SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH
FEMALE JUVENILE DELINQUENTS
by
Connie Kaweesi
B.A., Brandon University, 1985
B.S.W., The University ofVictoria, 1993

A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
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The University ofNorthern British Columbia
November 1999
All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or part, by photocopy or other means,
without the permission of the author.
UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN
BRITISH COLUMBIA

LIBRARY

Prince George, BC

ABSTRACT

11

Recently, in Canada there has been an increase in the number of female juvenile
offenders involved in the criminal justice system. This increase has significant
implications for clinical and forensic social work practice. The literature available
to guide clinical practice with forensic clients is limited and in particular a research
gap exists on female adolescent offenders.
The purpose of this project is to examine clinical social work practice with
female juvenile delinquents at a forensic clinic in Prince George, British Columbia.
This is an analysis of my clinical social work practice through the application of
Ferrara's (1991) characteristics of effective group counsellors. The evaluation of
my clinical social work practice relied on the observations and assessment of the
co-therapist. Feminist and cognitive behavioral treatment approaches have been
utilized with adolescent female offenders in this case study. Both treatment
approaches have developed from different philosophical paradigms but in clinical
social work practice they can be synthesized and applied jointly in a therapeutic
setting.

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Table of contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Chapter One: Relevance to clinical social work practice
Chapter Two: Literature review
Social work with groups
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Feminist therapy
Demographic variables of adult and adolescent
Female offenders
Treatment modalities with female juvenile offenders
Chapter Three: A profile of the case study participants
Chapter Four: An analysis of clinical social work practice
Introduction
Analysis of clinical social work practice
Counselor characteristics applied in cognitive
behavioral therapy
Clinical social work practice and feminist counseling
principles
Chapter Five: Future research implications/conclusions
References:
Appendices
Appendix 1: Letter of approval from UNBC ethics committee
Appendix 2: Letter of informed consent
Appendix 3: Sample interview questions
Appendix 4: Letter of authorization for records review from
Youth Court Services
Appendix 5: Participants attendance at group sessions
Appendix 6: Female adolescent offenders offences and
sentencing
Appendix 7: Group participant's indicators of effectiveness
Appendix 8: Profile of female adolescent offenders
Appendix 9: Teenage pregnancy rates in north health regions

11

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IV

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68
69

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IV

This project is dedicated to the young women that attended group therapy at
Youth Court Service between January 16, 1996 and July 29, 1997. I would like to
thank Peter Clugston and the late Fred Bannon for giving me access to Youth
Court Services clinical records for academic purposes. I would like to especially
thank Donna Holliday, the co-therapist of the young women's group for believing
in me as a clinician and supporting this project by giving her time and expertise.
I appreciate the patience and understanding of my project supervisor, Glen
Schmidt. He encouraged me when I needed it and helped me build an idea into a
project. I would like to thank Kwong Tang for providing ongoing support to me
throughout my years at UNBC in the social work program. Tang has the unique
ability to help me focus my thoughts. I would like to thank both members of my
committee for their dedication and support while working with me on this project.
I would like to express my gratitude to my deceased grandparents Wilhelmine
Posehn and Johannes Wendler who have given me gentle guidance throughout my
life. My parents Rita and Dennis McKay who have encouraged and supported me
while I worked on my MSW. My children Lawrence, Carla and Ebony who have
patiently waited for me to be done my studies. I would like to thank my husband
George because he has understood why I should study and has given me the
freedom and support to pursue my academic interests.

INTRODUCTION

1

The phenomenon of female juvenile offenders has caught the attention of
politicians, the media, researchers and social workers. The incidence
of violent offences committed by female adolescent offenders in on the rise
throughout North America. This increase is reflected in the number of arrests of
female juveniles who committed violent crimes between 1995 and 1996 in the
United States (Yamagata, 1997). In this time period the largest statistical increase
is among female juvenile offenders charged for offences against a person such as
assaults (Yamagata, 1997). Studies in Canada indicated that female juvenile
delinquency has increased in the last decade and the offenders are committing
more violent offences (Artz, 1994; Shaw, 1995; Artz, 1998). In British Columbia
between 1986 and 1993 statistics from the Attorney General indicate that the
number of female juvenile offenders in-custody who have committed assaults has
risen (cited in Artz, 1998). I have also recognised in my forensic social work
practice between 1993 to 1997, an increase in the number of juvenile female
offenders involved in the criminal justice system. More frequently, female juvenile
offenders are being referred for counselling to Youth Court Services, a forensic
outpatient clinic in Prince George, British Columbia. The increase in the number of
female juvenile offenders involved in the criminal justice system has significant
implications for clinical and forensic social work practice. The social work

profession has limited literature to guide clinical practice with forensic clients and

2

in particular a research gap exists on female adolescent offenders. This project will
contribute to the literature on clinical social work practice with forensic clients.
The purpose of this project is to analyse my clinical social work practice in a
group that used a cognitive behavioural intervention approach. In particular, I will
examine my clinical social work practice in a case study with respect to female
juvenile delinquents at a forensic clinic. The case study discussed in this project is
a cognitive behavioural therapy group held at the Prince George Youth Court
Services Clinic from January 16, 1996 to July 29, 1997. I have analysed my
clinical social work practice through the application of Ferrara's (1991)
characteristics of effective group counsellors. A face to face unstructured interview
was conducted with the co-therapist of the cognitive behavioral therapy group. The
co-therapist was asked to evaluate my clinical social work practice skills in
cognitive behavioral therapy. Secondly, I collected archival data from the group
...

therapy notes and discussed participant profiles with the co-therapist. In this
project the group participants' profiles were described and related to the limited
literature on this population group. I reviewed the literature that relates to the
history of social work with groups and treatment modalities with adolescent
females in conflict with the law. In this project I will discuss the pertinent literature
on the theories of feminism and cognitive behavioural therapy. I will also describe

ways in which I tried to incorporate both a feminist and cognitive behavioural

3

approach.
In Chapter one the relevance to clinical social work practice is examined.
Chapter two is a review of the literature that pertains to the history of social work
practice with groups, cognitive behavioural therapy, feminist therapy and treatment
modalities with female juvenile delinquents. Chapter three describes the profiles of
the participants in this case study of a therapy group held at the Prince George
Youth Court Services Clinic. Chapter four is an analysis of my clinical social work
practice with respect to female juvenile delinquents at a forensic clinic. Chapter
five discusses future research implications and the conclusion related to forensic
social work practice with female juvenile delinquents.

CHAPTER ONE:
RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

4

Clinical social work has a history dating back to the settlement movements in
the 1850s and social work with groups has been practised since the 1930s. Clinical
social work intervention can occur with clients individually or with groups.
Clinical social workers engage clients at mental health and forensic clinics
(Hughes, 1983; Whitmer, 1983; Brennan et. al., 1986). In the 1960s members of
the social work profession criticised clinical social workers for their application of
the medical model in mental health and forensic practice settings (Levine, 1989;
Neill, 1993; Pepi, 1997). Social workers at this time did not support individual
therapy modalities

ec

~ they disregarded the social, cultural and political

factors. Nevertheless, professionals critical of clinical practice have supported
group work with clients (Hayes, 1998).
In the 1970s there were increasing numbers of"forfeited clients"; those persons
who did not fit in either the mental health or criminal justice system. The mental
health and criminal justice systems are intertwined because the mentally ill are
over-represented in the prison populations (Brennan, 1987; Blanchette & Motuik,
1996). Other professions such as nursing have encouraged the development of
specialisation in mental health; subsequently there is a growing number of
community nurses who practice forensic nursing (Mason & Mercer, 1996). The
roles of mental health and criminal justice professionals are similar because in a

forensic specialisation they have common clinical language and practice

5

approaches. Today forensic social workers practising at mental health and forensic
settings effectively intervene with "forfeited clients ".
Gorden (1969) defines social work as a profession that improves the fit between
the client and their environment (cited in Swenson, 1998). Clinical social work
functions include:" case management, advocacy, teamwork, mediation, and
prevention roles, as well as therapeutic and counselling roles" (Swenson, 1998, p.
527). The functions of forensic social work overlap with clinical social work
because they both involve diagnosis and treatment of clients, mediation, and
advocacy. (Brennan et. al, 1986; Soloman & Draine, 1995; National Organisation
ofForensic Social Work, 1999). The forensic social worker emphasises the
environmental effects on the client, which is complementary to psychiatry, which
focuses on individual pathology. "Forensic social work is the application of social
work to questions and issues relating to the law and legal systems" (National
Organisation ofForensic Social Work, 1999 homepage). Forensic social workers
practice in prevention programs, provide consultation, education or training to the
courts, develop policies and programs, and facilitate or arbitrate between the client
and the environment (Brennan et. al, 1986; Goldmeier, Wise, & Wright, 1986;
Soloman & Draine, 1995; O'Hare, 1996).

