ADOLESCENT GIRLS' EXPERIENCE OF PARENTAL SUPPORT
WITHIN THEIR EXPERIENCE OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

By
Cheryl Brown
B.N., University of Manitoba, 1970

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
In
COMMUNITY HEALTH SCIENCE

© Cheryl Brown, 2002
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
April 2002

All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without the permission of the author.

HI

N#Uon#l Library
0*Canada

BMiolhèque nationale
du Canada

AcqubNlona and
Bibliographic Services

Acquisitions at
services b&WograpNquaa
395. n« WeStngton

3* W#ang«onSe#a
OamwaON K1A0N4
Csnedm

oam## ON K1A 0N4

Cmnma#

VAf# v ^ nmwm

Tnbe#uidiDrIu&s {panted anouh
(BodhnH%c%k*a*BeidkMviqglhe
]NbàâmnalIj&Nnuycf()un*dalD
repfodh*«%&D@a.(HgndbuüBcriMdl

If'miBBmra aoccandétme IwaacKxsiMon
iBxxdbouitMBpefmemmf à ü
BÆW&ühèqoen*dondedb(%ma&kde
:qpKdbm%ipdke%(üanb«rco

cognes lofthigtbesiininmwaofbniL

TM qdhedka^xgM esdbceG eddsesous

INagNBTcarfdLecaüiacukifxNomuKC:.

IhfanaedkxmkfaGdMVGbLdb
m e p R k k w d o a im rp a p k ro a a rfa m ü ü

ëecüooiqqe.

The a u A o r retains iDtviwandhipicxfllie
copyng& Êin<kb^hen& ]W ddM rthe
th am in o rg n h d m n A d ea& ad sfm m m ü
in q y b ep K n Ë ed o fo d M T w û e
inqpa%)dh»(NedliMrhd&CMit*ix;iaullN]r's
p em ussioiL

I,'a«!&B*:r4BCB::Mar%i:]b&]prcTMnd%6(hi
(iM*k(raB*Bmrq;d;mK*SBecdled*bML

liihitb&MBintiMexbambimhsümÊkds
dec%@e<ânG<&*vaüëGc:npmn6a
OM am A anxaürcpnxhüsBnK Soa

autonsadoo.

0 - 612 - 80699-5

Canacfêt

APPROVAL
Name:

Cheryl Brown

Degree:

Master of Science

Thesis Title:

ADOLESCENT FEMALES' PERCEPTION OF PARENTAL SUPPORT
OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Examining Committee:

Chair: Dr. Deborah Pof
Vice President Academic & Provost/Acting Dean of Graduate Studies
UNBC

Supervisor: Dr. Martha MacLeod
Associate Professor, Nursing & Community Health Science Programs
UNBC

JornmMtee Member: Dr. Sherry Beaumont
Associate Professor, Psychology Program
UNBC

rommittee Member: Dr. Lorraine Lavallee
Assistant Professor, Psychology Program
UNBC

External Examiner: Dr. Janice Butcher
Associate Professor
Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation Studies
University of Manitoba

Date Approved:

ABSTRACT

Although parental support has heen identified as significant to the continuation of
girls in physical activity, it is not well understood what forms of parental support
encourage girls to participate in and adhere to physical activity. This descriptive
qualitative study examines the experiences of eleven 16-17 year old adolescent girls, in a
small northern Canadian community, who were involved in a local swim club during
adolescence. The study describes what the girls understood parental support to be within
these experiences and what they understood about its contribution to their continued
participation in physical activity. The girls stated that parental support involved helping
them to leam self-regulation skills within a framework of consistent physical and
emotional support, consistent expectations and an enduring belief in their abilities.
Although its form changed over time, support was unconditional and always there. It
enabled the girls to develop confidence and skills to remain involved in physical activity.
The thesis concludes with recommendations for coaching, public health practice, and
research.

Ill

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract

ii

Table of Contents
List of Tables
Acknowledgements

iii
vi
vii

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

1

The Health Need for Physical Activity
Statement of Problem and Purpose of Study

3
6

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review

8

Introduction
Determinants o f Participation for Female Adolescents in Sport/Physical
Activity
Opportunities and a Lack of Perceived Barriers
Perceived Competence
Self-efficacy
Self-motivation
Beliefs Concerning Benefits
Growth and Development Factors
Social Milieu
Girls’ socialization into sport.
Significant others.
Summary
Research Questions

8
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
16
16
17
24
25

CHAPTER 3: Method

26

Introduction: Qualitative Approach
Research Design
Selection and Recruitment of Participants
Interviews
Ethical Considerations
Data Analysis
Data Quality/Rigor: Limitations and Strengths

26
26
27
30
31
33
34

CHAPTER 4: The Experience of Swimming

37

Introduction
Introduction to the Cohort, Their Participation in Swimming and Their
Level of Physical Activity
Moving Through Difficult Transitions
How the Girls Perceived the Experience of Swimming

37
37
40
41

IV

Friends
Working Towards Goals
The effect of goals on the girls.
Traveling and Competitions
The impact of competition as perceived by the girls.
The Perceived Benefits
Body image.
Positive affect.
Self-confidence and self-esteem.
Perception of Competence
S elf confidence in Ability to be Physically Active
Flexible Opportunities that Matched Personal Needs
What It Takes to be Active in Swimming
Self-discipline and Persistence
Dealing With Setbacks
Understanding Limitations and Making Choices
Rationalization of Effort
Dropping out of swimming.
Anticipating Difficulties
Accepting Responsibility for Own Actions
Summary

41
44
45
46
47
50
50
51
51
52
53
54
55
55
56
57
59
60
61
62
63

CHAPTER 5: The Experience of Parental Support

65

Introduction
Parental Support
Parental Involvement in the Swim Club
Providing Physical Support
Supporting Goals and Choices
Acknowledgement of the girls’ effort towards goals.
Helping the girls develop alternative perspectives.
Respecting choices.
Providing Emotional Support
Encouraging Consistency
Having Expectations
The impact of expectations on the girls.
Shift of expectations.
Perception o f ability.
Things Parents Could Have Done Differently to Support the Girls

65
65
65
67
69
69
70
71
72
74
76
78
79
80
82

CHAPTER 6: Summary and Conclusions

86

Introduction
Factors Impacting Participation in Physical Activity for the Cohort
The Experience of Parental Support in Physical Activity
Helping With the Development of Skills to Strive Towards Goals
Consistency

86
87
90
91
91

Expectations
Belief in Their Ability
Unconditional Support
Implications for Enhancing Health Behaviors
Implications for Sport
Implications for Further Research

93
93
94
96
98
99

References

102

Appendix A: Letter of Introduction from theSwim Club

107

Appendix B: Information Sheet

108

Appendix C: Consent for Thesis Project Participation

109

Appendix D; Informed consent form

110

Appendix E: Interview Questions

111

VI

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:

The Girls and their Swimming Activity

38

vil

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgements are humbling. I have many people to thank as I
reflect back on all the support that has enabled me to reach this stage of
completion. First of all this thesis could not have been completed without the
continuing support and patience of my family, friends and colleagues. The
persistent encouragement of my husband has been beyond the call of duty and his
support unconditional, especially as the times got tough for me. The guidance
and enduring belief o f my thesis advisor Martha MacLeod enabled me to believe
in myself and my ability to complete this endeavor. Feedback and suggestions
from committee members, Loraine Lavallee and Sherry Beaumont and external
examiner Janice Butcher improved the quality of my thesis and I thank them for
their support. I also acknowledge the wisdom of the girls whom I interviewed
and the insights that they gave me. Thank you all.

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Physical activity is important for health, as sedentary behavior is a risk factor for
many diseases. Despite its acknowledged benefits, a large majority of people over their
life span engage in less physical activity than necessary for health. Furthermore,
women/girls have a lower rate of participation in physical activities than their men/boys
counterparts, a trend, which begins in adolescence (Chen & Millar, 1999; McGinnis,
1992; Sallis et al., 1992; Smale & Shaw, 1993). Over half (58%) of Canadian and
American youth from the ages 12 to 21 are not moderately active on a regular basis with
the number of youth participating in sport and activities decreasing throughout
adolescence, especially among girls, beginning at the age of 12 to 13 (Canadian Fitness
and Life Style Research Institute, 1996; Chen & Millar; Sallis et al.; Smale & Shaw; US
Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Teenage girls, on average, spend
40% less time in physical activity than teenage boys (Canadian Fitness and Life Style
Research Institute).
Many factors have been identified as influencing individuals’ physical activity
patterns: confidence in one’s ability to do the activity (perceived competence),
confidence regarding one’s ability to be active (self-efficacy), enjoyment of the activity,
support from others (e.g. parents), positive beliefs concerning the benefits, lack of
perceived barriers to being physically active, and attributes of self-motivation (King et
al., 1992; US Department of Health and Human Service, 1996). Physical activity
patterns, attitudes, and beliefs formed during childhood and adolescence persist into
adulthood, affecting behavior and, therefore health (Sallis et al., 1992).

Research on the participation of adolescents in physical activity and sport,
demonstrates that significant others (family, friends, coaches, teachers and role models),
greatly influences formation of adolescents’ values and beliefs towards physical activity;
this in turn, influences adolescents’ adherence to activity (Anderssen & Wold, 1992;
Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Brown, Frankie, & Fennel, 1989; Butcher, 1983; Gottlieb &
Chen, 1985; Kimiecik, Flom, & Shurin, 1996; Lau, Quadrel, & Hartman, 1990). Parents,
in particular, play an important role in first socializing their children into sport and
physical activity, and in then contributing to the child’s psychosocial development in
sport and activity participation (Babkes & Weiss; Brustad, 1992; Lau et al.). When
introduced to the activity or sport, children receive encouragement and support from
parents; this support influences the development of the children’s values and attitudes
toward physical activity. These attitudes and values influence children’s behavior in their
continued participation in physical activity (Babkes & Weiss; Lau et ah). Brown, et al.
and Brustad contend that research has been directed almost exclusively toward
discovering the influence of significant others on the initial entry of children into sport or
physical activity, and suggest that individuals continue to be affected by socialization
influences of their significant others both in their involvement in and their disengagement
from the sport or physical activity. Sallis et al. (1992) indicate that the attention of
research to key life transition periods, such as puberty and entering adulthood, is critical
in understanding the process required to prepare adolescents for their transition to adult
roles and adult environments.
As a coach of adolescents, a health care professional and a woman who participates
in physical activity, I have always been perplexed about the limited participation of

females in moderately vigorous physical activity. The majority of females, as well as
males, do not seem to be able to incorporate physical activity into their lives. As a coach,
encouraging young adolescents, particularly girls, to continue participation in physical
activity and sport is always a challenge. An observation that I made early on in coaching
was that as a coach, I could have a certain level of impact on the continued participation
of adolescents during their transitional periods, such as the entrance into high school.
However the greatest adherence to physical activity occurred when parents were
supportive o f their children within that activity. From this observation, I perceived that
some forms of support seemed effective. What makes the difference? What do
adolescent girls understand to be supportive behaviors during the times of transition, and
what information can coaches and health care workers offer to parents to help them
support their children and promote adherence to physical activity?
The Health Need for Phvsical Activity
Physical activity reduces the risk of premature mortality in general and more
specifically coronary heart disease, hypertension, colon cancer, and diabetes mellitus. As
well, physical activity has importance for the health of muscles, bones and joints and
improves mental health (Corbin & Pangrazi, 1996; US Department of Health and Human
Services, 1996). Research shows that physical inactivity, along with dietary patterns and
tobacco use, ranks among the leading preventable contributors to death, well ahead of
infectious diseases (Chen & Millar, 1999; McGirmis, 1992).
The Office of the Provincial Health Officer (1995), in Health Goals for British
Columbia: Identifying Priorities for a Healthy Population, states the importance of
physical activity.

The choices individuals make about life style also influence health. Personal
practices such as smoking, use of alcohol and other drugs, food choices, physical
activity, and other life style decisions affect health and well being. Research
shows that many o f our most common health problems are linked to these
practices (p. 13).
These public health concerns are echoed by American health authorities who state that
promoting physical activity is a public health issue. Audrey F. Manley, the Surgeon
General (Acting) stated that “because physical activity is so directly related to preventing
disease and premature death and to maintaining a high quality of life, we must accord it
the same level of attention that we give other public health practices that affect the entire
nation” (Corbin & Pangrazi, 1996, p. 4).
Health professionals believe that sedentary people could substantially improve their
health and quality o f life by including moderate amounts of activity in their daily lives.
The Canadian Physical Activity Guide (Health Canada, 1998) and the Surgeon General’s
Report (US Department of Health & Human Services, 1996) recommend moderate
physical activity and endurance-type activities. These documents recommend that
individuals engage in life style activities such as walking (30 minutes per day), doing
yard work, and/or climbing stairs on a daily basis. For increased health benefits, aerobic
activities that involve large muscle groups (biking, jogging, and swimming) are
recommended at least three days a week for at least 20-60 minutes. These activities have
to be performed at a level that increases the heart rate to an optimal working range (50%
of maximum heart rate) to ensure health benefits. Active sports (e.g. tennis, volleyball)
and recreational activities (e.g. hiking) are not truly aerobic activities but can be
considered beneficial if done without long periods of rest (Oja, 1995).

Physical activity opportunities for youth are varied and include life style activities
(e.g. household chores), active aerobics (e.g. running while playing, biking), and
recreational and sport activities (e.g. dancing and soccer) (Corbin & Pangrazi, 1998). For
youth, school and community programs dominate physical activity patterns, with sport
activities, i.e. swimming, basketball, gymnastics, being a focus of many programs.
Physical activity patterns have been investigated by researchers in physical education,
exercise science, health education and public health. However, many researchers have
chosen to focus on youth’s adherence to sport/physical activity and on the development
of sport excellence rather than on factors that contribute to the development of individual
health behaviors into adulthood. Sallis et al. (1992) suggest that public health research on
physical activity for children and youth constitutes a different focus than the current
research on sport. They contend that the focus of research needs to shift to studies that
explore how the experiences of children in physical activity (part of which is sport) can
be developed in order to result in more physically active life styles that will continue in
adulthood.
Parental influence on children’s health beliefs and physical activity behaviors has
been found to be greatest while the child was living at home, with the peak of this
influence occurring in adolescence (Lau et al., 1990). Parents who are active with their
children and model physical activity for their children have a great impact on their
children’s physical activity patterns (Anderssen & Wold, 1992; Lau et al.). Youth’s
adherence to physical activity is increased by linking physical activity to personal
interests or to pursuits that are followed as a family, over the entire life span (Marcus,
1995; Shephard, 1995; US Department o f Health and Human Services, 1996). However,

research shows that being physically active as a child and adolescent, is not predictive of
activity in adulthood (Sallis et ah, 1992). Instead, strong predictors of future physical
activity are an individual’s perceived competence, self-efficacy or confidence regarding
their ability to be active, their understanding of encouragement from their social
environment, and their self-motivation (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Biddle & Goudas, 1996;
Kimiecik et ah, 1996; King et al., 1992; Sallis, 1994).
Youth who adhere to sport and physical activity, have been found to have a higher
level of self-motivation, tend to prefer challenges, and have higher perceptions of their
competence (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Duda, Chi, Newton, Walling, & Catley, 1995). The
support and influence of significant others, as perceived by the individual, has been
shown to be significant in the development of these characteristics (Babkes & Weiss;
Harter, 1978).
Parents’ belief of their children’s competence, parents’ account of their own exercise
participation, and parental beliefs of their positive responses to their children has been
found to be inconsistently related to youths’ activity levels (Babkes & Weiss, 1999:
Kimiecik et al, 1996). What parents perceive as support and actions of approval, is at
times perceived by youth as pressure to perform and as disapproval (Babkes & Weiss).
Babkes and Weiss conclude that children’s perceptions of what their parents do and
think, rather than what their parents claim to do and think, are more important to
children’s psychosocial responses and their adherence to physical activity.
Statement of Problem and Purpose of Study
The experiences of adolescent girls in physical activity are not well understood. The
role of parents in supporting and encouraging girls through the various stages of

adolescence also requires further study as it is not well understood what form of parental
support would encourage females to participate and adhere to the sport or physical
activity (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Brown et ah, 1989; Butcher, 1983; Kidman, McKenzie,
& McKenzie, 1999). Little is understood about the effects of parents’ behaviors and
comments on their children’s enjoyment, performance and ongoing participation in sport
and physical activity (Kidman et al., 1999). In particular little is known about what
parental support means from the perspective of the adolescent girls themselves.
The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the experiences of girls between the
ages of 13-15 years that enable and encourage them to remain in sport or physical
activity. More specifically, this study describes what girls understand parental support to
be within these experiences and what they understand its contribution to be to their
continued participation in physical activity.
Chapter two reviews the literature on the determinants of adherence to physical
activity for adolescent girls with Chapter three presenting the approach taken by the
study. The interpretation of the data evolves in Chapters four and five with the final
chapter summarizing and presenting conclusions.

CHAPTER!
Literature Review
Introduction
The present research seeks to gain an understanding of factors, particularly factors in
parental support, that influence adolescents’ participation in physical activity. Youth
give a number of reasons for participating in sport and physical activity. The majority of
studies reviewed (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Brown, 1985; Brown et al., 1989; Butcher,
1983; Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983; Hoyle & Leif, 1997) have focussed on sport;
however they do provide an insight into some of the issues of adolescents’ continued
participation in physical activity. The understanding of continued participation in sport
for youth, although providing an incomplete picture of physical activity in general,
contributes to our understanding of continued participation in physical activity as a life
style choice.
Achievement or motivation orientation, team spirit, fitness orientated reasons, energy
release, skill development, friendship, fun and other reasons such as parents or close
friends wanted them to participate were general reasons that were identified in a
descriptive study done by Gill et al. (1983). In this study, a total of 720 boys and 418
girls who participated in a summer sport school offering individual and team sports were
asked what degree of importance they attached to their reasons for participating in sports.
Butcher (1983) studied the socialization of adolescent girls into physical activity by
looking both at competitive school and community organized activities. Six hundred and
sixty one girls from grades 6-10 completed the questiormaire. The analysis showed these
variables most related to the girls’ participation in physical activity; satisfaction in skills

or perception of competence; parental socialization influence; significant others’
encouragement; opportunity to participate (i.e. availability of equipment); socioeconomic
status, and self-confidence. There were several significant differences between physical
activities offered by the school and by the community. School activities required a high
level of physical skill and confidence in one’s skills, whereas parental support and
socioeconomic status influenced community activities more. Therefore, it appeared that
the girls’ skill level or their perception of skill level, amount of parental encouragement
and support and economic status would limit the girls’ physical activity.
In examining the literature, Lindner, Johns and Butcher (1991) found the following
reasons for youth withdrawing from sport: there were other things to do, there is not
enough time, it is no longer fun, participants have lost interest, finances, not getting
enough opportunity, or too much pressure, as well as issues around competence and
ability. Other underlying non-sport factors identified by Lindner et al. that were present
but not included in the research are factors such as work, study, family commitments, and
developmental changes.
Research has indicated that adolescents’ participation in physical activity is
influenced by a large number of complex factors and variables (Kimiecik et al., 1996;
King et al., 1992; Lindner et al., 1991; Sallis et al., 1992). The research on factors that
contribute to activity has a sport bias, although some light has been shed on the public
health issue of the physical activity of children and adolescents. Sallis et al. (1992), in
their review of the literature, state that “few studies have directly addressed issues
relevant to improving the health of all children” (p. 252). They go on to say the variables
determining participation may be different for different groups at different periods of

10

their lives. For the development of health, the determinants of moderate to vigorous
physical activity as a life style choice are poorly understood (Kimiecik et al.; Sallis et al.).
The level at which individuals perform physical activity has not been a central
consideration in studies investigating participation within a sport or physical activity.
“Participation” is the key word used in studies to indicate that a person is active or not
active within a sport or activity. According to Lindner et al. in their review of the
literature on participation in physical activity, the level of participation has not been
considered within the studies, nor do the studies show if the participant dropped out of a
sport and then went into a different sport, or if the participant is involved in a multitude
of activities and sports. The focus on sport and its limited scope makes it difficult to look
at research results and interpret them in relation to the development of physical activity as
a life style choice (Sallis et al.). Key determinants, however, have been identified as
influencing physical activity patterns of individuals (US Department of Health and
Human Services, 1996).
Determinants of Participation for Female Adolescents in Sport/ Phvsical Activity
Key factors have been identified in the literature as influencing physical activity
patterns: opportunities and the lack of perceived barriers to being physically active,
perceived competence, self-efficacy, self-motivation, positive beliefs concerning the
benefits of physical activity, growth and development, and the presence of a supportive
social milieu (King et al., 1992; Sallis et al., 1992; US Department of Health and Human
Services, 1996). To further review the literature these major categories will be used.

