AN ABORIGINAL APPROACH: WHAT TEACHERS NEED TO KNOW IN PUBLIC
EDUCATION
by
Beverly Kim Isaac
B.Ed., University of Northern British Columbia, 2012
B.A., University of Northern British Columbia, 2010

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
IN
FIRST NATIONS STUDIES

UNIVERSTIY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
February 2017
© Beverly Isaac, 2017

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to provide an understanding of what British Columbia K12 teachers require to successfully teach First Nations students, First Nations content and First
Nations culture. This thesis brings awareness of the need to prepare teachers to teach with a
holistic pedagogical practice in order to close the achievement gap (Auditor General’s Report
pg. 3.2015) that presently exists between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students The data
collected for the purpose of this thesis was provided through the following; review of the
literature, interviews with successful graduates of the University of Northern British Columbia,
Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) program, and Northern British Columbia Aboriginal School
District Principals. The data brings awareness to future teacher preparation to meet the needs of
K-12 Aboriginal students that, if followed, will lead to more Aboriginal students meeting
success and graduating from the K-12 school system. In conclusion, this thesis provides
recommendations that will serve to inform educators.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................5
Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................................6
1.1 Significance of the Research ...............................................................................................................6
1.2 Purpose of the Study and Research Question ....................................................................................7
1.3 Background of the Study .....................................................................................................................8
1.4 Researcher Context: Personal Location ..............................................................................................9
1.5 Cultural Safety .................................................................................................................................. 14
1.6 Thesis Overview ............................................................................................................................... 16
Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 18
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 18
2.0 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................................... 19
Spiritual. ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Physical. ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Family. ............................................................................................................................................... 20
Community. ....................................................................................................................................... 20
2.1 Aboriginal Education: Past ............................................................................................................... 21
2.2 Aboriginal Education: Present.......................................................................................................... 30
2.3 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada ............................................................................ 39
2.4 First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC) ..................................................................... 41
2.5 Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement in BC .................................................................... 43
2.6 BC Government Curriculum ............................................................................................................. 46
2.7 Teacher Education Programs with an Aboriginal Approach ............................................................ 48
2.8 Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 53
3.1 Research Question ........................................................................................................................... 55
3.2 Gathering of Data: Methods ............................................................................................................ 56
3.3 Research participants....................................................................................................................... 57
3.4 Aboriginal District Principals ............................................................................................................ 57
3.5 Graduated Students of UNBC B. Ed. Program.................................................................................. 58
3.6 Interview Questions ......................................................................................................................... 59
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Aboriginal School District Principals (Administrators) Interview Questions ......................................... 60
Teacher Graduates of the UNBC Education Program (Teachers) .......................................................... 60
3.7 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 61
3.8 Conceptual Lens: An Indigenous Approach ..................................................................................... 61
3.9 Indigenous Research ........................................................................................................................ 63
3.10 Limitations and Challenges ............................................................................................................ 66
Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion ...................................................................................................... 69
4.1 Identity ............................................................................................................................................. 69
4.2 Communication ................................................................................................................................ 74
4.3 Connection ....................................................................................................................................... 78
4.4 Curriculum........................................................................................................................................ 82
4.5 Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement and Community Support ..................................... 88
4.5 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................ 92
Chapter Five: Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 94
5.1 Summary of Key Findings ................................................................................................................. 95
5.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 96
5.3 Specific Classroom Practices .......................................................................................................... 102
5.4 Words of Wisdom .......................................................................................................................... 105
References ............................................................................................................................................... 107
Appendices............................................................................................................................................... 115
Appendix 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 115
Appendix 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 116
Appendix 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 117
Appendix 4: Definitions........................................................................................................................ 118

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Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledge the traditional territory of the Lheidli T’enneh, on which I have
been fortunate to have studied and lived during my studies.
I would like to acknowledge the people who assisted me through completing this thesis. Thank
you to my committee: Co- Supervisors Drs. Ross Hoffman and Tina Fraser, Committee Member
Dr. Catherine Whalen, and my External Examiner Dr. Rob Budde.
I especially would like to thank my husband Alan, for your patience and understanding
throughout this journey.
Thank you to my ancestors and all the people who fought to create equal education for
Aboriginal children, who sacrificed and who suffered so I could have the education I have today
and for future students who deserve a successful education.
Finally, a special thank you to all my research participants for sharing your knowledge, skills,
and time with me, it has been invaluable to this study.

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Chapter One: Introduction
The purpose of this research is to provide an understanding of what British Columbia
(BC) K-12 teachers require to successfully teach First Nations students, First Nations content
and First Nations culture. This particular research thesis was conducted with an Indigenous
approach to a qualitative method from which I was able to gather data from Northern British
Columbia teachers and Aboriginal School District Principals. For the purpose of this study, I will
move back and forth between the use of the terms First Nations students and Aboriginal
students; I have defined these terms in the Glossary section located in Appendix 4. This first
chapter sets the context of the research study in terms of significance, purpose, study
background, researcher context, and an overview of the thesis report.
1.1 Significance of the Research
The significance of this particular research study is to not only bring awareness, but to
clarify and assist educators to understand the complex issues associated with teaching and
learning from the perspective of Aboriginal students in the northern British Columbia K-12
school system. The research data collected and presented throughout this thesis is intended to
provide knowledge and context of how pre-service teacher candidates are prepared to educate K12 students with an emphasis on understanding Aboriginal learner needs. Many perspectives and
questions have been explored in this research study that will inform teacher preparation
programs and in-service teacher strategies. Based on the data collection and data analysis a
discussion of findings leading to several recommendations is presented in Chapter 5. The
participant perspectives were provided by several teachers currently in the classroom and three
Aboriginal School District Principals in the northern BC K-12 school system. The information
learned through the literature and the participant interview contributions provided suggestions

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which led to several recommendations regarding the skills and strategies required to implement a
pedagogical model of teaching that provides space to embed First Nations content and
Aboriginal ways of knowing and cultural experiences into the day to day curricular delivery. My
own desire to improve on my Aboriginal teaching and use of resources and pedagogical practice
while attempting to inform educators of how they can provide relevant and quality education for
all students, especially Aboriginal students, was the driving force behind my desire to explore
this topic. It is my personal and professional opinion that Aboriginal education and success for
Aboriginal students’ should be at the forefront of research. I make note of my worldviews, my
career as an educator, and my own position from an Aboriginal heritage as I identify with the
scope in which Aboriginal learner needs must be explored within my research topic.
1.2 Purpose of the Study and Research Question
The implementation and embedding of Aboriginal education into the day to day K-12
curriculum is imperative to not only close the student achievement gap, but to also reduce the
dropout rates of Aboriginal students in our school system (British Columbia Ministry of
Education, 2016; Hare, 2007, p.51). Aboriginal education has many facets that encompass what
it means to include and teach Aboriginal education within the classroom. According to the
province of British Columbia, in Aboriginal World Views and Perspectives in the Classroom,
Aboriginal education is the awareness of the Principals of Learning that supports the well-being
of the self, the family, community, the land and the ancestors. Aboriginal education includes
characteristics of Aboriginal worldviews and perspectives that emphasize strengths-based,
learner centered practice. Overall, Aboriginal education is a holistic approach to learning and
knowing that focuses on the relationship we have with ourselves, each other, our environment,
and our community (BC Ministry of Education, 2015, p.16). I have taken this research

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opportunity to explore if the new curriculum is enough to address Aboriginal learner needs and
how pre-service and in-service teachers are prepared or align their teaching practices with the
provincially mandated curriculum.
The main research question that guided this study is: Do in-service teachers have an
understanding of how to teach First Nations students, First Nations content, and First Nations
culture in their classrooms after taking the UNBC teacher education program? From this overall
arching question, I created guiding questions to address teacher participant voice and point of
view specific to what they had learned while enrolled in the University of Northern British
Columbia (UNBC) Bachelor of Education degree program. In particular, I was interested in
determining how they currently use skills and strategies as in-service teachers within their
classrooms. I also chose to explore the perspectives of northern British Columbia Aboriginal
School District Principals based on their knowledge, vision and overall experience and
expectations regarding Aboriginal education in the K-12 school system.
1.3 Background of the Study
I remember when my mother told me about a community curfew that was set and
enforced by Indian agents, where Aboriginal people were arrested if caught outside of their
community after curfew. She also told me that Aboriginal people could not congregate in groups
of more than two in one spot at one time. This is just a brief insight into the ill treatment of First
Nations people that was created and enforced through government policy, with what I believe to
be the intent for assimilation, or destroying the community mindedness of Aboriginal people at
the time.
The Lejac Indian Residential School, located north of Fraser Lake, BC, was established
and run by the Catholic Church and the Canadian government (Nadleh Whut’en, 2016). The

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school was in operation between 1922 and 1976 with the intent to educate the Aboriginal
children from northern BC. Aboriginal children and youth were forced to attend, which meant
being removed from their local communities. Unfortunately, my mother attended the Lejac
Residential School which had an extremely negative impact on her as she progressed into
adulthood that led to alcoholism and absenteeism as a parent for which my brothers and I
suffered the consequences of the obvious aftermath. I believe it was due to the suffering my
mother experienced, resulting from having to leave her family and community to attend the
school, that I have become a generational victim of the residential school system. Being able to
understand this history and the effects it has had on me has led to my desire to explore this
research topic. It is the knowledge and understanding of my culture and background as a First
Nations person that guides me as a First Nations elementary school teacher and now completing
a Master of Arts (MA) program in First Nations Studies. I strongly believe it is important for
Aboriginal people, including myself, to have confidence in one’s cultural identity and to have
the ability to share one’s knowledge and understanding with others.
1.4 Researcher Context: Personal Location
First and most importantly, I want to acknowledge the traditional territory of the Lheidli
T’enneh people of where I currently reside. It is culturally appropriate and most respectful that I
situate myself within this research due to my First Nations heritage. My name is Beverly Kim
Isaac. My birth place was Vanderhoof, British Columbia (BC), but I grew up in the small town
of Fraser Lake, BC with my father Helmut Isaac and my mother Mary Jessie Casimel. My
mother is a Carrier woman born in Stellat’en First Nations. Introduction of my grandparents is
extremely important at this juncture of my thesis, as it further enables me to self-locate and
identify with my heritage deeper: my grandparents were Margaret Casimel (maternal

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grandmother); Charlie Casimel (maternal grandfather), while my German father was born to
Sarah and Jacob Isaac, who originally came from Russia. I am a Dakelh woman and belong to
the Frog Clan because of my mother’s Stellat’en lineage. I have come to know that my people’s
history and culture are rich and all-encompassing of who we are and who our children are. As
stated by Mitchell (2014):
The clan system continues today in contemporary Stellako society where each
member of the Nation belongs to a clan. The clans that comprise Stellat’en
society are recognized as: Lhtsehyoo (Frog/Crane); Tsayoo/Lhtsumusyoo
(Beaver/Grouse and Owl); Dumt’enyoo (Grizzly Bear/Black Bear/Wolf); and
Luksilyoo (Caribou/Little Man). Clans are based on matrilineal ties where a
person becomes a member of their mother’s clan at the time of birth. Clan
membership is permanent and it plays a key role in an individual’s life. The clan
system creates ties between peoples in the community that are in addition to the
bonds they share with family members. The clan system acts like a support
network - you are not alone, you have all your whole clan behind you. No Indian
person is standing alone. (p.81)
I look at self-locating as an important piece to my study as it shows my connection and
passion to this area of education in which I hope to see significant change. Kirby, Grieves and
Reid (2006) advocate the ability to know oneself and one’s interests in the research topic of
exploration in stating:
Our readers have a right to know about us. And they do not want to know
whether we played in the high school band. They want to know what prompts our
interest in the topic we investigate, to whom we are reporting, and what we
personally stand to gain from our study. (as cited in Creswell, 2013, p. 47)
My father was judged by his family for having children with a First Nations woman, but
he was the one who took on the parental role and raised my brothers and me off the reserve. My
father was very much aware of the difficulties my brothers and I faced as a result of being
associated with very different cultures. From memory, I know my mother lived both on and off
the reserve. I struggled to belong to a community as a child and throughout my adolescent years
because I was raised off the reserve. I was not accepted by First Nations kids who were raised on
the reserve, nor was I accepted by town children because they thought I was Aboriginal and
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should live on a reserve. I struggled in school constantly thinking and being given the message
that I was not smart enough to succeed. I was always put in alternate classes instead of
mainstream classes or sent to work with tutors, which left me to struggle more when I returned
to class because of the content I missed. I remember having to attend Carrier language classes up
to Grade 7, but was then expected to take French class in Grade 8, but I did not know French and
failed the class, which made me feel a failure amongst my peers. I grew up ignorant of my
heritage because it was something my parents believed would hinder my education so they chose
to not teach me what they knew. It was not until later in life that I started to be involved and
experience my Aboriginal culture. My parents and my grandparents eventually informed me of
cultural knowledge and ways of knowing through experiencing a rich part of my culture. For
example, I learned fragmented pieces of my Carrier language, but was never fluent. I also was
involved with attending potlatches, participating in traditional food gathering opportunities, and
medicine gathering trips.
It was not until I enrolled in the University of Northern British Columbia Bachelor of
Arts program with a major in First Nations Studies that I realized just how much of an identity
crisis I was experiencing. I attribute this identity crisis to my experiences within the public
education system and a society (Aboriginal and my off the reserve community) that found it
difficult to include me. In my recollection, I never saw any First Nations curriculum in my
school experience that didn’t include a native wearing a head dress or leather regalia as symbolic
representation. I was not able to make sense of this representation at the time because I did not
and could not identify with it. I did not wear this type of clothing nor did my Mother’s people, as
part of our culture. Judy Hardes (2013) in Approaches to Aboriginal Education in Canada
reports systemic barriers First Nations students face in school with a quote that states, “To dance

11

in two worlds refers to Native people trying to maintain an allegiance to their traditional Native
culture while actively participating in the mainstream society to get an education” (As cited in
Widowson, p. 249). I knew that once I became a teacher I would be in a better position to guide
First Nations children to understand their cultural identity and having the ability to include
Aboriginal culture and ways of knowing into curriculum was one tool that I could do this. I
continued my educational journey and enrolled into the Master of First Nations Studies program
at UNBC. During this time I also was a sessional instructor for the UNBC Bachelor of Education
program that enabled me to guide future K-12 teachers. By sharing my personal knowledge of
First Nations culture and ways of knowing I was able to guide them on how to incorporate
Aboriginal education into their own lesson plans once they become teachers.
I unknowingly made the decision to leave for school, thinking I was just going to get a
teaching degree, but it inevitably forged my path towards understanding and reconnecting with
my Aboriginal identity, while creating a heartbreaking chain of events that has resulted in my
mother not speaking to me, even to this day. I don’t know if she feels I abandoned her or if she
has just given up caring? I do know that this treatment she bestows upon me is a result of the
past historical trauma she suffered, either through residential school or from her own parents. I
do not blame my mother, but I do blame the Lejac Residential School and Canadian government
because they forced Aboriginal parents to send their children to these schools. This resulted in
children losing their culture and language and even as adults, the lack of ability to raise their
own children.
I am passionate about changing and influencing Aboriginal education, as it is imperative
to my people and the future of Aboriginal people. I believe it is my responsibility to help and
teach knowledge that has been passed down to me by mentors, Elders, friends and ancestors. Jo-

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Ann Archibald (2008) reminds me of this responsibility that I must not take for granted. With
responsibility comes knowledge and with knowledge comes power. It is my role to reciprocate
knowledge in a respectful way as:
If one comes to understand and appreciate the power of a particular knowledge,
then one must be ready to share and teach it respectfully and responsibly to others
in order for this knowledge, and its power, to continue. One cannot be said to
have wisdom until others acknowledge an individual’s respectful and responsible
use and teaching of knowledge to others. (p.3)
This is a powerful reminder for me as I continue to support teacher candidates and
remain in search of better practices, because I understand the need and responsibility to pass on
knowledge that has been passed down to me, respectfully. Knowledge is not mine to keep, but to
be shared. It is through this study that I present my personal experience both within the K-12
British Columbia (BC) school system and the UNBC Bachelor of Education program from
which I graduated in 2012. I placed myself within this research and used my personal and
professional experiences to help guide and document the need for a better education system that
will meet the needs of the Aboriginal learners. Aboriginal student needs can be better understood
through a qualitative study of this nature that uses an Indigenous approach to research that
provided stakeholders in the education system space to have their stories told and voices heard.
I am cognizant of our UNBC motto of En Cha Huna (University of Northern British
Columbia, 2016), which means that all life is respected. It is a teaching that I do not take for
granted because it reminds us that all people are valued and respected, despite the fact that we
come from many walks of life we recognize diversity and that all have a voice. I am mindful of
this important teaching as I continue my educational journey of learning, listening and looking
forward to what is most culturally valued.