This project will contribute to the literature in clinical and forensic social work
practice. Clinical social workers that specialise in forensic social work are
dependent on the literature from other disciplines such as psychiatry, psychology
and nursing. The social work profession has limited literature to guide clinical
practice with forensic clients and in particular a research gap exists on female
adolescent offenders. Additionally, this project will analyse social work practice
with respect to female juvenile delinquents in northern and rural settings.

6

CHAPTER TWO:
LITERATURE REVIEW

7

This examination entails a review of historical developments as well as
contemporary approaches to social work practice. This writer examined related
literature in four areas: the history of social work practice with groups, cognitive
behavioral therapy, feminist therapy, and treatment modalities with female juvenile
delinquents.
Social work with groups
The Industrial Revolution in England and the United States influenced the
development of social work (Neill, 1993). The history of social work with groups
can be traced to the 1850s, when social workers were involved in the settlement
movements and youth-serving organizations (Rothman & Papell, 1988; Zastrow,
1993). During this time social workers attempted to, "provide practical
humanitarian care to casualties of capitalism" (Mullaly, 1993, p. 119). Social
workers today can detect their underlying values of humanitarianism, ethics, and
social justice in early social work practice with groups (Brown, 1991; Swenson,
1998). Social workers in the settlement houses were committed to social reform
and developed group programs for clients (Rothman & Papell, 1988; Brown,
1991 ). Most group organisations had a religious affiliation to meet the spiritual and
recreational needs of the industrial workers (Brown, 1991 ). The YMCA is one
example of an early group which began as a successful prayer group and today

offers many programs to communities all over the world. The client was the

8

community during the settlement movements. After World War I the settlement
movement altered its focus from community change to community service
(Dorfman, 1988).
During the 1920s social workers were establishing a professional identity for the
social work profession (Haynes, 1998). At that same time social work with groups
relied on social theorists and philosophers for theoretical direction and became less
focused on the impact of social conditions (Brown, 1991; Neill, 1993). Between
1930 and 1940 social work was influenced by a wave of social reform.
Subsequently two social work practice areas developed: social group work and
community development (Specht, 1988; Haynes, 1998). By the 1930s there were
four distinctive practice approaches in group work: social group work, group
therapy, group relations and group research (Brown, 1991).
In the 1960s, the effect of a second wave of social reform resulted in two types
of social work emerging, clinical and reform ( Dorfman, 1988; Haynes, 1998).
Dorfman (1988) asserts that clinical social work includes " assessment, diagnosis,
treatment including psychotherapy and counselling, client-centred advocacy,
consultation and evaluation" (p. 18). Three models of clinical social work practice
have emerged: social goals, reciprocal or interactionist, and remedial ( Rothman &
Papell, 1988; Brown, 1991). The social goals or mutual aid model evolved with

group work practice focusing on citizenship, social action and reform. The

9

reciprocal or interactionist model encouraged the members to develop their own
supportive systems to deal with a variety of issues, including social, educational
and clinical goals. Social workers contrived the remedial model to serve clients'
clinical needs in a therapeutic group. Clinical social workers, "should address the
patient's presented deficits this is often called a 'remedial' or 'compensation'
approach" (Lewinsohn & Clarke, 1999 p. 332).
Social workers must understand that group counselling with juvenile delinquents
differs from group work with adolescents (Ferrara, 1991; Butterfield & Cobb,
1994). Clinical social workers that work with juvenile delinquents have a challenge
because the client is involuntary and resistant to change (Schaefer, Johnson, &
Whery, 1992; Ferrara, 1991; Lewinsohn & Clarke, 1999). The therapist leading a
group of juvenile delinquents must be prepared to deal with various problems
including behaviours, attitudes, values, interpersonal relationships and personality
factors (Butterfield & Cobb, 1994). Female adolescent offenders can have a
history of juvenile delinquency that includes adjustment and school problems,
suicide attempts, absconding from institutions, status offences, substance abuse,
and violent behaviours (Meichenbaum, Bowers, & Ross, 1968; Ross, McKay,
Palmer, & Kenny, 1978; Cornell, 1987). Adolescent offenders have rigid defences
and are unable to tolerate or discuss their feelings; therefore individual behavioural

therapy is not a preferred treatment modality with juvenile delinquents, except in

10

sex offender treatment (Adams, 1959; Jurjevich, 1968; Ross & McKay, 1976;
Cornell, 1990; Lipsey, 1990; Hollin, 1990). These clients' symptomatology can
trigger counter transference responses from their therapists (Mishne, 1998).
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Clinical and forensic social workers can conduct therapeutic interventions with
clients in a variety of situations including mental health centres, correctional
institutions and halfway houses (Zastrow, 1993; Pepi, 1997). To effectively lead
and co-facilitate group therapy, clinical social workers must demonstrate a
repertoire of skills and knowledge. One treatment intervention that develops skills
and competencies is cognitive behavioural therapy. Social workers can apply this
approach individually or with groups (DeLange, Barton, & Lanham, 1981; Barth,
1988; Anderson-Malico, 1994).
In the 1960s a pioneer in cognitive theory Albert Ellis proposed that irrational
thoughts and beliefs lead to self-defeating behaviours (Beck, 1976; Butterfield &
Cobb, 1994). Rational-emotive therapy (RET) is an educational-didactic approach
which focuses on clients' self-talk and changes their thought processes through
cognitive restructuring (Dujovne, 1995). The philosophical basis for rationalemotive therapy is phenomenological (Corey, 1990). Aaron Beck (1976) a
cognitive behavioural therapist described the interaction between typical patterns

of thinking and depression (Beck, 1976; Granvold, 1994). Beck's short-term

11

cognitive therapy focused on patterns of thinking with clients suffering from
depression (Beck, 1976; Dujovne, 1995). The cognitive behavioural therapist
postulates that there is a relationship between the way people feel, think, and
behave and their negative views of the self, world, and future ( Reeder, 1991;
Anderson-Malico, 1994; Dujovne, 1995). Recent studies have shown that
individual and group cognitive behavioural therapy is effective with a variety of
psychiatric disorders ( Hollin, 1990; Martin, 1993; MindStreet, 1996). As well,
cognitive behavioural therapy has been a successful therapeutic intervention with
prison inmates (Hollin, 1990; Coulson & Nutbrown, 1992; Valliant, Jensen, &
Raven-brook, 1995; Holbrook, 1997). Cognitive therapy is widely used to change
dysfunctional thoughts, emotions and behaviours (MindStreet, 1999).
The difference between cognitive and cognitive behavioural therapy is a
reflection of the conceptual differences of the clinicians (Hollin, 1990). Social
workers that guide their practice with the principles of behaviourism prefer
cognitive-behavioural therapy. Cognitive therapy is the preferred approach by
social workers who follow theories from cognitive psychology. In clinical practice
settings the cognitive and behavioural therapist combine therapeutic techniques
and strategies. Both cognitive and cognitive behavioural therapists attend to the
same underlying principles and concepts of therapy while working toward similar

treatment goals (Granvold, 1994). In cognitive approaches, clients are taught to

12

recognise and change cognitive errors and develop more rational thinking
(Reeder, 1991; Martin, 1993; MindStreet, 1996). Behavioural models place
primary importance on learning, environmental consequences, skills acquisition,
and identifying deficits (Dujovne, 1995). Cognitive-behavioural therapy models
are "directive, structured, goal-oriented, time-limited and learning theory based"
(Dujovne, 1995 p. 596).
Clinical social workers have developed cognitive models for social work
practice (DeLange, Barton, & Lanham, 1981; Ferrara, 1991; Martin, 1993).
Cognitive behavioural therapy is a teaching model that helps the client to
develop skills and knowledge that pertain to their identified problem (Corey, 1990;
Reeder, 1991; Butterfield & Cobb, 1994; Anderson-Malico, 1994). As a treatment
modality, cognitive behavioural therapy is problem centred and focused on the
individual as the change agent (Hollin, 1990). Reeder (1991) states that "The goal
of therapy is to help clients uncover their dysfunctional and irrational thinking, test
the reality of their thinking and behaviour, and build more adaptive and functional
techniques for responding both interpersonally and intrapersonally" (p.14 7). The
therapist's role in cognitive behavioural therapy with juvenile delinquents is to
limit behaviours and lead the therapy group (Ferrara, 1991).

