. rather than
crcati ng sci f- rc~p ecL breeds dependency on free tnoney
MARI UM cx plamcd hovv her daughter could benefit b; gett ing an cduca tton
As I ~ aw one ol rny ni eces. n1 y hu ~ hanJ '" broth er' s daughter, \\ Cnt into the ga nn cnh
indu ~ try for wot k. tny daughtet could gel th<tt k1nd of' Jo b f\1 y mecc I '-~ carntng tnonc\
and ~ upp ortln g her f~untl y My nt ece cotnplctcd gradc-\ ' 11 \\lu ch I hea rd t:Ktl ittlted
her in getting the gannent s JOb
122

NL\RJ LJ \1' \ ob\C ndti ont. <;, upported h) Schutm c1 c1n (2 009 ), \\ho c l a 1n1 ~ that gtrb \\Jth

, econd ar) educa ti on get bcttc1 oppoJ1Unltl c"' fo1 c1nplo) n1 cnt \\ 1thin the garn1 cnt ~ ~..,ec t o r The
irony • ~ that the ganncnt "'ecto t o f B a n g lad e~ h i ~ co n ~ H.krcd ·c; \\ cah hop · labour (W<u on
\\ ant. 20 15 ) Tht ~ \Cc tot 1 ~ tt l\o Lrtll u;cd a~ c1 feeder to nco llbcl<ll ca pttal1 "'n1 (Rati o Juri ~.
20 11) The l<n\ qu alll ) educa tio n. prov1dcd h) th c"'c If I ~..,-l uncl cd p1 OJCC t ~..,. ha\ crcn tcd

I rea lt;cd thdt tt nothci lJLI C\tton 1111ght he I a I \Cd b) I cad tng tht \ the"' 1\ I r th e \ tJ pend

mone; 1 afTcc llng the Jec 1p1cnt \\Oll1Cn ad\cr"'ely. \\ h) arc the; \ ttl! rccc1vi ng 1t'1 t\ n
indi\ idual li\ in g in ·cte\ elop mcnt· h a~ l1ttle or no altern ati ve c h o i ce~ than to accept anyth1ng
pro rc~~c d b) de\ elopn1cnt JXO\ 1dcr~ (La\\ <;,on. 2007 ). Th1"' 1\ bccau"'e chall enge\ to

de\ cloprnent are rega rded a"' challenge"' to authollt) (PO\\ cr. 2001) Rathe1, It JS ca\y for
thcn1 to accept de\elop1nent and conforn1 to tt It 1s rightl y ~a td by Lav..son (2007) that
e\ cryday life 1n the G lobal outh 1 shaped b; cconotnic and pol!tJ cnl " 1 1.., 1 0 n ~ dt<., pcn\<.Xi by
the de\ elopn1cnt agencies and by thctr ex perts. She goe\ fUJ1her by clain11ng that
de\ elopn1ent dt sco ur~e. then, leads to Foucauldwn ~e lf-go\ ernance, \\ herern global
South states. con11nuni ti e~ and ind i\ idua Is corn c to und cr\ tand thcn1"'eh e~ and the1r
goa l in ten11 \ of ·de\ elo pn1C11l·. J"his dorninant O i\CO Ur~e 1\ all the 1110re }10\\ Crfu)
because it ic:; understood as ob\ ious knO\\ ledge about the ·natural' \ late of the \\ orl d
(p. 43)

Contributions
In thi s thesis, I shared the perspcc ttves nnd 11\,cd C'\pcn cnccs of 11 bcncfi cwt y
tnothcrs of Conditional Cash rransfct (CC f) bai..,Cd IFis ftii1UCU de\ clopn1C11l prOJCCh \\ tlh
the help of critt cal dcvclopn1cnt studi es litcratut c, I analy/ed th e h ' \"llJJionTo\ of n1y
respondents and dJ sC U \~c d n1y findtn g"' 111 ord er to a n~ \\ et 1ny re\etll ch qu c~ t 1011\ I \\ ct~ dhlc
to document the \'OI Cl'l.., or thOI..,C \\ ho do not hi.l\ e Ide chotCCI..,, but ha\ e to II \ C, C\ en the\
123

