ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 85

deer cross the lakes and rivers, they were driven by hunters and dogs to
a certain point, where others lay in waiting with their canoes. As soon
as the deer took to the water they were attacked by the canoe-men.

Dentalia and copper bracelets served as money. The former were
obtained by trade from the Chilcotin, who for this reason had the name
Psqii’qunem, @.e., dentalia people. In exchange, the Shushwap gave dressed
deer-skins and, probably, in late times, horses. They traded the dentalia
they had received from the Chilcotin to the Okana‘k-én for horses. Trade
was also carried on with the northern Tinneh tribes, especially the Car-
riers. There was no communication with the Lower Fraser River on
account of the prevailing hostility between the tribes of these regions.
Copper was obtained, partly by trade, but some was dug by the natives
themselves. There was a digging at Kamloops Lake, which was worked
up to the last generation, when a man was killed by a fall of rocks which
buried the mine. Since that time it has never been worked.

Food was boiled in baskets, which were filled with water that was
made to boil by throwing red-hot stones into it. Roots are cooked in the
following way: A hole is made in the ground, and red-hot stones are
thrown into it. These are covered with willow twigs and grass. A

stick is placed upright in the centre of the pit and the roots are laid on
top of the grass around the stick. They are covered with more grass

and the hole is filled up with earth, so that part of the stick remains
projecting out of it. Then water is poured out, so that it rans down the

stick mto the hole, and on touching the red-hot stones produces steam.
Finally, a fire is built on top of the hole. The belief prevails that the
roots must be cooked in this particular way by women only, and early in
the morning, betore they have taken any food, as else they could not be

properly done. No man is allowed to come near the place when they

are being steamed.

There is no fixed time for meals. Hunters who leave early in the
morning take breakfast before leaving, their wives eating after they have
gone.

The reports on social organisation which I obtained from my infor-
mants are very meagre. Hach of the numerous tribes of the Shushwap
kad its own chief. The people are divided into nobility and common
people. Common people can, on account of bravery or wealth, attain
high rank, but cannot become noble, as nobility is hereditary. There is
no indication of the existence of gentes. The family is ‘paternal.’ The
chieftaincy is also hereditary. The chief is naturally a member of the
nobility. At the death of the chief his eldest son or, if he has no son,
his younger brother, succeeds him at once. The affairs of the whole
tribe are governed by the chief and a council of the elders. Among the
prerogatives of the chief I heard the following : When the first salmon
of the season are caught, or when the first berries are picked or the first
deer killed, no one must eat of it until it has been presented to the chief,
who must pray over it and partake of it. It did not become quite clear
from the statements of my informants whether this is entirely a religious
function, or at at same time a tribute. It is certainly of interest to see
that here, as well as among the Nootka, we find certain religious func-
tions vested in the chief. At the time when the berries begin to ripen
an overseer is set { by the chief ?] over the various berry patches, whose
duty it is to see that nobody begins picking until the berries are ripe.
He announces when the time has come, and on the next morning the

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