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) has shown to be effective in the

13

treatment of depression among adolescents (Dujovne, 1995; Lewinsohn & Clarke,
1999). Research in the Netherlands has shown that there is a co-morbid
relationship between emotional and cognitive problems and suicidal behaviours
among female adolescents (Damefski & Diekstra, 1995). Depressed adolescents
have responded favourably to therapy approaches including cognitive, social skills,
problem solving, and relaxation components (Dujovne, 1995). Recently, cognitive
therapy has been successfully used to prevent relapse among adolescents who
suffer from a psychotic disorder (Beeken & Dwivedi, 1996). Additionally,
cognitive behavioural approaches are an effective therapeutic intervention with
juvenile delinquents in social skills groups (Hollin, 1990; Dujovne, 1995). Social
skills training includes modelling by the therapist, role-playing, performance
feedback, praise, and self-monitoring of behaviours (Dujovne, 1995). As well,
juvenile delinquents have used cognitive behavioural techniques to control their
anger (Barth, 1988; Hollin, 1990; Valliant, Jensen, & Raven-brook, 1995).
Cognitive behavioural group work with juvenile delinquents is the most
appropriate approach because it allows the client to practice new knowledge and
skills in a safe environment (Patterson, 1950). Cognitive therapy is dynamic with
adolescents because it is collaborative, non-confrontational, safe and fun (Beeken
& Dwivedi, 1996). Cognitive behavioural therapy models communication skills

that juvenile delinquents can apply through active participation in the group.

14

Generally, the goal of therapy with juvenile delinquents is to find motivation and
develop interpersonal or social skills (Schaefer, Johnson, & Whery, 1982;
Butterfield & Cobb, 1994; Valliant, Jensen, & Raven-Brook, 1995). Despite the
potential difficulties, juvenile delinquents in cognitive behavioural groups have
learned skills and knowledge to change their offending behaviour (Ferrara, 1992;
Vallaint, Jensen, & Raven-brook, 1995). Researchers argue that the use of video
playback was effective to improve reality testing and reducing participants' denial
among a group of female delinquents (Marvit, Lind, & McLaughlin, 1974).
Clinical social workers leading cognitive behavioural groups can use videotaping
as a strategy to help clients in identifying their behaviours.
Feminist therapy
The first wave of feminism occurred around the early 1900s when women
fought for their right to vote. Betty Frieden proclaimed the second wave of the
feminist movement in 1974 with the publication of The feminist mystique
(Valentich, 1986). Today three types of feminist ideology have emerged: liberal or
mainstream, socialist, and radical. Liberal feminists focus on equal rights,
individual liberty and equality of opportunity. Socialist feminists strive to
eliminate oppression based on class, sexual orientation, race and age (Bishop,
1984; Adamson, Briskin, & McPhail; 1988). Radical feminism strives to eliminate

patriarchy and violence against women (Valentich, 1986). Most feminists are

15

committed to identifying and addressing practices that disempower and oppress
individuals and raise consciousness about oppression (Swensen, 1998).
Feminists in the 1960s began to examine the mental health services for women.
They identified a medical model of treatment that blamed clients for their illness
and treatment was individually focused (Levine, 1989; Pepi, 1997). Gender
differences in treatment of male and female patients were apparent (Valentich,
1986). The feminist ideology advocates for egalitarian relationships between the
therapist and client (Paquet-Deehy, 1991). In the mid 1970s feminists criticised
clinical social work which was based on medical model approaches and Freudian
insight oriented therapy. Boettcher (1997) argues that the qualitative and subjective
nature of psychiatry has become aligned with feminism because it empowers
marginalized groups. Feminists scrutinised psychological theories based on male
psychological development, such as Erickson and Maslow (Valentich, 1986; Pepi,
1997). Conarton and Kreger-Silverman (1988) have developed a gender-specific
life-span developmental model for women. Sociological and social learning
theories were congruent with feminist theory because they viewed the client's
experience in the context of their environment. Assertiveness training is, a method
of therapy that uses cognitive behavioural techniques, was considered as an
effective therapeutic intervention ( Valentich, 1994; Shaw; 1995). In the 1970s

there were limited services available for women and as a consequence feminists

16

developed their own support system through consciousness-raising groups. At the
same time feminists organised collective women's centres to provide crisis
intervention services to victims of sexual and spousal abuse (Valentich, 1986).
During the 1980s theoretical models for feminist counselling were developed by
Collier (1982), Levine (1983), and Russel (1984). Levine (1983) defines feminist
counselling as, "a way of linking women's personal struggles with the political
context of our lives as both providers and consumers of services, and working
toward change together" (p. 87). In the 1980s feminist clinicians set up a wide
range of intervention strategies, including individual counselling, advocacy, patient
support networks, self help, kinship and friendship groups (Valentich, 1986). Later
in the 1990s feminist counselling is described as a philosophy rather than a clinical
approach to social work practice (Shaw; 1995). From a feminist perspective, the
mental health clinician is a change-agent who works with the client systematically
toward long term goals (Pepi, 1998). Treatment based on the feminist model helps
the client "find her voice".
Researchers and social workers generalised theories of male crime and
delinquency to female offenders until after the second wave of feminism in the
1970s (Balthazar, 1994). Feminist researchers continue to make a substantial
contribution to the development of female crime and delinquency theory

(Konopka, 1966, 1983; Chesney-Lind 1989, 1992; Campbell, 1986, 1993;

17

Morris 1987; Adelberg & Currie, 1987; LaPrairie, 1992). A feminist researcher
strives to gain an understanding of the nature of juvenile delinquency by listening
to the young women's stories. Chesney-Lind & Sheldon (1992) state "listening to
the girls" stories is essential to understanding female delinquency (p. 166).
A number of studies are examples of the type of listening and understanding
espoused by feminist researchers. Among these a study conducted between 1984
and 1985, with female juvenile offenders who lived in a short-term residential
program in Hawaii was unique because it gave young women involved in the
criminal justice system a voice to tell their story (Chesney-Lind & Sheldon, 1992).
Robinson (1994) another feminist researcher, conducted a study on female juvenile
delinquents in Massachusetts. She argues that the goal of this research was to
understand female juvenile offenders and not to control or reform them.
Previously, society saw female offenders as having sexual issues that required
change and control (Pepi, 1997). From a feminist perspective the researcher strives
to understand the women's actions as contextualized within society. Therefore,
feminist researchers pay attention to the issues of gender, race and class (Shaw &
Dubois, 1995).
Artz (1994) conducted a study in Victoria, British Columbia, with young women
who use violence in high school. These young women attempt to gain status with

their peers by violent means. Paradoxically their use of violence against their

18

peers makes them outcasts. Molidor (1996) another feminist researcher, examined
the etiology of female gang members in a residential treatment facility. Her
research gave the young women a voice and allowed them to make
recommendations to the social workers. The female gang members advocated for
school-based programs that would deal with the issues of violence, poverty, and
discrimination.
Demographic variables of adult and adolescent female offenders
A longitudinal study completed in the United States suggests that among
adolescents there is a relationship between aggression and alcohol usage (White &
Kowalski, 1993). White's study assesses the reciprocal relationship between
alcohol abuse and aggressive behaviour among adolescents. White concluded that
both alcohol and aggression have common percussive influences, including family
dysfunction and victimisation. Recent research in the United Stated has found that
abused children are twice as likely to be involved in the criminal justice system
(Allen-Hagen & Sickmund, 1993). The literature on female adult and juvenile
offenders reports that many have been victims of physical, emotional and sexual
abuse (Adelberg, 1987; LaPrairie, 1987; Reistma-Street, 1991; Stewart, 1991;
Troyer, 1997). Research in the United States and Canada indicates that in 1994
female juvenile violent crimes were on the increase with aggravated assault