hen c to drcan1 \\ 1th in the ' de\ clopn1 cnt · pt c"'ented to th cn1. T hi s tn ~ k enabled n1e to unl earn
the dark. "''de of cc r" ''"\\ ell a" de\ eloptncnt pl OJCCt" I clttenlpt to "hlll c a lt ght on the fa ct
that de\ cloptn cnt proJec ts cnpted and prog.nln1nlcd by th e IFis arc not tn the he"t tnt cre~ t of
their h c n c (i c wn c~ 111 Bangladc"h Rct thcr. thc"c prOJCC h ,\1 c round poorl y progt (lJ11lll Cd nnd
they arc accused by n1 1 rc~ po nd c nt"' of ca u"tn g \ tolcncc agat nst thc11 ' cciptcnt"'
I attctnpted to co ntnhutc to the Intel nati onal ~t udt c" a" wel l ''" Rcth ink. tng C nttcal
de\ cloptn cnt lttcntture th rough Ill ) prunary 1c"ca rch I hope th1 "' th e~ t ~ wlll n1 ottva te other
cnt1cal de\ cloptncnt " tudt e~ ""'' ell d~ "oct el l ""c tcncc "tLH.Icntc:, doi ng rc~cat c h by adopting
fi cldv. ork abroad My co ntnhutt on to the n1 ct h o d o l og i c~ 1 ~ that In y account o r qu alitati ve and
femint ~ t approac he" n1ight encourage other" to u ~c thc"c n1ethod<, 111 the1r re~ea rc h

1 do not

he itate to accept th at n1 y the~ ' " did not capture the global picture of the CCT proJects
•

operated in B a n gl ad e~ h To the he"t of rn; k.nO\\ ledge. no one before n1c h a~ loo ked at the"c
proJ ect

1n the \\ a y l hn\ c in\ c~ ti ga ted. l "trongly bel icv e th at I opened a nev.

arena of en ti c a I

deYelopnlcnt di cour"'e fo r young acad e mt c~ and resea rc h er~
A CO ITIIn On practi ce or a th esis is that of 1113klng reco tn mend ati ons, but I v. til not do
o. I belie\ c that I lea rned enough frotn n1 ) t e" ponde nt"' · \ oices and I an1 not an ex pert on
this matter. As a rc~ ult , I would like to disavow the co ntcrnporary rul e~ of an ex pert v. ho sit
somev.- here else and proY1de5 pre"cription for o ther~\\ 1thout ha\ tng contex t-"pectfic
knowledge Rather, I v\ ould strongly su gge~ t that de\ cloptnent proJec t\ rnu st he progran1rned
by considerin g and pro\ iding h1 gh unport ance to the te~ ttm o ni c~ and ll\ cd cxpeitence of the
tnargina li/ed peo ple who are the Intcnded rec1ptcnts or de\ clopn1cnt tnltt atl\ cs ( eden een
Pictcrse, 2000). I "' ould argue th at central obJ cc ti\ e o r de\ clo ptncnt "hould uphold the ' t'-ltt) n
··wrth people rather th an for th crn·· b) In co rporating a "L' If detcnnined \\ a; of Ide tt~ \ tHced

124

by the people \Vho '' ere tgno rcd and go' ern eel by n1 au1st1 ean1 de\ elop n1cnt (Power, 2001 , p
6 7).
My stratghtf'or\\ ard tnt entton behind tht c:. rc ce1 rch \\a to contnbute to the existing

Ii tcra turc on \\ on1cn·" de\ cloptncnt and cmpO\\ en11cnt practtccc:.. I '"' ou lei I 1k. c to refl ect hct c
on an tnterac t ton I had clunng tn y propoc:..a l de fence One UNBC prore~~or of present at th e
defence a"kcd 111C hO\\ I had Ctlku ldtcd the li1Cldence or d o nl c~ tJ C \ tolence 111 otdcr to clalln
that'' omen suffer tnorc fo r partt ctpattn g 111 CCT proJech , dtd I a"k tn y respond ents how
111an) tt 111 C~ they \\ et e bea ten be rorc and a f tel partiCl pati ng in CC'J pt OJ cch') I bcca n1 C a ltlll c
bit co nce rned '' hct hcr or not I '' a~ go ing to be abl e to ct ca tc 8 n gcH ous doc urn ent through

my thc" t" \\ ork I an1 ht ghl; grateful to Edu ardo Galea no ( 199 1) f'o t pt O\ Jdtng n1e agency
through ht s po\\ crful ~ t a t cn1 e nt that .. in our co un tric<.,. numbcrc:. live better th an people"
(p. 1) Aller doing tntro~ p ec ll o n . tt seen1cd to tne con1p letcly unethtc..al and tnhutnane to a~ k
an ind t\ tdual to rn ake a con1pan so n bern ccn th e an1o unt ~ of ph y~ t ca l ' tolcnce ~h e endured
before and aft er rcce t\ tn g llpcnd rnoncy Rather. I belte\ c I scnptcd a ri gorou<., docutncnt by
illuminatin g 111 y re<.,ponde nt' s ' ie\\ s through th eir contc\. tua Ii7ed !c.\ 11 nlollTO.\

o It n Hanlon

and hankar (2000) clain1 that
acadetni c engage ment\\ ith people ·on th e n1 a rg 1n ~ · co tn c~. one hope...,, fron1 an
ethi cal and n1oral con11nitn1cnt to wo rk for socia l change, to change pu bltc
co n sc i o u " nc~~ about an Jc..,<. , ue, or tnflucnce public pohcy (p 67).

