EDUCATION FOR ASSIMILATION:
LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND ACCULTURATION
IN SENIOR ENGLISH
By
Ian Howatt
B.A. , The University of British Columbia, 1994

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
In
INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES [ENGLISH I FIRST NATIONS STUDIES]

©Ian Howatt, 1997
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
July 1997
All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without the permission of the author.

.F~~RARY
t..

ii

Abstract
This thesis examines the application and role of education in general in the effoits
to induce acculturation into and acceptance of settler society hegemony. Specifically, it
illustrates how two disciplines currently work to incite passive indoctrination into the
status quo, namely English Language Arts and Literature. During the imperial enterprise,
language and literature acted as a means for the communication of settler conceptions of
'tmth' and 'reality, ' perceptions that subverted Native meanings of both. Supported by
the law, institutionalized religion, and violence, this subversion of First Nations
tmderstanding contributed significantly to their colonization. Importantly, the application
of language and literature and their influence in this context persists today in the neocolonial educational environment. Public schools continue to stress the importance of the
'mother tongue' in providing success for students and recognize its role in advancing
assimilation. At the same time, a pronounced lack of 'meaningful' Native representation
and a number of fundamental impediments to its incorporation in the English classroom
inhibit an understanding of Native cultures and concerns as they are communicated in
literature. A qualitative content analysis of these resources, as well as theoretical
application, is used to illustrate how all of these mechanisms work in conjunction to
perpetuate the settler society objective of acculturation. In so doing, this thesis also
recognizes the valuable contributions to pedagogy made by a number of groups and
institutions in an effort to combat education for assimilation.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract

11

Table of Contents

ill

Acknowledgments

IV

List of Appendices and Figures

v

Chapter One

Education for Assimilation:
(Neo )Colonialism in the High School English Classroom

Introduction
Overview of the Literature
Statement of Purpose
Research Questions

1
7
11
11

Chapter Two

A History of Pedagogical Assimilation
& Current Trends

12

Chapter Three

Rationale for Assimilation:
Language, Reality, and Pedagogy-Colonial Tools for Assimilation

29

Chapter Four
Methodology
Research Design
Study Parameters
Sample Source
Data Collection
Classification of Study
Researcher's Perspectives
Assumptions
Logic of Approach
Limitations of the Study Design
Data Analysis

Chapter Five

Chapter Six

51

53
54
54
54

55
56
57

58

59

60

The Current Status of Assimilation:
The Integrated Resource Package for
Language Arts 11 and 12

61

The Current Status of Assimilation:
English Literature 12

88

iv

Chapter Seven

Dismantling the Assimilation Process and
Ending Pedagogical Assimilation
Introduction
Summary
The Research Questions
Recommendations
Conclusion

101
~

lOi

~
115

Appendices

117

Figure 1

136

Bibliography

153

v

Acknowledgments
This work could not have been completed without the assistance and support of so
many people.
Above all, I would like to express my gratitude to my family who has supported
me in immeasurable ways, from financial support to lengthy telephone conversations about
nothing! Your expressions of commitment and love have not gone unnoticed and for this
I thank you.
I would also like to extend my thanks to those who helped in the actual writing of
this work, especially my committee members: Dr. Dee Horne (supervisor), Dr. Ross
Leckie (advisor), Dr. Lee Morrison (advisor), and Dr. Judith Lapadat (external examiner).
Thanks for all your advice, assistance, and words of encouragement in what was a very
challenging task. A special thank you to those who helped me in the research, particularly
the librarians at the District Resource Centre in Prince George and Norm Monroe, all of
whom were always willing to lend a hand. As well, a big "thank you" to Carol Zoernack,
Lois Crowell, and Diane King for your patience and sacrifice.
Finally, I would like to thank my 'second family' here at UNBC, my friends: Mel
and Drew, Dawn, Shona, Natasja and Dave, Tomas, Piero, Chris and Tricia. Your
friendship is a precious gift I am truly thankful for. To everyone else I have had the
pleasure of meeting, thank you and good luck in whatever you do.
This thesis was not intended to change the world in any way, but if it is recognized
for its contributions to pedagogy, all the better. I sincerely hope it can make a positive
difference in the education of students and teachers alike.

v

List of Appendices & Figures
Appendix

1.1

Glossary of Terms

119

Appendix

5.1

Illustration of Dates for
Curriculum Implementation

121

5.2

Required Documentation for the Teaching
of Non-recommended resources

122

6.1

List of Required "Core ~
for English Literature 12

124

6.2

Resources Recommended by The IRP for English
Literature 12 with First Nations content

126

6.3

Questions to and Responses from
the Ministry of Education, Skills and Training

129

Appendix

7.1

List of Recommendations as Suggested by the
Authors of Indian Education Paper: Phase I