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1.5 Cultural Safety
According to Jessica Ball (2009), cultural safety refers to a situation or experience where
someone feels safe and accepted in an environment in spite of who they are or what their culture
is. When I use the term cultural safety in education I foresee an outcome and that outcome is
how students feel after an interaction with others in the school system, during a lesson, and/or
their overall day-to-day experiences in school. An educator may be culturally aware, but it does
not necessarily mean that a student feels culturally safe within that environment. A good
example of this is to imagine a teacher having all the students in the class participate in a
classroom potluck and insisting they eat everything, as he/she was taught as a child not to waste
food, and not realizing that one of the children is a vegetarian due to religious and cultural
reasons. That teacher may have made that student culturally un-safe by unknowingly forcing
their own beliefs onto that student regarding a waste not; want not principle. Ball (2009) refered
to cultural un-safety as a situation where students are marginalized by a dominant culture. Ball
created a diagram that explains the five principals of cultural safety within the framework of a
pot of flowers (see Appendix 3). There are five flowers within the framework with each
depicting a principle, which include protocols, personal knowledge, partnerships, process, and
positive purpose. The representation of each flower coming out of a pot depicts Indigenous
artwork.
Williams (1999) research on cultural safety stated the following:
Cultural safety is an environment which is safe for people; where there is no
assault, challenge or denial of their identity, of who they are and what they need.
It is about shared respect, shared meaning, shared knowledge and experience, of
learning together with dignity and truly listening. (p.1)

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It is important for teachers to understand culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2010,
xxix) and how to create an inclusive classroom, as an educator, and willing to learn and be a part
of the solution to close the graduation gap for Aboriginal learners, as well as students of diverse
backgrounds. Today’s Canadian classrooms are made up of such a diversity of different cultures.
It becomes a challenge and great opportunity for the classroom teacher to create an inclusive
inquiry based learning environment where students get to share and learn from each other.
Teachers can be culturally responsive by including the student’s realities within the curriculum
and lessons that will help the student feel they belong and become more engaged (Gay, 2010).
Culturally responsive teaching also includes significant new content about how to make
instructional delivery more congruent with the cultural orientation of students from different
ethnic, racial, social, and linguistic backgrounds (Gay, 2010, p. xxix). Understanding that school
is where children come to learn is important, but it is also a major influence of where they learn
different social norms and expectations and world views that are unlike their own. An example
of understanding the hidden cultural norms is to realize that certain expectations may be
unacceptable in a First Nations student’s life at home. I was taught by my mother and
grandmother that it is considered rude and disrespectful to look your Elders or authoritative
figures in the eye. Another example comes from when I took the UNBC education program.
There was a time when I was asked to participate in a wheelchair basketball activity to learn
what it would be like for a student to be in a wheel chair to better understand them, such as the
idea of ‘walk a mile in their shoes.” I had to respectfully decline because it is against my culture
to participate in such events. In a First Nations culture it is considered disrespectful and
dangerous to ‘pretend’ to be hurt, to sit in a wheel chair, to use crutches, or to even laugh at
someone who is hurt, for it will bring bad luck and imminent danger and one could end up in the

15

situation one was disrespecting. I clearly remember my Grandmother warning me when she
caught me playing with crutches; she was very angry and spoke to me in Carrier, my Mother
explained that it was against our beliefs, we don’t ‘tempt’ fate or I would end up using them very
soon.
These examples of cultural awareness may seem small, but teachers will come to
understand that they have a big influence on a student’s identity and self -worth within the
classroom. If a student feels heard and understood on a deeper level of cultural responsiveness
from the teacher, that student will have a greater chance to succeed and engage within their
education (Williams, 1999, p.1).
I believe many First Nations students in the present day have lost their cultural identity
due to the fact that their family members attended Residential Schools as well as having to move
away from their communities for work, education and/or a better life. Without guidance and
education that is relevant to Aboriginal people and their culture, many students today may face
the same struggles of identity loss and confusion without Elders, parents, and teachers stepping
in and making a difference in their life. I wholeheartedly believe children must know where they
came from in order to go forward in life, without identity, the journey forward is that much more
difficult.
1.6 Thesis Overview
The purpose of this research is to provide an understanding of what British Columbia K12 teachers require to successfully educate First Nations students, First Nations content and First
Nations culture. The focus of this study is to identify areas within Aboriginal education that
could use improvement by researching literature, conducting interviews and recalling personal
experience. The first chapter of this thesis report provides an overview or roadmap that

16

introduces the research study, the study rationale, while highlighting the study background,
research context, and the researcher’s personal location.
Chapter Two provides a comprehensive literature review that was used to compare and
contrast participant data that is presented in a findings and discussion section in Chapter Four
(Findings and Discussion). Before comparison and contrasting of the findings can be done,
Chapter Three outlines the methodology and process in which the data was collected, analyzed,
and themed as I applied an Indigenous approach to the research study through my Indigenous
ways of knowing from my Dakelh heritage.
Chapter Four presents the research findings from the data analysis process and identifies
several emerging themes. This chapter was developed by referring to the literature review and its
relevance to the emerging themes from the participant data. This allowed me to provide insights
and implications based on the data analysis.
Chapter Five delivers several recommendations based on participant interviews, review
of the literature, and my personal educational journey from an Aboriginal cultural worldview.
Lastly, Chapter Five will also highlight my concluding remarks.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter provides a comprehensive literature review that is intended to draw upon the
scholarly works of Aboriginal, Indigenous and non-Indigenous writers who have vast
knowledges and/or experiences in education. It is important to note that many of these scholars
have written to the importance of why it is critical for teachers to have an awareness of colonial
discourses.
The chapter begins with a piece of my art work that I used as my conceptual framework.
In the framework, I have purposefully positioned my principles, spiritual, physical, family and
community to give the reader a sense of my knowing and being. I then go on to discuss
Aboriginal education in the past; a time prior to colonization. In this section, traditional ways of
knowing and being are highlighted with some examples. Aboriginal education at present is
addressed despite the economic and social changes to family values, beliefs and practices. I have
also woven my lived experience and stories throughout the chapter as well. The chapter will
briefly cover organizations from a provincial body that represents Aboriginal education such as
the First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC). A critical component worth
mentioning is the Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreements (AEEA) in British Columbia.
However, I will make note that not all school districts have signed off on the agreements. The
agreements align with the recent announcement of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(TRC) of Canada. This then leads into our British Columbia 2016 revised curriculum and what
this means for teacher education programs with Aboriginal content embedded. Finally, I
conclude by summarizing the chapter.

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19

Spiritual. I acknowledge that everything is connected and has life, energy, and history
imbued with spirit. The birch trees depicted in the picture are not just trees. Below the trees are
the roots that continue to grow and the spirit that flows below the roots, throughout and to the
top of the tree represents nurture, growth and development. The history of ancestral events that
may have taken place around the tree; the stories of old, the songs, prayers, and the dances all
play a significant role within spirituality.
Physical. I am the descendent of my ancestors and I am present because they had a
purpose in life for me, and that is to prepare, preserve and to present knowledge to the upcoming
generation. It is my responsibility to take what I have learned from family, community and the
academy to educate, support and to advocate on behalf of learners; politically, socially, and
economically.
Family. The crows in the picture play a significant role in my life. As we get older,
supposedly we become wiser but there are many facets to the term “wise.” I have taken what I
have learned and have and will continue to apply it to higher learning. This however can be a
challenge if the family is not included or supportive. As one succeeds within a family, so will the
rest. Therefore, the success belongs to the collective.
Community. Members within the community have much to offer. I see the Elders and
their accumulated knowledge and lived experience playing a pivotal role to cultural identity.
Without a community, we lose a sense of place and belonging; therefore, we must be dedicated
and committed to community development and revitalization. We have an opportunity to
promote health, healing, wellness, wellbeing, and education.

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2.1 Aboriginal Education: Past
Historically, First Nations’ education included a variety of teaching and learning methods
that were not separate entities. As the Elders taught the most valuable lessons, they also learned
by engaging and observing children while storytelling. Archibald (2008) a Sto:lo scholar,
articulated that “teachings means cultural values, beliefs, lessons, and understandings that are
passed from generation to generation” (p.1). This is a reciprocation of knowledge exchange and
dissemination.
Mythology also plays a major part in what is contained within stories. It is an
indispensable contributor to operant or classical conditioning. For example, the way we react,
behave or respond according to what we have been conditioned to believe. Mythology, arguably,
can be seen as the oldest form of knowledge transmission used for setting foundations of ancient
social structure. For example, an architectural structure may represent a long-house that was
used for feasts, potlatches, tribal affairs, ceremonies etc. The structure metaphorically may have
representation of carvings that alludes to traditional knowledge, and ancient history. Cajete
(1999) highlighted his Pueblo people and ways of knowing and being as:
Myths explain what it means to live in community with one another. They
explain human dependence on the natural world and essential
relationships that must be maintained therein. Further to that, we explore
the life and death matters of human existence and relate such matters to
basic origins, causes, or relationships. They reflect on the concerns that
are basic and crucial to humans’ understanding of themselves. (p. 117)
My knowledge stems from family and student engagement, community events, Elder
involvement, and my own lived experience as a practitioner in and out of communities. What is
important to note about First Nations traditional education; the children learn best through
observations, listening, looking, learning, and then practicing. Similarly, members within
communities had special roles and responsibilities that were destined for the younger generation

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who were observed by the Elders and/or community. However, these responsibilities were not
assigned to just anyone. For the most part, the Elders knew who would be the upcoming fire
keepers, medicinal healers, spiritual healers, hereditary chiefs…etc. All members within a family
were responsible in some way or another of educating their youth; they learned values, skills,
and all knowledge necessary for life (Neegan, 2005, p. 5). Roles and responsibilities are the
collective efforts of the whole community and everyone contributed to knowledge, skills and
expertise.
According to Archibald (1995), holism was and is the most appropriate method within
First Nations education elaborating further, “First Nations people traditionally adopted a holistic
approach to education, Principles of spiritual, physical, and emotional growth, as well as
economic and physical survival skills, were developed in each individual to ensure eventual
family and village survival” (p. 289). Based on Archibald’s principles, I have adapted a similar
conceptual framework based on my personal artwork to highlight my own understanding of
holistic education.
I learned from a very young age that everything is connected, when you need to kill an
animal for food, that animal will give itself to you if you respect it and respect all of it. The
whole animal is used and nothing is wasted, Elders would say that if you waste any part of an
animal then you will not be gifted again; if a community contributes to the waste then a
community could starve in the winter because the animals have moved on, never to return. We
as Aboriginal people are stewards of the land and it is our responsibility to pass on that
knowledge to others, in hopes of maintaining our culture and environment for generations to
come (Friesen & Friesen, 2002, p. 15).

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Archibald (2008) contends that storytelling was a way in which teachings were passed
down and how it was a lifelong education for all children to learn from Elders, “Sharing what
one has learned is an important Indigenous tradition. This type of sharing can take the form of a
story of personal life experience and is done with a compassionate mind and love for others”
(p.1). Many stories that Archibald mention, contain life lessons that she came to realize were
told for a reason, even within her journey of academia. Those stories helped guide her to see
tradition and culture passed down to her for a reason, and that was to learn life. It is within these
stories that traditional teachings were used prior to colonization. These stories also helped to
inform children to respect – all things that are connected to ways of knowing and being, to
reciprocate (gifting back), relevance (cultural understanding), and to be responsible (the way one
acts within families or communities), all of which Archibald states as the “four R’s” in higher
education. It is the stories that Archibald (2008) was given based on oral delivery and aural
reception and was sometimes thought to have implicit meanings, conflicted with the academic
literate traditions” (p. 1). Little Bear (2000) argued that in order to understand why different
worldviews clash we need to understand how the values, customs, traditions and philosophy
differ within each culture (p.77). Much like storytelling, they differ from one household to the
next, one community to the next, and one nation to the next and from Indigenous countries to the
next.
It is well documented throughout the literature that many Indigenous stories have been
lost in translation, eradicated, and this has left a huge gap in traditional and educational
practices. Archibald (2008) noted: “Indigenous stories have lost much educational and social
value due to colonization, which resulted in weak translations from Aboriginal languages to
English, stories shaped to fit Western literate form, and stories adapted to fit a predominantly

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Western education system (p. 7). According to Archibald (2008), much of the story has changed
so much and without it being told in its original language it also loses some of its intended
humour and meaning and is usually misinterpreted.
Watt-Cloutier (1997) in her article Honoring Our Past, Creating Our Future: Education
in Northern and Remote Communities reminds us of the past and how education prepared people
for their future. Holistic educational models infer everything that the student learns and it
encompasses the whole of student being. This was how children were taught in the past, teaching
took into consideration the whole child and not just parts of his/her life. In order to go back to
some aspects of the past and how life was taught, according to Elders. Watt-Cloutier (1997)
postulates:
Children do not learn language writing words on a blackboard. They learn it by
watching someone do something, like skin a seal. When the child skins a seal, you
will begin to see interactive learning… “Traditionally, learning has never been a
big mystery to Aboriginal peoples. It is the giving away of our powers and wisdom
to the new ways and institutions that has created such confusion, ultimately leading
us into the dependence and despair that we are currently experiencing. (p. 127)
An excerpt from King’s (2005) book, The Truth About Stories, provided Jeanette
Armstrong’s interpretation of what stories mean to her. The quote the best stated how Armstrong
viewed the importance of language and the retelling if stories as:
Through my language, I understand I am being spoken to. I’m not the one
speaking. The words are coming in many tongues and mouths of Okanagan
people and the land around them. I am a listener to the languages, stories and
when my words form, I am merely retelling the same story in different patterns.”
I see this take on stories as way of explaining how First Nations people view and
retell stories that were passed down to them, it is not me who is telling the story
but my ancestors and their ancestors, it is in this way that we relearn lessons
relevant to us and learn about life and receive the necessary tools to thrive in our
communities and beyond. (p. 2)
According to Friesen and Friesen (2002), prior to European contact, the ceremonies,
rituals, and observances of the First peoples were premised on spiritual principles (p. 15).

24

Aboriginal people are sometimes expected to assimilate into Western ideology, in life and
especially in the classroom. To look at this topic respectfully means to consider it holistically,
looking at the past, the present and the future and including those who have a vested interest, and
acknowledging their voice and participation within this study.
Based on the concept of the medicine wheel, traditional education provided a holistic
view of life; covering the four directions of the (physical, emotional, spiritual and mental)
aspects; the four seasons (winter, spring, summer and fall) and/or the four colors which were
often interchangeable depending on location. If you provide and fill each section of your life
with health, healing physical, spiritual and mental aspects, you then get a holistic worldview,
(Binda, 2001) and this is how education used to look for our children. It is important to note,
according to Neeganagwedgin (2011) that “traditionally Aboriginal education did not separate
the search for knowledge from learning. Thus, Indigenous knowledges; by their essential nature,
embrace the entirety of being and living” (p. 3). Cultural tradition, values and beliefs were
passed down through the Elders to the children mostly by example and watching, then by trial
and error. Children were taught by community members, extended family and immediate family,
so that holistically they learned everything for which the child needed in order to become an
independent member. It is important to understand that learning is a continuous process
throughout life; traditional education for Aboriginal people was never confined to a classroom
with four walls, and that organic learning was the best method for teaching and learning. By
following adults and mimicking their everyday activities, children received a holistic education
that included respect for the environment, respect for Elders, and most importantly, respect for
themselves because they were valued and made to feel like an important part of the community.
Learning was an informal, experiential process (Neegan, 2005). Many of the traditional dances,

25

stories and ceremonies were all inclusive in terms of education and used as tools to teach the
young and reaffirm the old. For example, frog, bear, beaver, and caribou personify kinesthetic
movements that pertains to their environment; keeping in touch with the rhythm of mother earth,
the forest, medicinal plants, ecosystems, the moon, stars and the sun. These are some of many
lessons personified through traditional dances, stories and are demonstrated through ceremonies.
A holistic view is an Aboriginal belief that everything is connected and that everything in
one’s life affects everything else. If we are looking at education, then we also need to look at the
rest of the students’ life in general. Since I am looking at Aboriginal education then I also need
to take into consideration the past history of Aboriginal people in education, the present state of
Aboriginal education as well as the future of Aboriginal education, thus taking on a holistic
view.
The larger scale within formal schooling of Aboriginal peoples can historically be traced
back to the opening of Indian Residential Schools in the early 1800’s. The Indian Act of 1876
established that the federal government was in charge of educating Indian children (Friesen &
Friesen, 2002, p. 87). The majority of mainstream churches throughout Canada agreed to run
these boarding schools for Aboriginal children. Thousands of Aboriginal children were taken
from their homes and shipped to these boarding schools where they remained until their
sixteenth birthday, or they perished within. After 1920, if parents refused to send their children,
they could be charged and sent to jail (Friesen & Friesen, 2002, p.110).
Many people, within the Aboriginal communities themselves along with local
communities surrounding the reserves were given false information that these schools were in
the best interest of the children and the communities. No one could have predicted the
devastation that these schools left behind within individuals, families and communities. Many of

26

the children who attended these schools faced atrocities such as physical, mental and spiritual
abuse at the hands of those who promised to take care of them. There are some reports that
students who attended these schools never had a bad experience and feel they were fortunate to
have attended, but the same result still happened, their culture, language and identity were
stripped away and replaced with Western ideology (Friesen & Friesen, 2002, p.100). In some
cases it is states as such in the literature (Armstrong, 2013):
Aboriginal peoples continued, in secret, to speak their own languages and to honour their
own ceremonies even when those ceremonies like the potlatch were deemed illegal by
the Canadian government. Sometimes, parents left for the bush, taking their children with
them as opposed to having their children removed and sent to residential schools, and
escaping the prisons ready to engulf them for daring to defy the legislated attendance of
their children at those schools. (p. 41)
Most of the schools were not ready or equipped to take on such a task and as a result,
many students starved for lack of funding and support by the government. Some residential
schools remained open long after the students were being integrated into the public schools. The
last school (Gordon Indian Residential School) in Saskatchewan closed in 1996 (Peter Harrison
2011). The cultural and family dynamics that were lost through generations of children that were
subjected to these residential and day schools can be still seen today and the aftermath is still
apparent with Aboriginal children not knowing their languages, their culture and most of all,
their identities. The impact of these schools has only recently been acknowledged by the
Canadian Government (Official Apology by Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, June 11, 2008) as:
Two primary objectives of the residential school system were to remove
and isolate children from the influence of their homes, families, traditions
and cultures, and to assimilate them into the dominant culture. These
objectives were based on the assumption Aboriginal cultures and spiritual
beliefs were inferior and unequal. Indeed, some sought, as it was
infamously said, “to kill the Indian in the child.” Today, we recognize that
this policy of assimilation was wrong, has caused great harm, and has no
place in our country.