accounting for the most frequent offence (Yamagata; 1997). Many therapists

19

have the perception that female juvenile delinquents are not amenable to therapy
because they do not trust adults and their present behaviours, values and lifestyles
are different from their parents and professionals (Cornell, 1987; Mishne, 1998).
Few studies have given consideration to the unique needs and characteristics of
female juvenile delinquents. Robinson (1994) describes female juvenile offenders
as a uni ue o. u-l-at-i<:m with s:peeiallift3, issues. Adolescent females have a different
way of understanding than their male counterparts and th€ir S€ -€s ee :::ili i i~e ' :
during thi de\relO"pmental stage tMiller, Trapani, Fejes-Mendoza, Eggleston &
Dwiggins, 1995). Female offenders can be withdrawn, depressed, anxious and
extemalise their feelings (Epstein, Cullinan & Lloyd, 1986). Major depressive
disorders are twice as prevalent among adolescent females than males (Lewinsohn
& Clarke, 1999). Adolescent female offenders in custodial settings can be severely

impacted and their prognosis in treatment is limited (Miller, Trapani, FejesMendoza, Eggleston & Dwiggins, 1995).
Research in Ontario has found that a third of the women in conflict with the law
were first arrested in their teens (Troyer, 1992). Previous research on female
delinquency has been predominately conducted in urban centers (Webber, 1991 ).
The literature suggests that race, gender and class play a role in the over
representation of First Nations women in the criminal justice system (LaPrairie,

1984b, 1987, 1992; Maracle, 1993). In British Columbia twenty percent of

20

women in provincial jails are of Aboriginal descent; while Native people represent
five percent of the population (Johnson, 1987; LaPrairie, 1992). Native women
represent twenty-one percent of the prison population at the federal penitentiary for
women in Kingston, Ontario (Sugar & Fox, 1980; Task Force, 1990). Feminist
researchers state that female offenders charged with status offences are over
represented in the prison population and on community probation dispositions
(Chesney-Lind, 1989, 1992; O'Reilly-Fleming & Clark, 1993; Pepi, 1997).
Research conducted at the Pinegrove Correctional Centre, a woman's provincial
facility in Saskatchewan found that seventy-one percent of the female inmates had
their first child before the age of twenty (Troyer, 1979). Sixty percent of the female
inmates at Pinegrove reported being in foster care or adopted (Troyer, 1979).
Treatment modalities with female juvenile delinquents
Social workers have traditionally practised casework, individual and group
counselling as intervention strategies with these clients. Present research shows
that many social work interventions have been inadequate with female adolescents
and juvenile offenders. Female juvenile delinquents are engaged in a lifecycle
that involves a separation from figures of authority. Among female juvenile
delinquents individual psychotherapy is the least effective treatment modality
because it depends on the development of a therapeutic alliance with the therapist

(Adams, 1959; Jurjevich, 1968; Ross & McKay, 1976; Lipsey, 1990; Lewinsohn

21

& Clarke, 1999). Meyer, Borgatta and Jones (1965) completed a study on the

effectiveness of casework with females who had potential problems in a school
setting. The results of this study suggested that no dramatic changes occurred and
they discouraged traditional casework with these young women.
Group counselling has been effective with young women if the focus is on the
their specific problems (Lipsey, 1990). Truax (1971) suggests that group
counselling with institutionalised female offenders can be effective when the
therapist is open, nondefensive, real and genuine. A caring community was
developed for female juvenile delinquents that needed emotional support in their
daily lives to maintain the changes they made in group therapy (Raubolt, Strauss,
and Bratter; 1976). Therapy with female juvenile delinquents in discussion and
drama groups has been effective. Patterson (1950) states that both groups improved
the girls' interpersonal relationships and social adjustment. A study suggests that
small group discussion with female juvenile delinquents in a custodial setting can
develop moral reasoning skills (Gibbs, Arnold, Cheesman & Ahlborn, 1984).
Short-term client centred treatment in-groups has had a positive influence on
female juvenile delinquent's attitudes toward themselves and others (Redfering,
1972). A follow up study by Redfering suggests female clients in treatment were
released early from the institution and had a lower recidivism rate than their female

counterparts (Redfering, 1973 ). Group therapy with a feminist philosophy has

22

encouraging potential with teenage street prostitutes in Seattle, Washington
(Davidson, 1992). This program has a strong feminist component and has been
offered effectively in an open detention setting. Similarly, the New Directions
program in Tucson, Arizona, followed the principles of feminist counselling with
the focus being on women helping women in a non-hierarchical, reciprocal and
supportive way (Davidson, 1983 ). Group support sessions focus on assertiveness
training, sexuality, life planning and value clarification.
Clinical social workers have discovered that family involvement in therapy with
adolescents can be successful (Dujorne, 1995; Mishne, 1996). A study in
Minneapolis, Minnesota established that family therapy was effective in reducing
recidivism rates among female juvenile offenders (Druckman, 1979). Youth
charged with behavioural or status offences have shown some progress with a
family-based crisis intervention program in San Fernando, California. The female
offenders in this program have spent fewer days in custody and they were arrested
less frequently than other offenders that did not attend the program (Stratton,
1975). Therapists that practice family therapy with female offenders must be
sensitive to gender issues and familial abuse. Many female offenders have been
and continue to be oppressed and abused by family members (Kolko, 1976).

The literature indicates the most effective treatment approaches with female

23

offenders are multimodal programs and cognitive behavioural therapy in-groups. It
is well documented by researchers that multimodal programs with female juvenile
delinquents have been effective in reducing antisocial behaviours (Gross, Brigham,
Hopper, & Bologna, 1980; DeLange, Barton & Lanham, 1981; Lipsey, 1990).
Many female offenders are involved in street prostitution; the Children of the
Night is a multimodal program in southern California developed to deal with the
issues of juvenile prostitution. Through this multimodal program street youth can
access a crisis hot line, a walk in centre and professional counselling. This program
has outreach volunteers who provide educational information and crisis
counselling to street youth (Chesney-Lind, 1992; Shaw, 1995). The emancipation
program, in Portland, Oregon was developed as a short-term program to prepare
delinquent and troubled females for independent living. This program encompasses
counselling in a broader sense through skills development and employment
readiness ( Chesney-Lind & Sheldon, 1992).
As early as 1935, social workers have used cognitive behavioural interventions
with female juvenile delinquents. Neva Boyd a social worker practised recreational
therapy to modify behaviours of female delinquents in a training school ( Brown,
1991 ). In the United States almost one-third of all institutions for female juvenile
delinquents use behaviour modification programs (Siegel & Senna cited in Pepi,

1997). A Canadian study by Meichenbaum, Bowers, and Ross (1968) concluded

24

that inappropriate classroom behaviour of institutionalised female offenders could
be modified by behavioural techniques. Among institutional female offenders peer
intervention with behavioural strategies have had a positive outcome and continued
when they were released into the community (Ross & McKay, 1976). Furthermore,
a Canadian study investigating self-mutilation or " carving" among girls in a
training school reveals, positive behaviour modification seemed to reduce carving
behaviour, but did not eliminate it (Ross, McKay, Palmer & Kenny, 1978). Selfmutilating behaviours can occur among patients in psychiatric hospitals, adult and
youth correctional institutions, units for autistic children and institutions for the
mentally challenged. In contrast, Williams and Akamatsu (1978) have concluded
that cognitive self-guided procedures with a group of female juvenile delinquents
in a medium-security institution had no significant impact on their behaviours.
More recent studies indicate that cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is an
effective treatment approach with depressed adolescents individually or in a group
format (Lewinshohn & Clarke, 1999). Victims of childhood violence can benefit
from cognitive-behavioural and social learning procedures to help reduce the
adverse psychological effects of their experience (Kolko, 1976). In particular,
cognitive behavioural approaches are an effective therapeutic intervention with
juvenile delinquents in social skills groups (Hollin, 1990). As well, therapists using

cognitive behavioural approaches have developed client skills and competencies
in anger management groups (Barth, 1988; Hollin, 1990).