11

Opportunities and a Lack of Perceived Barriers
Availability o f opportunities to be involved in physical activity is fundamental to
participation. As well, individuals are more likely to participate in physical activity when
they perceive there to be few barriers to participation, such as opportunities that are
suitable to their needs, experiences , skill level and stage of life, along with openness to
participation by others of their same gender. Their perception of suitability and of
opportunities may be influenced by past experiences, and social norms. Dahlgren (1988)
concluded that females are not encouraged to participate to the same extent in physical
activity as boys and are discouraged from participation in some activities. The influences
can be subtle, such as the unequal media coverage of female and male accomplishments,
fewer role models, and fewer opportunities for females to participate. Females and males
are initiated into activity and it is assumed by society that opportunities are equal.
However, Dahlgren indicated that the opportunities for females are limited and not equal.
For example, activities for preadolescent males and females are often similar. But at
puberty, physical differences, particularly in areas of strength, widen. The opportunities
for the selection o f activities that address the physical differences are fewer for girls
(Sallis, 1994). In educational settings there is less programming for integrated or female
only activities and activities outside the educational sector has an over emphasis on maleonly sports (Dahlgren). For females to be active in physical activity, there needs to be
opportunities available and a lack of perceived barriers.
Perceived Competence
Perceived competence has been associated with physical activity adherence. Several
researchers (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Brustad, 1988; Gould & Petlichkoff 1996)

12

employed Harter’s (1978) theory of competence motivation as a framework for
examining youths’ participation in sport. Harter proposes that individuals possess an
inherent desire to demonstrate personal competence in specific areas of achievement.
Harter contends that individuals who perceive that they are competent and in control of
consequences in a particular domain (i.e. social, physical, and cognitive) are less anxious,
more persistent and more positive during involvement in that domain. The perception of
competence is not a global trait of the individual but is specific to the particular domain
such as physical activity. According to Harter, the positive feelings, such as pride and
enjoyment, that accompanies perceptions of success makes it more likely that individuals
will continue in mastering the domain. Gender differences have been found to play a role
in perceived competency. Duda et al. (1995) found that females perceived themselves as
being less competent than males in physical activity.
Self-Efficacv
Personal beliefs about one’s own physical activity have significant influences on
physical activity. One of the strongest predictors of future activity is perceptions of selfefficacy or confidence regarding one’s ability to be active on a regular basis (Marcus,
1995; Sallis et al., 1992; Sallis, 1994). When a participant is confident about their ability
to continue physical activity there is greater adherence to physical activity. Self-efficacy
is part of self-confidence. It is an individual’s belief and judgement of their capabilities
in themselves to achieve certain goals within specific situations such as physical activity
(Stipek, 1993).

13

Self-Motivation
The attribute of self-motivation has been found to consistently correlate with
physical activity (King et al., 1992). The attribute of self-motivation is reflected in the
presence of self-regulatory skills such as effective goal setting, self-monitoring of
progress and managing problems. King et al. indicates that there is limited data available
that evaluates specific parameters of such skills and how best to utilize them to enhance
adherence to physical activity.
Educational researchers (Alschuler, 1973; Boren, Weir, & Benegar, 1987;
Grossnickle; 1989; Johnson, 1984; Stipek, 1993) describe self-motivated individuals as
those who learn skills to self-regulate themselves to achieve the goals they want and to
demonstrate consistent characteristics. Alschuler and Johnson describe these individuals
as being interested in excellence for its own sake rather than the rewards excellence
brings. They prefer situations in which they can take personal responsibility for the
outcomes of their efforts. They set up their goals carefully after considering the
probability of success of a variety of alternatives and leam to identify and to use
appropriate tools that help them solve predictable challenges and problems. As
individuals, they become more self-determined and self-regulated.
Beliefs Conceming Benefits
Individuals decide their level of commitment to an activity as they evaluate the
benefits derived from sport participation compared with the input and sacrifices that are
required. Lindner et al. (1991) found participants at risk to be those motivated, highly
energetic, high achieving athletes who experienced diminishing returns related to effort,
injuries and less personal time and autonomy after putting in many hours of training. For

14

all individuals, ongoing participation in an activity occurs when there is a perceived
balance between performance demands and the individual’s ability to meet those
demands. As well, individuals who continue in physical activity are found to have the
coping skills to alleviate the stress involved in doing the activity and are less anxious
(Kimiecik et al., 1996).
Growth and Developmental Factors
Many developmental changes occur for adolescents, physically and psychologically,
as they mature through several transitions including puberty and entering and leaving
high school. Besides the apparent physical changes in adolescence, there are changes in
self-perception and self-concept with differences between males and females (Wigfield,
Eccles, Maclvaer, Rueman, & Midgley, 1991).
Pre-adolescent girls have superior balance and coordination, and boys are better at
throwing and kicking. With puberty, gender differences increase for physical activity,
particularly in the area of strength. These differences may act as incentives for the
selection of different activities, particularly in the area of perceived competence (Sallis et
al., 1992).
Wigfield et al. (1991), in their study of adolescents in transition, found that between
13-15 years, young adolescents’ perceived competence decreases in comparison to their
preadolescent period. Their general self-esteem is lower and less stable and their selfconsciousness is higher. As is the case for many adolescents of this age, many
disruptions occurred for the adolescents in their study. There was a change in school
environments between elementary and high school, with a greater emphasis on evaluation
and comparison to a standard or to other students, as well as a disruption of social

15

networks (Wigfield et al.). Self-esteem during school transitions is temporarily affected
with changes to adolescents’ domain-specific beliefs of competence about themselves in
various school subjects (e.g. math), socially and in physical activity (Wigfield et al.).
Through early adolescence, girls have a lower perception of competence of their sport
ability than boys (Wigfield et al.). Girls also report lower self esteem in general than
boys (Smale & Shaw, 1993; Wigfield et al.). However, Wigfield et al. question whether
this is a valid finding as boys tend to be more self-congratulatory than are girls.
Horn and Harris (1996), in their review of the literature in youth athletes, concluded
that research outcomes o f perceived competence vary depending on developmental level
of participants. They stated that children’s perception of competence remains high and
stable between the ages of 8-12. As children get older, they begin using peer comparison
to judge their own competence and this process increases in importance steadily across
the age span. By the age of 12, peer comparison becomes the most important source of
ability information and it continues in early adolescence (13-14 years). Older adolescents
show a greater use of self-comparison, skill improvement, and internalized selfdetermined performance standards to evaluate how competent they are at a particular
activity.
Shifts in interests also occur, as adolescents grow older. There are many strong
factors outside a sport that draw participants away from the sport and these factors
interact with the developmental changes that occur in the individual. Participants in early
adolescence begin to strive for autonomy and might resent the restrictions and structures
placed upon them by a sport. As well, many are developing alternative interests (Lindner
et al., 1991). Activities such as hobbies, “hanging out with friends”, relationships, and

16

increasing responsibilities with school, family and possibly work create a myriad of
choices for the developing individual whose interests are shifting (Lindner et al., 1991;
Smale & Shaw, 1993).
Social Milieu
Socialization theory and life style models have indicated that there are important
components in developing and maintaining patterns of physical activity for individuals.
These components have evolved within a social milieu and are identified as family,
community, significant others (such as coaches and peers), the media, and the structure of
activities (Anderssen & Wold, 1992). Socialization into sport and activity, along with the
influence of significant others, has been found to influence the participation of females
differently than for males (Anderssen & Wold; Dahlgren, 1998; Greendorfer, 1987:
Greendorfer, Lewko, & Rosengren 1996).
Girls' socialization into sport. The socialization process of children shows pervasive
gender differences (Block, 1981). Research on the process of socialization into sport
indicates that the process begins early and encourages physical activity for males but not
for females. Subtle influences in child rearing tend to direct females away from physical
activity. Boys in North American society are socialized to a more active play style and
girls socialized into more quiet, expressive forms of activity that does not require gross
motor activity (Gottlieb & Chen, 1985; Greendorfer et al., 1996). Boys are exposed to
sport. A greater number of social systems influence and encourage their participation in
sport and in physical activity, whereas females receive less support in physical activity
(Anderssen & Wold, 1992; Brown, 1985; Gottlieb & Chen). Dahlgren (1988) reported
overall beliefs in North American society that physical activity is more important for

17

males than for females and that females are inactive, helpless and not capable of being
competent. Winther (1983), in a study of the understandings six year olds in physical
activity, found that by the age of six, both girls and boys believed that in physical activity
boys were better than girls.
It needs to be noted that criticism has been directed at the studies of socialization of
women into sport and physical activity. Greendorfer (1987) indicated that early research
of adherence to physical activity does not include women, and those studies that did
include women generalized the results to both genders instead of looking at results
separately. Many studies did not acknowledge that the structure of sport and physical
activity and the institutional influences, which were different for women than for men
(Gill & Williams, 1995; Greendorfer). Greendorfer felt the conceptual approach o f most
studies did not capture the process that applied to women. In many of the early studies,
female patterns were considered to be a deviation from the norm and were often
considered atypical and too difficult to incorporate into the body of knowledge. As a
result, more investigation by researchers of the experiences of women in sport is needed.
Significant others. A recurring theme throughout the reviewed research is the
influence that significant others have on the participation of adolescents in physical sport
and activities. Parents and peers assume key roles in shaping the psychological outcomes
that youth experience through their sport and physical activity, thereby affecting their
participation. Although parents and peers play important roles, the nature and extent of
each source of influence varies greatly according to the age and the developmental status
of the individual (Brustad, 1996).

18

Parental influence on children’s participation in sport and physical activity is quite
strong because a large portion of children’s time is spent within the context of the family,
and children rely heavily on the feedback of parents and other adults in assessing their
personal competency (Horn & Harris, 1996). Children’s early sport interests, initial sport
involvement, and perceptions of physical ability are all strongly linked to parental beliefs,
behaviors, and expectations (Anderssen & Wold, 1992).
With age and with cognitive maturity, children demonstrate improved social skills,
and the time spent inside the family context lessens while the amount of time spent with
peers increases (Brustad, 1996). Horn & Harris (1996) noted that children exhibit an
increasing reliance on peer comparison and peer evaluation in assessing their own
physical competence, particularly in early adolescence. As adolescents mature, the peer
group becomes less influential, with self-evaluation becoming more prominent (Horn &
Harris).
In a longitudinal study, Lau et al. (1990) explored the sources of stability and of
change in young adults’ health beliefs and behavior concerning drinking, diet, exercise,
and wearing seat belts. These researchers investigated the role of parents and peers in
influencing young people’s health beliefs and behaviors as they move from adolescence
into adulthood. Although the peer group seems to have an increasing influence on
adolescents, parents are more important than peers as sources of influence over health
beliefs and behaviors such as exercise. In North America, most children remain in the
family throughout their teenage years and parents influence the development of their
children’s health values and decisions (Lau et al.). These researchers found that peers
have a strong impact on changes that occur during major transition periods (i.e. seeking

19

increased independence and leaving home) in adolescence but found parents to be more
significant as sources o f influence. Lau et al. concluded that consistency in what parents
model, teach, and believe is the most influential factor in the development of their
children’s health beliefs and life style behaviors.
The development of life style behaviors are important to individuals, as the skills and
choices of life style affect health (Bruhn, 1988). Bruhn stated that wellness encompasses
life style behaviors that include; learning a point of view, specific tasks, and a means of
supporting and reinforcing such a life style.
Research on adolescent participation in sport demonstrates that support from parents
plays an important role in the participation of both girls and of boys in sport and activity
(Anderssen & Wold, 1992; Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Brown, 1985; Brown et al., 1989;
Kimiecik et al., 1996; Smale & Shaw, 1993). Several studies reported stronger
associations for girls than for boys between involvement in physical activity and the
influence of parents and friends (Brustad, 1996; Gottlieb & Chen, 1985; Gregson &
CoUey, 1986).
Brown (1985), through self-reported questionnaires, studied factors that influence
girls in the process of withdrawal from sport. The study included 211 female former
competitive swimmers and 193 female current swimmers from 5-19 years. Brown found
the continuing influence of family and peer group to be important in the ongoing
socialization of female swimmers to their sport role. Gender-role stereotypes (beliefs of
what is appropriate activity for females) played a role in the girls’ participation and
adherence to physical activity. This was particularly the case when the beliefs were
shared by significant others (i.e., parents, peers, boyfriends). Parents may hold sex-

20

stereotyped beliefs regarding their children’s potential and these beliefs are critical
parental mediators o f gender differences.
As female adolescents grow older, according to Brown (1985), the encouragement
from significant others to continue to participate becomes more important as other
activities and competing roles become more demanding. Results indicated that females
who maintained their involvement in swimming received increasing support and
encouragement from significant others as they got older. Those who withdrew from the
sport reported receiving decreasing support or stated there was no change over time.
Greater support was reported when significant others attached value to swimming and
were actively involved in the sport milieu (Brown).
Brown et al. (1989) studied 376 girls between the ages of 13-19 using a forced
choice, self administered questionnaire to examine the influence of significant others on
adolescents’ continuing involvement in sport. They determined that adolescent girls who
perceived that significant others view their participation in sport to be an appropriate
form of socialization, and who reported increasing support for their continued
participation were likely to adhere to the sport activity. Peers became significant in
continued participation, in that girls tended to have friends who also participate in the
sport. Fathers appeared to be more important as socializing agents into sport than
mothers, but mothers were more influential in active sport role modeling, in that active
and supportive mothers legitimize participation in the more serious, norm-violating forms
of activity (Brown et al.). Brown et al. identified that girls for whom the athlete role is
more central to their identity and self-concept are more likely to persist in physical
activity.

21

Significant others play an important role in the development o f perceived
competence. Brustad (1996) found that children’s perception of competence is
influenced by their parents’ encouragement to be physically active. He recommended
that to increase girls’ perceived level of competence, encouragement needs to come from
home and from other significant adults, with the nature and extent of each source of
influence varying according to the age and developmental stage of the individual
(Brustad).
Parental effects are the result of a variety of factors such as role-modeling physical
activity, being involved in the child’s sport, and being encouraging (Anderssen & Wold,
1992). However, as Babkes & Weiss (1999) determined, the value placed on physical
activity by significant others, the statements of encouragement, and the reported activity
level o f significant others are not the key to continued participation. Instead, the major
factor is the children’s perception or understanding of parental encouragement, along
with the children’s perception of parental values and beliefs, and of their perception of
parents’ level of physical activity. Parents have a large impact on how a child perceives
her competence within activity and within sport. Parents have their major impact as
conveyors of expectancy regarding their children’s abilities but this impact remains
contingent on how children perceive this expectancy (Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala 1982;
Wood & Abernethy, 1991). Parsons et al. determined that children’s perception of their
parents’ beliefs evolve from the conveyed expectations that parents have of them, and are
in turn, related to children’s beliefs about themselves.
Babkes and Weiss (1999) studied youth ages 9-12 years and their parents through a
self-reporting multivariate correlational design. Females (114) and males (113)

22

participating with soccer teams, were studied to determine their perception of parental
support on their motivation. The studies showed that mothers and fathers who were
perceived to be positive role models, who had more positive beliefs about their child’s
competency, and who gave more frequent positive contingent responses to performance
successes were associated with youth who had a higher level of perceived competence,
enjoyment, and intrinsic motivation. These researchers showed that children’s perception
o f their parent’s behavior and attitude about their sport involvement had the strongest
relationship to the children’s own perceptions of competence and motivation. In contrast,
parents’ self reported attitudes and behaviors were not predictive of the children’s
perception of competence and motivation. This is consistent with research, that said
individuals’ perceived competence, enjoyment, and motivation are linked to the
frequency and type of feedback received from significant others as perceived by the
individuals (Anderssen & Wold, 1992; Babkes & Weiss; Parsons et al, 1982).
Other researchers found that children and adolescents, who perceived less parental
pressure and who had more support, had a more positive sport experience (Hoyle & Leff,
1997). Hoyle and Leff administered a questionnaire to 24 male and female tennis players
who had a median age of 13 years. The research examined the impact of parental support
and of parental pressure and those factors role in children’s sport experience. Hoyle and
Leff found that young people who had a high level of parental support reported greater
enjoyment of the game, and viewed it as an important part of their lives, and had an
objective measure of performance that included more positive appraisals of performance
outcomes and of self worth. This is in contrast to the findings in the study in which
perceived parental pressure failed to demonstrate an association between players’

23

participation and performance. Hoyle and Leff also determined that good performance
leads to increased enjoyment by the athletes, but only if parents are a positive part of the
child’s participation. As the sport increases in importance to the youth, and pressure
from external sources increases, enjoyment for the adolescent follows only if parents are
involved in a supportive fashion. The key throughout the research is the youth’s
perception o f parental support. Although perception is important, the research did not
delve into what support actually looks like from the adolescents’ perspective.
Wood and Abernethy (1991) surveyed 37 national team member swimmers and 16
non-elite swimmers from clubs regarding their perceptions of supportive parental
behavior. The researchers used a 5-point scale on 24 predetermined parental behaviors.
The least desirable parental behaviors were those that created pressure on the athletes,
particularly parental judgement of the swimmers’ self-worth. Parents pushing them to
excel or to train harder created excessive pressure for the swimmers. Other sources of
negative pressure were living up to adult expectations and facing criticisms. Supportive
behaviors included encouragement in participation and congratulations following a race.
Wood and Abernethy determined that though perceptions of support are described, they
are more complex than simply “good” and “bad” stating: “Parents elicit many behaviors
towards their children and the cumulative effect of these actions has to be taken into
account” (p. 21). The meaning that adolescents give to support is not described in this
study, nor is the perception of parental support described in relation to the swimmers’
participation and adherence. The complexity of the support remains to be described.
Research has investigated the effect of support from parents on children and
adolescents, and important themes or features of the support have been identified.

24

Although features have been identified, there has been limited description of the meaning
that youth give to these behaviors and to how they understand this perception affects their
participation and their adherence to physical activity. For example, research has been
done on parents’ verbal behavior during youth sport competitions. A study revealed that
although the comments at games were positive overall (47.2%) there was a high
percentage of negative comments (34.5%) (Kidman, et a l, 1999). Kidman et al.’s study
did not investigate the effect of these behaviors on youths’ sport participation. What are
the effects of these comments on the youth? Parental attendance at the games is thought
to be supportive but the effects of the support during a game may vary, assuming that
positive comments are perceived by youth to be more desirable and negative comments
to be less so. The youths’ perception of support and the meaning they give to the support
and comments are key to understanding what motivates them.
Studies investigating what adolescents consider to be encouragement from parents,
and research on how female adolescent girls understand parental support in their
continuation in physical activity, has been limited. What encouragement “looks like” has
not been described from the perspective of female adolescents.
Summarv
Physical activity is an important life style for health. As a society. North Americans
are not as active as they should be for health, and females are less active than males.
Attitudes and behaviors towards life-style choices develop in childhood and in
adolescence. But the development of physical activity as a life style that will continue
into adulthood has many influencing factors. Research has shown certain trends in the
adherence to physical activity. Individuals, who perceive themselves to be competent.