r und erstand the in1portancc of public poltcy fo r postti \ e ...,octal change and 110\\ , I an1
confident enough that one day 1ny th es i ~ re~ea rc h could help the polte; 1naker" ttnd
dcvelopn1ent agcnctcs for rcd c~ t g mn g the CCT progrmns th at arc ,11t CtH.I )' 111 operatt on or nc\\
progran1 ~ cotning up 111 the futlll c

125

Bany- hav\ and OJ a Jay (20 12) claun that .. hunJreds o r th ousands-perhaps even
tntllions-ofCanddlan~" ( p. 2) J onate ll10nC) that 1 ~ pcl\ Cd \\ith the good intention or "hUJnane
inter11attonali ~ m .. and l n c:; uppnrt de\eloptncnt H o\\C\cr. I hcltc\e that Ills not the ca~c onl y

with Canadian~ but any ~i n gk tndi\ ldual rron1 the any corner

orthe \\ orld who C0t1<) idcrs

donating 1110ncy for the ~a n1 C In thn t contc'\ L r belle\ e th I ~ thesis tni ght also he a bl c to
pro\ ide the1n clues to rc\ ca I ho\\ the 1r ·good rnten t 1o n ~· 1nay pI ay out negati vely on the
grou nd for rec 1p1 cnt · 111 the globa l South

•

126

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ppcndi"\

: The REB ,\pproval Letter

RESEARCH ETHICS BOARD

MEtv,ORANOUM
To:

CC:

Aodur RashkJ
Cather ne N()t n

From ~

Greg al5eth , Ac tr g C wr
Re$cnrc Et ics Board

Dale:

January 20, 20 14

E2013.1211 122.00
A Study of the Impacts of Condit ional Ca•h Transfers on Women' s
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lo;..L. ent and E~ennent, Thakur~on , Ban lades:....h_ _~

Re:

Thar~ ~·ou 1or subr. itttng revtSons to me Rv~ •(_uc;h Ethics Board (REB) reQard ir ~ the
.abcv€1-notcd p oposaL Yo r revt.::tons ht.tvo been approved

..

Wf:J ~re pfei1sed to c- :- • avptO'..'dl for the r~oo ·e nartlCd s1ud)' rcr C-J peri on of 12 mont'15
4 roM the d~trc ot th1s etter. Con1t"uett'On be ;ond th dt date w tll rea J .. e ~urthcr c •., w dnd
fcnowal o1 REB approval. An'J ct-~H'ges or arrendmen·s to 1~ JJII)loool tlt consent fof"lll

must tJe approved ny the R
If y'{)U 1 ave any Queshons on tt ~ clbo•,-e cH req,me 1urthcr dir ir.;.a ioo pk?ase feel free to
oo tac~ RheannA noolnson in he Off :'E' o! Ref.ear ch (lQlJ..~.u nbc c.a o 250-96-0-6' 35)

Good luck wt1h )'our r t~searc t

Dr G rag Hals.e•h
Act g Chair. Research "tn•cs Board

144

ppendix 8: T h e ' Letter of , upp ort' fr om E._ DO

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I ro-Sorial DeYeJopmfnt

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I .rr wri:mg :o c:orf1T :rJ.t thE Eco-So;:).~1 C.~·.~loc:•rne-,..t Orga-IZ:..=itlo- ESDO 1._ ill
3ss·st ~.1d A.•xlu .. Rasr d oy oro~,~~cmb og st c..~ suoport for n1s fi~lcrt,ork 11
-'1.3•.-...rgaJr Sarb JrJ-=sb 'h ·:r IS .i'l '1t~~ral C•J": of hrs ~·aster's :ht:'~ S, rese3rch
C~a .. :::. r

• 4 ~:udi of t.n-e Jmoac~;:; of Cond:t,vJnaJ Ca:h Trar.::.f€r: on ~~lamer: Cev~1cpn-.:m
3.r.d i=nVJO.·.:-rmenr Thal.vrgaon. Bar:t)lc'1f.:h· \ff/~ .,..,. wed: WTtr r~' r. Ras" d Jport
'11S am•. 31 ... - .-L?.k .. ~~:m tc 31T.i'1Q+:a 111:e·v ~ws .3rt1 JCCG."'":J3ry him jlJ ,....,g '11s
f.~ld'uork n:EtY~·.-..s. f.ft.e.r ~1r R..3st"t.d's reLrn :o Canac3 o .. r or~.anJ z.:;1l:>n •:.2.!1
sf!r. e .35 3 ::>eJ:J0'1 to "E<tJrr ,,..te-,..... ~ w tr .anscr:•ts 1•.; a ~...,......:..I or rna t •,•,t; t::n ·,,·;:. ,,dl
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'"E'tJm 1~""+-De''"S~n t~ 1t'~ lr:e·rVEW pa . ·~:.ar:s 1D :~~ ~1ttc- of rer ::.t1cice.