132

Figure

1

Annotated Bibliography of Resources
Recommended by the IRP

136

Appendix

Readings

1

Chapter One
Education for Assimilation:
(Neo)Colonialism in the High School English Classroom
Introduction
Since the advent of post-colonial theory some two decades ago, a virtual library has been
written about the nature and effects of imperialism upon those affected by this assault, an
enterprise that initiated the loss of both territory and cultures. Critical examinations of
representation, language, literature, identity and the Other abound, each of which is marked by a
strong proclivity towards giving voice to those historically silenced. The texts in this library,
however, rarely pay homage to practical application, instead limiting their analysis to theoretical
considerations. This thesis, then, aims to contribute to this discussion by providing a qualitative
content analysis of the implementation and impact of neo-colonial attitudes within the modern
classroom, ideologies that perpetuate imperial philosophies concerning those colonized.
Pedagogy offers one of the principal means by which settler society can initiate and incur what
Gramsci defines as 'domination by consent, ' a situation in which the colonized are taught to
accept historical and contemporary conditions of existence as 'natural.' In this manner, education
represents a vehicle for assimilation or the acculturation of students (Native and non-Native alike)
into the general mainstream of Canadian society. In so doing, the ideology of imperialism-the
philosophies that governed the territorial expansion of Empire and those that were influenced by
this domination-is perpetuated in a contemporary context.
In particular, this thesis examines the role and function of English and English Literature
classes in this neo-colonial enterprise. These classes are those conventionally described by the
high school curriculum, classes that introduce the student to literature and teach him/her
competency in writing. While they are not solely to blame for this "kinder, gentler" style of
colonialism-there are, after all, other courses that perpetuate imperial effrontery-these
disciplines in particular remain discourses of assimilation for several reasons. First: as the archaic

2

title still ascribed to the study (English Literature) strongly suggests, the central focus remains the
works, thoughts, and philosophies of English settler society. In limiting the educational breadth
. of its texts, ideologies, and instruction, English classes within this scenario thus advance
sameness, rather than recognizing the broad range of alternate visions. At the same time,
fundamental impediments are imposed on teachers desiring to teach post -colonial theories and
concerns as they are communicated in literature and language. Second: because the discipline
focuses on language, issues of power and authority as well as discursive conceptions of 'truth'
and 'reality' come into being. Because there is no subject outside of language, the real and the
known are purely linguistic constructs; in this respect, language constitutes reality. As Ashcroft
comments, "language [is] the medium through which a hierarchical structure of power is
perpetuated, and the medium through which conceptions of 'truth,' 'order,' and 'reality' become
established" (7). During the colonial process, colonizers, through the implementation of settler
conceptions of ' truth' and 'reality,' forcibly subverted Native understandings of both. Law,
religion, and education were used to supplant Native understanding, meaning, and explanations of
the known and the real. The classroom environment continues such a process, legitimizing these
conceptions in a variety of ways. Moreover, a language in itself is exclusionary, its words defined
by difference. In this manner, settler society constitutes, defines, and represents those it
colonizes in a series of complex, conceptual hierarchies. The latter group is thus defined as the
Other in comparison to Us or We of the settler population. Such discursive weapons continue to
be advanced and employed in contemporary education and are legitimated in the classroom
through the curriculum, textbooks, and pedagogical approach (teaching method and style) .
Education is therefore a means for ideological naturalization, for the inculcation of the culturally
specific, humanist philosophies of the powerful. These philosophies, aided by language, are
privileged as the signs of 'authenticity,' as the valid interpretations of truth, order, and reality.
Ideology and education thus work in conjtmction to produce what JanMohamed describes as the
hegemonic phase of colonialism: "in [this] hegemonic phase (or neocolonialism) the natives accept
a version of the colonizers' entire system of values, attitudes, morality, institutions, and, more

3

important, mode of production. This stage of imperialism does rely on the active and direct
'consent' of the dominated, though, of course, the threat of military coercion is always in the
background" (81). For strictly pragmatic concerns, English and English Literature are the sole
subjects of discussion because it is here that all students in some way are introduced to the works
and thoughts of Native peoples. While First Nations classes do exist, they have yet to receive
required status as defined by the provincial government. English or Language Arts, on the other
hand, remains one of the principal courses demanded by the government in order to graduate.
Consequently, English is often a student's only introduction to Native philosophies and concerns
as they are expressed in language and literature. Other than History or Social Studies, English is
the only course that offers an insight into Native peoples and cultures at the secondary levelthough the former is not required for graduation. Accordingly, English should reflect a broad
recognition of both rather than the neo-colonial role it currently assumes.
I use the term neocolonialism here to mean that defined by Philip Altbach, whose
definition most closely mirrors my usage of the word throughout this thesis. Unlike postcolonialism which tends to be the study of nations after or following colonialism, neocolonialism
suggests that the processes of imperialism are still in effect today. Writes Altbach,
"neocolonialism means the impact of advanced nations on developing areas, in this case with
special reference to their educational systems and intellectual life ... Neocolonialism is partly a
planned policy of advanced nations to maintain their influence in developing countries, but it is
also simply a continuation of past practices ... " (452). Education is one of the principal vehicles
through which neocolonialism thus operates, continuing in a modern classroom environment past
practices of imperialism, including the constmction of binarisms and the enforcement of settler
definitions of 'tmth' and 'reality.' In order for education to be successful in this respect,
however, students have to accept such conditions of existence. Pedagogy overcomes this hurdle
by advancing assimilation, the process which brings about homogeneity to and absorption into the
dominant majority. Herein lies the focus of this thesis; education for assimilation, a tool first used
by missionaries, continues to be employed today in publicly funded institutions. Promoting the