25

are self motivated, who believe in their self-efficacy, who believe in the benefits of the
activity and who have few perceived physical barriers are more likely to enjoy and to
participate in sport and physical activity. Support of others is significant in the
development of an individual’s perception of competence, belief in ability and in the
behaviors that support the adolescents’ adherence to the activity; generally parents have a
large influence on the lives of their children. Research indicated that there were gender
differences, with girls requiring different support from significant others than boys. As
well, parental support needs to adjust to the developmental age of the adolescent girls.
There is a good body of evidence that shows that parental support is important and
that certain features are key. But missing from the literature is research that describes the
adolescents’ experience o f physical activity and their experience of parental support.
Such research is needed if the complexity of what counts as support from the adolescent
point of view is to be understood.
Research Questions
What are the experiences of girls in early adolescence that enable and encourage
them to remain in sport or in physical activity? Within these experiences, what do girls
understand parental support to be? What do they understand its contribution to be to their
continued participation in physical activity?

26

CHAPTER 3

Method
Introduction: Qualitative Approach
A descriptive qualitative method was used to describe adolescent girls’ experience of
physical activity, with particular attention to their experience of parental support.
Descriptive qualitative research enables the researcher to ask, “What are the salient
actions, events, beliefs, attitudes, and social structures and processes occurring in this
phenomenon?” (Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p.33). Descriptive qualitative research
investigates the interpretation and the meaning that people give to an experience,
enabling the researcher to acquire insight and understanding into that experience
(Marshall & Rossman). Qualitative research is generally inductive, enabling the
researcher to discover phenomenon without the constraints of specific theories. It can be
helpful, however, to use the broad theoretical formulation or themes that arise in the
research literature. In highly researched areas such as the study of adolescent adherence
to sport/physical activity, there are established themes. These include: perceived support
by parents, their motivational characteristics, and perceived competence. The interviews
in this study were guided by these broad categories.
Research Design
In this study 1 was particularly interested in how the participants described and
interpreted their experiences. A qualitative approach was used to gather data: eleven
adolescent girls, ages 16-17, took part in semi structured interviews. The girls, from a
remote northern British Columbia community, were asked about their experiences in
physical activity and in sport when they were between the ages of 13 and 15 years. The

27

adolescents were asked to describe, in detail, their experiences in physical activity and
their experience of parental support in relation to physical activity, first during the
transition into adolescence, as 13 and 14 year olds, and currently, as 16 and 17 year olds.
These age ranges have been identified as having the greatest number of dropouts from
physical activity (Canadian Fitness and Life Style Research Institute, 1996; Chen &
Millar, 1999; Sallis et al., 1992; Smale & Shaw, 1993; US Department of Health and
Human Services, 1996). The narratives were analyzed for themes of parental support in
physical activity, particularly for the adolescents’ motivational characteristics, for their
perception of competence and for their reasons for continued adherence to physical
activity.
Selection and Recruitment of Participants
Purposive non-probability sampling was used for this study. This type of sampling
does not aim at representativeness. Participants were chosen because they met a certain
criteria. The sample did not represent a population but was selected based on the
principle of generating data across a range of individuals to explore processes,
similarities and differences (Mason, 1996).
The cohort of 11 was selected from approximately 25 girls who were active in the
local swim club as 13-15 year olds. Each participant was chosen based on following
criteria.
1.

She was a continuous participating member of the swim club between the ages
of 13-15 years.

2.

She lived in the community for the duration of the time in question and
continues to live in the community;

28

3.

She was willing and able to speak openly and honestly to the experience
identified in the research question;

4.

She was between the ages of 16-17 years at the time of the interview and was
or was not part of the swim club;

5.

The participant or her family was not and had not been involved with the
researcher on a professional basis;

6.

Parental consent was received.

To limit the number of geographical and contextual variables, all the participants
came from one local swim club. The swim club provided both a competitive and non­
competitive context and promoted moderate to vigorous physical activity with a skilldevelopment focus. As well, the activity of swimming is an individual life-long activity
that many adults pursue, and it is not a team sport. Although the context of this physical
activity is sports-orientated, the reality is that there are limited non-sport physical
activities for adolescents girls, particularly in a small northern town. The swim club is
also a community-based activity and has open participation, which distinguishes it from
school sports. The club is parent-operated.
I chose 16-17 year old girls as participants, as this age cohort was available; as they
remain in high school prior to going off to work or college at 18 years. They had the
potential to recollect their experiences during the ages of 13-15 years, which was
relatively recent. A retrospective interview was used, as perceived parental support
occurs across the transition period, and the girls reported that they were able to reflect
back to help determine what was supportive for them. An opportunity existed to provide
some comparison between adolescent girls who stayed active in swimming and

29

adolescent girls who did not stay active during this age. I felt that the sample was large
enough to gain a variety o f perspectives of their experience, yet not too large to make
data analysis unwieldy. The choice of sampling was based on the theoretical position
taken as a result o f the literature research and from my own experience and observation
as a community mental health nurse, as a mother, and as a coach of adolescents.
Permission to recruit the participants was sought through the local swim club
(Appendix A) upon approval from the University of Northern British Columbia’s
Research Ethics Review Board. The swim club gave permission and provided me with
the names and telephone numbers of all 25 girls who had been active in the swim club as
13-15 year olds. O f the 25,15 girls had quit swimming and 10 continued in the swim
club. Of the 25 girls, 19 were approached about the study as some girls had moved away
or could not be reached. The 19 girls were given the letter of introduction from the swim
club (Appendix B) along with the information sheet about the study (Appendix C) and
the consent form (Appendix D). Of the nineteen, 15 were available and agreed to
participate. O f the fifteen interviewed, 4 did not meet criteria #1 as they had left
swimming as 14 year olds. Therefore the study consists of 11 interviews. As the
participants were under the age of 19 years, parental permission was obtained and the
girls brought the consent forms to the interview.
Since the purpose of the study was to describe the experience of teenage girls
intensively rather than extensively, a sample of eleven girls was considered adequate.
The sample was able to capture a full range of themes that emerged in relation to the area
of interest based on the judgement of personal experience and literature review (Mason,
1996).

30

Interviews
The standardized open-ended interview was the data collection technique of choice
for focusing on individual’s perspectives of their own experiences (Marshall & Rossman,
1999). Each interview took approximately 3/4 hour. The interview is an appropriate
method_to gain an understanding of an individual’s experience of herself and her
situation. The semi-structured but open-ended interview was used to enable the
participants to respond in their own words and to express their ideas and their
perspectives. The interview questions (Appendix E) explored the following issues with
the adolescent girls: their experience of support from parents, their experience of how the
support changed over time, their level of enjoyment of the activity, their perceived level
of competence, their thoughts of changes in their life that affected the activity, and their
perspective as to how their parents could have supported them in other ways.
Demographics were collected to provide a description of the participants including their
age, the number of years swimming, and level and type of activity at present.
The questions (Appendix E) enabled the researcher to explore a few general topics to
help draw out the participants’ perspectives, but overall, the questions were designed to
respect how the participants framed and structured their responses (Marshall & Rossman,
1999). These questions had the potential to draw out the more important opinions of the
participants, as people tend to mention first those things that are most matter to them
(Palys, 1992). The questions provided a guide to ensure topics were covered in the
interview, but additional prompts were necessary to encourage further clarification. The
role of the interviewer was to put the individual at ease so that the respondent could feel
comfortable about expressing her honest opinions.

31

The individual interview was chosen as it allowed privacy and enabled the
individuals to give their own perspectives. Adolescents are highly influenced by their
peer group (Conger, 1973; Pruitt, 1999). A group interview could potentially confound
and influence the results of the individual’s understandings of their experiences. The
participants knew that other adolescents were participating, but to protect confidentiality,
no names were given, only a portion o f the girls who met the criteria were interviewed,
and interviews were held at the public health offices at different times over the course of
two weeks. In reality, the adolescents probably did discuss the interviews among
themselves. To help prevent this, I asked the participants to refrain from discussing the
interviews with their friends for a two-week period.
Interviewing has limitations within the context of the interpersonal relationship that
evolves from the interview. Interviewers must be able to develop a rapport with the
participant; this rapport enables the interviewees to express themselves openly and
honestly. Interpersonal skills of listening, clarification, reframing, and gentle probing in
an empathie manner on the part of the interviewer will enable the participant to express
their experiences and perspectives in a safe and comfortable manner (Mason, 1996). As a
mental health nurse, I am sensitive to these issues. As these are adolescents, the role of
the interviewer is to establish trust without the role of authority (Marshall & Rosmann,
1999). The interviews were informal, ensuring privacy, and, asthe interviewer, I made
an effort to remain unbiased and to be open to all comments.
Ethical Considerations
The participants were volunteers and remained anonymous in all reporting of this
study, and the researcher protected confidentiality and protection of privacy as fully as

32

possible. As the participants were under the age of 19 years, parental permission was
obtained in addition to their own consent. Potential participants and their parents were
given a full description o f the proposed study (Appendix C).
The interview began with a discussion of informed consent, which was initially
addressed through the consent forms (see Appendix D). At the beginning of the
interview there was a review of confidentiality and an explanation that excerpts of the
raw data might be shared with my supervisor for the purposes of reporting on my
progress. All names and identification were removed before this. A discussion of my
professional responsibility to report any disclosure of abuse to the Ministry of Children
and Families also took place. I confirmed that I had not worked with any of the families
in my professional role as adult mental health nurse and ensured that this study did not
pose any threat to any client/nurse relationship nor influence my understanding of the
adolescents’ perspective. Participants were made aware of their right to withdraw from
the study at any time.
Permission to audiotape the interview was also included in the written consent and
all agreed. Written field notes were taken during the course of the interview and upon
reflection afterwards. These notes were used to write down my observations, my
interpretations, my impressions, and my feelings about different aspects of the interview
that might become helpful with the later analysis of the data (Marshall & Rossman,
1999). The field notes were helpful in noting initial patterns and my impressions of
them. The audiotapes were transcribed. The tapes and field notes were then analyzed for
themes.

33

Data Analysis
An analytical strategy to retrieve data involved the use of organizing data around
themes, patterns, and categories for the purposes of data coding. These categories
included the experiences within swimming, the characteristics of motivation of the
participant, the perceived level of competence by the individual, and the perceived
support positive and negative by parents.
With the transcription of the interviews, additional categories, themes and patterns
emerged from the data and became new categories or sub-eategories. The process of
category generation involved noting patterns evident in the setting and expressed by the
participants. Though an initial analyst-constructed typology was being applied to the
data, I was conscious to try not to impose meaning that better reflected my world than the
world of the participants under study (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). I tried to engage in
the data to search for categories of meanings expressed by the girls beyond those
described by the literature.
A category system included the use of highlighters and coloured pens to identify key
words, representative stories and thematic quotes. Summaries of the interviews were
developed. As the patterns and categories emerged from the data, I critically challenged
my categorization by looking for alternative explanations, and by adding the ones
indicated by the participants. Writing about qualitative data and the analytic process
using inductive logic occurred simultaneously. Interpreting the data was done through
description of the girls’ stories and perspectives with analytical points about the social
significance of these stories (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Themes are descriptively
presented by identifying common patterns.

34

Data Quality/Rigor: Limitations and Strength
Three criteria can be used for establishing the trustworthiness of qualitative data:
auditability, fittingness and credibility (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Auditability was
achieved through regular review of the data analysis, which ensured that data generation
and analysis was appropriate to the research question, and was careful, honest and
accurate. Careful recording of data and systematic analysis of data were undertaken.
Regular review of the data analysis was undertaken with my supervisor. The information
leading from the research question was taken through various steps of analysis to
interpret the findings in a way that best reflected the intent of the participants. Reflective
notes were kept throughout the process of analysis. These notes raised questions about
the data and enabled me to examine my emotions, biases and conflicts that may have
interfered with my understanding of the experiences of the adolescent girls.
Fittingness of the findings from this study are ensured by the clear description of the
specific group o f adolescent females; others will be able to evaluate the applicability of
the data to other contexts. It is not the intention of the study to provide broad universal
generalizations about adolescent girls and physical activity. Rather, it is to allow the
experiences of these girls to be heard and understood.
Credibility of this study will be enhanced if other adolescent girls in other
communities are able to recognize these descriptions of experience. Researchers from
other disciplines will be able to acknowledge the findings from the study as being
consistent with their understandings of the experiences of adolescent girls.
There were several limitations to the methods chosen for this research project. The
study group was asked to retrospectively reflect on their experiences as 13 to 15 year

35

olds. Issues that were of concern in the study are the length of time between the
experiences as 13-15 year olds and their age at the interview (16-17), along with the
changing perspectives of the girls related to their psychological development and their
personal experiences. It was acknowledged that these factors would impact their
discussion of their experiences: a certain amount of rationalization might have occurred.
However, it remains their perspective.
The group studied was small and the study of their experience of physical activity
studied within one context, an organized swimming club in a small northern community.
As a qualitative researcher, however, I studied the phenomenon of interest rather than the
group extensively. It could be argued that swimming is a sport and that sport is not
representative of the development of physical activity as a life style choice. However, the
reality of adolescent life in a northern community is that there are few opportunities for
the development of physical activity for girls within a context that has few restrictions on
entry (i.e. certain level of skill), that require a moderate aerobic level of activity, and that
is not sports-team driven. It has been argued that opportunities for physical activity for
all females are limited in our society. In northern communities, as a coach, I find many
girls join and persist in an activity not for competition but for skill development, activity,
enjoyment, and socialization. Therefore, in northern communities, it seems fair to use an
organization such as the swim club. It also needs to be recognized that sport is a
component of physical activity and that it is an integral part of the socialization of youth
to physical activity. Ideally, a variety of contexts for physical activity should be
available, but in reality, organized physical activity for youth is based in large part in

36

sport. Its relevance as a context for the development of physical activity is significant,
and its impact needs to be understood within life style choices.

37

CHAPTER 4
The Experience of Swimming
Introduction
The cohort of girls expressed specific likes, dislikes and difficulties with their
experience of swimming. It is within the context of this experience that they spoke of
how their parents supported them. It is necessary to understand their experience as
adolescent girls to gain their perspective of parental support. The girls had clear reasons
for participating or not participating in swimming, but also spoke of other more subtle
reasons for being active in swimming and for being engaged in physical activity. Their
experience within swimming changed for the girls as they matured through adolescence.
They spoke of difficult transitions within their lives as a result of school, relationships,
expectations within their lives, and choices they had to make that affected their
participation in swimming. The girls were required to examine the balance between the
benefits of swimming and the effort that was involved and make the necessary
adjustments. They described what it took to be active in swimming.
Introduction to the Cohort. Their Participation in Swimming and
Their Level of Phvsical Activity
The cohort consisted of eleven girls: seven were currently swimming and four no
longer swam. All the girls had swum for at least four years with some of the girls
swimming competitively, some not. Of the girls in the cohort who were no longer
swimming, two quit at age 15 years and the other two at age 16 years. Three of the four
girls who had quit swimming remained physically active even though they were no
longer involved in the swimming club (see Table 1).

38

Table 1.
The Girls and their Swimming Activity
Swimming at time of

Swam Competitively yes / no

Participant
interview yes / no
Grace

Yes

No

Maggie

Yes

No

Paulette

Yes

No

Tara

Yes

Yes

Bryn

Yes

Yes

Sarah

Yes

Yes

Ruth

Yes

Yes

Judy

No

Yes

Gayla

No

Yes

Betty

No

No

Liz

No

No

The cohort of girls expressed different reasons for participating in swimming at the
level they did, or for not participating in swimming. Of the seven who continued to
swim, four girls swam competitively at the provincial and national level and talked about
having specific goals of improving times to a specific level, of winning certain levels of
races and of getting the opportunities for scholarships. Their week would consist of
swim practices most days, including two early morning swims, as well as a dry land
training component that consisted of working with weights and running 2-3 times per

39

week. These girls attended these practices on a regular basis. They were involved in
competitive swim meets in their own community and in other communities in the north as
well as attending provincial and national meets.
The other continuing swimmers swam at a less competitive level, or at a recreational
level. The same number of practices would be available to them as to the other girls, but
they participated in a less rigorous training schedule. They did not go to the early
morning practices and some of the other available swim times, and chose to go to only
some of the dry land training. They competed in some out of town competitions, or only
when there was a local swim meet. As a group, they spoke of goals to improve their
swimming, to improve times or just to do better. The main reasons this group gave for
being active in the sport included the following: “it makes me feel better”, “I want to stay
in shape”, “I don’t want to get fat”, and “I like it and it is a healthy thing to do”.
Two girls who had quit swimming at 15 and 16 years said they remained physically
active either in school and in community team sports or in individual pursuits such as
jogging. The reasons they gave for continuing to be involved in these other activities
included, “I want to stay in shape”, “I want to look good”, and “I like being active”.
Two girls, who were no longer active in physical activity, and who had quit
swimming at the age of 15 and 16 years, were focused on academic achievements. One
said that she regretted leaving swimming and regretted not being involved at her desired
level of physical activity. She continued to walk and jog occasionally. The other girl
said she was confident in her decision to leave swimming. She stated she did no physical
activity except for walking, though she said she valued physical activity and regretted not

40

having the opportunities to be physically active through a compulsory high school gym
program.
Even though the individuals in the cohort had different experiences in physical
activity the themes they spoke of, both with regard to their experience in swimming and
their experience of parental support were similar. They spoke of difficult transitions and
the factors that enhanced their interest and participation in physical activity. They
described what it took to be physically active.
Moving Through Difficult Transitions
The girls spoke of difficult times in their lives between the ages of 13 and 14 (Grades
8 and 9), and of difficult times again when they entered the upper grades of high school.
As students in Grades 11 and 12, they were all beginning to anticipate the next transition
of leaving high school and spoke of the uncertainty surrounding it. They spoke of their
frustrations and disappointments during these transitions; they had increased doubts about
why they were doing what they were doing, and where to focus. It became more difficult
and complicated for them to continue in physical activity through these periods of
transition. Most of them spoke of their difficulty in early adolescence of doing any
physical activity and not wanting to go anywhere, including swimming. They were either
tired, didn’t feel like it or felt sick.
Back in grade 8,1 wouldn’t slack all the time but some days I’d just be too tired and
I wouldn’t try as hard I guess. (Sarah, p. 4)
During the transition from elementary school at the end of Grade seven to the high
school into Grade eight, all of the girls were in the swim club, though two had just started
with the club. Most of the girls spoke of their difficulties and issues revolving around the
changes in early adolescence: changes in friends as they changed from the elementary

41

schools to the high school, and changes in expectations at school. Grace spoke about a
difficult time in swimming:
For a while, when I first started (swimming), I liked it for the first year and then the
next two years I couldn’t really get into to it again. .. .1 guess it was just getting
harder working, school and everything, (p. 5)
I had a lot of different friends. A lot o f my old friends, I kind of dropped, and hung
out with new people. And I guess school, too. You do harder schoolwork so you try
to spend more time on that, trying to figure it out. (Grace, p. 8)
Grace talked about her struggle during this time with her commitment to swimming.
Changes made it difficult for her to decide in what she should be involved and this caused
her a great deal of confusion. At these times, in an increasingly complicated life, the girls
made adjustments or quit their involvement in physical activity.
How the Girls Perceived the Experience of Swimming
All of the girls stated there were many things they liked about swimming, though
there were some aspects that they didn’t like. They also spoke of the times that were
difficult for them within the experience of swimming and how they got through these
difficulties. From their perspective, numerous factors influenced their participation in
swimming and physical activity.
Friends
Friends became an integral part of helping girls remain active in swimming and
physical activity. The girls enjoyed their time with their friends while swimming and the
friendships that evolved within the experience of swimming strengthened and were
valued. Girls who remained in the club spoke of the cohort as being their primary social
group. It was difficult for the cohort to maintain friends outside of swimming because of
swimming demands on their time, particularly for the highly competitive swimmers.
Bryn stated;