25

CHAPTER3:
A PROFILE OF THE CASE STUDY PARTICIPANTS

26

The case study discussed in this project is a cognitive behavioural group held at
the Prince George Youth Court Services Clinic between January 16, 1996 and
July 29, 1997. Since 1920 clinical social workers have used the case study in
research (Sherman & Reid, 1994). Both quantitative and qualitative research
methods have been applied to analyse the data in this case study. The researcher in
quantitative study analyses data statistically; in this case study descriptive statistics
are used to summarise sample data (Leedy, 1985; Palys, 1997). The qualitative
research method is used for in-depth study on a person, a cultural incident or
community. "A case study is an empirical inquiry that- investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when-the
boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident" (Yin
1994, p. 13). The single case study is particularly suitable for this project because
it focuses on the analysis of individual social work practice within a therapy group.
The aim of this exploratory project is" to gain familiarity with or to achieve
new insights into a phenomenon ... in order to formulate a more precise research
question or develop a hypothesis" (Palys, p. 77). Little research exists on clinical
social work practice with female juvenile delinquents. This case study is a
purposive sample because the group was "intentionally sought because they meet
some criterion for inclusion in the study" (Palys, p. 137). The therapy group

f

was a convenience sample. Additionally this cognitive behavioral group

27

inclt ded involuntary clients who were female juvenile delinquents. Two data
collection strategies were used in this project. Firstly, archival data was collected

fro1 the group therapy notes. Secondly, a face to face unstructured interview was
conducted with the group co-therapist. In this chapter I will describe the profiles of

the

~

participants and identify commonalties among female juvenile

delinquents in the group.

f he literature review suggests that social work intervention with female
adolescents and juvenile offenders has been effective (Patterson, 1950;

MeJ er, Borgatta and Jones, 1965; Redfering, 1972; Gibbs, Arnold, Cheesman and
I

Ahlborn, 1984). What constitutes effective clinical intervention with female

juvlnile delinquents? Meyer, Borgatta and Jones (1965) state a social work
inter ention with female adolescents is effective when the client exhibits prosocial
behaviors in a school setting. The improvement of interpersonal relationships,

socjal adjustment and moral reasoning have been used as measurements of clinical
effectiveness with female juvenile delinquents (Patterson, 1950; Gibbs, Arnold,
Chdesman and Ahlborn, 1984). Redfering (1972) identified improvement in an

adolescent's attitude toward themselves and others as indicative of treatment
eff, ctiveness. Treatment with adolescent female offenders is considered
ineffective because a therapeutic alliance is not developed between the therapist

and client (Adams, 1959; Jurjevich, 1968; Ross & McKay, 1976; Lipsey, 1990;

28

Lewinsohn & Clarke, 1999). In this project clinical social work intervention is
effective when a therapeutic alliance is developed between the therapist and client.
Specifically, clients that brought friends to the therapy group must trust the
therapists. Clients continue to contact the therapists following the completion of
group therapy; while some had maintained contact for two years. This definition
of effectiveness does not include change internally or externally among the clients.
It does suggest that these clients are amenable to treatment if they had engaged

with the therapists.
This cognitive behavioural therapy group operated for sixteen months at the
Prince George Youth Court Services Clinic. Two female therapists, a nurse and
social worker facilitated sixteen cognitive behavioural therapy sessions with
female juvenile offenders. The twenty-seven participants collectively attended one
hundred and sixty-nine sessions. The mean for the participant attending the group
was six sessions while the median was five.
A significant number of the participants, fifty-five percent met the therapists
while they were in a youth containment center. The in-custody participants'
motivation for attending the group could have been secondary gain such as a
temporary absence from the youth containment centre. However, these participants
continued therapy upon their release into the community. A related study by

Valliant, Jenson & Raven-Brook (1995) conducted in Sudbury, Ontario found

29

that thirteen percent of the participants in the study were on probation. In contrast,
forty-five percent of the participants in this case study were on probation
(Appendix 6). The number of group sessions the participants attended varied from
one to twenty-eight (Appendix 5). Also, the length of time the participants attended
the group, varied between one to fifteen months. But at least fourteen of the
participants had attended the group for more than three months; this was not
expected considering most of the literature describes a very poor prognosis for
female adolescent offenders attending traditional forms of therapy.
As noted in the literature review individual counselling with female juvenile
delinquents is not effective. Individual therapy depends on the development of a
therapeutic alliance with the therapist, which is difficult to establish with female
adolescent offenders. The participants in this case study demonstrated that they
had formed a therapeutic alliance with their therapist because they attended
individual and group sessions, invited friends to the group and contacted
the therapist after the group ended (Appendix 7). The participants that were not
regularly attending weekly group sessions contacted their therapists for individual
counselling. It would seem that individual therapy in this case study enhanced the
group sessions. Four of the participants invited friends to the therapy group. They
perceived the group as worthwhile and wanted to share the experience with their

peers. Six of the participants voluntarily contacted their therapists after the

30

group was completed. This implies that a therapeutic alliance had been developed
with the participants. In the past social workers did not support clinical
intervention with involuntary clients. This writer would argue those adolescent
female offenders have gained from individual and group therapy in this case study.
The profiles of the group participants suggest that female delinquency and
teenage prostitutes are apparent in rural and northern communities. Eighty-five
percent of the participants in this case study were originally from northern British
Columbia (Appendix 8). In this case study twenty-six percent of the participants
had been charged with a status offence. Status offences are those behaviours that
are law violations when committed by a person under the age of eighteen. Fortyfour percent of the participants had committed an assault (Appendix: 6). In this
study the researcher found that eight percent of the participants who committed
violent offences were on probation, while the remaining twenty percent of violent
offenders were sentenced to a custody sentence. The majority of the participants,
seventy-four percent, had committed a violent offence against a person (Appendix:
6). Most research on female offenders does not support the conjecture that they are
violent. But recent examples in the United States suggest violent offences among
female juvenile delinquents be on the increase. Fifty-two percent of the
participantsin this case study were of First Nation's ancestry. The prevalence of

First Nation's female juvenile delinquents in conflict with the law in northern

31

British Columbia is considerable.
This writer serendipitously found that, thirty-seven percent of the young women
in this case study were pregnant during or after they were involved in group
therapy. The literature on adult female offenders indicates that teenage pregnancy
is very common. The frequency of teenage pregnancy could be related to the
overall high teenage pregnancy rate in northern British Columbia. The northern
regional health authorities have the highest percentage of teenage pregnancies in
the province of British Columbia. In this case study fifty-three percent of the
participants had disclosed that they were adopted or in foster care. The literature on
adult female offenders also implies that a high percentage of the offenders were
adopted or in foster care (Shaw, 1995; Blanchette & Motuik, 1996).
In the literature the significance of alcohol and drug dependency has been
identified among female juvenile delinquents charged with status offences (White,
1993; Webber, 1991). In this case study all of the participants charged with status
offences had a drug addiction and approximately fifty-seven percent had attended
alcohol and drug treatment programs. Overall fifty-nine percent of the participants
is the case study had an alcohol or drug dependency. Between January 1996 and
July 1997 residential programs for alcohol and drug treatment for female juvenile
delinquents in northern British Columbia where unavailable. Recently, the British

Columbia government has identified high-risk communities, in the north which

32

include Prince George, Terrace, Fort St. John, Dawson Creek and Fort Nelson.
These high-risk communities will be funded for adolescent intensive day
treatment, family and youth counselling programs (Prince George Citizen, 1999).
In addition, a significant number thirty-three percent of the participants who had
committed violent offences had an alcohol or drug dependency. The frequency of
alcohol and drug dependency among female juvenile delinquents is similar to
female adult offenders in provincial and federal correctional institutions. The
literature suggests that many of the adult female inmates have an alcohol or drug
dependency (Adelberg, 1987; Troyer, 1997). Only, two of the female juvenile
delinquents that participated in the case study have become involved in the adult
criminal justice system. It is likely more female juvenile offenders are involved in
the adult criminal justice system and that this information is unknown to the
therapists. In this case study fifty-two percent of the participants were identified as
victims of physical or sexual abuse. Some participants might not have been
identified as victims by the therapists because of their limited self-disclosure or
lack of participation in the group discussion.