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s :o-.J... s '19 Ct'1 a'"' mPCf'tant ss ...~ .3f' j s .a f~Jsrt:: ~
pro_~·:t g·~e'l tre t~ fraT-e l='r~s~rted ... tne orcctCsal.
.:1..m hooe'i... t"a: Vr

R3srid s r~se-~rcr, w· ()€. ~ st.~o.."":E-S5.

,
(Md. Shahi d Uz Zan~n. PhD}

E.,ecufNt:- :)n?ctor
Ec:c-SOCfa D~·:elopme-t Crg3111Z..1':1on [ESDD)
E...f'!" a1l z.im.:trE-Sd()Q1gn- ail com
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145

Procedure: You are betng asked to p(ll11 Ctpatc 111 tntcn iews \\ ith the rc~carc h a ~s 1 stant of the
Prn)cct fhc 1ntcn JC\\ ''til be co n' cr~at1onal 111 ~t) lc \\ ith ~on1e predctcrn11ncd quc~ t1on~~
hO\\ C\ cr. the In te n le\\ s \\Ill be fl c\.1blc and ''Il l allo\\ )OU to expa nd o n an y t o pi c~ that
p p F p pt ogJanl I r you reel It I~ In1p011ant and rclc\ an t I he Ill ten I ewe;
reia lC\ to the r..
arc not a '.Ct length of t11ne but they" Ill depend on your a\adah dtty oCt m1c and pcH1i cipati on
and '' Ill be co nducted at a co n' cmcnt tunc fo1 you and the 1nte1v ie\vcr I anti cipate the
In ten IC\\ ~ \\iII be I (o ne) hour lon g. I r HX lllll eel. ~C\ CJ a I Jt1tcn , I cws tn a y he condu cted to
allo\v fo r you and the 1nten IC\\ cr, to get to kno\\ one another nnd ensure you arc co Jnfotiablc
~ hann g \\ 1th her.

o, era II. qu e~ tt on~ "Ill be a'.kcd abou t )OU I e\.pc11cnce related to pa111 c1pation 1n the
F .. \ P PI: P Progrmn The tnt en tC\\ c1 ''II I a"k for ; our penni ">~ lon to '1deo aucl 1o record

the con\ cr,a t1on to cn~u re the 1ntcn IC\\ 1\ "ell docUtncntcd and )OU I 1e'.pOn'.C'. ''til he
accurate!; obtc11ned The 1nten1e\\Cr ''til p1 0\ Id e you \\lth tra n~c nph of your 1nte n1e\\ ~ for
)OUr ob~cnat1on and appro\al before an; o f your \\Ords \\ Ill he 1nclud ed 1n the rc~ca rc h .
Co n1p c n~ at i on: Your ti1ne 1s grea t! } apprecwtcd. Local tran ~portatJ on to and fi·onl the

•

tnten IC\\ locatton \\ill be co n1p e n !'~a tc d If ;ou choose to pm1icipatc in the re~ea rc h and
1ntcn icv.- ~. at con1pleti on yo u v. II I receive a copy of the ~ u1n1nary or the thesis, and any
subsequent publicati on . You wdl he deli vcred these documents by the resea rch ass1stant
fronl the GO to the loca tion or your chOICC .