42

...all my good friends basically are in swimming, too, so when I go there it is kind of
fun because they are people there that I associate with all the time. If I didn’t have
anyone there, it would be harder to like go there and do the same things, (p.9)
Friends in the club had become integral for Bryn to be able to swim at a competitive level
and she identified how important it was for them to be there while she trained. Bryn had
spent a lot of time training with these same people at the expense of having opportunities
to be with friends outside the swim club. They had become a support for her in
swimming and made it easier to be involved in the sport at a competitive level.
All the girls acknowledged the value of friends in being involved in physical activity:
it was a paramount factor for them to be involved between ages 13-15. Liz, in retrospect
had the following thoughts about friends when asked directly what she thought enabled
girls to stay in physical activity.
I think the social thing is a big one, I mean girls, especially the age group you’re
looking at, 13 to 15. It’s a major stage for girls when they’re going through, they’re
needing acceptance and they’re already at a spot that they’re concerned about their
bodies. ...If they have other female friends that they can exercise with and they can
partake in sports with, that they’re friends with on a regular basis, then it would
encourage them and they would feel part of the whole. Which is very important for
girls especially at this age. (p. 6)
Liz relates that as 13 to 15 year olds, struggling with body image and self esteem, friends
were key to their participation in swimming. The group experience of girls enables them
to participate, as they feel accepted and not alone.
If there were issues with friends, it created problems and discontent within the
swimming experience for the girls especially at the ages of 13 to 15. Some of the girls
said that they didn’t really fit in and the lack of relationships between the girls in the club
had implications for their continuation in swimming. They struggled to resolve the
issues. Paulette stated:

43

They weren’t nice. I don’t know; they were just kind of snobby towards me. So I
really didn’t like those girls. ... It just became too much. (p. 7)
.. .some o f them (my friends) quit, other ones just moved up and they met other
friends. I didn’t like the other friends. So 1 didn’t really like it (swimming)
anymore. And I didn’t have any friends in my group either. .. .But then I went back
into swimming because my friend moved up to ray group, (p.6)
Paulette talked about conflicts that existed within the swimming groups and how, over
time, existing groups of friends disappeared, resulting in her feelings of isolation.
Paulette managed the situation, not by having a group of friends in swimming, but by
having a particular friend who swam, as well. This friendship enabled her to keep
swimming.
The girls, as 16 and 17 year olds, said they had a different perspective on friends and
swimming/physical activity than they did as 13 and 14 year olds. As young adolescents,
they said friends were important in their involvement in activity. As they grew older, the
girls valued friendship but it did not dominate their decisions and choices about physical
activity. Girls who left swimming said that as they left the swimming milieu, they
changed friends, and their interaction and relationship with their friends within the club
changed. Judy reflected about her understandings of this transition.
...the friend aspect, that makes it difficult particularly when you are in grade 11
going into grade 12. You have to switch all your friends at that point.
... it is different because I don’t have the same friends. Those were my swimming
friends and so we don’t have the same time together. ... I had swimming friends and
not swimming friends just because we saw each other every day so that’s why we
were friends. And then after I stopped swimming we didn’t talk as much. But we
are still friends, though but it is just you don’t see them every day. Because we were
like a little family (in swimming), (p. 1)
Judy acknowledged that in hindsight, the choice to leave the social milieu of swimming
was difficult, but she had a realistic perspective of what that choice meant for her. She
acknowledged that friends within the swim club had been important to her and remained

44

SO but that often the triendship was related to the context of swimming. She stated she

was now involved in other activities and that new friends had evolved. This was a new
perspective for her as swimming and the social environment around the sport of
swimming had been paramount in her life until she turned 16.
As the girls matured through their adolescent years, friends remained important but
other reasons increased in significance in their continued participation in swimming and
other forms of physical activity. Having friends present while being physically active
was deemed supportive and was thought to make the experience more enjoyable.
However, it was not as pivotal to their participation in physical activity as when they
were 13 and 14 year olds.
Working Towards Goals
Within the context of the sport of swimming, goals are set. This is a common
practice in sport where the coach, in particular, helps the athlete to establish goals to
work towards. Goals can be long or short term, or both, and are developed with the
individual athlete, taking into account their abilities and their life circumstances. The
goals are developed with the criteria o f being measurable and realistic. Setting goals
provides focus, a way to gauge increments of success and a framework on which to
implement a plan. All the girls in the swim club were exposed to the skill of goal setting
at some point and used the language of goal setting.
Within the swimming cohort, the girls who remained competitive in swimming
spoke of specific goals, such as making a particular standard, i.e. a national time. Other
girls, who swam but viewed themselves as less competitive or non-competitive, spoke of
“best times”, but they emphasized goals such as staying in shape, being able to improve

45

their times, and doing “more” than before in their swimming. When they spoke of being
involved in other physical activities, such as volleyball or soccer, the girls spoke about
goals of doing things better, of working well with teams, of learning new things and of
keeping in shape. The goals seemed to be less tangible but were measurable from their
perspective.
The effect of goals on the girls. During their swimming experience, the girls swam
to meet personal goals to improve themselves. The goals varied in focus, but the
achievement of the goal or working towards it produced a positive emotional experience
that was self-reinforcing.
It feels so good after you did a good practice and like you feel like you are working
towards what you want. I like how you feel after. (Sarah, p. 6)
The girls often were delighted with themselves when they were able to achieve a goal
they strove towards. Bryn describes the power of setting goals and the impact of
reaching them.
I just love it. The feeling that you get after you’ve made a goal and you’ve
accomplished it and when you go to a big swim meet and you know that you deserve
to be there just as much as the people that win, stuff like that. That’s for me. (Bryn,
p8)
Bryn established a realistic goal and she worked toward it. It gave her a positive sense of
self worth and the confidence to compete with other swimmers of similar ability. The
achievement of the goals enhanced self-esteem, their sense of ability to strive towards
goals, and a positive emotional experience for Bryn and Sarah. They perceived their
behaviors to be self-determined and the outcomes, as determined by the goals, to be
achievable.

46

Traveling and Competitions
Traveling to and participating in competitions is part of the activity of the swim club.
All of the girls liked travelling as part of the swim club. They indicated, however, that
when they first started travelling to competitions they felt uncertain and anxious. But
after they knew the expectations and became comfortable, they liked the opportunity to
go to different places and to socialize with swim club members and swimmers from other
communities. Betty made comments about competitions;
The competitions. Well, when 1 first joined I was kind of scared - oh. Go in the
swim club but 1 don’t want to compete. No, 1 don’t want to compete. But then 1 got
used to it after a while and just liked going out of town and meeting new people. It
was just fun. (p. 3)
Some of the girls found the competitions too stressful and as they continued to swim
they decided that they no longer wanted to compete, except in local meets. Maggie likes
to swim but when asked about participating in the swim meets she stated:
Not really. 1 don’t know why. 1 guess because of my nerves. 1 got really nervous
for them and stuff. .. .No, 1 don’t miss swim meets right now. (p. 4)
Maggie was one of a number of girls who swam in the club but decided not to compete as
the competitions were not the highlight of swimming but instead were a large stressor.
The swim club enabled these girls to continue to swim and respected their choice but also
asked for a certain level of participation at local meets.
The girls competing for provincial and national times had another perspective to add
to the competitions and to travel. Competitions were a step on the way to meet long and
short-term goals and Sarah gave her perspective.
...1 don’t know if 1 would be that motivated if I wasn’t (making her goals) and since
1 was making them and 1 was getting to travel far away and go places and stuff. It
was exciting and it was fun with friends. (Sarah, p. 5)

47

For Sarah, the competitions were fun and the payoff of making her goals was that she got
to travel to meets that were further away.
The impact of competition as experienced by the girls. Competition at swim meets is
a focus and an indicator of success for swimmers. In competition, the girls are able to
compare themselves to a standard by competing against other girls; they thereby compare
and validate themselves within swimming. When the girls were successful in
competition, the effect could be exhilarating with a positive emotional experience. Tara
spoke of competition in this way;
Yes, you are anxious. Because you want to beat them so bad. And when you do it is
the best feeling, (p. 5)
Tara acknowledged the anxiety of competing but this was more than made up for when
the competition was beaten with the exhilarating feelings that resulted. Judy also loved
to compete and would get emotionally high from it. “I just loved it. Just like the nerves
before the race and when you were done” (Judy, p. 4). Competition energized her.
However, though a competitive situation energized some girls, it also had the potential of
becoming a deterrent.
Many girls spoke of the negative effect on themselves when they could not meet a
standard or were unable to beat a particular competitor. For some girls, the inability to
maintain a best time or to be able to do their best at competitions was a reason not to
continue swimming. When the girls felt they did not have the ability to maintain their
expectations, they would quit swimming and would not consider going back in any
capacity or at any time. Judy spoke of the frustration.
...I wasn’t making best times anymore. It gets frustrating when you train that much
and you keep getting sick and you can’t improve. .. .1 don’t know if I would still be
on the competitive level because I know I wouldn’t be in the same abilities as

48

everyone else. They have been training way more, so I don’t know if it would be as
fun, because I wouldn’t be as competitive with everyone else, (p.6)
Not being able to continue to improve and do well became for Judy a reason to stop
swimming. Judy also felt she had swum at a particular level and would only consider
swimming competitively again when she was able to perform to the same level, in
comparison to other swimmers. The comparison to a standard and to others became a
deterrent to her participation in swimming. As well, Judy had a certain expectation of her
performance within her perceived level of competence; she hesitated to participate if she
could not maintain those expectations. Judy loved the positive feelings of competition
that sparked her, but her previous success in swimming created concerns about
demonstrating ongoing competence. Competition can be exciting and can have a positive
effect, but only if a person perceives that she has a chance of doing well.
Some girls felt overwhelmed by expectations of competition. When comparing
themselves to a more skilled competitor, they perceived that it was impossible to do well,
so would not try.
Some people when it was individual, they were like “you can’t swim as fast as her.
She’s way better than you”. So you don’t even try and go against her. (Betty, p. 9)
Betty used the comparison to the other swimmer as being important in determining her
effort and her enjoyment of the activity. She perceived the other swimmer in competition
to be so much better and found it discouraging. She felt that she could not do well
enough so she did not want to try. Tasks that are challenging but possible give a positive
experience. If they are not, they are no longer positive and may not be continued.
At times the reasons to participate in swimming seemed to come from within the
individual; for example some wanted to reach a personal goal such as bettering a time in

49

comparison to their previous time. But, at other times, there seemed to be in the
swimmers a drive from external sources such as competition and wanting to win in
competition. The girls’ words reflected, at times, a sense of confusion between these two
focuses. Many found themselves trying to identify what was important. Sarah describes
trying to sort out her confusion and make it feel right.
Well, winning doesn’t really matter too much. It is mostly about my time. But if I
don’t do a best time and, say, I do lose or just by a little bit, it kind of makes me mad
and I’m just, “oh I wish I had just went that little bit harder and I would have beat
her”. And that would have made me feel better. It would have overcome not getting
a best time. But usually I just forget about it after a little while and so it happens. It
is not like it is rare or anything. It will happen quite a bit and I’m not used to it but it
happens to everyone, (p. 7)
Sarah tried to rationalize that winning was not important. Making a best time was her
focus. But she really wanted to win and to feel good about herself. In fact, winning
would have enabled her to tolerate the fact that she didn’t make a best time. Sarah
experienced confusion and ambivalence. Competition had some negative consequences
which Sarah had to deal with.
Like if you just won a medal or something it is not really that important, but it is hard
for me because I lose confidence when I look at my competitors (p. 4). Sometimes
competition is good in that you know you can beat her and you are confident and you
do and you feel so good. But sometimes when they do beat you, you are, “oh man”.
Like, you are upset and it makes you feel worse. But most of the time it is good
because it helps push you harder, (p. 7)
Sarah acknowledged that all the experiences of competition, of winning and of losing,
were taking her to a larger long-term goal. The competition made her work harder
towards her goal, but at the price of threatening her sense of self worth and selfconfidence. Overall, Sarah acknowledged that she wanted to achieve the goals. They
came with a price but there was growth and a maturity of self-awareness that was
evolving for her.

50

The Perceived Benefits
I like swimming too. Just sometimes I get really sick o f swimming in the swim club
because it gets harder and only doing laps over and over again. But I still like it just
because I love swimming. I think it is the best sport because it works every single
muscle in your body. (Tara, p. 5)
When Tara spoke of swimming, she spoke not only of her love of swimming but
acknowledged that it involved bard work and a lot of repetition. Within that context, she
was also aware o f the importance of the physical activity of swimming. All the girls,
including those who were no longer active in swimming, spoke of the benefits of the
physical activity of swimming. They talked of body awareness, of being in shape, of
being athletic, of stress relief and feeling good as well as of being more confident and of
being able to do things.
Bodv image. A dominant theme that emerged from the girls, when asked what they
liked about physical activity and swimming, was body image. They girls spoke highly of
the benefits of being physically active in terms of controlling weight and looking good.
"...I don’t want to get fat or anything. So I stay in shape, he athletic.” (Maggie, p. 2)
Others liked the image and the perception of being athletic, and it kept them involved
in physical activity.
“I like when people say, “Gob yeah, she trains so much. She is in such good shape”,
and stuff like that. It is all so encouraging. Like I want to do more and stuff I like
that. The image that it gives off. I feel better. I don’t want to be one of those people
who are known as lazy and stuff like that. And doesn’t do anything. I’d rather be
known as, like athletic. (Sarah, p. 9)
Sarah liked the compliments from others when they acknowledged her training and her
level of fitness. She liked the image of being fit and athletic, feeling it held some
prestige.

51

Positive affect. Body image was the first thing the girls usually mentioned, but when
asked how physical activity made them feel, the girls gave a different perspective; it
made them feel good and energized them. Maggie makes the statement:
It makes me feel good. If I didn’t do it, I think I would feel kind of lazy, like a slob
you know. It just keeps me motivated, (p. 3)
Besides feeling energized, the girls also recognized that physical activity made them
feel good by helping them to manage stress. Bryn described how the experience of
swimming relaxed her. She became absorbed by the actual immediate experience as it
produced a sense of comfort.
I relied on swimming a lot to help me get through stuff, like when I go swimming; I
sort stuff out in my head and stuff like that. It’s kind of like a place where I go, just
like it’s my place or whatever. I feel comfortable there and everything and
comfortable with what I do and stuff like that. (p. 6)
Through their experiences o f participating in physical activity the girls recognized the
personal benefits that the activity gave them in the management of their lives.
Self-confidence and self-esteem. Initially, as the girls talked of physical activity and
their need to be in shape, they related it to looking good. As they spoke, it became
evident that physical activity gave them other benefits that they liked. They
acknowledged that activity made them feel better about themselves, and gave them a
greater sense o f self-esteem. Betty expressed it well:
Like if I didn’t do anything, I’d feel like nothing. I’m useless, whatever. I’m not
doing anything. I’m not good for myself. But now I am more physically active, like
I’ve grown and I’m going to become more physically active. I’m just so proud of
myself. I’m just like, -ok I look good, and I won’t think anything negative of
myself, (p. 8)

52

Betty found that physical activity enhanced how she felt about herself. She was no
longer swimming competitively but the physical activity that she continued to do helped
how she viewed herself. Paulette, another participant, stated her thoughts this way.
1 used to stay in (swimming) just because 1 feel good when 1 do it. If I don’t
exercise, I feel tired and bloated and not too pretty. 1 feel 1 don’t look nice or
anything. So when I do exercise and stuff I feel a lot better. I feel better about
myself and I’m a lot more positive, (p. 14)
Paulette, like the other girls, acknowledged that physical activity enhanced her self­
esteem. They felt good about themselves and what they were doing. The amount of
focus the girls had on “looking good” is interesting. It was a major factor in how the girls
felt about themselves. They talked about a mix of things regarding the perceived benefits
of physical activity but body image along with self-esteem stood out.
Perception of Competence
A high level of perceived competence in swimming was a main theme for all the
girls in the cohort, whether they were active or not. They all viewed themselves as
having personal competence in the skill of swimming, stating that they could do it well.
Most of the girls started swimming in the club between 6 and 10 years of age but a
number of them only started with the club at 12 or 13 years of age. The girls who joined
the swim club in early adolescence took swimming lessons at the local pool. They said
they had joined the swim club for numerous reasons, ranging from needing more
opportunity to get stronger with swimming, to looking for an activity in which to be
involved. The reasons in most cases were parent initiated and directed. The girls initially
concentrated on learning and improving strokes. They eventually trained to become
faster. Grace started with the club at the age of 13 and she stated how it evolved for her.

53

.. .I’m okay, because I haven’t been in the swim club long and I am not as big as the
other girls my age, so I guess I am slower than them, but I’m okay. (p. 4).. .1 just
decided that I was ready to start doing swim meets. ...I felt like I was able to swim
better then. When I first started, I wasn’t really too good of a swimmer. I could
swim okay and now I am better at it and I know the strokes. (Grace, p. 8)
Grace felt she was getting skilled at the strokes and as she trained more she felt more
confident in attending the swim meets. She perceived she had a level of competence in
swimming but she qualified her skill level in comparison to the girls who had been
swimming longer.
Self-confidence in Abilitv to be Phvsicallv Active
There is always a challenge to do something better and or faster. For the girls, the
process of overcoming challenges increased their sense of competence in swimming and
self-confidence (self-efficacy) in their ability to be physically active.
Many o f the cohort were active in additional physical activities, in which they also
felt competent, including volleyball, basketball, jogging, and soccer. In fact, several of
them indicated that their competence in one physical activity and their sense of
confidence in being in shape enabled them to feel comfortable and to feel confident in
trying new activities.
I really like being in shape and being able to do things. Say I want to start a new
sport at some point. I know that I am already going to be in shape because of all the
other sports that I do. So that will be a start to that. Also, I like building muscles. I
like that. (Tara, p. 6)
The fact that the girls felt competent within the skill of swimming seemed to enhance
their potential to engage in other physical activities. There was an increase in their
overall confidence in their ability to engage in physical activity.

54

Flexible Opportunities that Matched Personal Needs
Individual girls were involved in activities to the degree that the activity met their
current needs within the context of their lives. If the activity (i.e. swimming) did not fit
or was not workable, the individual did not participate. Girls who competed at the higher
levels of swimming said they felt they had the opportunities necessary to achieve their
goals of competing and/or achieving swimming scholarships for post secondary
education. The club opportunities enabled them to develop the needed competencies
within a supportive club milieu.
The girls who continued to swim but not at the higher levels, said they liked the fact
that they could swim at the level that was comfortable for them. They did not feel the
pressure to compete or to do more than they were able within the context of their lives.
They were able to pick and to choose practices within the level at which they swam and
were prepared to continue to swim because it fit for them. A level of “Senior Sprint” was
available in the club for those girls who did not feel they wanted to compete or they had
the time to train. Maggie described how this level fit for her and why she continued.
Tm in Senior Sprint now because I don’t really have the time. ..So Senior Sprint is
just three times a week. It is not really competitive anymore. ...It is basically like
an out skirt sort of. For people who still want to be with the club but don’t have time
for gold or black or anything. ...I love swimming and I like keeping busy and I like
staying in shape, (p. 2)
The girls swam within the regular practices of the club but chose the practices they
attended. The club has the flexibility to enable girls to participate at the level they want
and has enabled them to remain active within the club. Paulette had a difficult time with
competition and did not like the commitment. She changed her involvement to attend the
practices that suited her and gained a different perspective on things.