CHAPTER4:
AN ANALYSIS OF CLINICAL SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

33

Introduction
In this case study the clinical social work intervention adheres to cognitive
behavioral and feminist theory. Both theoretical approaches have developed from
contrary epistemologies. Sherman and Reid (1994) define an epistemology as
" The branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge, the scope of
knowledge and the reliability of claims to knowledge". (p.494 ). A feminist
epistemology is based on how we construct meaning from our life experiences.
Some feminists do not consider knowledge as an absolute social construct, this is
similar to constructionist theory. The way we view the world is questioned from a
phenomenological point of view (Van Manen, 1990). Cognitive behavioral theory
follows an epistemology of empiricism where "direct observations of the world are
seen as the way to generate and validate truths" (Plays, 1997 p. 414).
Theorists argue that the researcher must adhere to one theoretical approach
whilst conducting research. Both cognitive behavioral and feminist approaches
hold assumptions about how we know which can lead to very different ways of
generating data (Sherman & Reid, 1994). In a research setting the separation of
empirical and phenomenological approaches is very distinct; however in clinical
social work practice the approaches can be complimentary. A relevant offender
population, male barterers are commonly treated by therapists with cognitive

behavioural and feminist approaches. The Duluth model is an educational

34

approach to working with males who commit violence in relationships (Shepard,
1990). The curriculum for this educational program defines violence from a
feminist perspective. The violence in relationships is understood in the context of
the male's need to have power and control over females. The participants of this
group are taught non-controlling behaviors through cognitive behavioral
techniques. The men use behavioral checklists to identify the use of threatening
behaviors in relationships.
My social work practice is eclectic, which means that many
theoretical approaches to counselling are used as an intervention strategy with
clients. I have found in my clinical social work practice feminist and cognitive
behavioural approaches to therapy do not have to be mutually exclusive. In this
case study I have applied the principles of socialist feminist theory to my clinical
social work practice. For example a feminist therapist shares all information with
the client in group therapy setting. Thus, while sharing information with the client
I can teach problem-solving skills, which is a cognitive-behavioural strategy.
Analysis of clinical social work practice
The purpose of this project is to analyse my clinical social work practice in
a cognitive behavioural group. In particular, I will examine my clinical social work

practice in a case study with respect to female juvenile delinquents at a forensic

35

clinic. I will analyse and describe my clinical social work practice in a case study
through the application of Ferrara's (1992) social work practice model and the
feminist counselling principles. I completed a face to face unstructured interview
with the group co-therapist. (Appendix 3). The evaluation of my clinical social
work practice relied heavily on the observations and assumptions of the cotherapist. Social workers must exhibit a repertoire of clinical skills to effectively
lead a cognitive behavioral therapy group. Clinical social work practice is an
applied knowledge and skill. Qualitative data is used to analyse the group process
and content through the ideas, opinions and impressions of the co-therapist and
myself. As well, I will compare my assumptions on group process and content with
the co-therapist's.
Counselor characteristics applied in cognitive behavioral therapy
I will describe and analyze my clinical skills through applying the
characteristics of an effective counselor to my social work practice (Ferrara, 1991 ).
Ferrara has described characteristics that a counselor must have to effectively lead
cognitive behavioral therapy with juvenile delinquents. The following are the five
characteristics described by Ferrara:
"The counselor must be committed to working with juvenile delinquents.
The responsible counsellor is a sharp contrast to the role models that
the delinquents find on the street. Since observational learning does occur,
being a responsible counsellor should be a form of teaching. The intense

36
counselor has the strength to penetrate the youth's defenses and the
persistence to pursue an issue to closure. Since so much of the delinquent's life
is based upon deception, the counsellor must be sceptical of what the delinquent
says and does. The counsellor constantly pushes for more information and more
honesty. Flexibility is important; however it is more important for the counselor
to be aware that juvenile delinquents require a more direct and confrontational
style of leadership in a therapy group than other clients" ( p. 23-24).
The co-therapist, Donna Holliday and myself had discussed the clinical skills that
were implemented in this case study. We both have had professional training in
nursing and social work; therefore we did not imply that the required clinical skills
were based on a specific profession. Holliday commented that clinical skills can be
learned by a professional but "all the training in the world cannot make you a
people person".
"The counselor must be committed to working with juvenile delinquents"
(Ferrara, 1992, p.23). Female juvenile delinquents are very emotionally intuitive
and can tell if the social worker is not committed to work with them. The therapists
at the forensic clinic were reluctant to participate in a young woman's group
because other agencies had not been able to engage them. The co-therapist and
myself did not have clinical experience working with young women. As stated by
Holliday," .. .I had never worked with a group of young women". The female
juvenile offenders were aware that Holliday and myself were committed to
working with them. As a forensic social worker I believed that female juvenile
offenders would benefit from group therapy. The co-therapist was an experienced

therapist who maintained the effectiveness of group therapy. After I left the

37

forensic clinic, the group process was disrupted because the young women realised
that no other therapist was committed to co-lead the group. Holliday commented,
" ... Right after you left the girls' group, just disintegrated, it just disappeared, I
don't know what happened to it ... we never tried to set up a meeting with
another therapist or to work with it because I didn't think that there was
anybody else in the clinic that would be able to work with them ".
"The responsible counsellor is a sharp contrast to the role models that the
delinquents find on the street. Since observational learning does occur, being a
responsible counsellor should be a form of teaching" (Ferrara, 1992, p. 23).
The therapists model their personal qualities, values and life experiences in the
therapy group. The juvenile delinquents in therapy take over many of the behaviors
and attitudes of the therapist.
I applied the principles of cognitive behavioural therapy in the group which
included connecting the clients' thoughts to their behaviours. Holliday explains,
"I think we went into the feeling states of the girls and I think they were
really quite open with us because we gave them respect to do that and their
behaviours I think they talked quite openly about their behaviours too in the
group".
I modelled being open, respectful and accepting toward the young women in the
group. In group therapy the young women demonstrated how to connect their
thought and behaviours with their life experiences. They developed the ability to
identify options and problem-solve within a group setting.

"The intense counselor has the strength to penetrate the youth's defences and

38

the persistence to pursue an issue to closure "(Ferrara, 1992, p. 23). The social
worker is taught communication skills to facilitate the helping process. The
practice skills used by

~ social worker are basic communication skills, including

attending, listening, empathy, and probing (Egan, 1986). The goal of cognitive
behavioural therapy is to change the thoughts, behaviours and beliefs of the client
(Martin, 1999). In order for the social worker to effectively intervene with
juvenile delinquents different practice skills are applied in therapy than with other
adolescents in a clinical settings. "I think we were quite eclectic really but I think
that the reality kind of therapy modality was probably the best we could have used
with them, because it was reality based", stated Holliday. As a clinical social
worker working with female juvenile offender I learned clinical skills from the
group participants and the co-therapist. My personal style of counseling was very
non-directive and process oriented. At times during the group I thought that I could
have been more directive. To effectively intervene with female juvenile offenders I
had to learn to use the advanced communication skill of challenging the client in
group therapy. Holliday remarked that, "I think one of the things is that you are a
very up front person." Clinical social workers tend to see their role as supportive
and empathetic to the client. Juvenile offenders view the therapist as a weak role
model if they are not direct in therapy. I had to learn to be direct and lead the

clients to develop problem-solving skills. One of the most important qualities of