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It wasn’t until Western ideologies and teachings entered into Aboriginal society that
Aboriginal people began to feel unimportant and unwanted; this was introduced through Indian
Residential Schools. Mainstream education and Western ideology is and has historically been
ineffective in terms of educational success for Aboriginal students in Canada. Many children
who attended Residential Schools lost their language, family and parenting skills due to the strict
regulations of governmental and church run schools. Most were so traumatized, that leading a
normal life afterward, was impossible, which led to many self-abusive behaviors, such as
alcoholism, drug addictions, mental disorders and so much more. Future generations of the
students who attended these schools lost the ability to learn their language, and their cultures,
along with parenting skills thus, creating another generation of children without personal identity
or skills to raise families. Residential schools became a symbol for Aboriginal people as a place
of abuse and loss, preventing many of them from fully embracing education and this again
created a generation of poorly educated people. Aboriginal people have long since struggled to
be an equal part of society, while still maintaining their cultures, identity and status among nonAboriginal people (Friesen, & Friesen, 2002, p. 89).
The 1960’s brought another wave of devastation for Aboriginal families. The term
“Sixties Scoop” was coined by Patrick Johnston, author of the 1983 report “Native Children and
the Child Welfare System” (Johnston, 1983, p.1). The child welfare system did not require its
workers to be educated in Aboriginal culture, or community life and therefore, workers assumed
what they perceived as neglect and felt justified in the removal of the child, when in many cases,
this was only a biased Western view of what they thought they perceived. For instance, if social
workers did not understand different cultures and did not see full fridges or cupboards of food
and only traditional food, such as dried meat or salmon and berries, they deemed this as neglect

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and not providing enough food and removed the children without consent or approval.
Thousands of Aboriginal children ended up in the care of non-Aboriginal families, sometimes
very far from home and many of the foster or adoptive parents were abusive.
The story of one particular boy named Richard Cardinal was only one example of the life
of a child removed during this time. Richard spent his young life in and out of 28 foster homes
which led to his suicide at the age of 17 (Obomsawin, 1986). The students that survived the
sixties scoop faced the same struggles and setbacks as Residential School survivors, the loss of
identity and culture and self-worth. When put into a public education system that did not foster
the healing of such traumas. There was a quote from an unknown author saying, “if we do not
acknowledge the past, we are doomed to relive it again (n.d).” It is critical for educators,
professionals, governments and policy-makers to employ holistic learning for the benefit of
children in mainstream schools. With the closure of Residential Schools came integration into
public schools. Aboriginal children were put into reserve day schools or local public schools.
The only problem with this action was that none of the schools were prepared, nor were parents,
communities or Band Chiefs consulted about the integration of these children, again leaving
children with no cultural-identity or support to accommodate the culture shock of public
schooling (Kirkness, 2013).
In 1969, Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, issued a ‘White Paper’ on Indian policy
that recommended the elimination of Indian status (Friesen, Friesen, 2002, p. 90). In turn, this
prompted Indian leaders to put forth their own “Red Paper” in 1970, which counteracted the
initial ideas and intended policies of the White Paper. In the early 1970’s, the National Indian
Brotherhood was established, now known as the Assembly of First Nations. The National Indian
Brotherhood first introduced the policy “Indian Control of Indian Education” which is based on

29

two principals; parental responsibility and local control (Kirkness, 2013). This document was
submitted to the Federal government in 1972. Education and control for Aboriginal people was
intended to give children the knowledge to understand the world around them and be proud of
who they were, something that even today is a struggle to provide and repair from the historical
damage done. The National Indian Brotherhood (NIB) spoke to this vision (Battiste, 2013) as
stated below:
We want education to provide the setting in which our children can develop
the fundamental attitudes and values which have an honoured place in Indian
tradition and culture…We want the behavior of our children to be shaped by
those values which are most esteemed in our culture…It is important that
Indian children have a chance to develop a value which is compatible with
Indian culture. (p.62)
This push towards independence from Western control over education was a powerful
stance that showed the Canadian government that there were real and legitimate plans for a
better future for Aboriginal people and that meant the start was with education.
2.2 Aboriginal Education: Present
Railton (2012) explained the importance of cultural heritage as, “In today’s classroom,
cultural heritage is a singular, mainstream commodity” (p. 51). She argues that students learn
best through “the social sharing of experience” (p. 51), and that we must draw on each student’s
knowledge base, therefore making what they already know more valuable.
Aboriginal education today has come a long way in terms of success and change, but
according to many scholars, much is still needed if Canada wants to see Aboriginal educational
success and equality within the public school systems. The disconnect that Residential schools
left behind have put a burden on our school systems today and unfortunately, we now look to the
teachers and administrators as the main sources to fix the problems that so many schools face,

30

such as the low graduation rates of Aboriginal students. In First Nations Education in Canada:
The Circle Unfolds, Battiste and Barman (1995) contended the following:
Indian education, although difficult to define, is a significant process to all Aboriginal
parents and communities. It firmly raises the issue of humanity; what does it mean to be
an Aboriginal person? It addresses the paramount issue of education in a multicultural
state: What should education achieve for Aboriginal peoples?” (p. vii)
One solution Battiste offered is self-control of Aboriginal education within Aboriginal
communities. She qualified this solution with, “First Nation communities see community-based
education as a fundamental responsibility and requirement” (p. vii). Aboriginal education cannot
mainly stay in First Nations’ communities though and therefore we must educate accordingly,
and thus, educating non-Aboriginal teachers successfully is paramount. Teachers are currently
challenged with including the Projected Learning Outcomes (PLO) into their everyday lessons.
The PLO is a required standard practice, governed by BC provincial policies for teachers.
Included in these policies is the implementation of Aboriginal content into the classroom. The
difficulty with this policy is the complexities and understanding of how Aboriginal worldviews
differ and how teachers can be expected to incorporate this into classroom lessons without a true
understanding of Aboriginal worldviews?
There is always the concern that even if non-Aboriginal teacher candidates understand
that they need to incorporate Aboriginal content or are at least willing to make it a part of their
lessons, it is usually only integrated by occasionally adding an Aboriginal perspective and only
when it is convenient and even then it is only a token amount. Some teacher candidates may also
feel apprehensive teaching Aboriginal education because as non-Aboriginal people, they lack
credibility and authority to teach it. From an Aboriginal perspective, some think this is just an
excuse to rid them of the responsibility to meaningfully engage with Aboriginal culture and the
history of Aboriginal peoples. Resistance to integrate Aboriginal ways of knowing is and can be

31

simply, not knowing how. One study states “As they enter teaching training, our evaluations
revealed that most teacher candidates do not come with prior knowledge about Aboriginal
topics, nor do they come with confidence in teaching related material” (Nardozi, 2014, p. 54).
According to Hogg (2006) factors that influence achievement in schools are curriculum, teacher
experience, teacher preparation, and class size, use of technology and school safety. Teachers
with experience are very important for student achievement, but in most cases, minority and low
income areas will get the inexperienced teachers with three years or less experience. The
Hawthorne Report of 1967, also known as “The White paper”, had a key recommendation that
teachers should be encouraged to learn as much as possible about the background and culture of
their First Nations students and take the initiative in getting to know individual students (Friesen
& Friesen, 2002, p. 90). This is still the message today and continues to be an integral piece of
the puzzle when navigating Aboriginal school success strategies.
The British Columbia school system is regulated by the Ministry of Education which
provides a regulated numbered set of standards that all certified teachers must abide by. Number
six is of particular interest in Aboriginal Education (BC Teachers Regulation Board, 2016) as
stated:
Educators have a broad knowledge base and understand the subject areas
they teach. Educators understand the curricular, conceptual and
methodological foundations of education and of the subject areas they
teach. Educators must be able to communicate effectively in English or
French. Educators teach students to understand relevant curricula in a
Canadian, Aboriginal, and global context. Educators convey the values,
beliefs and knowledge of our democratic society. (p. 1)
This particular standard influenced my research topic as it was apparent with teacher
candidates in my own cohort were not fully educated in these matters and able to meet this
standard had voiced their concerns to me on a regular basis. If the government expects teachers
to know and abide by these standards, then it is our duty as teachers to learn how to abide by
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them appropriately. It is my hope to make the connection to this standard within the regulations
for certified teachers and find out if they understand the depth of expectations within the area of
Aboriginal Education within the public schools of British Columbia.
There are some shocking numbers that show just how poorly served Aboriginal students
are within the school system. The 2001 census reveals that 42% of the Aboriginal population has
less than a secondary school education. This is especially striking since almost half of the
Aboriginal population is under the age of 25 years old. Further to this, Gambhir, Broad, Evans
and Gaskells (2008) study revealed the federal Auditor General’s 2005 report would take 28
years for secondary school graduation rates within the Aboriginal population to equal that of the
Canadian average.
I find that the discourse found within the education system can also create negative
aspects to Aboriginal education without realizing we are doing so. In the beginning of many
studies, the researchers make statements such as “Many of the teacher education programs in the
province have taken up the mission to educate teacher candidates about Aboriginal issues and
history…” (Nardozi, 2014, p. 54). This brings to question the fact that so called ‘Aboriginal
issues’ are not issues of just Aboriginal people, but all people. When we put it in the context of
Aboriginal ‘issues’, then they become problems for Aboriginal people to solve and no
responsibility is put on anyone else. These are Canadian ‘issues’ and it is up to Canada as a
whole to help break the cycle of stereotyping and putting Aboriginal education and people in one
neat box of disconnect.
Aboriginal students are not meeting or exceeding their non-Native counterparts in
successful graduation rates within Canadian public schools. Mackay and Myles (1989) wrote
that there are many factors that play a role in student dropout rates in schools for many are being

33

of Aboriginal decent. For example, a disconnection to family, community and nation; there are
socio-economic factors, social determinants on health, and many other living conditions. Not
having a high school diploma can play havoc on one’s future success and society is set up only
for those that have it. Career choices and moving into post-secondary education are dependent
on prior education and high school graduation. The B.C government has a section on their
education website for Aboriginal performance data that lists the results of Aboriginal success as
of date within public schools in Canada. The How Are We Doing (HAWD) report states that in
2013, over 62,000 students self- identified as Aboriginal within the public schools.
Approximately sixty percent of Aboriginal students graduate six years after entering Grade 8
compared to their non-Native counterparts with an average of eighty-six percent graduation rate
(BC Ministry of Education, 2013).
Battiste (2009) has long been an advocate for change and development of First Nations
education asserting, “Aboriginal parents still wish for their children to participate fully in
Canadian society but also to develop their personal and community potential through fully
actualized linguistic and cultural identity and from within their own Aboriginal context” (p.
192). Schools and teachers need to take this into consideration when teaching First Nations
children. The question is and continues to be, how do we teach First Nation students successfully
so that everyone is included and taken into consideration within the classroom? Battiste (2009)
also makes a good point by noting, that most public schools in Canada today do not have
coherent plans about how teachers and students can know Aboriginal thought and apply it in
current educational processes. When we consider the classroom today, we can see that the
historical ways of how a teacher runs the classroom is still present rather than identifying and
teaching to everyone according to their inherent capacities. Battiste stipulated that there are

34

teachers still dictating what should be learned in the classroom according to the overall
expectation of the province which is not based on individual learning. Classrooms are still
traditionally set up with students sitting in rows and a teacher stands up front in a symbolic,
authoritarian fashion. According to Battiste (2013), the key to designing meaningful education in
Canada is to begin confronting the hidden standards of racism, colonialism and cultural and
linguistic imperialism. One term to consider to help conceptualize the concept of authority and
classification is Meritocracy, which argues that the rewards of schooling and in society go to the
best and the brightest. Rich and successful people get their powerful positions in society because
they are considered to have worked harder and are considered to be smarter than most people.
The purpose of schools is to distribute knowledge to those that are able to use it most
effectively in order to contribute to society (Battiste & Barman, 1995). Many public school
systems have special education classes and if you were to observe these classes in northern BC
in the past, maybe not so much today, but even back when I went to school, you would see the
majority of students in these classes were Aboriginal. I remember being put in an accounting
class instead of the mainstream math class because no one had the time or patience to help me
when I struggled; it was easier to assume Aboriginal students would not leave their communities
or be able to learn, so why expect higher standards?
Widdowson and Howard (2013) in Approaches to Aboriginal Education in Canada:
Searching for Solutions, covered an interesting aspect of Aboriginal education using the term the
cultural discontinuity thesis, which indicates the failure to recognize Aboriginal culture in the
educational system has slowed the pace of integration and maintained the gap between
Aboriginal cultures and non-Aboriginal students” (p. xix). I have heard many times from teacher
candidates and current teachers, that there just isn’t enough time in a school year to teach First

35

Nation content, especially if you do not feel adequate enough to do so without making huge
mistakes or offending someone. Teachers are under pressure every year to fill their days
teaching to the Prescribed Learning Outcomes (PLO) set out by the government and trying to
play the role of social workers, coat finders, arbitrators, pencil sharpeners, language specialists,
walking encyclopedia’s, surrogate parents, form fillers, fundraisers, nose wipers, examiners,
scapegoats, relations officers, accountants, musicians, artistic directors, petty cash clerks, report
writers, and the list goes on.
One underlying response that is a common thread for many teachers teaching in the
Canadian public school system is: “Aboriginal people are not the only students in the
classroom.” I was given this message over and over when I taught in the School of Education at
UNBC and found it hard to communicate the importance of including Aboriginal content in the
classroom. Many teachers are set with the idea of inclusion for all students in the same manner,
and do not realize the importance of educating to the needs of each students’ culture. I can
understand that classrooms today are diverse and include many students from all walks of life,
but I also know that these other cultures are not in jeopardy of being lost, of losing their
language and identity. Canada, after all, is home to the original people of this land and if we
cannot accept that or teach to that, then all of our efforts will be in vain. Verna St. Dennis (2013)
highlighted that the term multiculturalism is often the term used within society to identify nonCaucasian people within Canada. Many Aboriginal groups feel that multiculturalism is a form of
colonialism and works to distract from the recognition and redress of Indigenous rights.
Multiculturalism comes with an understanding that those that fit in this term are immigrants, and
Aboriginal people do not apply, they do not share this same commonality and by assuming so
erases the specific and unique location of Aboriginal peoples as Indigenous to this land (St

36

Dennis, 2013). In other words, using this term excludes Aboriginal people and clumps them into
othering where we do not recognize original occupation of the land.
I have gone through the British Columbia educational system myself and found that it
was based and reliant on an outdated system of information. In the past, First Nations education
was based on misconstrued information and very little of the actual culture was taught. I know
from experience that the education system was flawed and non-supportive for First Nations
peoples. When First Nations children were integrated into mainstream classrooms, teachers were
neither prepared nor ready to change their way of teaching. The strain between what First
Nations children need and what they get within the educational system varies and is
disconnected even in the present day school system.
Teachers have a difficult time including Aboriginal content into their class for many
reasons. Taylor (1995) mentions the difficulty with finding the appropriate material, and then
knowing how to present it, can be challenging for non-Aboriginal teachers. This can vary from
community to community. Acceptance from parents and students can depend on the teacher’s
ability to teach the material and the importance put on students taking autonomy in their own
education. Taylor (1995) elaborates further with “students must be allowed to discover their own
levels of comfort in dealing with a topic which is essentially about themselves” (as cited in
Battiste & Barman, 1995, p. 237).
Battiste (1998) argued there is a need for Aboriginal knowledge and language within the
education system and how “the provincial curriculum continues to disinherit Aboriginal
language and knowledge by ignoring their value” (p. 17). She highlighted this matter in stating
“In schools and universities, traditional academic studies support and reinforce the Eurocentric

37

contexts and consequences, ignoring Indigenous worldviews, knowledge, and thought, while
claiming to have superior grounding in Eurocentric history, literature, and philosophy” (p. 22).
Parent (2014) discussed holistic education from urban Aboriginal youth perspectives. As
stated in 2.1, the holistic understanding of healing comes from the understanding that it
encompasses spiritual, mental, physical and emotional aspects of an individual’s life that also
includes their family, and their community. A reiteration previously stated, “holistic education is
rooted in Aboriginal languages, relationships to the land, cultures, and oral traditions” (Friesen
& Friesen, 2002, p. 16). “Storytelling and oral transmission is a lifelong experiential process that
has and will always be a part of Aboriginal education and it was the task of the Elders who were
and are considered significant sources of knowledge” (Parent, 2014, p. 34). Similarly,
Aboriginal youth are finding new ways to explore their indigeneity and cultural traditions. The
youth interviewed for Parent’s (2014) research affirmed the need for cultural connections and
organizations which allowed the youth to maintain reciprocal teaching and learning relationships
with staff, Elders, and peers. Part of the pedagogical approach is when the teacher only shares a
certain amount of information with learners in order to pique their curiosity. This in turn
motivates them to return to learn more. Parent also identifies that “Aboriginal youth in
Vancouver are the youngest and fastest growing population in Canada, and over forty thousand
Aboriginal people living in Vancouver, 60% of them are under 25 years of age. Parent (2014)
suggested we need to look at the bigger picture of where Aboriginal youth are located with 54%
of all Canadian Aboriginal peoples living in cities.
Research shows that there is still a large gap between the rates of Aboriginal education
success despite the changes in policy. Battiste (2013) identified other areas that showed a clear

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need for change such as housing and living conditions in many First Nations communities that
impact on Aboriginal people:
…appalling living standards and undermine educational reform; infant mortality
rates in these communities are more than doubled compared to non-Aboriginal
communities; youth suicide is seven times higher than the average Canadian, and
the unemployment rate is three times higher than the Canadian average. The
literacy rates are half and most Aboriginal people live below the poverty rate.
These conditions have existed for more than fifty years and government policies
have failed to correct them. The problems continue to mount, as well as calls for
innovative educational reform… (Battiste, p. 63).
MacLean’s (2016) latest article on racism in Canada, Canada’s Race Problem: It’s Even
Worse Than America’s includes a table (appendix 2) that clearly offers the staggering numbers
related to lack of equality in Canada when it comes to Aboriginal people. “By almost every
measurable indicator, the Aboriginal population in Canada is treated worse and lives with more
hardship than the African-American population. All these facts tell us one thing: Canada has a
race problem, too” (p. 1).
2.3 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission was created to provide an avenue for
Residential School survivors to have an opportunity to share their stories and begin a journey of
healing as a result of those schools. A class-action settlement which was the largest in Canadian
history began in 2007 and one of the agreements that came out of that was the creation of the
Truth and Reconciliation commission of Canada (Government of Canada, 2016). The idea
behind this commission was to facilitate reconciliation between former students, and survivors
of the residential schools and the rest of the Canadian population. The Government of Canada
(2016) provided some insights to the matter as stated:

39

Between 2007 and 2015, the Government of Canada provided about $72
million to support the TRC's work. The TRC spent six years travelling to
all parts of Canada and heard from more than 6,500 witnesses. The TRC
also hosted seven national events across Canada to engage the Canadian
public, educate people about the history and legacy of the residential
schools system, and share and honour the experiences of former students
and their families. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission created a
historical record of the residential schools’ system. As part of this
process, the Government of Canada provided over five million records to
the TRC. The National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation at the
University of Manitoba will house all of the documents collected by the
TRC.
In the final report, there are detailed accounts of what happened to the students that
attended the residential schools. This included horrendous stories and accounts of the abuse they
suffered while attending those schools. It is also within this report that the commission
recommended 94 calls to action that are divided into two parts; Legacy and Reconciliation.
Within the Legacy section of the final report is a heading ‘Education’ and within it provides
recommendations from numbers 6 to 12. Number 10 of these recommendations states,
We call on the federal government to draft new Aboriginal education legislation
with the full participation and informed consent of Aboriginal peoples. The new
legislation would include a commitment to sufficient funding and would
incorporate the following principles (Truth and Reconciliation; Calls to Action,
2016):
i. Providing sufficient funding to close identified educational achievement
gaps within one generation.
ii. Improving education attainment levels and success rates.
iii. Developing culturally appropriate curricula.
iv. Protecting the right to Aboriginal languages, including the teaching of
Aboriginal languages as credit courses.
v. Enabling parental and community responsibility, control, and
accountability, similar to what parents enjoy in public school systems.
vi. Enabling parents to fully participate in the education of their children.
vii. Respecting and honouring Treaty relationships. (p. 6)
Within education, it is important to inform students about the history of what happened
in Residential Schools. This historical record will help inform Canadians to understand a history
that is not apparent to most people within Canada. This document and call to action will

40

hopefully be taken seriously and be implemented to help close the educational gap. For the
purpose of this study the call to action addresses the importance and the need for change within
the school systems (Truth and Reconciliation, 2016). The summary of the Truth and
Reconciliation report (Honouring the Truth, 2015) discusses what the commission did and how
the commission went about collecting information in order to make recommendations. This
summary covers the history and legacy which then led to the call to action. This summary also
pointed out an important aspect of the creation of it:
…shaming and pointing out wrongdoing were not the purpose of the
commission’s mandate. Ultimately, the Commission’s focus on truth
determination was intended to lay the foundation for the important question
of reconciliation. Now that we know about residential schools and their
legacy, what do we do about it? (p. 8)
2.4 First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC)
The First Nation Education Steering Committee (FNESC) is a BC organization dedicated
to informing and providing relevant Aboriginal educational direction to teachers and
administrators in the province. This organization works to provide informed educational research
and guidance relative to achievement indicators for First Nations students. Below I have
provided the full scope of how FNESC gives guidance and support to Aboriginal education and
how it is clear that all major points are covered in their principles; from their commitment to
public education, sincerity, and honesty as important aspects to working with Aboriginal people.
First Nations have created their own schools located within and operated by First Nations
communities to adhere to the principles of First Nations control of First Nations education and
reflecting a commitment to providing their students locally-based, relevant and high quality
educational opportunities. There are 130 First Nations controlled schools in BC which are
committed to providing quality instruction, sound academic programs, as well as supportive