Confidentiality: It 1 you r chotec to rcn1a1n identified or anonyn1ous '' 1th1n the rc!'lea rch
proj ec t If) OU chao e to be anonynlOU<.,, ) OU \\ Jll 5Clcct your personal p<.,eudony 111 and 110
tdcntifytng tnfon11 ati on '' dl be record ed If any td cntifying inforn1at1on I<., recorded 11 \\Ill be
deleted tn1n1cdiately. All effo11 c; '' II I he n1ade to <.,ecure anon) 1111 t; hut 1t ca nnot he
guaranteed. You tnay reque~t a ciigtta l cop) of your in ten IC\\ con' c r!'la tJ o n ~ All tllgita l
reco rd !'~, tran~c npts, na1nes, and infonn att on \\ill be k.cpt confidenti al and locked fo r 5 ;ca r~
at the U nl vCr~i t y of Ot1henl Briti'.h Columbta, in tny office and 111 the office o r 111)' graduate
supervisor upon the C0111pleti on or Ill Y degree After the 5 years the data \\1 11 be destroyed by
shreddin g the paper materia ls and deletin g the digita l records.
Ri ks and Responsibilities: It i~ your choice to pa111cipate \Vi thin th1s 1c~c,lrc h p1 OJCCt and
Jntelv tew, pm1ic1pation IS \Oluntary You hcl\ c the nght to <.,lOp the 111lCJ"\ IC\\ clt an) point. the
right to rcnl O\ c you r~clf fi·onl the 1ntcn JC\\ and rc'.Ce:irch prOJCCt. the n ght to he IJ '.tcncd to.
th e n ght to rcn1a1n anon ) n10U'., the 1tght to rcqu c't c1 dtgttal dn<.ltor hard cop; or tran,cnph.
and the right to <., lop the ' 1dco and 0 1 aud 1o 1ccordcr tlt an) po1nt tn the mtcl\ IC\\ I l ) ou
choo'.e to '"' 1thcll av.- fro1n part tel patmg 1n the 1C\Cdrch proJect cont,lct \hi \ bdu1 R,hhJ<J 01
the re!'le<n ch a<.,~tstdnt flon1th~ NGO to tn<.llcatc \OU I d c~1 re to\\ tthd ld\\, \1d \bdut Rchlud
w 111 w 1thclraw and de!'ltl oy dll 1n fonnat 1on that hcl\ been pnn tdcd
Socw l 11 s k. ~ ( ptl\ acy, rcputatron etc ) as~ocwtcd '" tth part icqn1ting in tht!'l 1C\C,l rch pro,cct
will be minimucd by IHlVtng you choo'.e the loca lr on of th e 1nten te\\ Cl nd tn,lk'ltal \\Ill be
147

Appcndh.

: Participant lnfo rntati o n and C' o n ~c nt Forn1

UNIVERSITY OF
NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
3111 L ' nt\cr~o.,tty \\'a), Pnnce Cieo tgc. B C, Canada V2

ltd fhdur Ra \ lt itl ,
,\1. I International S tu die\ .. tu den t

4/.9

/(I (]50) C)(J() 5\ ..,5
I· a\ (250) 960 6~JJ
Internet : \\'l\11 unhc c a t'< nprapln ?' aclualc \tude nl\ l11ml
Lmml . rwludm a unhc .c a

P a r ticip a n t lnforrnatio n a nd C on ent Form
" A S tud y o f th e Impact o f o nditio n a l Cas h T r a r1. fc rs o n W o nH~ n 's E mpo"' e r m c nt
a nd Develo p ane nt , T ha ku r ga o n, Ba ng la d es h"

Rc~ea r c h e r : Md Abdur Ra ~ hid. graduate ~ tud c nt tn the Internation al . tudtc~ progrmn.

Uni\cr~o.,tty of

orthem BntJ~h Colun1b1a.

Obj ecti ve: fhe objecti\e of \lld -'\bdur Ra~hid· ~ \la ~ ter" ~ re earch i <.. to cnli Lal l) e'\an1ine

the in1pact ~ of the Pnmary Education llpcnd ProJect (PESP) and the retnale Secondary
· c hoo I J\ ~..,~ i~ tant Project (I·. · t\ P) on the I ife of th e benefic iar} 111t)ther · ~ in I hc1k u rgao n.
Bangladesh
T he re~earc h \\till exatnine following quest tons.
1. In the context of existing gender I el ation~ in Bangladesh. do ConclJtlonal ca~h Transfer

progran1 s contribute to \\ on1 en · t.i em r o\\ ennent '?
2 Do C'ondttJonal Cash Tran~fet progrmns exacerbate ~tru c tural violence ag<lln\t \\ n1nen ?
l. ~ hat do ·de\elopn1ent · and ·etnpo\\ernH:nt· n1ean to the bt?ncfict'"lr) \\llmcn of the"c
p rOJeCt~'}

4. I<, the Conditional Cash Tran~f"cr) ct another ' de\ cloptncnt truth · in thL' '"de\ L'lopmcnt
indu~t ry .. '?
You have been mvtted to part1c1pate 111 th1~ ~ tud y h eca u ~c you cHC 111\ (ll\ cd in the
FSSA P/ P I ~ S P P1 O.JCCt CIS a bcneli c Jell y 1not het
146

Procedure: You arc being asked to parti cipate in interviews with the research assistant of the