55

I like it better because the pressure is off. There is no more pressure for me to move
up. It was as if the club had cleared and everything was okay. Ever since then, I
haven’t been as serious as I was about swimming, (p. 8)
The context of the club provided an opportunity for physical activity that matched the
needs of the girls; this allowed them to remain active. Most of the girls found something
that fit within this comfortable supportive environment and continued to swim.
What It Takes to be Active in Swimming
The cohort of girls spoke of the difficulties they encountered in continuing
swimming but also indicated what characteristics and skills enabled them to adjust and
continue.
Self-discipline and Persistence
All the girls did not like certain aspects about swimming. They spoke of the tedious
repetition of the practices: the monotony.
Lots, lots, lots of practices. Every day. There is something like 9 practices a week.
And it takes off a lot of time. And it gets boring really quickly. Like we have long
sets that you have to do. Twenty times the same thing. Over and over again. It gets
tiring and boring. (Tara, p. 5)
They would relate being tired from going to school and to swim practice and then having
to go home, to stay up late and to do homework, and then to do it all over again the next
day. There were early morning practices, which they didn’t care for. On these days,
there would also be an after school practice. A level of commitment and discipline was
required.
I swim and then I get home and then I eat and then I do my homework and then I go
to bed, get up early. (Bryn, p. 8)
Each of the girls experienced difficulties as a result of fitting swimming into their
lives in order to meet particular goals. Swimming competitively became more

56

demanding and took up to 15-19 hours per week, the equivalent of a part time job. The
girls, at all levels of swimming, had to do a lot of juggling of time to fit the activity into
their lives to meet their particular goals. The girls spoke of the difficulties of being
physically active: it involved a lot of adjustments and perseverance. Time management
was a paramount skill that enabled the girls to be involved in physical activity, and selfdiscipline was key. The girls were aware of the skills that they had developed. Judy
acknowledged what swimming produced for her.
Swimming just teaches you lots of things. Like discipline and stuff. .. .Everything I
have taken out of swimming has been positive, (p. 11)
Dealing with Setbacks
The girls, both the competitive and non-competitive swimmers, began to experience
injuries and illnesses that caused a great deal of disruption to their training and to their
enjoyment. They talked about how injuries affected their abilities to meet their goals, and
made it difficult for them to enjoy the swimming or the physical activity.
Disappointment and aggravation over the situation predominated.
At that point, I was at my peak. 1 was doing really good swimming. That was when
I was 14 and 15. That was when I was getting really good as a swimmer. Last year
was really the year I wanted to quit everything. I was so sick and I couldn’t swim
and I hated it. I was getting out of shape. I just wanted to quit everything and just
stay home and do nothing. (Tara, p. 9)
Injuries had to be dealt with and they often came at an inopportune time. As for Tara,
injuries and illness often tested her resolve to continue in swimming. The illness would
not allow Tara to progress, but instead took her backwards.
The girls dealt with the setbacks through problem solving and through adjustments.
The girls were able to place the situation into perspective, to recover and then to continue

57

on afterwards, often with greater self-understanding. This is part of the conversation with
Bryn.
Bryn: Fm injured right now. I’m recovering. ...I had to redo all my training. 1 was
doing so good and everything and then 1 had to not train as much and was like
swimming five hours in that week because 1 couldn’t do it because it hurt and
everything.
Interviewer: So it frustrated you?
Bryn: It was very frustrating. Then I had a swim meet coming up right after that and
I knew that 1 couldn’t ... That was really hard.
Interviewer: It was hard on you?
Bryn: Both physically and mentally. But you kind of have to face the facts.
...Yeah. You always try to find a way to work around though, (p.4)
For Bryn dealing with the injury resulted in her becoming self-aware: she developed an
ability to deal mentally and physically with the impasse in order to meet her goal.
Understanding Limitations and Making Choices
The girls’ interests and goals between the ages of 12 and 17 years changed as they
matured. They had to make choices about their level of involvement in activities,
including swimming. Each of them had to examine what was important and what was
not. Maggie gave her perspective on the change in goals for her and her involvement.
When 1 was 13 and 14,1 was just trying to find a different sport to do that wasn’t
hockey or wasn’t figure skating. 1 was trying to find a different one. And swimming
worked. 1 liked that and 1 was basically there just to try and find something else and
as I went up in levels, 1 got more competitive. And then 1 didn’t really like
competing like 1 did. When 1 first started it was just something to do and now it is
part of my life. You know, like something I have to do and want to do. (p. 4)
Maggie’s initial goal was to find an activity that she liked in which she could be
involved. As she became better in swimming, competition and the goals around it
became more important. But Maggie found that competition did not fit for her and her

58

goals became more focused on swimming for the sake of swimming and on being
physically active.
Expectations of what they could do in swimming changed as they acknowledged
their limitations and the amount of effort required. The girls would relate how they
improved greatly when they initially started to compete. As it became harder to improve,
they were not as successful and they did not like it and would stop competing. The
majority of girls identified this as a key concern in the difficult transition years from age
13 to 15 years. Maggie described what happened for her.
1 think at first I did like it (competition) because when you first start you improve
lots every time and you go, “oh yeah, I was fast”. But then when you start getting
faster you improve less and less and 1 think I stopped liking that; I didn’t improve
every time and I didn’t like it as much any more. (p. 4)
The reward of achieving a standard and of improving became difficult and did not hold
Maggie’s interest. A shift occurred in her focus of her activity and she made adjustments
in her swimming. As for Maggie, the girls either changed their focus in swimming or
quit if they could not resolve their issues.
When the choice was made to become a competitive swimmer, there were
adjustments around increased expectations in the sport, and their participation required a
greater effort to achieve the results. Tara spoke of it this way.
Well it keeps getting harder obviously because levels of swimming are getting higher
and harder all the time and the times are getting faster. So it gets harder all the time
basically. It is still hard now. Even right now at 16 it is hard because school takes
up a lot of time and also a lot of other interests other than swimming. If I want to
improve in swimming I have to be there all the time and keep focused because it is
the only thing. Like school takes up a lot of work in grade 11 and 12. So now it
always gets a lot harder and I really have to focus on what 1 want to do. (p. 4)
Tara relates the difficulty of achieving the standards that she wants in swimming and of
achieving in school and being engaged in her other activities. She acknowledges that if

59

she wants to achieve her goal in swimming she has to be prepared to put more effort into
it and focus on what she wants. Tara had a lot of expectations of herself and
acknowledged the work that it would take.
All the girls spoke of the stresses they experienced from their expectations in
swimming, school and extra curricular activities. Some made definite choices about
limiting their activities but others tried to do “everything”. Choices were difficult and
created stress.
The demands placed on all the girls were great with increased effort required, more
time, and increased expectations. They made a lot of adjustments to engage in a life style
that they determined to be beneficial for them.
Rationalization of Effort
The girls talked with some regret about the things they thought they would miss out
on such as activities with friends or the opportunities to do other activities. Most of the
high level competitors acknowledged their total focus of activity was swimming to meet
their goals, and this commitment restricted their participation in other activities.
Sometimes I’ll miss out on something really important that I want to go to or
something. .. .Just something that all my friends are going to and I can’t go because
I am going somewhere. ... Sometimes I just want to go home after school and be like
a normal person and just go to bed or take a nap and then do my homework and go to
bed early or watch TV or something. I don’t know. I wouldn’t really want it; 1
would be missing it too much if I didn’t have something. And it would be so boring.
(Sarah, p. 6)
Sarah spoke with regret that she missed out on other activities, and longed for
“normality”. She felt ambivalent but had rationalized her position by stating that being
normal would be boring and would not enable her to meet her goal. The goals were

60

difficult to achieve and the girls in competitive swimming struggled and had to
continually rationalize their effort and commitment.
All the girls who swam rationalized the level of involvement and the degree of effort
that they were prepared to do. For each one it was an individual choice that they decided
upon based on their overall life choices. For some the choice was not to swim and it
involved rationalization of their decision.
Dropping out of swimming. The four girls who no longer swam did continue until
ages 15 and 16. They had different responses when asked why they no longer swam.
The girls gave careful consideration to the question of quitting swimming, and some
common themes emerged.
Well last year I had lots of trouble making it to every practice because of schoolwork
and other commitments... It just takes up so much time and grade 12 is important to
do... (Judy, p. 2)
For Judy, the reasons for leaving swimming were that the demands of school and other
commitments took precedence. All the girls felt the pressures of school, but for some this
pressure forced them to quit swimming. Others could no longer see progress in their
swimming.
I just got kind of bored with it. I wasn’t getting really better and stuff. I felt like I
couldn’t go any further. I just quit. (Gayla, p. 4)
All the girls, but some more than others, liked to see improvement and to show progress
in swimming; it was an incentive to continue. Gayla perceived that she could not get any
better with the amount o f effort she was prepared to give. The fact she made no progress
made her interest in swimming unsustainable.
Other girls lost interest and wanted to have more social activity.

61

Just wanted to have more fun and I didn’t want to swim that much. I started drifting
away, by not going to swimming as much and then I didn’t compete in too many
meets. ... So I just ended up quitting. (Betty, p. 4)
Others felt they were under too much pressure to accomplish the things they wanted
to do.
1just sort of felt drained. A lot of swimmers that I’ve talked to felt the same way
where they just felt overworked or over pressured. It’s not so much that there were
other people pressuring me, but just that the more responsibilities that I had, the
more things that I had to get done, the less swimming was becoming a priority. (Liz,
p. 3)
The pressure o f many different commitments and goals made it difficult for the girls to
continue. Swimming was another thing in Liz’s increasingly complex life. The benefits
of the activity o f swimming were not enough and she decided not to swim.
The girls compared the perceived benefits and the perceived difficulties of the
activity of swimming. They chose one of the following options as being in their best
interest: quit swimming and change to a different activity, change the level of
involvement, or continue in swimming and pursue higher goals. Transitions and the
change created new and increased stressors in the lives of the girls and the adjustments
were not comfortable. Factors emerged within the lives of the girls who quit swimming
that indicated to them that swimming no longer met their needs, and the amount of the
return for the effort they put in was no longer great enough. Those who kept swimming
perceived the amount of benefits from the activity as worthwhile and kept swimming.
They rationalized their effort.
Anticipating Difficulties
For the most part, the girls said that they set achievable goals, but they anticipated
the possibility o f not succeeding, and had developed alternatives:

62

Well, the first year I will try out for the swim team there (university) and if I make it,
I will probably serve that year and see how it is. If it is really hard and it is affecting
my grades and stuff like that, affecting school. It depends on how I feel. If I like it
and I ’m doing well, then I will probably continue it but if I’m not and it is not getting
me anywhere and it is harder for me then I might just drop it and do it every once
and a while to keep in shape. Probably work out and stuff like that. (Sarah, p. 8)
Sarah had a goal to swim on a university swim team but acknowledged that this goal may
need to be reviewed within the context of other goals, and in the context of swimming,
whether or not she was achieving at the level she wanted to. Sarah was setting priorities
and planning for the future. She was prepared to take risks and was not afraid of her
potential failure, but recognized that there may be considerable challenges with which
she may need to deal.
Accepting Responsibility for Own Actions
As 16 and 17 year olds, the girls accepted responsibility for their own actions as they
worked toward their self determined goals. They worked within their expectations of
themselves and developed a realistic perspective on what they could achieve.
There were a lot of people faster than me. Now I’m faster than some people. That’s
just how it is. (Tara, p. 2)
They often stated that the decision to participate at a particular level in physical activity
had been theirs and they were comfortable with it.
.. .there’s a lot of pressure to do good. But I think mostly it’s from myself to make
myself do better. (Bryn, p.4)
The values of swimming became important; they became socialized into swimming and
from that took on more responsibility within the swimming club. Bryn talked about her
expectations of herself and how she managed them. Management involved selfdiscipline and also integration into her life, the values of physical activity and swimming.
Bryn viewed herself as a role model.

63

.. .because you’re older, I’m a senior swimmer, so I have to set examples for the
littler kids and you have to be more dedicated and everything. There’s a lot more
stuff that you have to do, so its like big time management skills and stuff, (p. 3)
The ability to set realistic, yet challenging goals, to take risks and to anticipate
difficulties, and plan for alternatives were characteristic skills to various degrees, of this
cohort. The girls were able to plan and to manage their lives to meet the goals they
wanted to achieve, to accept what they needed to do and to rationalize the effort and the
regrets. They were developing skills in self-regulating behaviors.
Summary
The initial response of the cohort as to what they liked about swimming was friends
and fun. Issues around friends, such as not fitting in, conflicts and changing friends
needed to be resolved to enable the girls to remain in swimming. As the girls matured,
their main focus of friends and fun became less important and other issues surrounding
why they liked physical activity began to predominate.
Travel to swimming competitions was a highlight for the girls, but competition met
the needs of the minority. Competition had positive and negative impacts for the
swimmers. For some, the competition was an energizer, but for others, it became a
deterrent.
The girls talked about the social environment and the opportunities that the swim
club gave them to be physically active within the context of their lives. They felt that
they had made gains by being introduced to the skill of goal setting; this enabled them to
reach their potential.
The girls also talked about the perceived benefits of the physical activity of
swimming. They liked the body image of being in shape, athletic, and looking good.

64

They acknowledged their level of competence in the sport of swimming and felt that it
gave them a sense of confidence to participate in other physical activities; as well, their
competence increased their overall sense of self-esteem and self-confidence. They
valued the increased level of energy it gave them, the “feeling good” and acknowledged
the stress reducing qualities of physical activity.
But the girls acknowledged struggles within physical activity and within their lives
through early adolescence. They spoke of changes as they made adjustments through
these difficulties and related these experiences within swimming. Changes in schools,
friends and expectations complicated their lives. They began to recognize and to
acknowledge their personal limitations in swimming and otherwise, as well as in their life
context, and the choices they had to make. They also ran into some major obstacles:
illness and injury, time and energy. They had to weigh the benefits of the activity of
swimming with the amount of effort and sacrifice that the activity required. The choices
varied for the girls, with some remaining in competitive swimming, some girls
swimming, but non-competitively, and some girls quitting. They all valued physical
activity as a life style enough that they intended to commit to it at some level.
Throughout the conversations, questions arose of how the girls were supported in
their endeavors. How did they manage the difficulties of swimming and get through the
difficult transitions? How were they able to rationalize the effort and to make the
choices? In the answers to these questions, the girls’ provided their experience and
understandings of parental support.

65

CHAPTER 5
The Experience of Parental Support
Introduction
Parental support has been identified as being significant in the continued
participation of girls in physical activity (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Anderssen & Wold,
1992; Hoyle & Leff, 1997). The data from the interviews indicate several common
themes of parental support in physical activity: being involved as a parent in the club,
providing physical support, supporting the girls’ goals and choices, providing emotional
support, encouraging consistency and commitment, and having expectations.
Parental Support
Parental Involvement in the Swim Club
When asked about support, the girls spoke of the parent involvement in the club.
Parental involvement in the swim club took mainly two forms. One was providing
organizational support; the other was attendance at swim meets. The girls often said that
parents managed the swim meets, performed fund raising, and acted as chaperones.
They (parents) help with the selling of chocolates and all the other fundraisers that
we did. They, my mom, organized one particular fundraiser that they did once a
month or something. They were right into it. (Liz p. 3)
Liz acknowledged that parents helped with the organization and the operation of the
swim club. From the perspective of some girls, this involvement of parents in the club
counted as support at a distance.
The girls stated they had different levels of tolerance for the presence of parents at
practices and swim meets. Tara states what it meant for her.
They (my parents) never got involved with me. But mostly with the swim club. It
has only really been because of what I wanted. Like I never really had somebody

66

telling me “why don’t you make that. I would like you to make that”, other than my
coach. My parents never really got involved with me. (p. 7)
For Tara, the involvement of her parents in the club organization was a form of support
that suited her. Tara did not want her parents in her swimming program. She and other
girls directly stated they preferred that their parents did not come to the swim meets or
the practices. Tara states it this way:
Tara; It (swim meet) was far away and I wanted to go myself without my parents
and she (mom) came. So, in a way, it kind of ruined my trip because I wanted
to be, like, by myself and with only the swim club. No parents. And she came
and I didn’t really like that.
Interviewer: She probably thought it was being supportive
Tara: Yeah. But I told her that too. I’m like “I didn’t want you to come”, (p. 11)
After the girls became accustomed to the expectations of travel, to the experience of
billeting, and began to make friends within the club and in other towns, many of them
preferred that their parents not come on the trips. Tara, along with other girls, liked
travelling without parents, as she was able to experience new things in a supportive
chaperoned environment. The support at a distance best suited many of the girls’ needs.
However, other girls spoke highly of parents being at swim meets. “They were
always at swimming meets and they were always helping out with the swim club.
Always behind me 100%” (Gayla p. 7). Other girls stated they enjoyed their parents
being at meets but they were not dependent upon them. Grace stated this perspective.
It didn’t really matter to me because I didn’t hang out with them (parents) a lot when
they did come. They would come after a race and I would talk with them for a
minute. ...It was nice of them to come and watch. And then I could talk about my
races with them. (p. 10)

67

Grace acknowledged that she managed to go to the races independently from her parents
but when they did come they did not interfere and she was able to share the experiences
of competition with them.
The girls acknowledged the parental involvement in the swim club within the limits
of their understandings. The reality of the situation is that the swim club is parent-driven
and the success of the club depends upon parents. It was interesting that the girls did not
really understand that parents were essential to their experience of the swim club. In
other words, the swimming experience within the club would not happen unless the
parents organized it. The girls could only acknowledge what was relevant to them at that
point in time, whether it was that their parents came to the meets, that they chaperoned or
that they helped them to sell chocolate.
Providing Physical Support
When girls were asked how parents supported them, the girls acknowledged
foremost the physical support given by parents. Physical support was three fold: being
there to take them to the swimming pool and to pick them up, providing financial
resources, and being flexible with meals and chores.
As 16 and 17 year olds, they acknowledged how important it was for them when
they were 13-14 years olds that their parents took them to swimming practice. The
continued support was important later on, but some of the girls were now able to drive
themselves to the practices. If parents were not available to drive, the girls would get
rides from other swimmers and the role of driving would he shared among the parents.
Maggie describes the typical scenario.

68

When I was younger, they drove me down, and picked me up and we had a car pool
because a girl on my street swam so we all took turns. Parents driving us down and
picking us up. And now I just drive myself down. (p. 5)
The girls stated that parental financial support of their efforts was important. Only
two girls out of the 11 worked at jobs other than babysitting: one had quit swimming and
the other continued to swim. The girls acknowledged the cost of swimming, and of
travelling to the meets. A few girls perceived the high cost of swimming to place
financial pressure on the family, and it was a factor in their quitting swimming.
Families were flexible in scheduling meal times and in dividing chores between
siblings and parents, enabling the girls to be at swimming practices. They spoke of meal
times being adjusted and of negotiating chores to accommodate their swimming. They
perceived that expectations at home, in terms of “helping out”, continued even though
they viewed themselves as very busy. One is unable to ascertain what these expectations
meant in real terms for these girls and families, but the fact remains the majority felt there
was an expectation for them to participate in household duties.
A theme that was heard from many was the “presence” of mom or dad in enabling
them to get to the activity and enabling them to be there fed and rested. Suppers were
made and served late and snacks brought to the pool. Some parents left work early to
drive the girls to the activities and then returned back to work. Families and individuals
made sacrifices and adjustments in routines to enable the girls to swim. The girls at 16
and 17 years of age were able to acknowledge this, as stated by Liz.
They drive me there all the time. They pay for me to go everywhere. It’s really an
expensive sport. They encourage me all the time. They don’t discourage me at all.
.. .They sacrifice a lot. (p. 6)

69

Supporting Goals and Choices
The development of the skill of goal setting is a focus of sport and provides an
avenue to incremental success in competitive swimming. Goal setting includes
identifying goals that are realistic and achievable. Parents have an important role in
helping the girls develop this skill and in then providing the support to allow the girls to
work toward their goals.
Acknowledgement of the girls’ effort towards goals. The girls in the cohort talked
about their goals in swimming and in school. Some goals were not specifically defined
but others were concrete and involved specific measurable outcomes such as achieving
particular times for a stroke over a certain distance. Ways that the girls perceived support
included parental interest in the girls’ goals. Parents would demonstrate this interest by
asking the girls about their swimming experience and by helping them document the
times from swim meets to see their progression towards the goal. Grace states:
.. .they help me keep track of my times and when I’m getting close to an A or AA
time they know. ...W e get ribbons when we are done a swim meet and they have our
times on them. So you can w ite them down. .. .1 would tell them my times and we
would look at what was a time for that stroke or in that swim and see how close 1
was. (p. 7)
Grace’s parents showed active interest in what Grace was doing and what she was trying
to achieve. They performed the specific task of documenting times that focused on the
results for which Grace was striving, acknowledging her progress and her effort.
Other girls spoke of parents helping them to focus on the goals they had chosen.
Sarah explains how her parents helped to focus her by acknowledging her effort.
They know it is hard and they say “Yeah 1 know it is hard, Sarah”. They just told me
to keep it up and I’m doing fine and stuff, (p. 6)