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environments for children. The schools have been founded upon First Nations cultures and
languages and strive to reflect the values and traditions of the communities they serve.
In recognizing approximately two-thirds of First Nations are enrolled in the public
education system that fall under the auspice of the BC Ministry of Education. In time, BC First
Nations have established respectful and effective working relationships with a range of public
education stakeholders resulting in numerous initiatives to support First Nations students. The
efforts undertaken in that regard are described in detail in a separate document: FNESC’s Key
Accomplishments: Creating Systemic Changes for First Nations Students in the BC Public
Education System (Updated November 26, 2012). FNESC also provides resource binders for
teachers. One such resource is “Authentic First Peoples Resources; For Use in K-7 Classrooms”
This resource was developed with assistance from the British Columbia Ministry of Education.
One identified need was to provide this resource in authentic First Peoples texts which,
according to FNESC (2015):
Authentic First Peoples texts are historical or contemporary texts that present
their voices and depict themes and issues that are important within First
Peoples cultures (e.g., loss of identity and affirmation of identity, tradition,
healing, role of family, importance of Elders, connection to the land, the
nature and place of spirituality as an aspect of wisdom, the relationships
between individual and community, the importance of oral tradition, the
experience of colonization and decolonization) also incorporates First
Peoples story-telling techniques and features as applicable (p.7).
FNESC confirmed the need for classrooms to have student material that was more
reflective of the realities of First Peoples in the province. By creating this resource it helped
address the need for a better sense of comfort for students within the classroom hopefully to
motivate students to participate more and thus succeed.
Battiste (2009) brings forward an ongoing concern related to Aboriginal epistemology
and that is of Eurocentric exploitation. Aboriginal people have been fighting for years to protect
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and claim identity that has been lost or stolen, and now with its reintroduction into schools, this
knowledge is again being jeopardized by those we trust to teach it “The heritage of Indigenous
people is a complete knowledge system with its own concepts of epistemology, philosophy,
language, and scientific and logical validity that needs protection from Eurocentric exploitation”
(Battiste, 2009, p. 195). While doing this research, I found myself constantly asking: “How do
we inform teachers on the cultural lessons that they should be practicing or know?” Can we
inform teachers properly in order for them to become trusting allies that can teach authentically
and without giving up sacred thought and epistemology, and denigrating it in the process? These
are just a few of the challenges schools and universities face when introducing and bringing First
Nations educational content into the curriculum.
2.5 Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement in BC
The British Columbia School Act was amended in 1989 with the addition of Section 104
to provide for education agreements. Originally, these agreements meant to address the goals,
priorities and the needs of First Nations People with the intention of enhancing educational
opportunities for First Nations People (Kavanagh, 1997). The agreements were also a way of
providing for a transfer of funding between First Nations and School boards for tuition. In 2006,
the Provincial legislature enacted the First Nations Jurisdiction over Education in British
Columbia Act, establishing a First Nations Education Authority in the Province, authorizing
agreements for Aboriginal communities for jurisdiction over education and effectively nullifying
educational provisions in the Indian Act for participating communities. With Aboriginal
education in mind, Aboriginal communities in partnership with school districts and the BC
Ministry of Education looked at how to enhance Aboriginal education. The following provides a
discussion on partnerships (BC Ministry of Education, 2015) in the following statement:

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British Columbia schools have not been successful in ensuring that
Aboriginal students receive a quality education, one that allows these
students to succeed in the larger provincial economy while maintaining ties
to their culture. Growing recognition of this problem led to the signing of a
Memorandum of Understanding in 1999. (p. 1)
We the undersigned, acknowledge that Aboriginal learners are not
experiencing school success in British Columbia. We state our intention to
work together within the mandates of our respective organizations to
improve school success for Aboriginal learners in British Columbia. (p. 1)
The B.C Ministry of Education (2015) stated that an Aboriginal Education Enhancement
Agreement (AEEA) highlights the following:
…a working agreement between a school district, all local Aboriginal communities,
and the Ministry of Education designed to enhance the educational achievement of
Aboriginal students. The AEEA establishes a collaborative partnership between
Aboriginal communities and school districts that involves shared decision-making
and specific goal setting to meet the educational needs of Aboriginal students.
AEEA’s highlight the importance of academic performance and more importantly,
stress the integral nature of Aboriginal traditional culture and languages to
Aboriginal student development and success. Fundamental to AEEAs is the
requirement that school districts provide strong programs on the culture of local
Aboriginal peoples on whose traditional territories the districts are located (para.2).
It is important to know that not all individual Aboriginal communities within BC have
signed (AEEA) agreements with their local school districts and many have either signed in the
past and just not renewed, or never signed for reasons that were exclusive to those communities.
This topic might be something that is of interest to research since many schools are not
represented within the list provided by the BC government. Another important fact that is not
included in the reports and lists provided by the government is how the agreements are kept and
adhered to within each school district that establishes one. School District # 91 Aboriginal
District principal Calvin Desmarais stated that their school district signed one, but it is a
document that is not well known by the teachers and is not referenced on a regular basis. It
pretty much sits on the wall in a frame for all to see, but unless you are on his team or working
with Aboriginal education in particular, this document does not influence your everyday work
within education. This begs the question as to how this affects academic success within the
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schools that are not fully knowledgeable that these agreements exist. It is difficult to adhere to an
agreement if the majority of your staff is unaware that it exists in the first place.
According to the BC Ministry of Education (1999) “Targeted funding provided to boards
of education must be spent on provision of Aboriginal education and services. The delivery and
outcomes of these programs and services must be documented; preferably through Enhancement
Agreements” (p. 1). The ministry outlines that Aboriginal ancestry is documented through the
use of a voluntary self-identification.
I remember when I was the Aboriginal Education Worker within Fraser Lake Elementary
School, I sat down with the Chief of Stellat’en at the time, which is my community, and we
spoke about the Aboriginal Enhancement Agreement. Back then, not a lot of people were
informed about this document, but I remember the conversation because one thing in particular
stood out, that was that Stella’ten at the time was not going to sign the document with the school
district. The reasoning behind this was that the Band was under the impression that too many
Aboriginal student initiatives were being ignored; one being the success of Aboriginal students.
The Stellat’en Band felt their students were still being treated unfairly and not being held to the
same standards as the non-Aboriginal students. One practice, in particular, was that at the
beginning of the year a school is given an ‘x’ amount of money for each Aboriginal student
enrolled as a Full Time Equivalency fund, but the Band started noticing a trend of suspensions
after the funding was allocated. I know this is just the impression of one Band, but it has not
been documented. As I researched different School Districts and their Aboriginal Enhancement
Agreements, I could not help but notice that many of them have either expired and have not been
renewed or some are missing from the list altogether. This is something that could easily be a

45

separate study, but for now and for the purposes of this study, it is concerning to see the
Aboriginal Enhancement Agreements are not standard practice for all School Districts.
In terms of the interviews I conducted with the three District Principals of Aboriginal
Education, some common themes are linked to this research. I have identified three
commonalities, they were once all teachers before coming into these positions, they identify with
having to adhere to some form of government policy or curriculum and they all do not have any
real relationships with teachers that allow them to influence what is taught in the classroom.
When I first started talking to the District Principals, I expected their answers to be similar in the
sense that they would talk about their current positions and Aboriginal education. I was wrong,
the first interview came in the form of an in depth talk about current positions and what students
need in the system, but the second interview came in the form of an autobiography with the
interviewee telling me his whole life story. This was very interesting because it gave insight into
the study from someone who lived the life of an Aboriginal person within the education system
and how he excelled and came to be where he is today. The third interview was about her life but
from a non-Aboriginal point of view with an intense need/want to be an Aboriginal ally. Her life
brought her full circle to a place that not only helped Aboriginal people but also made positive
differences in their lives. All three interviews helped shape my thoughts around what it is they
were doing and how were they influencing Aboriginal education today. I found myself thinking
about the connection I had with these three as I was an elementary teacher and tried to influence
education from the inside out and not within a ‘teaching’ position.
2.6 BC Government Curriculum
A new British Columbia curriculum was released in August 2015 that includes more
ideal concepts to make it easier for teachers to include Aboriginal content in their classrooms.

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The revised curriculum allows for a more rounded teaching style that helps students focus on
their strengths and diverse learning needs. The new curriculum is designed to help teachers
create engaging and personalized learning environments for all students. For some Aboriginal
educators, this new design resembles a lot of what Aboriginal ways of knowing has been doing
for centuries. Armstrong makes it clear in her article that traditional teachings and the
community and family mentoring that children received, prior to European contact, included the
use of story as a teaching practice, particularly in helping children and youth find their gifts and
using them for the good of the community (Armstrong 2013). The new curriculum is more
student friendly in that it is learner centered with flexibility and a focus on numeracy and
literacy. This way of looking at the teacher learner relationship sees the student as a competent
thinker who will become more competent in all areas of his/her life.
Aboriginal culture is very similar in that the children have always been first and foremost
at the forefront of community and family life because they are the future. Investing in them
means that we invest in ourselves. There are three key features to the new curriculum that,
according to the government, contribute to deeper learning. The first is the core competencies
which are the intellectual, personal and social skills that students need in order to be successful
beyond school. The second is essential learning which represents society’s aspirations for
educated citizens that develops concepts, skills, and big ideas all of which require higher-order
thinking in today’s demanding world. The third feature is literacy and numeracy foundations
which includes forms of communication such as oral, written, visual, digital, and multimedia
that fosters accomplishing of ones’ goals. Each of these three features is all based on a KnowDo-Understand type model, which is shown in Appendix 2.

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2.7 Teacher Education Programs with an Aboriginal Approach
Some universities in Canada offer programs that allow teachers to acquire their teaching
degree within Aboriginal traditions and philosophies that guide the curriculum. The University
of British Columbia is one such university offering the Native Indian Teacher Education
Program (NITEP). This program offers both the Elementary and Secondary streams much like
the University of Northern British Columbia (UNBC) with a clear understanding that they
prepare students to be effective educators within public, independent and band operated schools.
The education council that advises the program is made up of Aboriginal educators, UBC
faculty, British Columbia Teacher Federation (BCTF) representative and a Native Indian
Teacher Education Program (NITEP) student representative. The website for this program
identifies it as “a contemporary program with traditional values, Native Indian Teacher
Education Program (NITEP) truly exemplifies how culture can be integrated within a
mainstream post-secondary institution.” The NITEP program is also offered at field Centre’s that
allow students to take the program in a non- urban setting in Duncan BC, or in Lillooet BC, with
another option being added in 2016 in the Fraser Valley. The idea behind offering these
programs elsewhere is to allow students to remain connected to their home and community while
obtaining their degree. The program is a 12-month program, which is different from the two-year
program at UNBC. The program includes a community field experience (CFE) class indicating
that the program includes important connections to the land and communities that are important
for teachers within an Aboriginal context.
Following successful completion of a school-based extended practicum, all teacher
candidates in the Bachelors of Education (B.Ed.) program participate in EDUC 490, a threeweek community field practicum experience. In most cases, the CFE occurs outside of schools in

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placements hosted by community partners. Some field experiences take place in a school context
that is very different from the extended practicum site, and others take place in locations across
the province, country and internationally. During the initial registration process, teacher
candidates indicate their preference for a community field experience placement by theme or
geographic region. This “non-formal” educational involvement helps teachers develop a broader,
more holistic view of education, than in a practicum that is limited to classroom settings. The
community field experience is guided by research based on beliefs that teacher candidates,
community partners and students all benefit (UBC, 2016).
One teacher has taken a step further and almost by accident, created a way that teacher
candidates can indigenize their lessons and curriculum. Helen Armstrong (2013) documented her
journey to Indigenize curriculum with the importance of story. Armstrong set out to Indigenize
curriculum with the help of colleagues at the university in Brandon, Manitoba, with the hopes
that the integration of Aboriginal ways of knowing and being in the world might lead to
increased attendance and engagement at school until Aboriginal students reached graduation.
The intent was so that Aboriginal students could see their storied lives validated within the
school. After grant proposal writing and securing funding and facing many challenges within the
system itself, Armstrong was able to integrate indigenization into test schools whom volunteered
to try the new approach. She introduced Aboriginal people into the classroom. This was not the
first attempt for an idea such as this, but it was what Armstrong discovered later when it seemed
their idea was not going to come to fruition and that more lessons can be learned. Armstrong
(2013) teaches in the teacher education program in Brandon, Manitoba and felt she made a major
breakthrough in indigenizing curriculum as represented in the following quote:

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The teacher candidates could create Indigenous Inquiry Kits (IIKs) that would
allow them to focus their attention on one ‘doable’ area, either that was of strong
individual interest and/or that could be integrated into the classroom during their
fall teaching practicum placement. In that way, the teacher candidates, and
supervising teachers whom they worked, could immediately see how they could
integrate Aboriginal ways of knowing” (Armstrong, 2013, p.52).
Armstrong proceeded to fill up a library with Aboriginal content books that were full of
resources for the teacher candidates who were instructed to find a Projected Learning Outcome
(PLO) and then a book that they could teach to it. Armstrong admits that this was not wildly
successful, and there were many challenges working out the bugs such as not having enough
resources. As the years went on, the teacher candidate resource kits grew into not just the
inclusion of books, but movies and music and eventually hands on resources as well. The teacher
candidates were asked to present their kits to teachers within the schools. They were a huge hit,
because they were simple yet included pieces most teachers struggle to be able to do. Armstrong
feels she made a full circle in her journey but also knows she has a long way to go before
Aboriginal education is the norm and not a side note. “We are travelling full circle, perhaps in
concentric circles. And we are finding that the return to indigenous story validates not only our
Aboriginal students, but all of us” (Armstrong, 2013, p.60).
Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario offers a program called “Aboriginal Teacher
Education Program” offered to both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students. Courses such as
social studies, math and physical education offered within this program, all come with an
Aboriginal perspective, balancing Aboriginal specific and student centered learning with
knowledge of the teaching learning process. This program also offers supervised teaching in a
First Nations or provincial school. One thing that these programs have in common is the
underlying integration of Aboriginal epistemology and philosophy. Each of these programs is

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comparable in terms of the classes provided and they all lead to the completion of a teaching
degree. What makes these programs unique is they use Aboriginal content as their prime focus.
2.8 Summary
Chapter two was a comprehensive literature review that drew upon the scholarly works
of Indigenous and non-Indigenous writers. The conceptual framework of the research study was
based on my own painting to give the reader a sense of connection to family and community.
This was briefly depicted in the picture and highlighted through four principles such as spiritual,
physical, family and community. The past has much to share and to teach in terms of educating
our children today, it is through the lessons of the past that education can succeed in the future.
Presently, within Aboriginal education there are some shocking numbers that show just how
poorly served Aboriginal students are within the school system and have been for some time. At
the same time, Aboriginal students are slowly succeeding but still at a lower rate than their nonAboriginal peers. Other areas that impact educational success and show a clear need for change
are: the housing and living conditions in many First Nations communities continue to have
appalling living standards and undermine educational reforms; infant mortality rates in these
communities are more than doubled compared to non-Aboriginal communities; youth suicide is
seven times higher than the average Canadian; and, the unemployment rate is three times higher
than the Canadian average. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada was created to
provide an avenue for residential school survivors to share their stories and begin a journey of
healing. Schools today can make a difference if they understand and revisit Aboriginal
Enhancement agreements that were created to improve Aboriginal education. Organizations such
as the First Nations Education Steering Committee provide resources for teachers to familiarize
themselves with and to get support and ideas on how to include Aboriginal curriculum within

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their classrooms. Another key point noted was the importance of understanding that there are
post-secondary schools out there with Aboriginal approaches, such as the Native Indian Teacher
Education Program. These programs allow teachers in training to learn Aboriginal ways of
knowing and have an underlying integration of Aboriginal epistemology and philosophy that is
important for today’s classroom. Chapter three outline the methodology as a step by step process
providing the methods and how the interview participants were engaged.

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Chapter 3: Methodology
In this Chapter, I will introduce you to the methodology I used while conducting this
research to provide an understanding of what British Columbia (BC) K-12 teachers require to
successfully teach First Nations students, First Nations content and First Nations culture. I used
qualitative research to conduct this study. This is my understanding of what qualitative research
means in relation to my research and how it fits. It is through John Creswell (2013) that I learned
that as a researcher, you would use qualitative research when there is a problem or issue that
needs to be explored and that there are specific characteristics of qualitative research. I have
used several such characteristics within my study. The first is multiple methods of qualitative
research in which the researcher gathers multiple forms of information, such as interviews,
observations and documents rather than using information from one single data source. In my
study I used interviews and data gathered from the internet and other literature, as well as relying
on my personal information gathered through life within the education system. Another
characteristic of a qualitative method allows the researcher to study selected issues, cases, events
and the fact that data collection is not constrained by predetermined categories of analysis which
is one characteristic that separates qualitative from quantitative research.
I chose a selected issue that I felt was relevant to me and my professional and personal
history and views regarding Aboriginal education. Another characteristic of qualitative research
is using “reflexivity” in which researchers positions themselves within the research, introducing
how it informs their interpretation of the information. As an Aboriginal person, I was
comfortable situating myself within this research based on my historical experience in the
education system. Also, using my current career experience has also put me in the ideal situation
to be able to authentically explore this subject. In order to be honest and upfront in my research,

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I needed to locate myself and accept the limitations I put on myself and how I feel, as far as the
information I found. Since having such a personal history of Aboriginal education and a
childhood that was not so positive or educationally rich, and I might add equal, it was difficult to
not react to some of the answers given and difficult not to react to some of the research I found
on the subject.
I look at self–locating as an important piece to my study; it shows my connection and
passion to this area of education in which I hope to see significant change. Creswell asserts that
the readers want to know what prompts our interest in the topic we investigate, to whom we are
reporting, and what we personally stand to gain from our study (Creswell, 2013, p.47). Kirby,
Greaves and Reid stated that “qualitative methodologies embrace the complexity of social
interactions as expressed in daily life and with the meanings the participants themselves attribute
to these interactions. This kind of research occurs in natural settings (Kirby, Greaves, & Reid,
2006, p. 12).
Margaret Kovach’s (2009) work on Indigenous methodologies is important for any
Indigenous person doing a study using qualitative research. In Chapter six, Situating Self,
Culture, and Purpose in Indigenous Inquiry, Kovach introduces a key factor on Indigenous
Inquiry through self-location and the importance of the questions we ask and how we go about
asking questions. Many of us pursue knowledge in relation to our needs and desire for that
knowledge. Kovach stipulates the notion that self-location anchors knowledge within
experiences which greatly influences interpretation as Indigenous inquiry. She reinforces the act
of sharing stories and finding commonalities that assists in making sense of a particular
phenomenon. My research into the subject of Aboriginal education in Canada looks into the
experiences of both teachers and Aboriginal District Principals with the hope of finding a