Project. The intcrvtC\.\' vvill be conversational in tylc with son1e predetermined questions;
howe\er, th e intcn icw \\ill be nexibl e and \v iii all ow yo u to ex pand on any topics that
relates to the FS , AP, PE P progran1 if you feel it is in1po11ant and releva nt. The interviews
arc not a set length of titne but they wil l depend on your avai lability of tin1e and participation
and \\ill be co nducted at a co n\ cnicnt tllne for you and the inter\ iewer. I anti cipate the
in ten ic\\ . ""iII be 1(o ne) hour long If rcqu 1red, SC\ era) 1ntcn iews tnay be conducted to
allow fo r you and the Inter-v tewcr, to get to know one another and ensure you arc cotnfot1abl e
hanng \\ 1th her.
OveralL questi ons\\ ill be a~ke cl about yo ur experience related to patiicipation in the
F AP PE P Progran1 The in ten te\\ er \\ ill ask for yo ur penni ssion to vi deo/audi o record
the conversati on to ensure the 1ntcn ievv is \\Jell docun1 ented and your responses will be
accurately obtained. The in ten ie\\ er "" tll pro\ ide yo u with transcripts of your interviews for
yo ur obser\'ation and approval before any of your words wi ll he incl ud ed in the research.
C omp en a tion: Your tin1e is grea tl y aprreciated. Loca l transportation to and fron1 the

inten ie\\ location will be cotnpcnsa ted. If you choose to participate in the research and
intervie\vs, at con1plction you ""i ll receive a copy of the sutntnary of the thesis, and any
ub equcnt publicatio n . You will be delivered these docun1ents by the research assista nt
fro1n the GO to the locatio n of your chotec.
C onfid entiali ty: It is your choice to retnain identifi ed or anonyn1ous within the resea rch

projec t. If you choose to be anonyrnous, you wi ll select your personal pseudonyn1 and no
identi fying infonn ation wi ll be recorded. If any identifying infonnation is reco rd ed it will be
deleted im1nediately. All effot1 s will be 1nade to secure anonytni ty but it cann ot be
guaranteed. You tnay request a digital copy of your interview conversati ons. All di gital
record , transcripts, nmn e , and inforn1ati on will be kept confidential and locked for 5 years
at the University ofNot1hern British Coltun bia, in tny office and in the office of n1y gradu ate
superv isor upon the cotnpletion of n1y degree. After the 5 years the data wtll be destroyed by
shredding the paper rnaterials and deleting the digital record s.
Ri sks and Respon sibi lities: It is you r choice to pa111cipate within this research proj ect and
interview ~ pat1icipati on is vo luntary. You have the ri ght to stop the in ten Jew at any potnt: the

right to rctnove yourself 1J·on1 the Interview and research project: the ri ght to be IJ~tencd to:
the right to retnain anonytnous, the ri ght to request a digita l and or hard cop:y oC transc ripts,
and the ri ght to stop the video and/or aud io record er at any potnt in the tnten ic\\ If )OU
choose to wi thdraw fron1 partici pating in the resea rch proJ ect contac t l'v1d Abdur Rashtd or
the research asststant fi·on1 the NG O to indicate your dest re to\\ 1thdraw, Mel hdur R<l~hid
will withdraw and destroy alltnfo nnat ion that htts been pn)\ tded
Social ri sks (pri vacy, reputatton etc ) aS!-,OCta t c d \\ tth parttctpallng 111 this research proJect
will be 111inirni ~:ed by hcl\ tng you choose the location 01' the tntet \ IC\\ and tnaten a[ \\ tll be
147

retut11 cd only to the location ofyour cho1 ce. To n1iti gate etnotiona l risks (such as feeling
uncotnfot1abl e or cn1bra, sed or distressed) , Md Abdur Rashid will work with a fen1ale
rc carch a sistant fron1 the GO and facilitate dchri efin gs with the local NGO ESDO that
you rnay requ es t after hi sdepar1ure fro n1 Bangladesh.
Conta ct 1nfo rn1a tion: Md Abdu r Ra shid can be co ntacted confidenti al I y, at any titn c, by

cn1ai1Jng at ra s htdm ~c( unb c ca or ca ll1n g to ~ 88-0 17 13 163356.
If you ha\ c any qu estion s about the project pl ease feel free to contact either Md Abdur
Ra sh1d by ernadin g hin1 at rashidm a unbc ca or by mobil e t-88-0 17 13 163356 or Md Abdu r
Ra hid' s re earch Supcn i~or Dr. Catherine olin from l1 BC Gcograph ) by ema iling her at
Cathenne. olin a unbc.ca or by telephone at 001-250-960-5875 and for any co ncerns and
co tnpl <un . . , the Uni\'er~tty of onher11 British CoiUJnb1a Resea rch Ethi cs Board by ctn ail at
rebw unbc.ca or by telephone at 001-250-960-6735.
If there is any n1aterial in this infonnati on and consent fon11 that IS unclear, please feel free to
eek clarificati on vvith Md Abdur Rashid at this tin1e or when you arc cotnfortabl e. He is
willing to further explain any qu e~t ions or co1nmcnts that you tnay have after bei ng read thi s
info1111ation and con ent Ionn so that yo u ruiJy und erstand the objec ti ve, procedure,
confidentlality, n sks. and re~ po ns ibiliti e of the research and your participation.