70

Sarah’s parents’ acknowledgement of the difficulty and of the required effort facilitated
Sarah’s ability to focus on the goals she had chosen to work towards as a highly
competitive swimmer. They validated her effort and confirmed to her that she was
managing within a framework that was achievable. Sarah needed to hear that
confirmation as she was having difficulty recognizing it.
Helping the girls develop alternative perspectives. There were difficulties
encountered in striving towards goals. The girls spoke o f being overwhelmed and of
being confused by the demands of swimming, school and other activities. The girls
talked about how parents enabled them to place the swimming, goals and
accomplishments into realistic perspective. Sarah’s goals for a scholarship meant that her
school marks had to be at a certain level. She struggled with whether or not she was
trying hard enough in her endeavors.
Like, if I bring home like a good grade or something, they act, like, surprised and
stuff because they don’t know how I do it, and stuff like that. It makes me feel better
because if I’m not happy with it but it is actually is a really good grade, when they
say stuff like that, it makes me feel better. So then I don’t feel half as bad. (p. 6)
The message that Sarah heard from her parents was that she had done a good job and it
was accomplished within difficult demands on her time and energy. It was reassuring to
her that she was doing well scholastically within the demands of swimming. She needed
the confirmation, as she did not have the experience to have a realistic perspective by
which to judge her successes.
At times, parents would question and challenge the girls’ choices. The girls in the
cohort were active in many different activities. At times this varied activity seemed
overwhelming to the girls, and parents questioned the amount of things the girls were
doing and their focus. Maggie explains it this way:

71

This year they have been pretty not supportive. It is grade 12 and they want me to get
really good marks and 1 have a lot of hard classes. They haven’t really been that bad.
They haven’t said, like, “Oh no, you can’t go swimming, you can’t run, you can’t do
this, you can’t do that “ . They are kind of, like, “Well, are you sure you can handle
this, you know? Well, if your marks start going down you have to quit something”.
But that hasn’t happened yet. There is the potential for them to discourage but they
haven’t really, (p. 10)
Maggie liked to be active and involved in things as well as viewing school as important.
She acknowledged the cautionary concern of her parents but also recognized they
supported her right to make decisions, and they will support her decisions. Maggie’s
parents, through their cautionary note to her, provided alternate perspectives about the
focus of her activities. Through these conversations, Maggie became aware of their
perspective and her own decision-making about her level of involvement. She gained the
potential to better problem solve her amount of involvement in future activities.
Respecting choices. At the ages of 16 and 17, the girls reflected that throughout
adolescence, they had been encouraged to set goals, and were helped with problem
solving around the goals, but stressed the final choices had been theirs. The support from
parents included help with problem solving and respect for the girls’ choices. Tara spoke
of it in this way after having to reduce her swimming due to illness.
And they are, like “Well what do you want to do? Do you want to quit?” I’m like,
“No 1 don’t want to quit, but 1 don’t want to swim anymore this year.” They said,
“Okay that is your choice. And personally 1 think it is a good choice because you are
sick and you want to do it that way this year”. So they kind of supported me in a
way. They were, like, “okay, it is your choice and we’ll hope next year will be good
too”, (p. 10)
Tara’s parents acknowledged with her that it was unrealistic for her to continue
swimming but helped her to see that she could swim in the following year. Their
conversation enabled Tara to problem solve around an impasse to her goal. It gave her
the perspective that she needed to understand that she could continue to swim

72

competitively after her illness, but the break in training was necessary and appropriate at
this time. Tara’s thinking had been along the line of “all or nothing”. However, her
parents enabled her to see the potential for next year. All the parents helped their
daughters with problem solving, developing new perspectives, and enabling them to
make choices, which they would respect.
The support by parents in goals and choices included; acknowledgement of the effort
towards the goals, respecting choice of goals, opportunities to problem solve issues
around the goals with discussion to help develop alternate perspectives about the goals
and negotiate around obstacles. The girls required continued support from their parents
in their growth in becoming more adept at working toward goals. As the girls' lives
became increasingly complex, they required more support and continued assistance in
developing problem solving skills.
Providing Emotional Support
Girls spoke of parental support during times of success and of disappointment
throughout their swimming experiences. As well, difficult times and increasing stress
required more emotional support from parents.
The girls spoke of feeling emotionally supported during disappointments at
competitions or of times when it was difficult to attend practices. Some girls viewed as
reassuring the attendance of parents at competitions. Some girls felt that talking about
the race and the results with parents was useful. Grace relates how she felt about parents
coming to swim meets.
It was nice of them to come and watch. And then I could talk about my races with
them. .. .They talked about how I could maybe go faster and what I did wrong if I
got disqualified, (p. 10)

73

Grace felt she was able to talk about the races after the competition because her parents
bad been in attendance. As a result, she could solve problems associated with the race
with tbeir help.
Other girls were impressed by the fact that tbeir parents watched practices. “They
were always like watching practices too. I find they are quite boring to watch. It is pretty
surprising.” (Gayla, p. 7) They felt this was supportive.
The adolescent years included a number of transitions and changes for the girls,
which were described as stressful. When they spoke of difficult times, emotional support
by parents was identified as being important. Several girls talked about self-esteem
issues and acknowledged the fact that they required help during the times they were not
feeling good about things. They acknowledged from their perspective as adolescents of
16 and 17 years, that support from parents is helpful to get the girls through these times.
Just their (parents’) support and everything, which helps me, keep on going and
being active. How they give me confidence, boost my self-esteem, which 1 need
because usually when Tm having low self-esteem, 1 don’t feel too great about
myself. Like most teenage girls sometimes feel that way. (Betty, p. 8)
These transitions caused confusion for the girls and they had difficulty making
decisions, asking themselves if they wanted to continue in swimming. They would
struggle with questions such as, “Why am 1 doing this?” and “Why am 1 trying so hard?”
(Sarah, p. 5). There were issues around change in friends, around not being able to do the
activities they wanted to because of the demands of swimming, and, around the increased
demands of school. They often struggled with decisions they felt they had to make; some
said they had few skills to help themselves. They described their ambivalence about
making decisions. They would turn to others for guidance, and that would often result in
further confusion.

74

They (parents) told me I should do what is best for me and what I thought. And I
thought I should have quit and my dad is kind of a go-getter and he was just, “Come
on, you can do this, I know you can.” And Fm just worried and he’d say, “don’t
worry about it, just don’t worry about nothing- you’ll do fine.” And then I ended up
doing fine. (Betty, p. 4)
Support needed to come in different forms. Betty felt confused and overwhelmed by the
decisions. Her parents offered support and stated that they would support her choice.
But when the confusion persisted and Betty remained “stuck”, they gave suggestions and,
at times, specific direction. Parents would allow the girls to stmggle and would support
them emotionally during this time but would often provide specific guidance with certain
expectations. Parental emotional support meant that the girls felt they were not alone
with their feelings or issues and that someone cared for and listened to them.
As the girls matured through adolescence, their confidence in their choices and goals
increased but they stated that they actually required more emotional support.
If anything, more (support). They know that I want to make senior nationals and I
want to get a scholarship and stuff like that before I graduate. So they are not
pushing me harder but they are wanting me to do better. I think they are there for me
more and, like, they know how important it is... (Sarah, p. 5)
Sarah knows that her parents are behind her through the difficult times, acknowledging
her goals and the effort it takes for her to swim. The stressors in her life became greater
and it took more effort to reach her goals. Sarah’s parents let her know that they
understood how much it meant for her to achieve her goals, and that they knew she had
the ability. Overall, they were “there” for her. Sara, like all of the girls, felt her parents’
ongoing emotional encouragement and presence to be highly supportive.
Encouraging Consistencv
All the girls described how parents expected them to continue, particularly during
early adolescence when they talked about not wanting to go to swimming or to the swim

75

meets. They stated that parental encouragement promoted consistency through times that
were difficult and they viewed this as supportive. All the girls spoke of how necessary it
was for their parents to encourage them to be consistent in practices and swim meets and
in any physical activity.
If I was tired, I wouldn’t have gone (swimming), but they made me go, or if I wasn’t
feeling well I wouldn’t have gone swimming that day, but they kind of made me.
(Maggie, p. 7)
The girls stated that even though they may have been interested in the swimming,
they needed the focus and the encouragement to continue in the activities. As well, their
other interests and new focuses were distracting. When they were asked how they got
through these times, their usual responses were, “I had no choice. My mom would say
we have swimming and we are going down” (Grace, p. 9). “They always supported me.
Like my mom, whether I want to go or not, she would always drive” (Judy p. 6). Grace
described how her parents helped her through the difficult times of ages 14-15.
Grace: They just encouraged me to keep going in it even when I didn’t really feel
like it.
Interviewer: How would they do that for you?
Grace: My mom would make me keep going.
Interviewer: And how did she manage to do that?
Grace: She just wouldn’t let me quit. (p. 7)
The majority of the girls spoke of this enforced consistency. There was an
expectation that the girls would attend the practices that were organized. Moms and dads
were consistent in their routines of getting the girls to the pool and were consistent in
their expectation of the girls’ attendance. In retrospect, the girls acknowledged this as
being supportive. The girls stated that the expected consistency got them through the

76

times that they just didn’t feel like continuing. The parental expectation to go, and to go
regularly, along with actually taking the girls to the practices seemed to provide stability
through these turbulent times. The girls, as 16 and 17 year olds, now engage in physical
activity without pressure or coercion.
Having Expectations
Throughout the conversations, the girls acknowledged that the overall choice of
goals was theirs but there was an understood parental expectation of physical activity.
The girls’ comments indicate that parents encouraged them to go to swimming or to be
involved in physical activity as well as expected them to try hard and to do as well as
they could. Some girls felt that it had been such a part of their life that they didn’t
question it. Swimming had been introduced early into their lives and it had always been
an expectation.
Yeah, it’s (swimming) always been there. My friends would always say, like,
“Whoa, don’t you get tired from swimming, or don’t you get bored of swimming
back and forth?” I just do it. It’s just the way it has always been. (Judy, p. 10)
Judy spoke of the situation for a majority of the girls. They had started swimming as pre
adolescents or younger and it was a way of life for them. During the transition years of
13 to 14 years of age, girls were often taken to swimming as a matter of course. They
had to go to please their parents and their parents expected them to go. Their lives at this
age were more regulated by parental influence and they went swimming. The girls
expressed that they felt that their parents overtly expected them to be physically active.
Maggie made the following statement:
Maggie: They didn’t want me not to do anything. I don’t think they would have let
me just sit at home and watch TV.
Interviewer: Was that something you wanted to do?

77

Maggie; No that is not something I wanted to do. I never wanted to do that, but like
if I did, I don’t think I would have been allowed, (p. 5)
Maggie understood the value that her parents place on being active; they expected her to
be physically active in some way. Maggie later incorporated these values into her
lifestyle.
Gayla spoke of the impact of parental expectations through their modeling of
physical activity and their expectations of their daughters to engage in physical activity.
She stated it this way:
I think parents have a lot to do with it (being physically active). Because I know this
one girl and her mom is so active and she is just like right up there with her mom.
She is just always active. So I think it has a lot to do with the parents. Like the way
your parents perceive activeness. And they kind of help push you to doing that.
Because if they don’t and just say it is alright that you are at home watching TV,
then you are not going to feel pushed and you are not going to really want to try it.
Ü%11)
Gayla’s succinct summary reflected what a majority of the girls related. Parental
expectation was a critical component for getting the girls active and for keeping them
active. Parents had to encourage the girls to be involved in physical activity.
Expectations to continue resulted in some conflicts during the transition years of
13 and 14. Parents examined the reasons of the girls for wanting to quit swimming but
the overall expectation was for the girls to continue the activity and to figure out how to
deal with the issue. This is Paulette’s story:
I think they (parents) were just kind of frustrated because in grade 8 I had lost all my
friends and grade 7 ,1 was losing all my friends. So by grade 8 ,1 didn’t have very
many friends and I wanted to quit swimming. They (parents) always felt that
swimming and exercise is very important. So they were supportive to me. They
said, “Well, you will just have to deal with it. It is okay’” . They tried to get me
through. But I didn’t really like it too much. (p. 8)

78

Paulette’s parents expected she would continue to swim. In the end, Paulette did resolve
the issues through supported problem solving of the situation in order to find a way
around the apparent roadblock.
The impact of expectations on the girls. The values of physical activity and effort
are indicated through the expectations of the parents, which the girls understood.
Expectations of parents for their children have dramatic effect. They were often direct
but they were often subtle. Girls spoke of swimming to meet their own goals or
expectations, but, at times, there would be, for some, an expectation to please parents:
They always congratulated me after 1 did something good and they were always
there and just as excited as me if 1 made a good time or something. So for them
becoming happy, it made me happy and then it helped me stay in it longer and want
to do better. (Sarah, p. 5)
Sarah spoke of achieving for others, such as her parents, and gaining self worth. The
understandings that her achievement made her parents happy gave her a positive
emotional experience, but also undermined the degree that the experience was orientated
toward herself. Part of the source of acknowledgement and participating in the activity
came from outside Sarah.
Liz gave insight about the impact of the expectations of parents.
1 was very happy when 1 could better my own times or when 1 could set a specific
time that 1 wanted to make and then make it or just little goals that 1 would set for
myself. 1 think that’s also another thing that deters girls from participating in sports
is that they look at it say - “Well if 1 don’t get this medal or if I don’t get this specific
time”,- then they really beat themselves up about it. 1 think it does have a lot to do
with parents as well. 1 mean there were lots of people in the swim club that did not
feel that they could just do it and do it to their own expectations. They were very
pushed by their parents. 1 was lucky enough not to have that. (p.7)
1 never felt 1 had to please them or get a certain time to make them happy (Liz, p.2)
Liz indicated that parental expectations can be beneficial or be detrimental. Liz stated
she was encouraged and was supported within her own determined goals and that was a

79

positive experience. She stated she was aware of girls trying hard for the expectations of
their parents and that it was hard on them. These girls could never just swim for
themselves and often questioned if their effort was good enough. These girls’ self esteem
would be jeopardized. Perceived pressure may come in a variety of forms and can be
subtle. The girls’ understanding of the situation is important and can have varying
impact on them.
The girls acknowledged that as they matured the overall choice of goals was theirs,
but there remained for them an underlying understanding of their parents’ expectations.
Judy describes her parents’ expectations of her doing well and her trying hard.
Judy: Well they never pushed me. It was always my choice whether I wanted to go
to practice and such. It was my choice, so they didn’t ever push me but they
always wanted me to do good.
Interviewer: How would they tell you that they wanted you to do good? How would
you know that?
Judy: They would never tell me before, but when I was done they would be like “oh
you know you should maybe gone to practice more or something”, but I would
always know that they were right. That if I had of gone to practice more I
could maybe have done better or something. But they never pushed me hard.

Gx6)
Judy made a choice about how much she wanted to swim. She felt the expectation of her
parents to do as well, with the best effort, and she did that. Judy acknowledged that
perhaps more practice would have helped, but felt she had achieved within the limits that
she herself had defined. She knew that her parents respected her effort.
Shift of expectations. As the girls grew older, the source of expectation shifted. The
girls spoke o f their own expectation to be active and to achieve their goals within
swimming. Maggie, when asked how her parents helped her be motivated and to be
interested in physical activity as a 17-year-old, stated:

80

I think it is mostly myself. Sometimes, they try to tell me I do too much and
discourage me but I think there is something wrong with me. I just like to be busy
like this. They want me to be active but sometimes they almost want me to be less
active, (p. 6)
Parents encouraged Maggie in the activities but Maggie stated that she perceived that her
motivation to be active now came from herself and was self-determined.
When I was younger they encouraged me more to keep me interested. Like back
then I kind of needed encouragement to stay interested. You know and now I don’t.
They still encourage it, they just encouraged more strongly back then and now
they’re more just in the background, (p. 6)
Maggie related how her parents helped her to remain active in swimming as a younger
adolescent and how their support changed between her ages of 13 to 17 years. She
described how her initial motivation to be active had been more external, with parents
helping her to stay interested by providing “stronger” encouragement and expectation.
Her parents still encourage her but Maggie now swims with more self-motivation.
The 16 and 17 year old girls made their own decision to be active. They chose their
own activity and their level of involvement. Ruth, when asked if she felt any pressure to
swim replied:
Not really from other people. I was like pressuring myself I guess, (p. 6) ... I just
do it because I know I have to. (p. 9)
Ruth emphasizes that she does what she does for herself and that no one pressures her.
She perceives that to meet the goals she is striving towards requires a certain level of
commitment. The girls took ownership of the activity and the degree of effort that they
were prepared to invest, but parental support remained important. Parental support had
changed in its appearance and meaning.
Perception of abilitv. The girls’ perception that their parents believe in their ability
is powerful. It is another form of expectation. Ruth spoke of the support this perception

81

gave her and o f the power of it. When she was 13 years old, she didn’t know if she
would get “any-where” in swimming. She had a dream but didn’t know if it was
possible. Now it has crystallized.
Now, 1 actually think I might get somewhere. But back then I always wanted to but 1
didn’t know if 1 actually would (p. 6).
Ruth related how it became possible for her to believe in herself and strive for herself.
Ruth: 1 got a lot of support from other people.
Interviewer; Who would those other people be?
Ruth: My coach. And my mom.
Interviewer: What did your mom do for you?
Ruth: She drove me to practices and she always figured that 1 could get somewhere 1
guess.
Interviewer: Did you feel that kind of understanding that she had that belief in you
that you could go somewhere?
Ruth: Well I did, but not like that. I knew that she thought 1 could do good (p. 6).
Ruth understood and knew that her mom believed in her ability to do well, and that
understanding was powerful because it provided support for Ruth; it was evident of her
mother’s commitment to the work Ruth had performed and Ruth’s desire to achieve her
best. Ruth felt there was an expectation that she would strive toward her ability. Ruth’s
experience demonstrates that expectations from others need not be blatant.
Parental expectations had definite impacts on 13 and 14 year old girls and these
expectations became an external factor in their continued participation. Parents had
strong expectations that the girls would remain physically active and made concessions
and arrangements for the girls to be active. They took them to swimming. As well,
parents held and communicated to the girls their expectations of the girls’ continued

82

involvement in physical activity, along with their beliefs in the girls’ abilities and their
expectations of the girls’ effort in swimming. These expectations and beliefs were often
communicated subtly and remained present throughout adolescence. But as the girls
became older, they recognized that expectations to participate and to achieve in
swimming had shifted from their parents and now came from within themselves. The
support provided by parental expectations changed through adolescence. The girls
recognized the values that parents held but the girls themselves now held similar views
about physical activity and the degree of effort required to achieve success. The
continued belief in their children’s ability to strive toward their goals remained a
significant continuing source of support for the girls. The girls felt and expressed those
expectations.
How much should parents expect from their children? How much expectation from
parents is enough? How much is too much and what does it look like? Expectation is a
powerful form of support. At what point does an individual take ownership of their
interest and perform the activity to please themselves and not just their parents?
Things Parents Could Have Done Differentlv to Support the Girls
All the girls said they felt their parents had done the best they could do to support
them in swimming and their physical activities. The girls as 16 and 17 year olds had
developed a perspective that rationalized the current circumstances.
Interviewer: In what ways do you think the type of support you got from your mom
and dad made a difference for you staying in swimming?
Grace: I guess they kept me going to it so that I wouldn’t quit. They just supported
me to keep going and not give up on it even though I felt like it.
Interviewer: How is it now that it makes a difference for you?

83

Grace: I’m glad they kept me going.
Interviewer: What do you think that they need to do for you now in terms of
support? Or is there anything that they need to do that could make it
better for you.
Grace: I don’t think so. No.
Interviewer: So what they are doing right now?
Grace: It’s about perfect, (p. 6)
This conversation was typical among all the girls when I asked them about what their
parents could have done differently to support them, and about how they viewed the
support they now receive. Whether or not the girls continued swimming at age 16 and 17
years, they all agreed that their parents had done their best for them. Grace’s comments
regarding support referring to the difficult times when she wanted to quit, were similar
for all the girls. They had all struggled at one point and had been highly encouraged to
get through those times, particularly during the ages of 13 and 14 years. The girls also
reflected a mature and insightful reflection about their parents’ support.
Interviewer: Is there any way that your parents could have supported you a little
differently? If all the best was there, ways that it would have been
better.
Paulette: No. I think they just did the best they could.
Interviewer: That is a good perspective to have.
Paulette: Well I don’t know what they could have done differently. I mean it was
just all in my mind. It had nothing to do with them. The thoughts and the
conflict that went through my mind. I don’t think they could have done
any more than they did.
Interviewer: They supported you during those times when the conflicts were
happening. What was there for you?
Paulette: I don’t know. It was just stuff that I knew that I had to deal with.