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commonality within their experience within Aboriginal education. Margaret Kovach introduces
the idea of what qualitative research means and can mean to the public and the researcher. In her
book, Indigenous Methodologies: Characteristic, Conversations, and Contexts, Kovach (2009)
stated “qualitative research can be any type of research that produces findings not arrived at by
statistical procedures or other means of quantification” (p.26). I used a qualitative approach that
did not focus on quantitative methods because qualitative methods fit my research and it did not
require statistics, for which I am not well versed in.
Working with and writing about Aboriginal people is a serious undertaking. Throughout
history, Aboriginal people have been left out of the consulting process and outcomes that not
only involve them but also involve their wellbeing. When it comes to researching with or about
Aboriginal people, there are now safeguards to protect and include communities, such as through
the Tri-Council Policy statement. As pointed out in Experience Research Social Change:
Methods Beyond the Mainstream, research with Aboriginal groups is a partnership requiring
consultation (Kirby, Greaves, & Reid, 2006). I tried to be inclusive of all voices within this
study, taking a holistic view of all the information in order to come to a conclusion. By looking
at the whole story of Aboriginal education and students and by including the past, the present
and the future, I included the voices that relate to all of these pieces in order to see the whole
picture. Patton (1987) states also that a holistic perspective takes in all of the parts and the whole
is greater than the sum of its parts.
3.1 Research Question
This qualitative study looks into some aspects of teaching through the stories and
experiences of students who have graduated from the University of Northern British Columbia’s
education program. It is these students who graduate to become elementary and secondary

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school teachers within our public schools, and it is the same teachers who are expected to deliver
Aboriginal education within their classrooms according to the Projected Learning Outcomes set
out in the government curriculum. The BC Ministry of Educations’ (2016) First Peoples
Principles of Learning reflect first peoples’ pedagogies and learning and supports a holistic wellbeing that includes family, self, land and ancestors.
Learning involves recognizing the consequences of one’s actions. Learning
involves generational roles and responsibilities. Learning recognizes the
role of indigenous knowledge. Learning is embedded in memory, history,
and story. Learning involves patience and time. Learning requires
exploration of one’s identity. Learning involves recognizing that some
knowledge is sacred and only shared with permission and/or in certain
situations (para. 1).
I completed a literature review and interviewed teachers who graduated from the UNBC
Bachelor of Education program in hopes of learning what is needed to adequately teach
Aboriginal students within the public schools. Three Aboriginal District Principals from three
different School Districts in northern BC were given the opportunity to voice their opinion on
teacher candidates entering the classroom and current classroom outcomes. The main research
question that guided this study is: “Do teachers know how to teach Aboriginal students and
Aboriginal content in their classrooms after taking the UNBC teacher education program?
3.2 Gathering of Data: Methods
I gathered data for this research through interviews and a literature review as well as
relying on my own knowledge with this topic. When I started the interviews I did not separate
the participants based on groups, I interviewed participants as they were in contact with me and
were able to meet to do the interview. Each interview was then sent to a transcriber. I researched
many articles within this research subject and used a lot of information found within various web
sites. My own history has been woven into this research from ancestral teachings, knowledge I

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learned from my parents and grandparents as well as memories retrieved from my own
educational journey, which still continues today.
3.3 Research participants
The six in-service teacher participants presently teach in the elementary and secondary
school system. The teacher participants represent male and female perspectives along with nonAboriginal and Aboriginal points of view. The teacher participants’ identity and their place of
employment have been protected through pseudonyms such as: Participant 4; Participant 5;
Participant 6; Participant 7; Participant 8; and Participant 9. The three Aboriginal School
District Principals specifically asked me to identify their real name and position in the research
as, in no particular order: Calvin Desmarais (Nechako Lakes School District # 91); Victor Jim
(Prince George School District # 57); and, Patty Kimpton (Quesnel School District # 28).
3.4 Aboriginal District Principals
Aboriginal District Principals advocate for Aboriginal education within the school
district they are employed in. The mandate for Aboriginal District Principals is to close the
achievement gap and to foster the reemergence of cultural and traditional knowledge within the
schools. These principals also advocate for Aboriginal students and work with teachers and
communities to enhance Aboriginal education. It is important for the principals to be able to
create strong relationships with communities and schools. There has been a barrier for some time
between Aboriginal parents and schools and the principals are given the arduous task of bridging
those gaps in order for Aboriginal educational success to become a reality. I decided that it was
important to hear the voices of the Aboriginal District Principals from Prince George and
neighboring school districts, as this is the most likely area that teachers would choose to teach
once they received their teaching degrees. I first contacted each school district of the three

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Aboriginal District Principals and requested permission from the Superintendents of Education
to ask if I could conduct research within their school districts. I gained permission first before
contacting the Aboriginal District Principals. I did not interview the Aboriginal District
Principals in any particular order, but as they were available. My first interview was with Calvin
Desmarais, the District Aboriginal Principal for Nechako Lakes, School District # 91. My
second interview was with Victor Jim, the District Aboriginal Principal for School District # 57,
in Prince George, BC. The third district Aboriginal Principal I interviewed was Patty Kimpton
from Quesnel, School District # 28. The interviews for both Calvin Desmarais and Victor Jim
took place in my office, as site they chose that was convenient for them. I interviewed Patty
Kimpton in her office in Quesnel, BC, also as chosen by her.
I chose to interview the Aboriginal District Principals because of the questions that arose
for me while I was taking the education program and personally knowing that the Aboriginal
District Principal’s positions existed from when I used to hold a position as an Aboriginal
education worker within School District# 91(SD # 91). I remember the frustration I had at the
time of my position in SD # 91 on how difficult it was that teachers did not have knowledge of
the Aboriginal District Principals and what knowledge they held and guidance they could
provide to teachers surrounding Aboriginal education. I wondered if the same connection or
disconnection still existed while I was taking the education program which is why I decided it
was important to include the Principals within my research.
3.5 Graduated Students of UNBC B. Ed. Program
The students I interviewed for this research have all graduated from the University of
Northern British Columbia, with either their elementary or secondary teaching degree. Each of
these participants is currently teaching and they are representative of a wide variety of

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backgrounds within and about Aboriginal education. The six teachers represent one male
elementary teacher, one Aboriginal elementary teacher, three secondary female teachers and one
non-Aboriginal female elementary teacher. I initially intended to have the voices of eight
teachers represented by four from each of the elementary and the secondary streams. Within
each stream, I was hoping to have a balance of Aboriginal, and non-Aboriginal as well as male
and female participants. However, due to difficulty finding an exact balance of participants and
due to time constraints, I went with what was available.
The teachers are identified by the order of their participation within this study in order to
maintain anonymity as promised in the Consent Form. One interview took place in the
participant’s home, which took a little longer than the others did as it became more social before
and after the interview, two teacher candidate interviews took place in their respective schools,
which I felt helped them recall more of their skills and tools they currently use to teach
Aboriginal students. The rest of the interviews took place in my office at the choice of the
participants out of convenience for them. I contacted these students by way of social networking,
past cohort connections and putting the call out for participants through the education program at
UNBC along with word of mouth. These individuals voiced their experience in the education
system as well as their expectations of the education system they are in as: what is expected of
them by District Aboriginal Principals and whether or not they feel they have enough knowledge
of Aboriginal epistemology of the local Peoples, to teach within BC schools?
3.6 Interview Questions
The interview questions were thoughtfully created to ask relevant questions pertaining to
each of the two groups of participants. The questions proposed to the District Principals’ allowed
them to utilize their knowledge of Aboriginal education along with their vision and involvement

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with teachers that are teaching within this field. The questions for the teachers are specific to
what they learned while taking the education program at UNBC and how they are using those
learned skills now within their classrooms. The interviews allowed for elaboration by both
participants and me. Each interview took about an hour to complete. The interview questions are
provided below:
Aboriginal School District Principals (Administrators) Interview Questions
1) What is your background in First Nations education?
2) What is your mandate and expectations of school teachers within the system to know or teach
within their classrooms?
3) Please describe your working relationship with the teachers within the schools of your
district?
4) Do you see teachers coming into the field ready to teach First Nation children and content in
their classrooms? Why or why not?
5) How could this situation be improved?
Teacher Graduates of the UNBC Education Program (Teachers)
1) Did you graduate from the University of Northern British Columbia education program?
2) Do you currently teach within the British Columbia public school system?
3) What is your idea of a teacher who can adequately teach First Nations children and content
within their classroom?
4) Do you feel you received this skill from the education program at University of Northern
British Columbia? Why or why not?
5) If you could recommend anything that you feel would be helpful for teachers to know about
teaching Aboriginal students and Aboriginal content in their classrooms, what would that be?
I took field notes and used a recording device throughout each interview. It took
approximately an hour for each interview. I hired a transcriber for the recorded interviews. I had
hoped to be able to give each participant an honorarium for participating in my research, but was
unable to secure funding and or scholarships that would have allowed me to do so. Each

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participant was provided an information sheet regarding the research as well as the interview
questions before the interviews commenced and I gave the Participants a consent form to sign.
3.7 Data Analysis
Once the data was gathered, I read and re-read the interviews before being able to pull
out specific themes that the participants discussed consistently in their interviews. Then I
compared the outcomes and recommendations presented by the participants with the results from
the literature review. I reviewed all of the participant’s data as a whole. I did not consider
separating the responses into categories such as Aboriginal District Principals and teachers or by
ethnicity or location. I looked at them as a community and felt that by looking at them all
together, I would see similarities and or the common link of education holding them together.
When I approached this data, I saw them coming together with a common goal, for the
betterment of Aboriginal education and the sense of community, for not only Aboriginal children
but also all children. Judy Atkinson (2001) quoted in Wilsons’ book, Research is Ceremony,
sees Indigenous research as guided by a set of principles, and one of those principals is “A
knowledge is consideration of community and the diversity and unique nature that each
individual brings to community” (Wilson, 2008, p.59).
3.8 Conceptual Lens: An Indigenous Approach
This research study used a qualitative research approach format through an Indigenous to
researching the topic of the skills and strategies teachers need in order to meet Aboriginal
student learner needs and the importance of embedding Aboriginal education into the daily
curriculum. It is John Creswell that states “one undertakes qualitative research in a natural
setting where the researcher is an instrument of data collection” (Creswell, 1998, p. 14).
Qualitative research is used when there is a problem or issue that needs to be explored and that

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there are different characteristics of qualitative research. I have used an Indigenous approach or
method that falls under qualitative research methodology to collect information and data in the
form of in-service teacher interviews, northern British Columbia K-12 Aboriginal School
District Principals’ observations and documents found in the literature. An Indigenous Approach
is the incorporation of Indigenous knowledge rather than relying of Western theories. The core
values and beliefs of Indigenous people, the Dakelh people, from worldviews and ways of
knowing are incorporated throughout this research. Within this research, I explain Aboriginal
education and the core values that community, ancestors and Elders use to educate and wish to
educate students using an Indigenous approach. As an Aboriginal person, I rely on stories to
guide my knowledge and it is through the method of storytelling, shared by teachers and District
Principals, that I gained more insight into Aboriginal education.
A qualitative method allowed me, the researcher, to study selected issues, cases, and
events regarding the need to explore Aboriginal education and Aboriginal learner needs and
ways of knowing. I felt this topic was relevant to me and my history as it pertains to the present
situation of lower achievement rates of Aboriginal student to non-Aboriginal students resulting
in a significantly lower high school graduation rate in the Aboriginal student population
compared to the non-Aboriginal success rate (Omand, 2015).
Kirby, Greaves and Reid (2006) stated “qualitative methodologies embrace the
complexity of social interactions as expressed in daily life and with the meanings the
participants themselves attribute to these interactions, this kind of research occurs in
natural settings” (p. 12). I was able to glean the importance of the participants’ stories
of their interactions with students and how they convey those interactions in day to day
practice and the meaning they bring from those stories.

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Margaret Kovach (2009) has been at the forefront of Indigenous methodologies by
introducing her book, Indigenous Methodologies; Characteristics, Conversations, and Contexts.
She introduced the idea of what qualitative research means and can mean to the public and the
researcher themselves. Kovach states: “qualitative research can be any type of research that
produces findings not arrived at by statistical procedures or other means of quantification” (p.
26). My research into the subject of Aboriginal education in British Columbia K-12 looked into
the experiences of both teachers and Aboriginal School District Principals with the intent of
determining and reporting about their experience within Aboriginal education using an
Indigenous approach.
3.9 Indigenous Research
Within Indigenous research, I identified four researchers that shared common
characteristics within the Indigenous research paradigm and my own research. Three of the
researchers are Indigenous scholars, but all four of have conducted Indigenous research at one
point or another such as: Jo-Ann Archibald, 2007; Shawn Wilson, 2008; Margaret Kovach,
2009; and, Ross Hoffman, 2013. Upon reviewing the authors’ work, I noticed all identify the
same methodological characteristics that have been woven into this study. Wilson (2008)
explains that a research paradigm is the beliefs that guide our actions as researchers. These
beliefs include the way that we view reality (ontology), how we think about or know this reality
(epistemology), our ethics and morals, (axiology) and how we go about gaining more knowledge
about reality (methodology). I like how Wilson explains these definitions for researchers; it is
Wilson who believes that too many people use big language as a way of belittling others.
Wilson’s belief makes me think that maybe this is also what happens in schools, that language

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plays a big role in how we understand the world we live in and if we as teachers are not using
the language students understand, then how can we expect them to succeed?
There are challenges that come with incorporating Indigenous methodologies alongside
Western ideology. These scholars pave the way for researchers like me who also come across
challenging expectations within research practice, such as the use of language. Deloria (1999)
explains it as “Within an Indigenous research context; the result has been an attempt to weld
Indigenous research to existing bodies of Western knowledge, resulting in confused efforts and
methodological floundering” (as cited in Kovach, 2009, p. 36). One challenging aspect was
within methodologies itself, I continually asked myself, where is my voice, my story in this and
how can I be expected to separate myself from this work? It wasn’t until I read other Indigenous
methods that I realized I did not have to. I speak about the four R’s as identified in this study by
Verna Kirkness (2013) and I also discovered these four scholars repeating the same message that
helped influence my study and reaffirm my thinking. Indigenous research is guided by the four
R’s: Reciprocity, Responsibility, Relationship and Respect (Archibald, 2007; Hoffman, 2013;
Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008). Hoffman explains it well by stating that respect within research is
a fundamental principle; responsibility begins with self and extends outward to family,
community, nation and the natural world. The reciprocity is through people and the act of giving,
either back to your people, to others, or to the natural world (pp. 194-195).
These four researchers also talk about letting participants within research not only share
their stories, and how stories are important, but out of respect we allow not only the participants
to tell it, but for the reader to take away what they need, it is not up to us a researchers to define
that for them (Archibald, 2007; Hoffman, 2013; Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008). I referred to the
participants and the importance of their story and how it is told in my own research. Even though

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this is an interview, I view their participation within this as telling their experience through
stories, what they share with me is in their words and it was important for me not to change or
take away from what they had to say. I also found it important for the reader to take away what
they needed to learn from the participants’ stories. It is within traditional oral stories from our
Elders, that we are told the stories that are relevant to our lives at the time, and it is up to us to
take away what we need as life lessons, guides or answers to life questions.
Within Indigenous research there is the idea that we have and see in a holistic way and
that this can be symbolized within the medicine wheel in many ways through an interrelatedness
between intellectual, spiritual, emotional, and physical (Archibald, 2007, p.11) Spiritual,
mental, emotional, and physical, (Wilson, 2008, p.89), a body, mind, heart, and spirit,
(Hoffman, 2013, p.191), metaphysical, pragmatic, language, place, values and relationships,
(Kovach, 2009, p. 57). These representations show how we can and are connected in our lives in
our environment and in our minds holistically. The relatedness between them completes and
comes full circle when all of these pieces are addressed and doing well because all these parts
are considered part of a whole self and are connected. I address this same idea within my study
in chapter two within my literature review. My conceptual framework addresses this same idea
in terms of looking at my community through the representation of art, the crows, and the trees.
It represents a holistic view of my culture and my life through education. I also talk about the
need to consider these within education and a student’s life. For students to succeed, all of their
holistic selves, mind, body, emotions, and spirit, need to be addressed and taken care of in order
for them to succeed. If there is disconnect then there is a hole in their wellbeing that needs to
filled, whether it be the mind, the body the spirit or emotion.

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When a researcher places themselves within their study allowing for Indigenous research
to be authentic and holistic, this is also known as accountability. We are, as Indigenous people
expected to be accountable to ourselves and then to others, we share our knowledge and
ourselves in good ways in order to teach, to learn and to listen (Archibald, 2007; Hoffman, 2013;
Kovach, 2009; Wilson, 2008). I included my own self within this study to be respectful and
responsible to knowledge sharing and my culture. I hope that in being authentic my words can
be taken with sincerity and deemed accountable. Kovach (2009) talks about knowing one’s own
purpose and motivation for research and why it is important and fundamental for research. I am
motivated to share who I am and where I come from to validate the importance of my history
within Aboriginal education and the knowledge I carry with me that motivates me to continue
my educational journey. Wilson (2008) states that Indigenous knowledge is relational and shared
with all creation and Archibald says that if you give back what you have learned then it feeds the
heart, mind, body and spirit.
3.10 Limitations and Challenges
There were certain challenges that made the process of collecting data for this study
difficult throughout the research study. The UNBC Research Ethics Board (REB) put some
restrictions on who I could interview and deemed the notion of interviewing my former UNBC
Bachelor of Education students as a possible harm because they felt this was a conflict of interest
and that I had too much of an authoritative influence on my former students to get honest
interview comments. The REB decision limited my ability to find research participants, but in
the end I was able to secure six. The REB decision meant that the teachers I interviewed had
graduated from the UNBC Bachelor of Education program several years previously, which may

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have made it difficult for them to recall specific memories and experiences regarding course
work, content and practicum experiences while enrolled in the program.
Another difficult task for teachers was the expectation that they would need to embed
Aboriginal education into their lessons as stated in the new BC Ministry of Education
Curriculum (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2016). It is my experience and
understanding that Aboriginal education can be a sensitive topic for teachers because it contains
sensitive topics and cultural views, especially if they never experienced it or are not fully
knowledgeable on the topic (Battiste, 2013). Based on the hesitation and inability to discuss
certain topics during the interviews, I felt a few of the participants had a difficult time being
truly honest about what Aboriginal education looked like while some participants had no
problems being forthright in detailing their opinions and view point. I think my being of
Aboriginal lineage may have played a role in some of the non-Aboriginal participants’
discomfort, especially if they wanted to point out any negative aspect they felt could be
disrespectful to me and my culture.
My final challenge I faced was my own bias I brought to the research. I see and continue
to see some very negative and disturbing aspects of education in terms of teaching strategies and
curricular outcomes that are present in the K-12 system. I found it difficult to not ask my
research participants of their experiences in seeing how Aboriginal students’ learning needs are
not being met and if they thought the new curriculum might address some of the learner needs in
terms of Aboriginal education.
Once the interviews were underway, I began to realize I could have formed better
questions for the teachers to find answers around how classrooms are structured and could be
structured to better suit the needs of a culturally aware teacher. I felt I could have been more

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prepared to gather a greater depth of data had I delved further into what the teachers knew about
teaching Aboriginal students and what it looked like to be able to embed Aboriginal education
into their classroom content and activities. I would have liked to ask them what they thought of
their current situations and if they could go back, what would their own learning would have
looked like within the education program. I also would have liked to ask if they could re-create
the program, with the knowledge they now knew about Aboriginal students and content in the
classroom, what would that look like?
I was also challenged with the cultural expectation put on me, as an Aboriginal person, to
pay respect to my research participants through an honorarium for their participation. I had
originally planned to pay this through grants or scholarship, but was not successful in securing
such and could not afford to follow through with the expectation I put on myself in terms of
following cultural respect obligations.
I personally have shown reciprocity within this study by sharing my findings with people
who wish to learn from it. I hope to show my appreciation for all that I have learned throughout
my life to continue learning and sharing with First Nations communities, family and friends and
respectfully informing those that are not aware. It is through our Elders and Ancestors that we
have learned there is an interrelatedness of our body mind, heart, and spirit, and we are obligated
out of respect and accountability to share our knowledge with others. This guides and confirms
our purpose within Indigenous research.