Sta tement of Consent

N atne of Interviewee: ____________________________

Place of In terview: ________________

Date: - - - - - - - - - -

I agree to patiicipate in the resea rch conducted by Mel Abdur Rashid for the puq1osc of hL
Masters research at the Uni versity ofNot1hcrn Briti ~h Co lun1bia on the itnpacts of
Conditional Ca'>h Transfers in Th<~kurgaon, Bangladesh
I understand the purpose <~nd procedure of the resea rch. I ha\ e been infonncd of and
und ersta nd n1y ri ghts as a rc5earch partictpant. 1 understand that tny pttrti<:tpatton ts 'oluntar;
and I can ren1ove n1 yscl f f'ron1 the research proJ ect at any point I hn\ c th e nght to choo"c to
be anonyn1ou s in the records rrorn the research, as\\ d l a~ the pre~cntatlon and subsequent
publications frotn our co nvcrsattons

148

l do want 1ny nan1e to be u ed in the re earch records, presentation, and subsequent
publica tion.
YES [ l NO f l

I agree to allow Md Abdur Rashtd to audi o record our conversation.
YES f ] NO [

]

If ye , I agree to all o\v Md abdur Rashtd to usc direc t qu otes fron1 our recorded conversa tion
in th e rc ca rch prcscntatt on and subsequ ent publica ti ons '"- hi ch will be tran slated in English.
YE [ J NO f ]
If I ha\ e any qu es ti ons about th e proJect I can co ntact c1thcr Md Abdur Rashid by etn ailing
hin1 at rashtdn1 (a. unbc.ca or by n1obile +88-0 17 1.. , 163356 or l\1d Ahdur Ra shid 's research
upcr\ i or Dr. Ca therine No lin fro n1 U BC Geogtaphy by ctn ailing her at
Catherin e. o lin ra unbc ca or by telephone at 00 1-250-960-5875 and for any concerns and
con1plain , plea .. e contac t the Uni' crsity of orth crn Briti sh Colu tnbt a Research Ethi cs
Board by etn ail at rcbta unbc ca or by te lephone at 00 l -250-960-6735 .

Consent: As the Intcf\ ie\\ er, I have reviewed this state1nent of consent with the in ten iew

participant.

Signature: -------------------------- Date--------------------------(If par1icipant cannot read, thi s docutnent will be read aloud and consent ''i ll be\ crhal )

Inte rv i C'v\ er · s Signature: ___________________________ D atc · ______

149

Appendi\. 0: Participant lnforn1ation and Co n cnt Forn1 (Bangia \'er ion)

UNIVERSITY OF
NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
1333 LT n t\Cr~ tt y \\'a}. Ptt ncc Geo rge, 8 (',Canada \'2

4Z9

\ld fhdur Rtl\ltid ,
\1 1 ln tl'rnational Studie' Student

/ (:/ · (]50) (j(j() 'i8 7 'i

fen

(250)9n0n51l

Internet: u1111 unhc c al st.c 0~1 aphvlvradual< \ludcnl\ html
!:mad : lcl\llldm a unhc c a

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150

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155

Appendh. E: Guiding Intcrvie" Que ti ons
lnter\i e" Q ue tion
The qu c\ t t on ~ hciO\\ o fTc r a gUJd c to initi ate a dt ~c u ~~ i o n bct\\ Cen tn yse lf and the rc~ea rc h
parttctpant\
I . Wh at docs th e tcnn educ8 tt on mea n to yo u'> Why do yo u ~e nd yoUt chil dren/daughter

to ~c h oo l r)
2 II O\\ \\ ere ; ou elec ted fot th e ~ 11 pend'>
3 ll o\\ do ; ou rece t\ e the tno nc) ·> \\ hct c do ; ou go to rccc t\ c the n1oncy')

4 \\'hat do ) ou do \\ ith that n1nnc1 '> Doc~ the ~ tlp c nd iary authortt ) pro\ tde any gutd cltncs

fo r "pending th e Inoncy?
5. Who co ntrols hou chold ~ p e ndin g tn your f<Hnil y?
•

6 Do you find thi money helpful')

7. Do you \\ ork?

8 Before the proj ec t \\'a unpl cn1 cntecL \\ere you or ]Ou r con1n1unt ty co n"ultcd ahout th
d c~ i g n'?

9. What sort of reaction docs your daughter experience a<; a re"u lt of att cncltng "chool?
] 0. ] low would you defin e dotnCsti c violence? I-l8ve you C\'Cr faced d O ill C~ ll C \ tolcnce'>

I las the stipend rnoney influ enced your cx pen cncc of don1esti c ' tolence'>
I ] . Doe5 anyone help yo u 111 yo ur h o u ~ch o ld \\'0 1k? Who ta ke" Cc1 1C or) our

chi ldrcn· ~ daughter· s home edu ca tio n a ncr ~c h oo l ?
'-

12. Vv hat i ~ ) our und c r~ tand111 g o f the tenn ·de' clopn1cnt ·?

l l Vv hal j ~ ) OUr und e r~ tandin g of the ll:rm 'C tllj10\\ crn1e11 t .'!