84

Interviewer: Did they say things, or do thing for you or give you perspective that
made you kind of understand what those conflicts were about? To
make you feel more comfortable with them.
Paulette: Yeah, they did that, except I just refused to let it help.
Interview: Pardon?
Paulette: I refused to listen to them. ... I just had to deal with it. (p. 11)
The girls had been helped through difficult times by parents with problem solving and
with support. Paulette acknowledges that her parents were supportive and, in retrospect,
acknowledged that the problems had been hers.
Though the girls felt that the support they received from parents had been
appropriate and continued to be so, some girls felt that parents would have limited
understanding of their experiences in swimming and physical activity. The girls
perceived that their lives had been so different from their parents, they felt their parents
wouldn’t understand and wouldn’t know how to support them.
They weren’t as busy as me when they were younger so they don’t really know what
to say. (Maggie, p. 11)
Many of the girls viewed themselves as athletes and some trained at a high level.
They did not perceive their parents’ activities of an occasional jog or a racquetball game
as a significant degree o f physical activity. They acknowledged their parents as being
busy but from their perspective their parents were not, in most cases, physically active.
The girls tended to compare the active lives that they had to the lives of their parents.
It was difficult for them to see and to ascertain the actual level at which their parents
engaged in physical activity. Maggie, when asked if her parents were active stated; “No.
They walk and they ski sometimes in the winter. But that is about all” (p. 9). However
she had previously described a family life full of different activities in which she was

85

excited to participate. Because of this perception gap, it was difficult to get an accurate
sense o f how physically active families were, and how supportive girls felt this to be.
Despite the girls’ perception that their parents did not understand what was really
happening to them, they acknowledged that what their parents did and were doing for
them as being right and was “about perfect”. There was a sense from the girls that their
parents were there for them emotionally and physically in all the circumstances of
swimming. They were supported within the choices and goals they made, and they felt
the choices they made were respected. Liz spoke eloquently about parental support.
I never felt that I had to attain a certain goal unless I had set it for myself. My
parents supported me completely and they congratulated me when I did well and
they sat with me at the end of the swim when you feel disappointed and you feel bad
about yourself. I never felt like I had to please them or get a certain time to make
them happy, (p. 2)
Liz spoke of the power of unconditional support. It had no strings attached and it was
viewed as perfect or just about right.
The girls felt their parents had been and continued to be supportive in the best
possible ways in their experience of swimming and physical activity. This response
though unexpected was indicative of where the girls were taking ownership of being
engaged in physical activity. They felt that the decision to be physically active was their
choice, as was the decision about their degree of involvement. They were becoming self
reliant in their own endeavors and their own views. There was a degree of rationalization
within their statements of parental support as the girls acknowledge their limitations as
well as the limitations within the context of their lives.

86

CHAPTER 6
Summary and Conclusions
Introduction
The purpose of the study was to gain insight into the experiences of girls in early
adolescence that enables and encourages them to remain in sport or physical activity.
Specifically, what do the girls understand parental support to be within these experiences,
and what do they understand to be its contribution to their continuation in physical
activity? From a community health perspective, these questions are important, as
continued participation in physical activity is beneficial for the development of girls’ life
style behaviors that promote health. The understanding of factors that enhance adherence
to sport and physical activity is an important public health initiative.
Sallis et al. (1992) state that public health research on physical activity for children
and youth has a different focus than does the current research on sport. They contend that
the focus on enhancing participation in physical activity needs to shift to studies that
explore the experiences of children in physical activity in order to further understand
factors that help develop life style development in this area. This study took this
recommendation to heart and approached the study of the adolescent girls’ physical
activity from the perspective of their experience.
The sport of swimming was used in this study as a focus of physical activity because
it is an activity of moderate to vigorous intensity, an individual sport, not team, and there
were accessible subjects in a small northern community. The local swim club had a large
number of girls swimming in early adolescence (13-15 years) and a significant number
were currently swimming as 16 and 17 year olds. Interviews occurred with 11 girls, all of

87

whom swam as 13 to 15 year olds. Seven continued to swim, and four had quit
swimming in the last two years. There was caution at the beginning of the study that
using a group focused on a sport that was considered competitive may not provide the
perspective that would be valuable to public health concerns. Although this is a valid
concern, for adolescents, competitive sport is one of the major forms of physical activity;
swimming itself can be a lifetime sport. Additionally, the swim club in this northern
community provides opportunities for both recreational and competitive activities.
The study looked at the perspective of girls who had been in the swimming cohort as
13 to 15 year olds, both those who continued to swim and those who had quit swimming
in the past year or two. The girls spoke of reasons why they participated in the sport or
why they quit the sport that had been cited in past research such as losing interest, and
other things to do (Lindner et al., 1991; Sallis, 1994; Sallis et al., 1992; Weiss &
Petlichkoff, 1989). The girls provided a perspective of why they were active at the level
they chose, of how they got there, of why they made the choices they did and of what
being supported by parents felt like.
Factors Impacting Participation in Phvsical Activity for the Cohort
An understanding of the girls’ experiences in physical activity is important as it
provides the context in which to understand the girls' experience of parental support in
their continuation in physical activity. This experience was characterized by a supportive
and flexible swim club environment, the opportunity to develop swimming skills, selfregulatory skills, self-motivation, the values of continuing participation in physical
activity, and confidence in themselves and their ability to be physically active.

88

Friends were an important factor in adherence to physical activity in early
adolescence, but became less significant as the girls matured. Within the swim club the
girls liked to travel to competitions, but competition suited less than half the cohort. Of
the cohort of eleven, seven continued to swim past age 15 but not all were competitive.
The swim club offers a flexible program of involvement that enabled girls to continue to
swim within the context of their lives. The girls appreciated these opportunities as it
enabled them to remain active in the physical activity they enjoyed.
The cohort of girls held strong values about physical activity, with most of the girls
as 16 and 17 year olds currently involved in some level of physical activity. They all
intended to continue physical activity as a life style choice. But the fact that a girl is
currently physically active does not ensure she will be physically active as an adult
(Sallis, 1992). However, researchers (Babkes & Weiss, 1999; Biddle & Goudas, 1996;
Kimiecik et al., 1996; Sallis et al., 1992; Sallis, 1994) identified some characteristics of
individuals who adhere to physical activity: perceived competence, self-efficacy or
confidence regarding one’s ability to be active, perceived benefits of exercise, and selfmotivation. As well, self-regulatory skills, such as goal setting, self-reinforcement, self­
monitoring and decision-making based on positive and negative aspects of physical
activity are predictive of exercise participation (King et al., 1992; Marcus, 1995; Sallis et
al., 1992). These skill sets, attitudes and values associated with physical activity were
developed and were present within the cohort.
The girls had a high level of perceived competence in swimming. The girls stated
that they felt confident and that enabled them to remain active in swimming and to
become involved in other physical activities. The evolution of perceived competence

89

took time and took persistence on the part of the girls. They related that their parents
were supportive of them with this development. This is consistent with the research done
by Brustad (1996) which found children’s, particularly girls’ perception of competence
was influenced by their parents’ encouragement to be physically active.
All the girls expressed the perceived benefits they received from physical activity.
These benefits included meeting specific goals but also included perceptions of body
image, of social status, and of feeling good about themselves. They concluded that the
perceived benefits outweighed the negative aspects of the activity. They stated that being
involved in physical activity was a life style choice that they valued and that they all
intended to be involved in physical activity in the future.
The girls engaged in the physical activities because they wanted to engage in them;
they were self-motivated. They demonstrated characteristics of self-regulation: self­
regulation enabled them to make the choices and to be involved at the level they chose.
The girls spoke of developing achievable goals and of implementing plans to strive
toward them. They had self-discipline to continue with the effort required to achieve the
goals they sought. They all spoke of the difficulties during adolescence that they had
managed, along with their parents’ support. The characteristics of self-regulation and the
learned behaviors that evolved developed with practice, with experience and with support
(Boren et al., 1987; Grossnickle, 1989; Stipek, 1993). As the girls developed self­
regulation skills, the girls developed increasingly higher levels of autonomy and of
independence in the management of their lives. They spoke of their confidence in
themselves in being able to be physically active.

90

The Experience of Parental Support in Phvsical Activity
All the girls perceived parental support to enhance their involvement and their
interest in physical activity. The interviews revealed that parental support was a key
factor in the girls’ continuation to swim, particularly through difficult times in early
adolescence when a large number of them stated they would not have gone swimming
had it not been for their parents’ support. The girls spoke of the enforced consistency
their parents requested of them as the girls swam in their earlier years. They
acknowledged their parents’ assistance in the girls’ development of skills that enabled
them to problem solve the issues of being involved in physical activity. The girls stated
that, as they matured, they became physically active for themselves and for what they
perceived to he benefits o f physical activity. Looking back, they realized they did not
have that perspective when they were in their early adolescence. They had become more
self-regulated and self-reliant within the context of physical activity. The choice of being
involved was now theirs alone.
The girls’ parents played key roles in enhancing the development of the girls’ self­
regulating skills and increasing autonomy in physical activity. Their roles included
helping in the development of skills in managing goals, providing consistent support,
having expectations and belief in the girls and providing them within an environment of
unconditional support. These roles enabled the girls, eventually, to perform the physical
activity for themselves with a sense of confidence in their ability to do so. There were
some struggles within the relationship of support but parental expectations, along with
consistency of support was of paramount importance. From the perspective of the cohort,
a key aspect of parental support to the girls’ physical activity was for parents to remain

91

consistent and persistent in their approach and to be there for them. The support and
encouragement looked different as the girls grew older but it was always there.
Helping with the Development of Skills to Strive Towards Goals
Physical activity at any level demands a commitment of time and energy. For the
girls, problems arose and setbacks occurred. There were unavoidable failures and parents
gave encouragement about what the girls had learned. Parents had a key role in providing
support and helping the girls to problem solve issues. The girls viewed as helpful their
parents’ role in developing alternative perspectives. Through discussion with parents, the
girls became realistic about their level of possible involvement in swimming and physical
activity based on what else was happening in their lives. The girls as a result of these
decisions realized they did not need to abandon swimming when their lives became more
complicated as they grew older.
Consistency
Consistency was a key characteristic of parental support. It changed as the girls grew
older but there was consistency of providing physical and emotional support, along with
consistent expectations and belief in the girls.
The girls spoke of the importance of their parents’ physical support, as it enabled
them to organize themselves and to be physically active. The girls acknowledged that to
be physically active took a lot of organizational effort and that their parents were a part of
that effort. Parents provided a consistent framework: they provided meals, took them to
the swimming pool, and supported them as they learned to manage themselves. As they
grew older, the girls took more responsibility for self-management such as getting
themselves to swimming. Overall, the parents high level of support enabled the girls to

92

be active, and, in fact, the parents’ support became greater as the demands on the girls’
lives increased.
The girls viewed the enforced consistency of attendance at swimming as being
supportive. They said, in retrospect, that if they had not been taken to swimming, they
would not have gone and would have quit eventually. The statements of the girls who
stayed with the sport can be attributed to some degree to rationalization, as swimming
required a high degree of effort. As 16 and 17 year olds, the girls now valued swimming,
and appreciated the fact that at one time; they would have quit if their parents had not
kept them going. The persistent and consistent approach of parents kept the girls
involved in swimming through difficult times. Grossnickle (1989) referred to the need
for a consistent approach for the development of self-regulating behaviors in children.
The girls needed the opportunity to learn these skills within a structured environment.
What was interesting to the researcher was that the girls talked about the need for
enforced consistency. A family decision had been made for them to be involved, and they
were expected to go and their parents took them there.
Boren et al. (1987) determined that the skills of self-control or self-discipline are
learned throughout childhood, with the expected outcome that children would learn to
initiate and to sustain self-regulating behaviors and to internalize expectations. Boren et
al. acknowledged that “exceptional” adult perseverance of patience is needed to help
children compensate for their lack of inner structure. This perseverance or consistency is
what the girls were acknowledging as being supportive in their experiences of physical
activity throughout their adolescence.

93

Expectations
Parental expectations, both in blatant and in subtle forms, can be powerful in
influencing participation in physical activity. The parents had the explicit expectation
that the girls would go swimming, particularly in early adolescence, and at this point, the
girls were compliant with the expectation. The expectation to continue to swim remained
as the girls grew older, but took a different form. Throughout their swimming
experience, parents helped the girls with goal setting, and supported their short and long
term choices. The girls’ goals, along with the level of commitment, changed over time
but the girls perceived that their parents expected them to continue in physical activity. In
early adolescence, the expectation was firm and later on it was more subtle. Over time,
the girls began to swim because they wanted to swim for themselves, valuing the benefits
of physical activity and of swimming. The girls spoke of the more subtle forms of
expectations that echoed their parents’ values of physical activity and of the degree of
effort involved. As the girls matured through adolescence, the theme of these values
emerged as their own. They spoke of now being involved in physical activity because
they wanted to and it was a life style. They had become self-motivated in physical
activity. They perceived that they had the ability and self-discipline to be active. The
expectation to be involved was now theirs.
Belief in Their Abilitv
The beliefs that individuals understand others to have of them are powerful. The
girls understood that their parents expected them to be involved in physical activity. The
girls stated the choice of goal, along with the degree of effort, was theirs. They also felt
that their parents believed in their ability to strive towards their goals. In other words.

94

parental expectations for the girls to strive toward the girls’ goals included the parents
believing in the girls’ ability. Children’s understanding of their parents’ belief in them
evolves from the conveyed expectations that parents have of them, and are related to
children’s beliefs about themselves (Parsons et a l, 1982). The support of parents was felt
to be powerful, as the girls would strive toward difficult goals with a sense of their
parents’ support. Overall, these expectations had a positive effect on the girls. They
enhanced their belief in their ability (self-efficacy) to strive toward their goals. At times,
however these beliefs placed extra demands and stress on the girls
Unconditional Support
The girls saw unconditional support as being particularly powerful. Parents were
described as always “being there”, as helping them through difficult times and through
good times. The support involved talking about problems and trying to solve them. The
parents’ ability to provide a new perspective on the girls’ problem was often viewed as
beneficial, and, at times, served as a turning point for the girls. Parents validated the
girls’ efforts, and helped them to continue. The girls often found it difficult to recognize
whether or not they were trying hard enough. Parents helped the girls to put the degree of
effort that they were putting out within a framework that was reassuring. The parents
showed an interest in the girls’ activity and demonstrated a level of involvement in the
club milieu that was considered appropriate and was not intrusive. Support without
pressure has been found to be most effective (Hoyle & Leff, 1997), and that is consistent
with what most of the girls indicated they experienced.
The girls felt that their parents were always there for them in some capacity and at
the level that fit for them. The girls spoke of the support that parents gave them as

95

“perfect” or “they did the best they could”. As 16 and 17 year olds, they had put the
storms of early adolescence into perspective and had rationalized a lot of their issues.
In sum, from the experiences of the girls, parental support can be described as
helping the girls develop self-regulating skills within a framework of consistency in
physical and emotional support, expectations and belief in the girls, all within an
environment o f unconditional support.
Parental support continued but changed throughout the girls’ adolescence. The
parents initially helped the girls to develop the skills of self-reliance by using a degree of
persuasion, and later, by using a degree of subtlety that encouraged the girls’ self-choice
about their involvement in physical activity. The girls stated that they were now involved
in physical activity because they wanted to be and that their parents continued to support
them. In fact, they felt that the support had increased. The girls acknowledged various
forms o f support: the support in increasingly complex decision making, the unconditional
support of, “I am there for you whatever your choice”, the belief in their abilities. Brown
et al. (1989) indicated that as girls become older, increasing support in physical activity is
essential regardless of the context stating that “in the face of competing role demands and
alternate activities, maintenance of involvement in forms of social participation that
violate normative expectations for women require more intense reinforcement” (p. 406).
Perhaps this was what the girls were alluding to. Involvement in physical activity became
more difficult due to a variety of factors in their life and though parents did not
necessarily become more physically supportive as they became older, they became more
emotionally supportive. Parental support is powerful. Parents walk a fine line of

96

effective support, which enables the girls to develop their own integrity within physical
activity and other domains.
Implications for Enhancing Health Behaviors
An overall strategy for health care teaching of young people could be the inelusion of
the skill sets to develop self-regulating behavior. Young adolescents need to develop the
skills of goal setting and planning, along with problem solving and self-discipline, to
beeome self-motivated in physical activity. Children develop life style skills in keeping
with their progress on the continuum of growth and development; parents are an integral
part of promoting and supporting that development (Bruhn, 1988; Lau et al., 1990). The
teaching of health behaviors involves not only the rationale of the behavior but also the
skills to self-regulate. A wellness life style includes characteristics and skills, such as
being able to perceive physical activity choices, having problem solving skills,
anticipating problems, being flexible, being able to learn new skills, and having a sense of
personal control (Bruhn). These particular characteristics are self-regulating or selfcontrol behaviors (Boren et al., 1987). Self-control is defined as a specific set of skills
needed in order to maintain goal directed behaviors, and researchers indicated that
children need to be taught these skills (Boren et al.). Parental support is a factor in the
development of self-regulating behaviors. The parents of this cohort enabled the girls to
develop and use these skills. Their support enhanced the self-efficacy of the girls to be
active in physieal activity.
The forms in which parents provided support to the girls changed throughout
adolescence; this enabled the girls to take more ownership of the responsibility for
physical activity. The parents seemed to know how to deal with the turbulence of

97

adolescence; this knowledge enabled the girls to develop their own interest and skills in
managing their physical activity. What was that skill and how did it get there? The
writer suspects that the parents of this cohort had particular skills and understandings that
enabled them to support their daughters in effective ways.
The parents’ skills enabled the girls to learn the skills and make their own choices.
The knowledge held by parents can be useful to other parents to help them understand
how to enable their children to develop self-regulating behaviors within a supportive
environment through the continuum of growth and development. Although parents
frequently have skills to help their children learn how to gain skills to make their own
choices in many areas of their lives, some parents may benefit from receiving information
specifically about how they may teach these skills within the domain of physical activity.
Parents must understand the impact of parental expectations on their children,
particularly within physical activity. The parents’ expectations for their children to be
involved at some level of physical activity, particularly the expectation of consistency,
was felt by the girls and had a significant influence on their adherence to physical activity.
The emphasis seemed to be physical activity, not the sport. From the perspective of the
girls, expectations, along with the assistance in the development of self-regulating skills,
had considerable impact on their participation and their development of positive values
toward physical activity. The focus of sport was always in the picture, but the girls as
they grew older, viewed sport as an avenue to meet their need for physical activity. These
parents were teaching the girls an important life style choice and how to engage in
physical activity and to maintain it.