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Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion
Chapter Four outlines important information obtained from the research Participant
interviews regarding their own teaching experiences that novice and experienced teachers can
learn from when they are teaching Aboriginal content in their classrooms. It is nearly impossible
to capture and include all of the interview information. However, out of respect for the
Participants and their voices, I have chosen to present their knowledge and experiences through
narrative stories and key interview quotes throughout this chapter to express the essence of their
core beliefs in Aboriginal education.
As a reminder, the three Aboriginal School District Principals granted permission to use
their real identity, while the remaining Participants (4 – 9) requested the use of a pseudonym
throughout. I include their voices in chronological order while allowing each voice to be heard in
the same order as they were interviewed. Upon review and analysis of the Participants’
information, I discovered four emerging themes identified as: Identity; Communication;
Connection; and, Curriculum. The four themes presented below include the Participants’
interview statements in a discussion format while connecting their voices back to the literature
content presented in Chapter Two.
4.1 Identity
Identity is important to First Nations people because it is who we are as a people and as
individuals. I have identified myself as part Aboriginal from my mother’s ancestry and
understand that First Nations people identify with where we come from and who our ancestors
are in order to say, “We belong here” and “we are proud”. James Frideres (2008) defined
cultural, personal and community identity in terms of where you are, what you believe you are,
your community, and your beliefs. Frideres also informs his readers of an external identity that

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represents how the outside world views you. In essence, he informs his readers that in Canada
First Nations people are among the poorest and at risk of identity loss and there is a need for
understanding and acknowledging the historical and ongoing impact of colonialism (as cited in
UBC 2016).
The definition of identity for some Aboriginal students is explained as what has been
passed down through stories, through lineage, or through place names. I know the area that I am
from is where my identity begins because I know the territory that my Grandmother and her
mother picked berries. I know where my Grandfather hunted and I also visit their gravesites and
see all my Ancestors before me by the names on the grave markers. Calvin Desmerais,
Aboriginal District Principal for School District 91, expressed the need for students to have a
place of belonging to have identity:
Identity is huge, particularly for me. I've heard that there are First Nations
kids that don't always necessarily understand their identity. If we can do the
things in our school that help with identity, and honour, recognize and give
agency to identity. That this is a message in itself to the students, that, I am
somebody in the sense that I belong, I belong somewhere.
From my experience, as a teacher, both on call and working within two different school
districts, I have seen fewer Aboriginal teachers within public education and even fewer
Aboriginal male teachers compared to non-Aboriginal teachers in general. Victor Jim, District
Aboriginal Principal for School District # 57, talked about how he, as an Aboriginal male
teacher, has helped students identify with him as another Aboriginal person within the classroom
and can see themselves in him, which he feels is important:

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I think if our kids see I'm a role model for them, and especially if I'm male
because a lot of times in our communities there's separation, divorces and,
and they have no father figure. Sitting on the board with the Native Indian
Teacher Education Program (NITEP) I've been pushing them to recruit
more males because then they play the surrogate father, uncle, or
grandfather when they're in the classroom. And it will make a difference for
our kids. When I was teaching at home it made a big difference.
Patty Kimpton, an Aboriginal District Principal for School District #27, talks about her
identity from an ally’s point of view. Patty is non-Aboriginal but has spent the majority of her
life working in Aboriginal communities and with Aboriginal people. Patty’s interview revealed
that identity is important because of how she came to work with Aboriginal people:
I’m the daughter of a logger, faller and we moved all over British Columbia
in all different communities and areas as a child. I sometimes lived in
reserve settings. I did a teaching degree and was a regular high school
teacher, but I always had a focus on Aboriginal kids.
Being a non-Aboriginal teacher who is teaching Aboriginal students can be difficult,
because of the different backgrounds, thus different identities. When one of those identities is
struggling, this can become even more difficult for trust and relationship building. Patty’s words
relate to Battiste’s (1995) work referring to the idea that non-Native teachers can either affirm or
help to offset many negative influences that appear in the form of prejudice, stereotypes, and
lower standards of living. She advocates that these factors affect students’ self-image. Battiste
brings awareness to students who will struggle with their identity and need to be supported to
ensure they take on a positive identity.
Patty explains the “Connecting the Dots” program created through her school district and
her community, along with the Canadian Mental Health Society. Connecting the Dots entailed a
survey to identify risk factors and protective factors for youth. Patty referred to the notion of
reclaiming traditional and cultural norms through the setting up of traditional cultural camps that
are all about Aboriginal people reclaiming their own identity and building their connections,
inter-generationally with their youth, as well as with the non-Aboriginal community that was
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involved. Patty’s belief, as an educator, is that kids get the best service from education when
they are treated equal. She expects teachers to get the same results from all students and create
inclusivity despite their differences.
Participant 5 is currently an elementary teacher who spoke of how identity should not
play a role in how a teacher teaches children. She believes, as a non-Aboriginal teacher, she has
the skills to teach Aboriginal students. She believed First Nations children may have learned
differently a few decades ago, but she does not believe that is true at the present time. She
revealed she taught at a school that had a really close connection with the local reserve and those
children had much lower reading levels, and much more tumultuous lives. The only difference
she noticed between a First Nations student and a Caucasian student is that the Aboriginal
student may be a little bit more kinesthetic.
Participant 5 also referred to the revised B.C curriculum (British Columbia Ministry of
Education. 2015) core competencies of Positive Personal & Cultural Identity where students are
taught awareness, understanding, and appreciation of all the facets that contribute to a healthy
sense of oneself that includes family background, heritage language, beliefs and perspectives on
society. She described how Identity is embedded in the newly revised British Columbian school
curriculum (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2017) and there is an expectation that
teachers create projects for all students to connect with their identity as an awareness of “who I
am, where do I come from”. Which is similar and related to what Calvin reiterated earlier as
important for student’s to feel like they belong.

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Participant 8 is an online high school teacher who shared her new found Aboriginal
identity and how difficult it was for her to find out about her past and how it was difficult talking
about it with her Grandmother. She grew up totally removed from what little First Nations
background she had as a Lakota (Sioux):
I was digging through some old boxes of my grandmother’s and I found
documents and she promptly took the documentation and said we don’t talk
about that.
When it came to knowing if Participant 8’s students were Aboriginal, she stated that the
parents or guardians would inform her of their ancestral identity. She shared an example of how
identity can be misrepresented and become a hindrance in terms of her trying to help students. In
some cases barriers were embedded from the historical treatment of Aboriginal people by nonAboriginal people. In a physical classroom, she was told by students, “You’re not going to listen
to me because you are white”…... which prompted her to continue to ask herself, how do you
build the trust, how do you restore some of the trust at least on a personal basis with students?
For her, identity was assumed at the outset by her appearance and became a barrier to helping
Aboriginal students. Participant 8 understands a little bit more what the Residential School
history has left behind for Aboriginal students as reiterated through the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (Truth and Reconciliation, 2016).
Being a Status First Nation’s person means you are a member of a First Nations Band and
registered under the Canadian Government’s Indian Act (Government of Canada, 2016). As a
high school teacher, similar to Participant 8, Participant 9 recalled students identifying as Status
or as Aboriginal, that 80% of the students she worked with were Aboriginal, but not all of them
identified as Status, but they did identify as Aboriginal. Widdowson and Howard (2013)
addressed through the need for teachers to become cultural brokers and build on rather than
change the cultural dispositions of students. This concept was important for Participant 9 to state
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because she also felt that in order to teach Aboriginal students, you need to know who they are
in order to do it right. To teach First Nations children you have to have some understanding of
where they’re coming from, what limitations they have and what extra skills they might bring
with them to the classroom.
In conclusion, identity plays a big role in how we teach and how students see themselves
within a school setting. Teachers can learn new ways to incorporate lessons that help facilitate a
positive self- image for Aboriginal students.
4.2 Communication
It is from my life and educational experiences that I am keenly aware that communication
can take on many meanings and it is important in order to do a job well. I believe
communication is the key to successful outcomes, whatever they may be. I think being a teacher
is all about communicating, informing students of what they need to know in order to move
ahead in education. If communication is not done properly, or is missing important pieces, then
students suffer by being misinformed. The history of Aboriginal people and the history of
residential schools and what really happened was not public knowledge for many years. This
was due to a lack of communication to the wider public on how the government hurt Aboriginal
people in many ways. The various levels of hurt that has impacted Aboriginal people, explains
why many became troubled, lost their culture, lost their cultural identity and were considered as
failures by many in society (Friesen & Friesen, 2002). These authors make note that
communication came in the form spirituality, oral stories and teachings handed down, through
our Elders and generations of Ancestors. There is bound to be miscommunication when two
different cultures are attempting to communicate, due to language differences, cultural
differences and differences of opinions. The research participants have expressed these thoughts

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in their interview sessions. I also include my own thoughts because of my cultural background
and educational experiences.
Through my educational experience I have found that since many of the school districts in
Northern B.C are located within a number of different Band territories it makes it difficult for
teachers and administrators to consult with everyone. Many different communities have different
needs and wants so School District Principals are faced with challenges of inclusion in decision
making and collaboration. Calvin’s position as an Aboriginal District Principal provided
experience and knowledge to discuss how communication between different groups is integral to
public education and how important it is to connect them to each other for the benefit of the
Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement between the district and the local Aboriginal
communities. Calvin stated that 9 of the 13 First Nations met with Chief and Councils as well as
the Superintendent and the Board of Trustees Chair. This has rekindled the strong relationship
between the First Nations communities and the school district. Calvin stressed the
communication that was there and the group was able to complete a working draft of a new
Aboriginal Enhancement Agreement in two meetings. The Agreement will go out to all of the
First Nations and their education departments to be shared with the communities in the next
year. I think one of the vital things that Calvin said in his interview is that there is more openness
by teachers; both veterans and new, they want to learn and understand so they can better teacher
Aboriginal students.
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Government of Canada, 2016) interviewed and
shared many stories from victims about their experiences within Residential Schools which
resonates with Victor Jim’s interview. Victor opened up about communicating in the form of
understanding, listening to the people that shared their stories about Residential School and how

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important it is for everyone; especially teachers. Victor informed me he attended the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission (TRC) hearing in Prince George and was in tears. A quote that came
from his interview resonates with me in my belief that communication is the key to successful
outcomes. He stated: “Teachers need to know about everything that happened to our kids while
they were in these Residential Schools. Only then will teachers have a better idea of what kids
are bringing to the school, why they behave differently.”
The Truth and Reconciliation is becoming the catalyst for change, through the
recommendations it communicates the survivors stories. Many feel that having survivors tell
their story and then following up with 94 recommendations by the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission has been historically life changing and seems to be the communication vehicle for
much needed change in Canada. Patty shared her thoughts on the importance of hearing about
Residential School stories and the importance of communication. She also stated her belief, that
with communication, the ability to listen is very important when people are sharing their history
with her.
Teachers have brought back cultural teaching in small ways, such as the Restorative
Justice Circles. I have seen how circles were implemented in some schools as way of
communicating and dealing with issues, or students who needed extra guidance. Within holistic
health and healing, a restorative circle respectfully addresses issues culturally (Neeganagwedgin,
2011). Participant 4 is an Aboriginal Elementary teacher. She shared a story about how her
school dealt with an issue using a Restorative Justice Circle. She explained that a restorative
circle was set in place for an Elder and a co-worker to discuss the problem they were
experiencing. In the end, it was revealed that miscommunication was the culprit. These circles
also help administration when dealing with students. Instead of suspending a student or

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punishing a student, the circles are meant to reconnect everyone back to traditional ways and
deal with the situation in a more respectful manner and put the student onto the right path
(Costello, Wachtel, & Wachtel. 2010).
As mentioned earlier in this section, communication can be done in various forms.
Participant 8 revealed the importance of bringing in an Aboriginal Education Worker into the
teaching programs to communicate to teachers that they are there to help. Communicating the
fact that these Aboriginal Education Workers exist is the first step. Having advocates in the
schools is beneficial, especially if they are Aboriginal, because communication can be better
delivered to parents, to students and to teachers themselves by someone who knows the culture
and can communicate in both worlds.
Overall, communication can be used for many outcomes, but when it comes to teaching
students positive, truthful and honest communication is the key to success. All of the participants
spoke of communication in different ways and how it helped or hindered their teaching. Whether
communicating through restorative circles; that can address it in a holistic fashion, or by
utilizing Elders and education workers that have the knowledge to communicate to students, it is
important to be aware of exactly how you are going to communicate to your students.
Communication in some form or other resonated from the participant interviews with a clear
message that communication is important to incorporate in order to adequately teach Aboriginal
students and Aboriginal content in their classrooms. In support of this message, some of the
participants explained how miscommunication can happen with everyone, what is important is
having the tools and understanding to be able to solve problems caused by miscommunication.

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4.3 Connection
Connection is important within First Nations culture. Having a connection to the land, to
people, to our Ancestors helps strengthen cultural identities (FNESC, 2016). When we make
positive connections with others, we make our lives fuller and more meaningful. It is important
for teachers to make connections with your students and their parents to be able to successfully
teach Aboriginal students. Linda Goulet and Yvonne McLeod (2013), in an article called
Connections and Reconnections: Affirming Cultural Identity in Aboriginal Teacher Education
state that “in any culture, intergenerational connections are a conduit for passing knowledge
from one generation to the next, the process needed for cultural retention and renewal” (p. 12).
Residential Schools and colonization, with their imposing way of life, were extremely damaging
to the Aboriginal people of Canada (Goulet & McLeod, 2013, p.100). The article reveals that the
break down in cultural connection and identity contributes to a sense of unimportance, causing
personal dislocation and fragmentation within people who suffer this disconnect. From what I
have witnessed, with students, not only in public schools but students within post-secondary
education as well, is that they feel this disconnect due to loss of identity and connection. One
solution to reconnect and find cultural identity is to connect with Elders. It is through Elders that
we learn our relationship to the land, which is based on interconnectedness and respect. Goulet
and McLeod (2013) point out that it is Elders that speak of the need for connection, the
connection of time and place, of past, present, and future. The article also mentions that the
Elders encouraged future teachers to make those connections to the land and to the past, for all
of the children they would teach in the future. Victor Jim, the Aboriginal District Principal for
School District # 57, referred to connections that students make with teachers through the act of
caring and love. Jim feels that teachers can attend community events to make connections to get

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to know parents and guardians, in order to make a difference in a child’s life. Patty Kimpton, the
Aboriginal Education District Principal for School District # 28 pointed out that if teachers
themselves are not connected then they do not feel part of the team. To remedy this, they
developed a blended team where the entire district had responsibility to all students in all areas
of the students learning. The students themselves were also placed on blended teams according
to their needs. Patty referred to the great connection she feels she has with the local teachers,
which helps her tremendously when working with Aboriginal students and their communities. If
there is a break in connection with key people and the roles they play for students, then it is the
student’s success that suffers.
Taylor (1995) suggested that for non-Native teachers it is best to interact and connect to
community, which in turn helps define how the community and its students perceive the teacher.
By connecting authentically, the student feels respected and important and in turn will show
more respect and be able to learn from the non-Native teacher. Sometime connection can come
in the form of physical places and their connection to other places. Patty felt that moving the
institutions to a more central location would make for more successful learning for students and
keeping students connected while Aboriginal students can then have better access to everything.
Patty touched on the difference between elementary and secondary schools in terms of teachers
being connected with each other. She alluded to the fact that if all teachers were on the same
page and connected to work together for the success of each student then the achievement results
might improve. Staying connected can be difficult when working in a High School that has
hundreds of kids and much more teachers than an elementary school. From experience, it is
much easier to stay connected in a smaller environment than a larger one, most of the time due
to time constraints.