156

A pp cndi'\ F: G uidin g In ter,i cn Q u c<; ti on ( Ba ngia \ 'c r io n)

~

•

_.

• <:' .

'

/

-.

·~

- -~
)

•
•

._....

-

,_..,..._ .--Yj I ,.. I.;::.

- •

~-

-.

~.

•

~

•

..

157

ppendix G : Re earch

, si tant Co nfidentialit y Agreen1ent Forn1

Research

i' tant

onfid cnti ality Ag r ecrn ent

l hi "- ~ tud) . " \ \tud) nl' the ln1 p ad~ of Conc.hti onal C a~ h I ran <., fc r~ on 'Nome n's
De\ cloprnent and [ n1po\\ erm ent. T ha kurgao n. BaJH! lade\ h". '" hcin g undertaken h) 'l d
Abdur Ra hid. 1 \ \ LLH.knt Internat tonal tudt c\ at the L nt \ cr~ tt y of o11hcn1 B t ttt ~ h
Colun1bta.
The \ tud y ha\ four obJCC ll \ C\
l . To bett er undcrstnnd co nt ern pol(ll) de\ clopment. it ~ appl r c ation ~. and i rnp ac t ~

-J
3
4

To conduct pnn1CI I) re\earch \ ta in ten. ie\\ \
To contnbutc to de\ cloptnent \ tud tc\
To co ntnhute to the polt c1 pl c1 nner() of Banglade\h and the tntcJnatJ onal funding
agen c t e~ to re- d e~ 1 g n the CC I prog ra rn ~ tn operat1 on as \\ el l as for dynatni c
dcsigntng of any such progrC~ nl in the future

Data from thi s ~ tudy \\ ill be used to exa nl tne the tnl p ac t~ or the r SSA P Pl:.SP ProgJCl l11 on
the benefi ciary\\ on1en of Th akurgaon. Banglade\h

L ( ..................................................... ). ngrcc to:

I . Keep all the resea rch inforn1 atton shared \\ 1th tne co nfid enti al by not d1 sc u ~~ tn g or
sharin g the resea rch in forrnati on 111 any fo nn or fon11at (e g el i~ k ~ . tape\. t ra n ~c np ts)
~ tth C~ n yo n e other than the Princ tpal In\ C"-tl ga tor.

...?

Keep all re ca rch tnfonnatt on 111 any Conn or fnnnat \ccurc \\ Julc it 1\ 111 n1y
possess t on ~
1. Retu rn all research inforn1ation 111 any fonn or fonnat to the Pnnci pal In\ estt gcltor
when I ha\ e con1pleted the rc~e c1rc h ta\k\,
4 After c on~ ultin g \\tth the Pttnc tpal ln \C"-tt ga tor. c1,hC or <.k "tl O) all rc"c,trch
rnlonnatton 111 any fonn or fnrnl Ci t tcgtttdtng tht \ tC\L',Hch p1 o.1 ec t thclt '" not
retu rnab le to the P11ncipal ltn c~ t i gato r (e g. infonnalt on ~ Oiled nn cn1nputcr ha1d
dri\ e )

158

Research Ast.., J ~ tant:

( p n n t n<line)

("'1gnntut e)

(date)

(s ignature)

(date)

Pnncip al In\ e"' t1 gato1..

(pnnt natn c)

If you ha\ e any qu es ti o n ~ or conce1n about tht "' "' tud_y. p l ea~c con tac t

Dr Cathenne

olin

Assoc iate Profcs"'o r of Geograph _y
Phone: -~- I -25 0 -9 61 -5R75(Ccl l ). r l -250-960-5X7'i(Orfice)
E'-n1ail: Catherin e Nolinw unbc ca
fht s <;tudy ha<; been re\ iev. ed by the Rcsca n.. h E thi C'-~ Bocl Jd at the Unl\cr"' lt ) of '\ort hen1
British Colun1bia For ques tions rega rding partJClpanh Jtghh ,md cth tccl l conduLt of 1 C'-ICclrch.
contact th e 0 ffi cc of Research by en1 ml at reb a unbc ca or telephone <lt ( 250) 960 6 715

159