98

The girls acknowledged that they required more support, as they became older
adolescents. Parental support continues to be important in later adolescence even though
girls may seem to be more self-sufficient. Parents just need to be there for them,
respecting their choices. The social norms of females are not conducive to participation
in physical activity (Brown, 1985). If females are to be more active in physical activity,
they need continued support throughout the life span. Parents have a particularly large
role in supporting the girls as they engage and remain physically active during
adolescence.
Current community health initiatives have emphasized the need to increase the level
of physical activity through out the life span. A component of the initiative needs to
consider the development of awareness of skill sets that promote continued adherence to
physical activity particularly for youth. A public health initiative could be based on
developing an awareness of what is effective parental support in physical activity
throughout the child rearing years.
Sport continues to dominate the avenue of physical activity for children and for
adolescents. Health initiatives need to acknowledge this context and to work within the
context of sport as well as within the context of other recreational areas. The emphasis
within these areas could be to increase the awareness of the health benefits of physical
activity and the usefulness of sport in supporting the development of self-regulating skills
that are so important for future health.
Implications for Sport
Parents often introduce their children to sport and to physical activity. Parents come
with limited knowledge and with preconceptions about what their role needs to be to

99

support their children. Coaches could help parents to be as effeetive as possible in
supporting girls in physical activity. According to the literature (Brustad, 1996; Brown et
al., 1989; Brown, 1985), girls require more support in physical activity and in sport
because of the social norms around sport that do not support females. Coaches need to be
aware o f these understandings. They require training to help parents to support their
adolescent girls, as well as to provide a conducive environment for females within the
sport. The swim club in this study seemed to have particular success with enabling girls
to be physically active at the level the girls wanted. Sport needs to ensure the
opportunities are there for girls to be involved at all levels within a quality environment.
Implications for Further Research
The cohort lived in a small northern town with limited access to other parts of the
province. As a group, they presented as capable, positive thinking young people, engaged
in life as it was offered. The cohort appeared to have ideal circumstances in their lives
that enabled them to be goal orientated and to strive for a post-secondary education as
well as for opportunities in swimming. But this study only looked at the experiences of
these girls within their swimming background. It did not ask about family experiences or
about difficulties or about economic backgrounds. Their life circumstances were
unknown. As well, the family structure is changing within society, with different support
systems present for different adolescent girls. Further research needs to define the
characteristics of a support system that enable girls to adhere to physical activity within a
variety of family contexts.
A basic theme from the girls’ narratives was their ability to be self-regulated and a
confidence in their ability to be physically active. Educational researchers such as

100

Alschuler (1973), Boren et al. (1987), Grossnickle (1989), Johnson (1984) and Stipek
(1993) speak o f self-motivation as a learned characteristic for the individual. They
suggest that although everyone is motivated, not to the same intensity or toward the same
goal. Each person responds differently to attempts of others to motivate and to
encourage. Ultimately, the initiative to be motivated comes from individuals themselves.
However, self-motivation must be practiced in order for it to become a habit. A person
can become more self-regulated. Others can assist individuals to learn and to motivate
themselves by helping to clarity their needs, to choose and to seek their goals, and to
learn ways that have worked for others (Alschuler; Boren et al., Johnson; Grossnickle;
Stipek). It became evident in the transcripts that a key to the adherence of physical
activity was not the motivational orientation of the individual but the degree of selfmotivation, the skills of self-regulation, and degree of self-efficacy. Sport researchers
(Duda et ah, 1995; Gill & Williams, 1995; Gould & Petlichkoff, 1996) tend to focus more
on motivational orientation rather than on skills of self-regulation. Researchers (Sallis et
ah, 1992) in public health speak of the skills of self-regulation within life style behaviors
and recommend more research in these areas. The cohort of girls in this study, through
their narratives, indicated that the strength of their adherence to physical activity was their
ability to self-regulate and their confidence in themselves to do so. More study of the
impact of the learned skills of self-regulation may be warranted to allow health
professionals to understand the influence of those skills on individuals’ continued
participation in sport and physical activity as a life style.
A combination of factors enabled these girls to remain active in physical activity
through the transitions in their lives. The understanding of why adolescent girls

101

participate or not participate in physical activity is incomplete. What is known is that
these girls were self-motivated and had developed skills of self-regulation that were
expressed within their swimming experience. Their parents provided support that
appeared to help the girls to become self-reliant, self-confident individuals in their
experience of physical activity. The girls held strong values about physical activity, and
spoke of it as a life style choice. They all referred to their continued physical activity as
something they wanted to do. The fact that the girls appeared to have key determinants
present for the continuation in physical activity suggests that they may continue in
physical activity as adults. A follow up study of their participation as adults in physical
activity may be o f value for future research.
But what is significant for health professionals to acknowledge is that parents helped
to hold the girls in physical activity in the stage of early adolescence through enforced
consistency. It gave the girls the time and the opportunity to learn skills of self­
regulation. It also enabled the girls to learn the values of physical activity and to make
choices that fit for them.
The girls in this study are approaching the transition of leaving school and for most,
leaving their home and community. They will be called upon increasingly to self-manage
their lives. The skills of self-regulation they learned through adolescence and their selfefficacy are important to their continuation of physical activity. But what is not known is
whether of not the girls will engage in physical activity as young adults. Researchers
must gather more information about the transitions into young adulthood and about ways
that young women can continue to be supported during these transitions to maintain
healthy life style choices.

102

REFERENCES

Anderssen, N., & Wold, B. (1992). Parental and peer influence on leisuretime physical activity in young adolescents. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Snort. 63 M l 341-348.
Alschuler, A. (1973). Developing achievement motivation in adolescents.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Babkes, M., & Weiss, M. (1999). Parental influence on children’s
cognitive and affective responses to competitive soccer participation. Pediatric
Exercise Science, 11, 44-62.
Biddle, S., & Goudas, M. (1996). Analysis of children’s physical activity
and its association with adult encouragement and social variables. The Journal of
School Health. 66. 75-84.
Block, J. (1981). The difference between boys and girls: How gender
roles are shaped. Principal. May, 40-45.
Boren, R., Weir, L., & Benegar, C. (1987). Children and self-control. In
A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Children’s needs: Psychological perspectives (pp.
515-521). Washington, DC: The National Assoc, of School Psychologists.
Brown, B. (1985). Factors influencing the process of withdrawal by
female adolescents for the role of competitive age group swimmer. Sociology of
Sport Journal, 2. 111-129.
Brown, B., Frankel, G., & Fennel, M. (1989). Hugs or shrugs: Parental
and peer influence on continuity of involvement in sport by female adolescents.
Sex Roles. 2 0 1891 397-409.
Bruhn, J. (1988). Life-style and health behaviors. In D.S. Gochman (Ed.),
Health behaviors: Emerging research perspectives (pp. 71-85). New York:
Plenum Press.
Brustad, R. (1988). Affective outcomes in competitive youth sport: The
influence of intrapersonal and socialization factors. Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology. 10. 307-321.
Brustad, R. (1992). Integrating socialization influences into the study of
children’s motivation in sport. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 14. 5977.

103

Brustad, R. (1996). Parental and peer influence on children’s
psychological development through sport. In F. Smoll & R. Smith (Eds.),
Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective (pp. 112-124). Brown
& Benchmark.
Butcher, J. (1983). Socialization of adolescent girls into physical activity.
Adolescence. 28, (72), 773-765.
Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute. (1996, October).
Physical activity in children. Progress in Prevention. 8. 1-7.
Chen, J., & Millar, W. (1999). Health effects of physical activity. Health
Reports. 11 (1). 21-28.
Conger, J. (1973). Adolescence and youth: Psychological development in
a changing world. New York, Harper & Row.
Corbin, C., & Pangrazi, R. (1998). Physical activity pyramid rebuffs peak
experience. ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal, 2 (1). 13-17.
Corbin, C., & Pangrazi, R. (Eds) (1996). What you need to know about
the Surgeon General’s report on Physical Activity and Health. Physical Activity
and Fitness Research Digest. 2 (6). 1-17.
Dahlgren, W. (1988). A report on the National Task Force on Young
Females and Physical Activity: The status quo and strategies for change. Fitness
Canada and The Fitness and Amateur Sport Canada Women’s Programs.
Duda, J., Chi, L., Newton, M., Walling, M., & Catley, D. (1995). Task
and ego orientation and intrinsic motivation in sport. International Journal of
Sport Psychology. 2 6 .40-63.
Gill, D., Gross, J., & Huddleston, S. (1983). Participation motivation in
youth sports. International Journal of Sport Psychology. 14. 1-14.
Gill, D., & Williams, L. (1995). The role of perceived competence in the
motivation of physical activity. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 17. 363378.
Gottlieb, N., & Chen, M. (1985). Sociocultural correlates of childhood
sporting activities: Their implications for heart health. Social Science and
Medicine. 21 (5). 533-539.
Gould, D., & Petlichkoff, L. (1996). Participation motivation and attrition
in young athletes. In F. Smole, R. Magell & M. Ash (Eds.), Children in sport (3"^^
ed., pp. 288-300). Champaign II: Human Kinetics.

104

Greendorfer, S. (1987). Gender bias in theoretical perspectives: The case
of female socialization into sport. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 327-340.
Greendorfer, S., Lewko, J., & Rosengren, K. (1996). Family and genderbased influences in sport socialization of children and adolescents. In F. Smoll &
R. Smith (Eds.), Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective (pp.
89-111). Brown & Benchmark.
Gregson, J. & Colley, A. (1986). Concomitants of sport participation in
male and female adolescents. International Journal of Sport Psychology. 17.1022 .
Grossnickle, D. (1989). Helping students develop self-motivation: A
sourcebook for parents and educators. Virginia, The National Association of
Secondary School Principals.
Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a
developmental model. Human Development. 21. 34-64.
Health Canada. (1998). Handbook for Canada’s Physical Activity Guide.
Ottawa: Health Canada.
Horn, T., & Harris, A. (1996). Perceived competence in young athletes:
Research findings and recommendations for coaches and parents. In F. Smoll &
R. Smith (Eds.), Children and youth in sport: A biopsychosocial perspective
(pp.309-329). Brown & Benchmark.
Hoyle, R., & Leff, S. (1997). The role of parental involvement in youth
sport participation and performance. Adolescence, 32 (125), 233-243.
Johnson, E. (1984). Raising children to achieve. New York: Walker &
Co.
Kidman, L., McKenzie, A., & McKenzie, B. (1999). The nature and
target of parent’s comments during youth sport competitions. Journal of Sport
Behavior. 22 (11. 54-68.
Kimiecik, J., Horn, T., & Shurin, C. (1996). Relationships among
children’s beliefs, perceptions of their parents’ beliefs, and their moderate-tovigorous physical activity. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67 (3),
324-340.

105

King, A., Blair, S., Bild, D., Dishman, R., Dubbert, P., Marcus, B.,
Oldridge, N., Paffenbarger Jr., R., Powell, K., & Yeager, K. (1992).
Determinants of physical activity and interventions in adults. Medicine and
Science in Sport and Exercise, 24 (6), s221-s233.
Lau, R., Quadrel, M., & Hartman,K. (1990). Development and change of
young adults’ preventive health beliefs and behavior: Influence for parents and
peers. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 31. 240-259.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic inquirv. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Linder, K., Johns, D., & Butcher, J. (1991). Factors in withdrawal for
youth sport: A proposed model. Journal of Snort Behavior. 14 (1), 3-18.
Mason, J. (1996). Qualitative researching. London: Sage.
Marcus, B. (1995). Exercise behavior and strategies for intervention.
Research Quarterlv for Exercise and Sport. 66 (4), 319-323.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3'^‘*
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
McGinnis, J. (1992). The public health burden of a sedentary lifestyle.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 24 (6). 196-200.
Office of the Provincial Health Officer (1995). Health goals for British
Columbia: Identifying priorities for a healthy population. Province of British
Columbia, Victoria, BC: Author.
Oja, P. (1995). Descriptive epidemiology of health-related physical
activity and fitness. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 66 (4), 303-312.
Palys, T. (1992). Research decisions: Quantitative and qualitative
perspectives. Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Parsons, J., Adler, T., & Kaczala (1982). Socialization of achievement
attitudes and beliefs: Parental Influences. Child Development 53, 310-321.
Pruitt, D. (1999). Your adolescent: Emotional, behavioral, and cognitive
development from early adolescence through the teen years. New York, Harper
Collins.

106

Sallis, J., Simons-Morton, B., Stone, E., Corbin, €., Epstein, L., Faucette,
N., lannotti, R., ICillen, J., Kleasges, R., Petray, K., Rowland, T., & Taylor, W.
(1992). Determinants of physical activity and interventions in youth. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24 (6), 248-256.
Sallis, J. (1994). Influences on physical activity of children, adolescents,
and adults on determinants of active living. Physical Activitv and Fitness and
Research Digest, 1 (7), 38-45.
Shephard, R. (1995). Physical activity, health, and well-being and
different life stages. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 66 (4), 298-302.
Smale, B., & Shaw, S. (1993). Adolescent girls and physical recreation:
Participation and lifestyle. University of Waterloo, Department of Recreation and
Leisure Studies.
Stephens, T., & Craig, C. (1990). The well-being of Canadians:
Highlights of the 1988 Campbell Survey. Ottawa: Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle
Research Institute.
Stipek, D. (1993). Motivation to learn: From theory to practice (2"^* ed.).
Toronto: Allyn & Bacon.
US Department o f Health and Human Services. (1996). Physical activitv
and health: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga: US Dept of Health and
Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for
Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
Weiss, M. & Petlichkoff, L. (1989). Children’s motivation for
participation in and withdrawal from sport: Identifying the missing links.
Pediatric Exercise Science. 1.195-211.
Wigfield, A., Eccles, J., Mac Ivaer, D., Reuman, D., & Midgley, C.
(1991). Transitions during early adolescence: Changes in children’s domainspecific self perceptions and general self-esteem across the transition to junior
high school. Developmental Psychology, 27 (4), 552-565.
Winther, N. R. (1983). Physical activity through the eyes of six-year olds.
Unpublished Master of Education thesis, University of Alberta.
Wood, K. & Abemethy, B. (1991). Competitive swimmers’ perceptions
of parental behaviors. Sports Coach, 4 (1), 19-23.

107

A ppendix A

Consent for thesis research project participation
Early Adolescent Females’ Perception of Parental Support of Physical Activity
Dear executive of the A Swim Club:
I am a graduate student in the Masters of Science in the Community Health
degree program at the University of Northern British Columbia. I am also a community
mental health nurse and the head coach o f the A club. As Part of my degree I am
undertaking a research project that will explore the experience of being a physically
active female teenage during the ages of 13-15 years from the perspective of the girl
herself. This perspective will be gained retrospectively from girls who are now 16-17
years of age. The purpose of this study is to gain insight into what encourages adolescent
girls between the ages of 13-15 years to continue in physical activity.
I am asking you to assist me in this project in enabling me to contact female
swimmers who were the club as 13-15 years olds (bom 1983-1985) in the years 19961999. The study will include girls who are currently swimming with the club as well as
girls who have discontinued participation. I will need to have the girls currently
swimming identified in this list. I will contact them by phone and letter to see if they are
interested in participating in the study and obtain participant and parental consent. For
purposes of demographics I require the total membership of the club for 1996 to 1999
along with a breakdown in the number girls and boys swimming in these years who were
bom in 1983-1985.
Participation in the interview is voluntary and one can withdraw from the study at
any time. Each participant will be interviewed at the Health Unit or another location of
their choice for approximately one hour. The interviews will audio taped and then
transcribed and analyzed for themes in the adolescent girls’ experience. The themes will
be written into the thesis and perhaps published in a journal or used in classroom setting.
The participants will not be identified by name during the interview or in the write-up of
the study, and all responses will be kept confidential. The published report will mask the
name of the participants and the name of the community.
Research results will be available to the swim club at the end of the study. The
benefit of the study is the increase awareness of what keeps adolescent girls in physical
activity and how coaches and parents can provide support.
This study has been approved by the University of Northern British Columbia’s
Research Ethics Board. If you have any questions, or wish to contact me please feel free
to call me at the Health Unit or my supervisor Dr. Martha MacLeod (250)(960-6507). If
you have any concern regarding the ethical conduct of the study you can contact Dr. Max
Blow at UNBC, Chair of the Ethics Committee:250-960-5820.
I hope to hear from you shortly and I appreciate your consideration of this study.
Cheryl Brown
Health and Human sciences
UNBC
3333 University Way
Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9

108

A ppendix B

Dear

Swim Parent:

Enclosed you win find alettcr ûom C hayl Brown regarding aresearch study she is undertald%
The
Executive has discussed dns study and are suppomive o f it. We feel Aat the
infbrmatiomshe win gather win be very helpAd td parents o f aU gitis involved in qxnt; and to us
luac&ub.
f
Please read her letter carefuUy and decide whether you wish to participate in the stuc^ or not
The decision is entirely yours,
'
Some people receiving this letter are no longer swimmos in our dub. Your input is as important
todxeresultsofherresearchasdiepeoplevdroarestinswinmnng.
Finany, Iwouldhke to reassure you that yoinr name a td address was given to Ms. Brown (miy
s8er we were fully coinfbrtablewidi6e nature ofher^npîectatKidmt she had die fbU support o f
die Ethics CommitteeatUNBC The
SwWQubdpesnofiynmanydivulgein&umation
about ite’ membo^hip to anyone outside o f the dub. We have done so in this instance because
we feel this project has many boiefits for the dub and its’ members. As you will see in h a letter,
Ms. Brown win not provide this information to miyqne else, and the participants in the study will
remain anonymous. .
Ifyou have any questions in regards to dns study, please feel
to contactmysdf@
or Ms. Browmhcrsupervistmorprofessoratdiemnnbers given in her letter.
thank you for your consideration o f diis request

^ingereiy.

Swim Club Aesnknt

109

INFORMATION SHEET
Appendix C
Consent to Participate in Research Project
Early Adolescent Girls’ Perception of Parental Support of Physical Activity
I am a community nurse and a coach who works with children in community of
X, and a student in the Masters of Science in the Community Health Degree program at
the University of Northern British Columbia. As part of my degree I am undertaking a
research project that will explore the experience of being a physically active female
teenager during the ages of 13-15 years from the perspective of the girl herself. The
purpose of the study is to ask girls what they found to be supportive in participating in
physical activity.
You have been selected because of your participation in the swim club when you
were 13-15 years of age. I am asking you to assist me in gathering information about
your experience during this time. I am interested to hear how you felt about physical
activity during this time and what kind of things enabled you to be active.
You will be asked to attend one interview with me that will be approximately one
hour in length. Our meeting will be at the health unit at a date of your convenience. The
interview will be audio taped and then transcribed and analyzed for themes in yours and
others experience. Following the interview, you will have the opportunity to review and
comment on the transcripts. Your responses will be kept confidential but will contribute
to the themes. Examples of the themes will be written into a thesis and perhaps published
in ajournai or used in a teacher’s class.
You will not be identified by name during the interview or in the write up of the
study. Participation in the interview is voluntary and you can withdraw from this study at
any time. In the published research report both your name and the name of the
community in which you live will be masked by false names. The data from the study
will be kept in a locked cabinet in my office and will be destroyed 5 years after the
completion of the study.
I have received permission from the A Swim Club to obtain your name and
address and phone number and this study has been approved by the University of
Northern British Columbia’s Research Ethics Board. I will phone you to determine your
interest in participating in the study.
If you have any questions, please feel free to call me at the Health Unit X or my
supervisor Dr. Martha MacLeod (250-960-6507). If you have any concerns regarding
confidentiality you can contact Dr. Max Blow at UNBC, Dean of Graduate Studies (250)
960-5820.
Your signature and one of your parent’s signature on the consent form indicates
that you have agreed to participate in the study described and that you have adequate
understanding of what this involves. Please sign two copies and keep one. Thank you for
your assistance.
Cheryl Brown
Health and Human Sciences,
UNBC
3333 University Way
Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9

110

To be completed by the research participant

Appendix D

Informed Consent Form
Please circle appropriate response
Do you understand that you have been asked to be in a research project?

Yes

No

Have you read and received a copy of the attached Information Sheet?

Yes

No

Do you understand that the research interviews will be tape recorded?

Yes

No

Do understand the benefits and risks involved in participating in
this study?

Yes

No

Have you had an opportunity to ask questions and discuss this study?

Yes

No

Do you understand that you are free to refuse to participate or withdraw
from the study at any time? You do not have to give any reason.

Yes

No

Has the issue of confidentiality been explained to you? Do you
understand that you will have access to the information you provide?

Yes

No

This study was explained to me by:____________________
I agree to take part in this study.

Signature of Research Participant

Date

Signature of Parent

Printed Name

Printed Name

I believe that the person signing this form understands what is involved in the study and
voluntarily agrees to participate.

Signature of researcher

Date

I ll

A ppendix E

Interview Questions

1. Tell me about when you started to swim with the club.
2. At what level do (did) you swim and how often?
3. What do (did) you like about participating in swimming?
4. What do (did) you not like about participating swimming?
5. How did the activity change over time for you and when?
6. Describe how your parent(s) supported you in the swimming.
7. How did that support change over time?
8. In what ways did the level of support from your parent(s) make a difference for your
participation in swimming?
9. What other ways do you think your parent(s) could have supported you in the
swimming?
10. How did other activities influence your participation in swimming?
11. What kinds of activities are you engaged now?