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Participant 4 related the connections she likes to have with her community and Elders when
it comes to teaching and how this can improve teacher practice and application of Aboriginal
knowledge. She also brought forward the importance of connecting to community and how the
UNBC education program could offer a course on the people, the history, community, and
territory of the Lheidli T’enneh; considering the Prince George campus is on their territory, at
the same time drawing on knowledge holders within the community to assist. In my own
experience of working in School District # 91 I was involved in conversations and observations
that culminated in a main message of the student benefits of bringing community into the
schools. Connection with community members can be your best resource for some of the
information you cannot get in your library or textbooks. Connection to your culture is important
and Participant 5 felt that the UNBC education program did not necessarily prepare her for the
idea that all students were not connected to their communities and culture. For her this was
important to know in order to properly teach students. As the interview went on, the discussion
moved to how much information was really communicated to her within the UNBC education
program and how those connections would have been essential to her success as a teacher. This
participant was very passionate about what she learned in the UNBC education program and
how she perceived that the message she was given did not correlate back to the classroom. She
felt the UNBC program did not inform her of the importance of connecting with the community
and how to do that. She recalled focusing on how First Nations community and culture worked,
but not content on how to make connections with the community.
Participant 6 understands connections and shared how an Aboriginal Education Worker (Ab.
Ed. Worker) was not able to make cultural connections for the teachers that would enable her to
help them teach Aboriginal content. He made mention that he thought this inability to connect
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with teachers, to make connections, was due to Residential Schools; that this may have impacted
the worker’s cultural identity and experience. It was powerful for me to hear how a teacher
really understood the idea of disconnect to one’s culture that the Residential schools created. In
his interview he talked about the importance of “…having those connections and conversations,
but she wasn’t able to bring any heritage or knowledge to the table. I believe her connection was
sort of severed by Residential Schools”.
Participant 8 concurred with the literature and the other participants regarding the
importance of making connections with parents and community. I asked Participant 8 if she
thought it would be important making connections to help First Nations children and she felt that
teachers need to design curriculum around community connections for learning to be beneficial.
Much like what Neegan (2005) referred to in terms of the value of community and what that can
bring to a child’s identity. Neegan also stated how learning is an informal, experiential process,
much like what one would learn through connections within community. Participant 8 explained
how exploring the local community by having field trips every two weeks to meet Lheidli
T’enneh Elders, or visits to the Prince George Native Friendship Centre would be beneficial. The
Native Friendship Centre is a large resource of information and services for people in the city of
Prince George with numerous departments meant to help First Nations people with health,
education, culture, and employment. I went on a tour of the Centre during my undergraduate
years and have been invited to many events held within the Native Friendship Centre that have
been integral for connecting to the community of Aboriginal people in Prince George. The need
for teachers to connect is important for both students and the teacher: “non-Native teachers will
benefit by seeing the community in which they teach as their community; that is, the community
in which they live (Taylor, 1995). The Prince George School District Resource Centre (DRC)

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has an abundance of Aboriginal education resources that are accessible to all teachers in the
district. Participant 8 shared how she connected to the different departments within the Prince
George School District # 57. With access to the District Resource Centre and the Aboriginal
Education Department for resources that enabled her to be a more successful teacher. It was
profound to hear her mention the lack of understanding some teachers, including herself, have in
terms of how to connect with Elders respectfully and understand that there might be underlying
difficulty because the Elders may have attended Residential Schools. She supported this thought
with; “It’s something that’s going to take a lot of time to unravel and it might not be even
possible, but the only way to do it is going to be to make meaningful connections to the wider
community”. From my own experience of working in School District #91, I realized once
teachers have made connections to community and to students, teaching will take on more
meaning for them and their understanding toward the students, and their cultural identity can
come full circle for both them and the students.
Connection to community and knowing what is important for all students, especially for
Aboriginal students, to improve overall student success, is imperative to meet learner needs. I
talked about family and connection in Chapter Two through my painting and how important it is
for all of those pieces of detail to come together to represent culture; and identity. The crows in
my painting represent those connections to community and how children learn their traditional
culture.
4.4 Curriculum
The final emerging theme coming from the participant interviews is curriculum. What
does curriculum mean in terms of Aboriginal students and Aboriginal content within the
classroom? Under the newly revised BC curriculum, one of the ‘Core Competencies’ is

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‘communication’, which is relevant to this study because the participants felt that
communication was a key component.
Both the literature and the participants speak about curriculum related to this study and
the importance of the newly revised BC curriculum. As stated in Integrating Aboriginal
Perspectives Into Curricula: A Resource for Curriculum Developers, Teachers, and
Administrators (2003, 2016):
Students are more likely to be interested in learning material if they find it relevant
to their lives. Therefore, it is crucial for connections to be made between curricular
topics and the real world, particularly the world in which the students find
themselves. (p.1)
Many of the interview participants provided comments on how Aboriginal curriculum
and content in the classrooms could affect teaching. Some commented on how it was a missing
piece for them in the Education program at UNBC. The research participants discussed how the
new B.C curriculum expectation concerning changes as to how Aboriginal content will be taught
may add more stress to an already hesitant teacher to include it in their classroom. The research
participants also mentioned how important it is to have the right kind of content embedded in the
curriculum. The participants also expressed that many teachers may not realize the difference
between Aboriginal cultures in different geographical areas and that overall they may not see
how including Aboriginal content could improve the Aboriginal student success rate. The BC
Ministry of Education (2016) revised the curriculum with the expectation that teachers will be
more inclusive of Aboriginal content within their lessons. The newly revised BC curriculum
(2016) is based on a model where all areas of learning are based on the concepts of “Know-DoUnderstanding”. The three elements are; the content (Know), the curricular Competencies (Do),
and the Big Ideas (Understand) which all support each other to a deeper understanding. This
particular model can be seen in Appendix 1. The newly revised curriculum is important for

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Aboriginal people and their future. Teachers are expected to better understand and teach
Aboriginal students and content within their classrooms. The following is an excerpt from the
BC government web page informing how the new curriculum (B.C Ministry of Education, 2016)
will include Aboriginal content:
Many years ago, classroom resources had few references to Aboriginal people or,
if they did, it was often superficial or incorrect. As curriculum processes evolved,
resources began to include some information about Aboriginal people but not
how Aboriginal perspectives and understandings help us learn about the world
and how they have contributed to a stronger society. Now, with the education
transformation, the province is attempting to embed Aboriginal perspectives into
all parts of the curriculum in a meaningful and authentic manner. (p.1)
It is extremely important for Aboriginal children to have the opportunity to learn who
they are and where they come from as an inclusive component of their cultural identity. Gardner
(1986) stated, “Unless a child learns about the forces which shape him, the history of his people,
their values and customs, their language, he will never really know himself or his potential as a
human-being.” He also noted that inclusive curriculum allows Aboriginal children to have a
better self- image and contribute to a more positive educational experience (pg.23). We must
continue to explore new ideas like we see in the revised curriculum and we will eventually get it
right for Aboriginal learners.
Verna Kirkness (2013) identifies the need for an overhaul in the education system that
comes from an old colonial phrase that identifies that the three R’s of reading, ‘riting’, and
‘rithmetic’ must be mastered in order to succeed. According to Kirkness, The Children of the
Earth School in Winnipeg changed these terms to rediscovering (research), respect, and
recovering (culture). The Participants have voiced a similar sentiment in terms of culture being
important for students. Kirkness also believes that the sharing of knowledge is the key to success
if we are to make any kind of educational change for First Nations students. This aligns with the
participants’ voices that indicated an importance be placed on communication. She stated, “We
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have heard, read and even said many times over the last twenty-five years that quality education
for our people must be based on our culture and on our history, yet we continue to base
education on white, urban culture and history” (p.21). Much like what the participants shared, in
regards to the importance of culture and informing students of the Residential School history in
today’s classroom.
Calvin Desmerais, the Aboriginal District Principal for School District # 91 provided his
perspective regarding the content of curriculum within his school district and how important the
content is for all of the students; “I think the new curriculum is timely because our district has
provided a mandate that all teachers need to incorporate Aboriginal content, preferably local,
into all areas of teaching.” Calvin mentioned the efforts between the Aboriginal District
Principal and the Chiefs and Councils that the Aboriginal Enhancement Agreements (AEEA) got
developed. He stressed that the curriculum is a big part of the agreements and suggested teachers
need to include Aboriginal traditional culture and languages for Aboriginal student development
and success. It is Participant 4 who reminds us that when using traditional knowledge in the
classroom, teachers should not water down the content or trivialize it in any way. For Participant
4, she knows that when bridging two different types of curriculum, such as Western and
Aboriginal, teachers need to be clear as to why they are including it. Much like what Battiste
(2009) touched on when she wrote “we need to trust our allies in teaching authentically when
introducing new content into the curriculum” (p.195).
Participant 5 spoke of content as being a focus for teachers and revealed her thoughts
about knowing the history of Residential Schools and what that would it mean for future
Aboriginal children and the impact on both teachers and students. She stressed the importance of
creating curriculum through an ‘Aboriginal lens” in order to help correct the educational gap.

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Taylor (1995) identified some of the difficulties teachers can have. First, Native content is
usually foreign to the non-Native teacher so they must locate and familiarize themselves with the
material. Secondly, teachers must decide on an appropriate, effective presentation of content, but
a non-Native teacher may not know what is appropriate and what is not. I think many teachers
will face the dilemma of limited resources, people and material, when it comes to making these
decisions. When I was a Teacher Assistant, now called Education Assistant, I witnessed many
seasoned teachers having difficulty changing what or how they taught. I think it is human nature
to resist change or admit that what, or how you are teaching, could be improved, but that is
exactly what this newly revised B.C curriculum is expecting. The curriculum is attempting to
fix something that we know has not been working to date in order to increase Aboriginal student
success and close the achievement gap between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students.
Participant 5 acknowledged her frustration with the new curriculum. She expressed that there is
a lack of resources and access to resources in order for her to do her job successfully in this
statement “the critical piece with curriculum is that First Nations education is woven through
everything, to me would be the biggest criticism of the classroom is lack of community
connection.” This frustration she feels relates back to the lack of communication and
connections in her school community that act as a barrier for her to realize that there are
resources and secondly, be informed as to whom she can connect with to access these resources.
Participant 6 reflected on how the new curriculum will address Aboriginal education in a
different way from how it was approached in the past. She stated the curriculum no longer is
focused only in one grade, but woven through all areas of education. She reminded me that
changing the curriculum does not change the teacher and that some teachers may choose not to
include Aboriginal content in meaningful ways. She also suggested that some teachers might not

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know how to seamlessly blend and embed the content into teaching and curriculum. For her, a
lack of meaningful change may affect how children see themselves, “one thing that I’ve noticed
from the First Nations children I’ve encountered through the school system so far, is that
generally there is a feeling of disenfranchisement because they are seen as outside the system in
some way.”
Some would agree that the disenfranchisement of Aboriginal people in the past has
contributed to the low socio-economic levels that they face. From experience, these levels can
vary within each school and play a big role in how students and teachers alike react or interact. I
have been in schools where children from lower income homes are treated differently than their
friends because of the clothes they wear or the type of food they bring. Mistreatment of students
can occur through ideas and stereotypes taught through hidden curriculum; which is when a
student learns outside of the structured classroom (Ghosh, 2010). Hidden curriculum happens in
the hallways and in the school yard, and that knowledge is transferred back and forth amongst
students without the structure of classroom lessons. Some hidden curriculum can include social
norms, racism, and beliefs, which for the most part are unintentional. The hidden curriculum is
not always negative. Participant 6 discussed the hidden curriculum as something the students
learn that help them when they are in a structured classroom, sometimes without even knowing
it. For example, students learn about historical events, such as Residential Schools, from their
peers.
Some students have to contend with the emotional negative impact from historical
situations such as Residential Schools, and sometimes their present socio economic reality is
impacted by that. Through my experience and conversations while teaching, there have been
some teachers who feel that Aboriginal children already come with a lot of social and emotional

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baggage and introducing possible negative Aboriginal content, such as Residential Schools, may
add to the baggage. Friesen and Friesen (2002) would argue against this notion by informing
readers that the primary objective for local curriculum development is to provide a means by
which Aboriginal students can learn about their historical backgrounds within a school context.
These authors believe students can gain a more positive self-image that will give students
confidence leading to improved learning. They also note that learning about the historical events
may serve to increase awareness and foster a positive attitude toward their cultural affiliation.
Participant 7 looks at the new curriculum in terms of using students’ knowledge. She provided
me with an example of how to make students feel important: “I was teaching in a non-academic
program so I would have to pull from what the kids already knew and their prior
knowledge….which was more important than what the textbook had to say.”
4.5 Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreement and Community Support
There were some prevalent topics the Participants discussed that I felt were important to
include within this study. The topics included the Native Indian Teacher Education Program
(NITEP), the First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC) and important documents
such as the Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreements (AEEA) that have helped improve
or enhance Aboriginal education. The First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC)
was the main group identified I think because they play a major role in guiding Aboriginal
education. FNESC recently answered the need for providing relevant curriculum to schools that
will help enable them to include residential school history to school age children appropriately,
in the form of binders for teachers for certain grades (Retrieved: http://www.fnesc.ca/irsr/).The
Native Indian Teacher Education Program, (NITEP) was also identified because of the important
role that Native Indian teacher education programs offer to Aboriginal education. I also think

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that NITEP and other programs similar in nature can help guide non-Aboriginal teaching
programs in terms of what resources can be used and what is important for non-Aboriginal
teacher candidates to learn in order to be better teachers in terms of Aboriginal educational
expectations.
The final topics that came out of the interviews and literature were agreements made
between the provincial government, school districts and local First Nation’s communities called
Aboriginal Education Enhancement Agreements (AEA). I am familiar with these agreements;
they have been in place and part of the government curriculum agenda for as long as I can
remember. From my understanding, the problem with the agreements is there is little
communication with schools that explains or makes it explicitly clear, that schools have an
agreement in place. I learned that the agreements are known amongst the Aboriginal District
Principals but not amongst the teachers. I think the reason for this is because it is a part of the
Principals mandate and not so much for the teachers. These agreements could be more effective
if they were an actual working document that was addressed more often and school personnel
were informed about them and worked on their implementation together with the Aboriginal
District Principals. Otherwise you have a document that represents something, but does not serve
the original purpose it was intended for.
All of these findings can play a big role in how we as teachers are informed and how we
successfully teach children in our classrooms. We see those that are tasked with overseeing
departments such as Aboriginal education, and are challenged with providing proper education
to a large body of teachers that influence how a child is taught and left to ask themselves, did I
do enough? Have I provided enough? What can I do more? When all is said and done the main
concept taken from this research is, are we doing enough? I think the answer is, no, we are not

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doing enough. All of the Participants that were involved in this research identified the same
message, that we need to enhance and improve what is already out there and we need to provide
better guidance and ways to teach Aboriginal content in the classroom. The Truth and
Reconciliation Commission identified within their 94 recommendations that education needs to
be a priority and how it is delivered, needs to be an important task (Government of Canada,
2016).
Calvin discussed the local First Nations Education Committee (FNEC) and how this
connects to the provincial First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC) by working
together on the Aboriginal Enhancement Agreement (AEEA) within his district. This connection
helped decide where to allocate funding that could be integral to professional development for
teachers or staff in the area of Aboriginal education. Professional development for staff and
teachers happens a few times in the regular scheduled school year. These sessions are usually set
up by the Districts and teachers are expected to participate. It is a chance for teachers to come
together and share and learn new curriculum, ideas and or lessons with other teachers.
Sometimes, according to Calvin, the FNESC group will recommend new teachers being sent to
their yearly meetings to learn about what they do and get clarity and advice. I asked Calvin: Do
teachers know about the district’s FNEC and what you do as a group? His answer was, “No, I
wouldn't say they do, we make those connections but broadly speaking I don't think they have an
idea”.
Each B.C school district is tasked with signing an Aboriginal Enhancement Agreement
(British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2017), Calvin goes into detail what that means for his
district:
An Aboriginal Enhancement Agreement was an initiative of several years ago, it
came out of the Provincial Government. The Provincial Government wanted us to
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work with the local First Nations to get together to craft a five-year plan to guide
Aboriginal education in the district and specific goals are set out and objectives and
measurements are all reported on.
Having gone through the UNBC Education program, I did not feel there was a lot of
emphasis on these agreements. I only knew about them from my past experience within School
District #91 and shared this knowledge with my education program cohort. I think this is
important information that teachers in-training and teaching in the schools, would benefit from
knowing, because it leads to relationship building with communities. Calvin was aware of the
Enhancement Agreements and achievement contracts as being documents that could be
important for new teachers to be aware of in this statement:
At our FNEC meetings for the first few years, I would bring up the
Enhancement Agreement. I think the trick is, how do you make them into a
living document that is in the forefront for teachers' and principals minds
throughout the year?
Calvin felt it is important that schools really look at their agreements, not only with
communities, but with future teachers. He spoke of living documents such as a policy, an
agreement, or a working contract should be reviewed on a regular basis; especially with
Enhancement Agreements. Calvin responded to my question pertaining to achievement contracts
as something that future teachers should be informed of in teaching programs:
I think it's a great idea because it's a mandated from the provincial
government that we have to do one. It's a major document that takes a lot of
time to do and it's thoughtfully done.
When it came to discussing education programs, Victor was very knowledgeable on one
particular program, the Native Indian Teacher Education Program, for which he graduated with
his teaching degree from. The NITEP program has been successful in terms of making
Aboriginal people feel comfortable leaving their homes and communities to go and get an
education; it is culturally based, which also contributes to higher success of its Participants. In
terms of other teacher training programs, he said: “I think other education programs should do
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the same. Well the Native Indian Teacher Education Program (NITEP) makes you proud of
being Aboriginal; it's no different than any other teaching program”. Victor also stressed why it
is important that schools and districts make it their goal to hire more administrators and teachers
who are Aboriginal.
In conclusion, there were four main themes that came out of interviews with both
Aboriginal District Principals and former UNBC education program teachers. The four themes
were prevalent in their answers to my questions, when I asked about being an adequate teacher
many spoke about communication as being a key component to teaching, and when I asked
about skills, it was having connections that were important to obtaining those skills. There were
three topics that were also mentioned throughout the interviews that helped shape the suggested
recommendations at the end of this research. These topics were characterized as influential
within education; both District Principals and teachers identified them as helpful in their quest
for resources and guidance to better teach Aboriginal students. These topics were; the (FNESC)
First Nations Education Steering Committees, the Aboriginal teaching program NITEP, and the
Aboriginal Educational Enhancement Agreements (AEEA).
4.5 Chapter Summary
The chapter covered the key findings of this research that revealed some insightful aspects
to consider for educators going into the field of teaching. After reviewing the literature and
performing a data analysis of the participant interviews it is evident the areas to be addressed and
considered for Aboriginal educational success through four emerging themes as: identity,
communication and connection for implementing and embedding Aboriginal content and
cultural aspects into practice in our classrooms through the newly revised BC curriculum. The
insight and knowledge that each participant shared was very relevant regarding Aboriginal

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education and improving the success rates of Aboriginal students through meeting their needs.
The four emerging themes identified through the data analysis are critical for Aboriginal
student success leading to the design of the recommendations listed in Chapter Five. All
education stakeholders within a school community would benefit from the knowledge gained
throughout this research study. There is an organization that can help guide teachers, the First
Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC). Our teacher education programs in general
can also learn from the success of Aboriginal teacher programs, such as the Native Indian
Teacher Education Program (NITEP). My hope is that this study will help guide teachers to be
able to teach Aboriginal content, Aboriginal students and Aboriginal culture within their
classrooms more confidently and successfully.

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Chapter Five: Conclusion
This research provided an understanding of what British Columbia (BC) K-12 teachers
required to successfully teach First Nations students, First Nations content and First Nations
culture. This particular research thesis was written with an Indigenous approach to a qualitative
method from which I was able to gather data from Northern British Columbia teachers and
Aboriginal School District Principals.
This study identified dominant themes pulled from interviews with both Aboriginal
District Principals and teachers that received their teaching degree from the University of
Northern British Columbia that are currently teaching within public education. The four themes
identified in the interviews are; identity, communication, connections and curriculum. There are
Aboriginal groups that influence education and help support it, such as the First Nations
Education Steering Committee (FNESC) and Aboriginal teaching programs such as NITEP.
There are also the Aboriginal Enhancement Agreements created between school districts and the
local Aboriginal communities within those districts that help guide education.
I was given a document that includes the stories and history of my home community of
Stellat’en First Nations. The document contained quotes and stories from my own family
members who talk about ‘place’ and identity. I see the relationship my family had with the land
and its people and how community was so important in the past. My great grandfather, Chief
Louie, was a great and powerful man, but I know so little of him and his legacy as:
There’s a lake named after my grandfather, Chief Louie Lake. Yup, was a
lake named after my grandfather and there’s a mountain back here named
after my grandfather, Mount Chief Louie. I can remember the story behind
Mount Chief Louie. They were saying that he was the only one able to
climb that mountain because I guess it was so steep. And my grandfather
climbed it and ever since then it was known as Mount Chief Louie. As told
by my uncle: Andrew Casimel (Mitchell 2014, p.5).