39

a therapist is the ability to be direct and tell the client what they might not want to
hear (Corey, 1999).
"Since so much of the delinquent's life is based upon deception, the counsellor
must be sceptical of what the delinquent says and does. The counsellor constantly
pushes for more information and more honesty" (Ferrara, 1992, p. 24). Clinical
social workers traditionally help clients set goals and tell their stories. The role of
the social worker is to assist the client to gain an understanding of their experience
and make changes through their own decisions. The goal of therapy with juvenile
offenders is to have them identify the truth and be given options to deal with their
situation. This is a paradigm shift for social workers, as they do not see themselves
as being an interrogator. From my personal experience, I knew if I was sceptical it
would help the teenagers to become more aware of their own issues. The paradigm
shift was not that difficult in my practice. Holliday explains,
"I think that you have recognised game playing and I think maybe because
you have daughters but I think that you are pretty alert to the issues that
were sort of suggested but weren't put forth. You were pretty good at
picking up the underlying issues that would come up and identifying them
and dealing with them. I think too that the girls had a lot of trust in you and
this probably had to do with you would see this stuff and move in on it, in a
general manner of course".
"Flexibility is important; however it is more important for the counsellor to be
aware that juvenile delinquents require a more direct and confrontational style of

leadership in a therapy group than other clients" (Ferrara, p. 24). Social workers

40

working with juvenile delinquents must be willing to take on a more directive and
confrontational leadership style. As stated earlier this approach to therapy would
require a paradigm shift for social workers.
Client confidentiality is paramount in clinical social work. The therapists in the
group must work together and share information about the clients. For clients to
develop a therapeutic alliance they must trust the therapist and be reassured that
the information will not be given to others. To effectively direct and confront
juvenile delinquents the therapist must be aware of all the information available
about the client. All of the clients had individual-counseling sessions with their
therapist in this case study. The clients were informed that the two therapists would
share information and they could attend sessions with either therapist. This model
of leadership requires both therapists to work very closely and to eliminate
territorial boundaries between the professions. Holliday explains, " ... we shared the
information about the people that were in the group so we both had a real
awareness. We weren't territorial".
Clinical social work practice and feminist counseling principles
The clinical social worker counseling adolescent female offenders must
have personal characteristics that compliment the needs of these clients. The fit
between my personal beliefs and social work skills gave me the characteristics

needed to work with this challenging group of clients. When I analyzed my

41

clinical practice it became apparent that I preferred a process orientated approach
to counseling. The social work practice principles underlying the clinical
intervention in a therapy group must not be overlooked. I have chosen to analyze
my clinical social work practice based on the principles of feminist counseling.
Levine (1989) states," Feminist counseling is a helping process that means
working with women, individually or in groups, around, their situation as related to
the society that shaped them. The focus is on women helping women in a nonhierarchical, reciprocal and supportive way" (p. 257).
Initially, the therapy group was modeled after a cognitive behavioral anger
management group for male offenders. Shortly after working in the group with
female offenders we modified our approach to be a process rather than content
group to reflect their unique treatment needs. "Feminist counseling helps women to
validate their behavior and experience in their own way" (Levine, 1989, p. 260).
This group was based on cognitive behavioral therapy and identified client
competencies which are congruent with feminist principles of counseling.
According to Pepi (1997), a feminist therapist,"Competency-based counselling
assists the female adolescent in reclaiming her voice and recognition of the
privilege and responsibilities of self-identity and membership in the greater
society" (p. 96).

Some female adolescent offenders have been oppressed and powerless in

42

their relationships with adults and males. Among this group some have been
victims of physical or sexual abuse by male perpetrators. In order to retake power
in their life the client must be given experiences that are empowering. Feminist
principles in counseling suggest that the client feels like she has no control over
her life and the counselor acknowledges their experiences of powerlessness.
Holliday's insightful comment states," ... I think most of the young women that
we worked with were in an oppressed role ... [and they would] take back their own
power". The client and therapist negotiated decisions and the client had decisionmaking power in the young women's therapy group. Holliday comments, "Well I
think if you're dealing with power issues and a lot of these young women are
really powerless. It's a good thing to give some of the power to them. It's their
group, it's not our group". The differences of power are implied within a social
work relationship. The client and social worker have a shared understanding of
why, when and how they are going to work together, there are no hidden agendas
(Bourgon & Buberman, 1993). The counselor shares all the information with the
client so she knows where she stands. Levine (1989) describes it as, "a peer kind of
relationship, with the focus necessarily concentrated on the consumer. It is
understood that without conscious reciprocal learning between counselor and
consumer, there can be no authentic respect and trust in the counseling

relationship" (p.261 ). In this therapy group neither therapist saw themselves as

43

an expert and I understood that I could learn from the young women in the group.
Holliday stated that " ... we are going to learn from our groups and I think the more
groups you run, the more we're going to learn".
In this case study the treatment approach with adolescent female offenders
has been built on the principles of feminist counseling and cognitive behavioral
therapy. While both therapeutic approaches have developed from different
philosophical paradigms, in practice they can be applied in a therapeutic setting.
As a social worker in clinical practice I have integrated both approaches and this
intervention is effective when working with adolescent female offenders. The strict
adherence to a specific therapy approach would not be effective with adolescent
female offenders. These clients have issues related to oppression, powerlessness
and have not been able to raise their voice. At the same time they have limited
skills and competencies in problem solving, coping and dealing with relationships.
In the literature both cognitive behavioral and feminist therapies have been

effective with these clients. In this case study the joint approach has shown to meet
the treatment needs of the adolescent female offenders.

CHAPTERS:
FUTURE RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS/ CONCLUSIONS

44

This project has two major limitations: generalization to other populations
and the data collection method. Firstly, the conclusions from this case study are
based upon the female juvenile delinquent population that attended therapy
at the Prince George Youth forensic clinic between January 16, 1996 and July 29,
1997. This case study is a purposive sample where the unit of analysis was not
randomly selected from the entire population. Therefore the conclusions from this
case study cannot be generalized to all female juvenile delinquents and only apply
to the participants in the case study. Secondly, the participants were not
interviewed in this case study. The participants in this case study are a transient
population and are not presently involved in the criminal justice system. The
information for this project was entirely based on secondary sources that included
group notes and an interview with the co-therapist. The interview with the cotherapist is not considered objective information. The co-therapist had a vested
interest in the therapy group and could present information in an overly positive
light. Strength of this project is the co-therapist had more than six years of clinical
experience working with adolescent offenders in a forensic setting. Additionally,
the qualitative data collected in this project can be used in further to develop
effective clinical interventions with female adolescent offenders.

The social work profession has limited research to guide clinical social work

45

practice with forensic clients. In particular a research gap exists on female juvenile
delinquents in Canada. In the past treatment options were modelled after programs
developed for male adolescents and often did not address the gender-specific needs
of female juvenile delinquents. The limitations of the existing research in this topic
area have implications for forensic social work. More specifically forensic social
workers must develop a body of research on female juvenile delinquents to explore
the linkages between research, practice and policy. At the conclusion of this
project I have identified a number of areas that future researchers could explore.
Recent literature has shown that more female juvenile delinquents are in
conflict with the law because of violent offences. The present studies do not
address how or why female juvenile delinquents enter the criminal justice system.
A theoretical framework is required to examine the unique situation of female
juvenile delinquents in the criminal justice system. Exploratory research has been
conducted on risk prediction of adult female offenders (Kirkpatrick, 1999). Little
information is available on female juvenile delinquents crimogenic behaviour and
the commonality of risk factors. In order for forensic social workers to effectively
develop clinical interventions with female juvenile delinquents they need a better
understanding of their social, economic, psychological and family history. Clinical

social workers should develop prevention, intervention and treatment programs

46

that are specifically designed for female juvenile delinquents.
The prevalence of First Nation's female juvenile delinquents in conflict with the
law in northern British Columbia is considerable. Fifty-two percent of the
participants in this case study were of First Nation's ancestry. Race and socioeconomic status also influence the treatment needs of female juvenile offenders.
In general, research has been completed on First Nation' s offenders and their
involvement in the criminal justice system. This writer did not find Canadian
literature available specifically on First Nations female juvenile delinquents. In the
future social work researchers must focus on this unique population to ensure that
policies and practice approaches are culturally relevant.
Social workers have understood female juvenile delinquency and teenagers at
risk as an urban social issue. Subsequently, there is no research conducted on the
area of female juvenile delinquents in northern and rural settings. The adolescents
in rural and northern regions have different developmental needs than their
counterparts in urban settings. The northern region of British Columbia has the
highest teenage pregnancy rate in the province. Social work research overall has
neglected to study the issue of addictions among women and in particular female
juvenile delinquents. In this case study fifty-nine percent of the participants had an
alcohol or drug dependency. Clinical social workers should develop prevention,

intervention and treatment programs that are specifically designed to include

47

these unique treatment needs for northern and rural female juvenile delinquents.
Social workers working with female juvenile delinquents must be comfortable
with the fit between their therapeutic approach and counseling philosophy.
Clinical social workers specialising in forensic social work must make
peace with medicine and its disciplines. Professional territorial boundaries must be
eliminated between clinical practitioners. Social work must learn to develop
clinical practice approaches with other professions to meet the clinical needs of
their clients. The forensic social worker is a member of a multidisciplinary team
that assesses the client's potential for utilizing treatment and provides clinical
intervention. Clinical social workers prefer to provide service to voluntary clients
because they believe involuntary clients do not benefit from therapeutic
interventions. In this case study the female adolescent offenders demonstrated that
they had formed a therapeutic alliance with their therapist because they attended
individual and group sessions, invited friends to the group and contacted the
therapist after the group ended. In conclusion this project has substantiated that
clinical social work practice with female juvenile delinquents can be productive for
both the client and social worker.
Social work practitioners have the ability to learn skills and techniques for
clinical practice with female juvenile delinquents. Social work practice highlights

that the therapist must have specific characteristics that make their interventions