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Residential Schools, loss of cultural identity, language and community are all factors in
this loss of knowledge being passed down to First Nations people. I know this loss is also the
reason that so many other students suffer the same disconnect with their own families, culture
and language. My Elders knew how important it was to pass on the knowledge to children and
how doing so would keep our culture and ways of knowing alive and help guide future
generations “When old people tell stories, it’s night time, at night they tell stories. They tell
stories to the little children... got to teach them, just like school, they tell stories. Campfire Site
Stories, they call it - maybe to instruct them [about the] way to live. As told by Andrew Casimel
(Mitchell 2014).
5.1 Summary of Key Findings
Throughout this research many themes were identified within the literature and the
interviews conducted. This research includes literature about Aboriginal education, and many of
the authors identified Aboriginal education as ‘in trouble’ and in need of improvement and that
Western education and its influence on Aboriginal education has not helped, but rather hindered
it. There are many factors to helping a child to succeed in school and one way is helping them
feel like they belong, which is one of the themes that came out in this research. ‘Connections’
are a major theme that just about everyone interviewed made reference to.
Connections can be identified in many ways but throughout this research, connections
are identified by the teachers as having a connection to the people who will help them become
better teachers, by filling in the gap of culture that they need to help Aboriginal students in their
schools. It was also discussed that connections come in the form of connecting the students back
to their land and culture through curriculum, which will help with cultural identity. The big
question remains: How do we do that? One of the interviewees discussed the need to have

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connections to Elders, so they in turn can provide their students with that connection. When
connecting non-Aboriginal teachers with Elders and knowledge holders, you also need to teach
the non-Aboriginal teachers how those connections are made, re-enforced, and respected with
the people within the communities.
5.2 Recommendations
This research looked at teacher candidates within the University of Northern British
Columbia (UNBC) School of Education program and asked keys questions about their
experience as teachers now within the schools and how the program contributed to their learning
about Aboriginal students and Aboriginal content. The purpose of interviewing Aboriginal
District Principals was to look at what British Columbia schools are looking for in terms of their
new teachers coming into the field to teach First Nation students, Aboriginal content and
Aboriginal culture. Many of Northern British Columbia’s schools are made up a large
percentage of First Nation students and statistics show that these First Nation students are not
succeeding and graduating at the same rate as their non-Native counterparts. Many Aboriginal
children have been undereducated and underfunded within the school systems both on and off
reserve. Many students no longer live on the reserves. They are urbanized and their family and
community supports have significantly changed. The significance of this study is to bring the
importance of Aboriginal education to the forefront of teacher’s minds so they can become an
informed, reliable teacher in the area of First Nations education.
Some of the recommendations that came out of this research fall within key areas;
identity, communication, connections, and curriculum were identified as themes within the
literature and interviews. The First Nations Education Steering Committee (FNESC) plays a big
role within Aboriginal education and teachers need to be aware of this resource in order for it to

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be influential within education. It can be beneficial to educate everyone on the history and
culture of Aboriginal people to help eliminate the stereotypes, and the unfair treatment of many
Aboriginal students. Having teachers educated about who and what FNESC is, can be helpful to
making one of the connections needed for teachers to improve their curriculum and support for
Aboriginal students.
The Aboriginal Enhancement Agreements (AEEA) established a collaborative
partnership between Aboriginal communities and school districts that involves shared decisionmaking and specific goal setting to meet the educational needs of Aboriginal students. It is
within these agreements that teachers can start to make a difference, not only getting to know
what your schools’ agreement is, but being a part of the process of making sure the agreements
are used and are living documents. This will also address the part of the connection piece that
can connect teachers to communities and local First Nations communities.
Another recommendation that this research identifies is connections. All of the
interviewees identified some form of connection that would not only help them in their fields but
would help the students that they serve and teach. When we look at the word ‘connection’, we
can see many areas that it covers. Aboriginal people have forever been connected to the land,
their people, their language, their culture and amongst themselves. It is only within the last few
decades that we have come to acknowledge the influence that Residential Schools and
colonialism has had, disconnecting First Nations people from all that is important and supports
cultural identity. Students need to feel like they belong and are connected to ‘place’ and ‘people’
in order for them to have confidence in who they are and where they will end up in life. History
has played a big role in how Aboriginal people view themselves and how they are connected to

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the bigger world around them, one that is dominated by Western thought and education.
Valaskakis (2000) writes about this history in stating:
Since the earliest days of non-Native contact, the stories of Aboriginal peoples
have been constructed and disseminated by outsiders, for outsiders. These stories
are told in cultural narratives embedded in ethnographic studies, paintings and
photographs, movies, novels and newspapers, and in radio and television
programming that often distort the cultural and political reality of Native culture,
heritage and contemporary life through the silence of appropriation of Aboriginal
voices. (Valaskakis, 2000, p. 78)
Teachers can make connections to culture and identity for the children in their schools by
showing and including Aboriginal people within their curriculum, their teaching displays and
within the school in general. By including these key pieces, you are showing your students that
they belong, that they have an identity and that you respect and foster inclusion. When students
see this, it becomes normalized for them and both First Nations and non-First Nation’s students
are educated. Connection also means to connect to the community. By doing so you also show
that you are welcoming of other cultures, of other ways of life and that you want Aboriginal
students to feel included in your classroom. By including community, such as Elders, aunts and
uncles, you give students the power to own their identity and be proud of it. Western education
has always brought into the classrooms and schools community members, such as police
officers, mayors, to name a few. By doing the same but with a sense of culture and inclusion,
you include First Nations people who have been forgotten in the past as important connections
for the Aboriginal students. The education program could be enhanced by providing connections
to resources such as provisions made by FNESC in response to the Truth and Reconciliation
recommendations. FNESC provides resources that covers Indian Residential School curriculum,
in the form of four texts. The first is “Indian Residential Schools & Reconciliation Teacher
Resource Guide Gr.5”, Indian Residential Schools & Reconciliation Teacher Resource Guide
Gr.10”, Indian Residential Schools & Reconciliation Teacher Resource Guide Gr.11/12”, and
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the Indian Residential Schools & Reconciliation; About the Project”. It is important to remember
that any resources provided by FNESC or any other organizations, are intended and
recommended to use with all students of all backgrounds, and not just Aboriginal students. New
teachers would benefit from having the knowledge of culturally relevant pedagogy and skills in
order to differentiate for learners with varied backgrounds, strengths and needs.
As far as connections within the UNBC education program, it is recommended that
teacher candidates are given the tools necessary to connect to communities, parents and Elders in
order to support and create holistic education in their classrooms. Having the tools to be able to
properly connect to these important people is imperative to successful delivery that facilitates
inclusion and connections. There is protocol and ways of inviting people into the classroom,
inviting an Elder may take a different approach. Communities can inform you that there is
protocol in how an Elder is invited, a gift should be presented at the end of their visit out of
respect and that gift can be in the form of tobacco or even a card from the students as long as it’s
in acknowledgment of the Elder sharing their knowledge. Teacher candidates would benefit
from learning these protocols. By connecting and staying connected to community teachers can
identify Elders and other knowledge holders that can come into their schools when they have
their own classrooms. Being able to make these connections takes time, having patience is key to
working and supporting community in the education of Aboriginal children. Battiste (2013) is
clearly passionate about Aboriginal education and tells how to incorporate it into education
authentically and respectfully:
…educators need to make conscious decisions to nurture indigenous knowledge,
dignity, identity, and integrity by making a direct change in school philosophy,
pedagogy, and practice. They need to develop missions and purposes that carve
out time and space to connect with the wisdom and traditions of Indigenous
knowledge. They need to teach holistic and humanistic connections to local and
collective relationships. They need to generate educational space that allows them
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to be challenging, caring, inspiring and alert to their students’ intellectual travails
and attuned toothier inner conditions. They need to make educational
opportunities for students to come together in community with people who bring
out their holistic better selves. Only when these changes in thought and behavior
are made can we create an educational system that is a place of connectedness
and caring, a place that honours the heritage, knowledge, and spirit of every First
Nations student. (pp.66-67)
I would also like to include a recommendation for teachers and educators of Aboriginal
children that is important to me and that is to keep an open mind and open heart. Children can be
sponges of both positive and negative teachings and attitudes, and if we truly want to make a
difference in all students’ lives, we need to do so because we want to, not because we have to. I
leave you with an excerpt from my community’s stories; it is about leaving our children with the
right knowledge and sharing our ways, and how important it is to do so. It is this message that is
apparent throughout Aboriginal communities in that they all have the same ideas and wants for
their children, to be able to pass down the knowledge of our ancestors, of our culture and
language so as to leave our children with a sense of identity and sense of belonging:
Through the practice of an oral tradition and hands-on teaching, Elders passed on
their knowledge and experiences of living off the land to the younger generations.
This practice of passing on knowledge about the land and its resources is one that
has continued for many generations (Mitchel, 2014 p.61).
I guess I’m the product of my past. In order to be a good functioning human
being, you must always speak the truth. Language is used to speak the truth. If
you change that in anyway, you’re using it for wrong. The whole notion of good,
bad, wrong, right, my frame of reference comes from that time, not necessarily
schools or [formal] education, it came from them, the people that had a great
influence on me. If I have any strength in this world, it came from them (Archie
Patrick , Community Chief). (Mitchell, 2014, p.62)
During the interviews, when asked if they would like to recommend anything for the
UNBC education program, this was some of the answers from teachers and Aboriginal District
Principals whom participated in this research. I would like to include their words because it is

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their wisdom that helped guide and enhance my research. They shared their knowledge; it is with
respect that I acknowledge their words.
Victor shared the importance of educating the educators in stating:
The more that the administrators and teachers know about our culture, our very
rich culture and our history, they would then have a better understanding. They
would be more empathetic, more loving, and more caring toward our Aboriginal
students.
It has taken many years, but I think school administrators are finally getting the message, that
they need to get to know their students, relationship building is important to First Nations
people. For Victor, it can be as simple as loving and caring for Aboriginal students, because for
him, it comes down to nurturing the student.
Participant 4 shared recommendations she feels would be beneficial to the UNBC
Education Program - working with the local Lheidli T’enneh people. From her experience, she
knows they would appreciate being involved in education that is happening on their land.
Participant 7 recommended that future teachers should take more First Nations courses
before entering into any teaching program, and learning about the territory that you are in is also
very important. She also spoke about her experience in the program and how it helped her
become a good teacher and she hopes teacher candidates today are able to have the same positive
experience.
Participant 5 was passionate about the message teachers need to receive while in the
UNBC Education Program. For her, the simple message is that as a teacher you will get different
learners and not all Aboriginal students will come knowing their culture. For her this was an
important message to tell.

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Participant 6 talked about how important it is not to be afraid to make mistakes and to learn
from mistakes. I have heard this same message that is taught to students, so it is important to
follow our own advice.
Participant 8 knew that the important lesson for future teachers was to have a sensitivity to
what happened culturally in the past for First Nations people, the Residential Schools, the 60’s
scoop and to be comfortable in asking those that do know the history for help, such as Elders.
Participant 9 remarked about how, when she was attending the education program it
would have been helpful to have more practicums with Aboriginal students in the classroom. For
her, this would have been beneficial to all the future teachers; getting to know First Nations
children in a classroom setting.
5.3 Specific Classroom Practices
The following provides suggestions that teachers of any classroom, both within the k-12
school system or teaching programs, can implement into classrooms based on examples from
what other teachers are already doing. These suggestions are just examples and the reader needs
to take into account that there are endless possibilities that they can take and routes that will lead
to successful teaching. Recommendations have already been suggested within this study but
teachers also need to consider what the local First Nations communities hope for and suggest as
examples of what they want their children learning within the school system.
The talking circle can be a powerful tool for teachers to be able to connect with
students. A talking circle can bring students and teachers together in a way that helps solidify
cultural identity and be a part of everyday curriculum. Every community and culture that
practice talking circles all has their own way of doing them. It is respectful for teachers to look

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to the local Elders and community members for direction on how to properly include talking
circles in their classrooms.
Another example of a teaching tool could be the talking stick. The talking stick can be
any item of importance to the teacher or students. It can be a special rock, an actual stick or a
feather. The idea behind implementing a talking stick allows everyone in the classroom to have a
voice. The rule is that whoever has the talking stick is the only person who gets to speak, and
everyone else needs to respect that and listen to the speaker. The talking stick can be used within
a talking circle and each speaker takes their turn and then passes the item to the next person. The
implementation of the talking stick helps students become listeners, to be patient, to allow
students to have voice and also feel respected when they have their turn to speak.
Teachers can teach collaboratively with other subject areas to integrate First Nations
content. This allows teachers to communicate and connect with each other for these lessons.
Different departments can come together to teach children within the different subjects areas.
For example a cooking class can work together with the math class to follow traditional recipes.
Or a teacher can use a moose as an example, deciding how heavy is the moose, how many
families would one moose feed? How many different ways can students use each part of the
moose, such as drum making and moose hide for clothing? The cooking class can use
measurements for cooking moose meat thus integrating math. There are so many different
possibilities that classroom teachers can partner with each other to bring in First Nations content.
I am including some suggestions taken from a resource provided to educators in (2006).
This book Shared Learnings: Integrating BC Aboriginal Content K-10 was first introduced to
me when I was the Aboriginal education worker within School District 91.

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It is a guide for teachers, developed in recognition of the need for classroom material
that can help all teachers provide students with knowledge of, and opportunities to share
experiences with, BC Aboriginal peoples. (p. 4)
If teachers and educators are not familiar with this book, it can be a good starting
point on how to integrate Aboriginal content and pedagogy into their classrooms. It includes
how to plan your program and a brief history as well as current introductions to Aboriginal
peoples. The book is broken up into instructional strategies for grades k-3, 4-7 and then grades
8-10, covering many, if not all of the subject areas, such as Math, Social Studies and even
Physical Education. Each instructional strategy includes the subject areas for which the lesson
will be covering, the shared learnings that cover where this is relevant in an Aboriginal person’s
life or culture, and different ways in which the teacher can integrate this concept into their
lesson. Finally, each lesson also includes a list of resources that were created through
partnerships between the schools districts and Aboriginal communities. An interesting piece to
this book is the inclusion of a “did you know?” section for individual lessons. These are little
facts about the subject area and include examples such as famous Aboriginal people and pieces
of history about Aboriginal people within this subject area. The lessons also includes a “teaching
tip” that could be important for the teacher to know when using or integrating this content into
their classroom, for example; “Represent Aboriginal people as appropriate role models with
whom children can identify” (p. 24). All of the resources and information sharing found within
this book are good examples of what teachers can use within their classrooms to help them
integrate Aboriginal content and culture into their daily lessons and programs.
These are just a few examples of how teachers can integrate First Nations content
into their classroom. It is important for teachers to gain basic understanding of the local territory
and the local culture(s). That can really contribute to how effectively and respectfully a teacher
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includes First Nations culture(s) into their teaching practices. Again, Elders and other knowledge
holders are the best source of information into the proper ways to be able to teach children the
culture. When teachers connect to community and Elders they will find there are endless
possibilities for inclusive curriculum implementation.
5.4 Words of Wisdom
Marie Battiste (2013) has been integral to this study; I leave you with some of her
powerful insight into Aboriginal education;
White teachers in schools disparage Aboriginal parents in ways that continue to
assume that these parents have created their own situations of poverty by their
lack of effort, and their alienation and resignation are a result of laziness and
other social disorders. In other words, they were the creators of their situation.
Their student’s resistance to school was their parents fault or the fault of their
language or culture. (p. 125)
It is important for educators not to forget the power of their assumptions and lack of
knowledge that can potentially hinder education. I hope that this research helps bring some
clarity for teachers to better understand Aboriginal students and to be able to confidently bring
appropriate Aboriginal content into their classrooms. The interviews with Aboriginal District
Principals and former graduated students of the UNBC education program were very helpful in
sharing their stories within this research and helping bring more information to this subject. In
light of the recently released Truth and Reconciliation Commission Recommendations,
Education will be instrumental in assisting in the implementation of the recommendations put
forth. Aboriginal children and all children deserve to have the best education possible. The best
education can be achieved when educators, community, Elders, and students all work together to
achieve that goal, being respectful, authentic and honest. It is through connections, identity,
communication and curriculum where we need to focus. I believe we are all unique individuals
with a story to tell and it is within these stories that we can see identity, reach each other through
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communicating and create those very important connections in a holistic way; the way
Indigenous people have been doing since time immemorial.

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Appendices
Appendix 1

Content (Know)
The Content learning standards — the “Know” of the Know-Do-Understand model of learning
— detail the essential topics and knowledge at each grade level.
Curricular Competencies (Do)
The Curricular Competencies are the skills, strategies, and processes that students develop over
time. They reflect the “Do” in the Know-Do-Understand model of learning. While Curricular
Competencies are more subject-specific, they are connected to the Core Competencies.
Big Ideas (Understand)
The Big Ideas consist of generalizations and principles and the key concepts important in an area
of learning. They reflect the “Understand” component of the Know-Do-Understand model of
learning.
The big ideas represent what students will understand at the completion of the curriculum for
their grade. They are intended to endure beyond a single grade and contribute to future
understanding

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Appendix 2

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Appendix 3

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Appendix 4: Definitions
Aboriginal- Is of the human race, animals, and plants. Inhabiting or existing in a land from the
earliest times or form before the arrival of the colonists; indigenous. (Google Search 2016)
Band- A body of Indians for whose collective use and benefit lands have been set apart or
money is held by the Crown, or declared to be a band for the purposes of the Indian Act. Each
band has its own governing band council, usually consisting of one chief and several councilors.
Community members choose the chief and councilors by election, or sometimes through custom.
The members of a band generally share common values, traditions and practices rooted in their
ancestral heritage. Today, many bands prefer to be known as First Nations. (Government of
Canada. 2012)
Cultural Responsiveness- The ability to learn from and relate respectfully with people of your
own culture as well as people from other cultures (Ontario Schools. 2013)
Cultural safety- Cultural safety was developed as a concept in nursing practice in New Zealand
with respect to health care for Maori people. The term refers to the quality of care given to
people from different ethnicities and cultures to within the scope of the cultural values and
norms of the patient. (Wepa, 2004; Williams, 1999).
Dakelh- People who travel upon water. (Carrier Sekani Tribal Council 2011).
Dakelh Keyoh- Our vast homeland of thousands of lakes and rivers spanning central British
Columbia. (Carrier Sekani Tribal Council 2011).
Dogwood Certificate- Granted by the Ministry of education to students who meet the

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British Columbia secondary school graduation requirements. (British Columbia Ministry of
Education 2016).
First Nations- A term that came into common usage in the 1970s to replace the word "Indian,"
which some people found offensive. Although the term First Nation is widely used, no legal
definition of it exists. Among its uses, the term "First Nations peoples" refers to the Indian
peoples in Canada, both Status and non-Status. Some Indian peoples have also adopted the term
"First Nation" to replace the word "band" in the name of their community. (Government of
Canada. 2012)
Indian Act- This is a Canadian federal law that governs in matters pertaining to Indian status,
bands, and Indian reserves. It authorizes the Canadian federal government to regulate and
administer in the affairs and day-today lives of registered Indians and reserve communities.
Indigenous- Is a collective name for the original peoples of North America and their
descendants (Government of Canada. 2012)
In-service teachers- Teachers who are currently teaching within the BC education system.
Pre-Service teachers- Teachers who are teacher candidates within a teaching program, not yet
practicing.
Potlatch- Also known as ‘Bahlats’ to the Carrier people. Indigenous people use this as a form of
governance and to mark special life events. Witnesses are paid in the form of food and gifts to
witness business at hand, such as births, deaths, name giving…etc. The word came from the
chinook, meaning “to give” (Story of the Mask. 2003).

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Reserve- Is a tract of land set aside under the Indian Act for the exclusive use of the Indian Band
and its members. (Indigenous foundations. UBC. 2009)
Stellat’en-. The people of the cape. Located West of Fraser Lake, BC. (Carrier Sekani Tribal
Council 2011).

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