48

more effective with these clients. In particular, the counsellor must be committed
to the client; be a responsible professional who is persistent and sceptical while
showing leadership qualities. Clinical social workers are taught to be supportive
and empathetic toward their clients. Female juvenile offenders see therapists who
are non-directive as weak. The goal of therapy with juvenile offenders is to have
them identify the truth and be given options to deal with their situation. Social
workers must learn to be more confrontational with female juvenile delinquents in
therapy. This is a paradigm shift for social workers, as they do not see their helping
role as influencing clients in therapy.
Social workers should research the effectiveness of treatment modalities with
female juvenile delinquents. Cognitive behavioural therapy is a therapeutic
approach that teaches clients to develop skills and competencies. The principles of
feminist therapy are very liberating and effective with female juvenile offenders.
Cognitive restructuring, assertiveness skills and problem-solving techniques allow
these clients to set future goals. The forensic social worker must integrate the
techniques of cognitive behavioural therapy with feminist principles to effectively
meet the treatment needs of female juvenile delinquents. The strict adherence to a
specific therapy approach would not be effective with adolescent female offenders.
Forensic social workers have to learn from these clients, few social workers have

the life experiences that the adolescent female offenders bring to the therapy
group. Therapy is a reciprocal process where both therapist and client learn from
each other. It is my hope that other forensic social workers will learn from this
project that working with female juvenile delinquents can be a rewarding
opportunity.

49

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APPENDICES

60

APPENDIX 1

Letter of approval from UNBC ethics review committee

61

61

APPENDIX 1
Letter of approval from UNBC ethics review committee

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA

3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, Canada V2N 4Z9
Dr. Alex Michalos
Chair, UNBC Ethics Review Committee
Tel: (250) 960-6697 or 960-5820
Fax: (250) 960-5746
E-mail: michalos@unbc.ca
UNBC Ethics Committee

July 19, 1999
Ms. Connie Kaweesi
646 Pilot St.
Prince George, BC V2M 5J1
Proposal: 19990510.49
Dear Ms. Kaweesi:
The UNBC Ethics Committee met on July 16, 1999 to review there-submission
of your proposal entitled , "Clinical Social Work Practice With Female Juvenile
Delinquents".
The Committee has approved your proposal and you may proceed with your
research.
If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me.
Sincerely,

Alex Michalos
Chair, UNBC Ethics Review Committee

62

APPENDIX2
Letter of informed consent
Project title: Clinical social work practice with female juvenile delinquents
Researcher: Connie Kaweesi, Graduate Student, University ofNorthem
British Columbia. Telephone number: 250-562-3912.
I understand that I am being asked to participate in an interview to evaluate
the interviewer's clinical social work practice. In particular I will discuss the
process and content of a cognitive behavioral therapy group.

1. The interviewer has informed me that I can stop the interview at anytime. The
interviewer has my consent to audiotape and take handwritten notes during the
interview.
2. Connie Kaweesi may use the information for preparation of her project report.
The only persons who will have access to the audiotape and handwritten notes
are interviewer and her academic committee at UNBC.
3. The interviewee understands that she can waive her right to maintain
anonymity. The interviewee should be given recognition for her expertise in the
give Connie
area of clinical practice with juvenile delinquents. I
Kaweesi permission to disclosure my identity in this project.
4. I can contact interviewer by telephone at 250-562-3912 in case I have questions
about the interview or the project. The interviewee will be given a copy of the
complete project.
5. The videotape and hand written notes will be stored in a locked drawer
in Connie Kaweesi's home office. Following the completion of the project the
videotape and hand written notes will be destroyed.
Both the researcher and the participant have discussed and agreed to the above
conditions.
Signature of participant

Date

Signature of researcher

Date

APPENDIX3

63

Sample interview questions
1. Do you believe cognitive behavioral therapy is an effective treatment modality
for female juvenile delinquents?
2. In your opinion did the young women's group held at the Youth Court Services
clinic between January 1996 to August 5, 1997 follow the principles of
cognitive behavioral therapy?
3. Did the therapist use other treatment approaches in the group?
4. Would you describe the other treatment modalities the therapist used in the
group setting.
5. Describe the skill and competencies the therapist demonstrated in this therapy
group.

APPENDIX4
Letter of authorization for records review from Youth Court Services

64

64

APPENDIX4
Letter of authorization for records review from Youth Court Services
MAR 26 1999 14=41 FR MCF/YOUTH COURT SERV 250 565 7119 TO 95657076

P.02/02

•

BRITISH

CoLUMBIA
March 26, 1999
Connie Kaweesi, BSW, Clinic Coordinator
Forensic Psychiabic Services, Prince George
BY FAX

RE Access to Youth Forensic clinical records for academic purposes
I am writing to confirm that you are authorized to review treatment records
prepared by you when you were a team member In this Clinic. This will be for
the purpose of completing work toward an MSW at the UNBC School of Social
Work.

Cordially

Peter Clug n, MSW
Regional Manager

Ministry for Children and FamlUas

Youth Forensic Psychiatric Services
Prince George Clinic

1 594 - 7th Avenue

Prince George. B.C. V2L 3P4
Phone: 565-71 t 5
FAX: 565·7119

** TOTAL PAGE.02 **

APPENDIX5
Participants attendance at group sessions
Participant
1
2
3
4

5
6
7
8

9
10
11

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

20

21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Number of sessions
28
6
9
5
5
1
6
1
17
4

3
2
11
2
5
17
1
2
4
1

2
9
11
6
8
2
1

Mode: 1 and 5 session (bimodal)
Median: 5
Mean: 6
* (If participants that attend 1 session are excluded the mean= 7.4)
*Data collected: July 16, 1996 to July 29, 1997

65

66
APPENDIX6
Female adolescent offenders offences and sentencing
(N=27)
Sentence:
Custody
Community sentence

15 participants
12 participants

Offenders offences:
Assault
Offence Unknown
Status Offence
Other Offences
Violent Offence
Non-violent Offence

12
2
7
6
15
10

*Data collected: July 16, 1996 to July 29, 1997

APPENDIX 7
Group participants' indicators of effectiveness
(N=27)
Participants invited a friend to the therapy group
4
Participants voluntary contact with therapist after group 6

*Data collected: July 16, 1996 to July 29, 1997

67

68

APPENDIX 8
Profile of female adolescent offenders
(N=27)
Participants from the north
Participants from other areas
Ethnicity First Nations
Ethnicity Caucasian
Participants in foster care or adopted
Previous alcohol/drug treatment
Identified substance abuse *
Victims of physical/sexual abuse
Teenage pregnancy

23
4
14
13
14
15
16
14
10

*All status offenders identified a substance abuse problem.
*Data collected: July 16, 1996 to July 29, 1997

APPENDIX 9
Teenage pregnancy rates in north health regions
Provincial Average 4.9%
Caribou
11.3%
North West
11.1%
Peace Laird
8.9%
Northern Interior 7.6%

Adapted from Vital Statistics Agency British Columbia March 1999.

69