4

acculturating influence of the English language and limiting the literature read in class to safe,
generic abstractions of Native cultures and peoples does little to challenge the status quo. In this
manner, settler society promotes 'domination by consent' and maintains its hegemonic rule.
Importantly, however, there are schools that challenge such tactics and instead promote
alternative systems oflearning and curriculum. Moreover, it is not the primary objective of those
responsible for 'traditional' curriculum to overtly instruct students for assimilation. This thesis,
however, focuses on schools governed by provincial funding and rules, schools operated by
settler, humanist ideals. The educational success of these institutions is not being questioned here;
rather, education's role in the assimilation of students into the hegemony of the dominant culture
is examined.
The efforts aimed at assimilation through pedagogy have long historical roots. Chapter ~
Two examines the history of these attempts, beginning with the establishment of missionary
schools in the years following first contact. Such schools were designed to bring God to a
'savage' people as well as teach them fundamental, Western ideals and skills (see Robin Fisher;
J.R. Miller; Celia Haig-Brown). Metlakatla is taken to be the paradigmatic example of such
institutions. With increased non-Native settlement, views regarding the education of the Native
population underwent a dramatic shift. It came to be believed that if Native peoples were to be
successfully assimilated into settler society, they must be separated from the western ills that
plagued them. Consequently, govermnent ordinances called for the development of residential
schools, institutions designed to assimilate through division. The impact of such schools upon the
Native population is well documented and recounts horrific tales of abuse and strict paternalism.
Here, too, Native

~

were taught skills perceived to be necessary for success (and survival)

in the general mainstream of society. Noting the failures of such schools to achieve this objective,
however, policy makers began to encourage a policy of assimilation through integration, a goal
formalized in the Indian Act of 1951. Yet, while policies concerning method have changed, the
aim remains that frrst expressed by early missionaries , namely the acculturation of Native students.

5

Chapter Three then exarrilnes the means by which such acculturation is carried out as it is
constructed and presented in the high school English and English Literature classroom. As
mentioned above, English is the focus of study for a number of reasons. Of these, two in
particular are the most significant. First: colonialism' s survival depends much upon its
subversion of Native conceptions of 'truth' and 'reality.' This process is conducted through
language, which defines these concepts for a culture. Pedagogy offers a fundamental means
through which such conceptions can be presented and indoctrinated. Second: these definitions, as
well as our understanding of the lived world, is dependent upon the inherent nature of language to
denote according to difference. In other words, one's understanding, and hence meaning, of an
object is deterrrilned by that which it is not (among other, more secondary concerns). Colonialism
also largely depended upon such a relationship, one that establishes a series of binarisms 1 to both
denote and qualify the colonial act and those colonized. Both are particularly relevant to the
English class because of its strong emphasis on language and language use as simultaneously a
subject and medium of instruction.
One original intent of this research was quantitative analysis of student responses to
education in general and English Language Arts and Literature in particular. For reasons which
will be discussed below, the focus changed to a qualitative examination of curriculum and content
for both classes. Chapter Four discusses the research methodology utilized, the manner in which )6
data was collected, the logic of approach, as well as the defined parameters of the study and the
assumptions made. It is important to note here that this thesis is written from a perspective
marrying post-colonial theories oflanguage and literature as applied to Native representation with
practical examination of curriculum and course content. While curriculum resource materials are
reviewed, however, this thesis does not introduce education perspectives on such concerns.
From the term binary opposition, "the principle of contrast between two mutually exclusive
terms: on/off, up/down, left/right, etc.; an important concept of structuralism which sees such
distinctions as fundamental to all language and thought" (Baldick 24). I use the two terms
(binarisms and binary opposition) interchangeably throughout this thesis.
1

6

Consequently, references to theories of education on curriculmn, curriculum development and
evaluation, and/or critical fotmdations are not incorporated here.
Chapters Five and Six analyze the figurative role of language and literature in the

)11

particular neocolonial classroom enviromnents cif English Language Arts 11 and 12 and English
Literature 12. The curriculum, as defmed by the Integrated Resource Package for Language Arts
(IRP), and the literature read in each class is examined for content in light of the formidable
impediments that counter its communication in the classroom. This qualitative content analysis
supports the arguments presented in the preceding chapters, namely that the discipline of English
remains a pragmatic tool for acculturation. Moreover, the methods which hinder successful
implementation of post-colonialism allow for the maintenance of the imperial tactics discussed in
the third chapter. As is evidenced, although a superficial 'head-count' indicates a proportional
number of resources designed to facilitate representation of Native cultures and/or concerns, these
works are framed by specifications that severely restrict their overall impact. In fact, only three
works can claim to be not refracted by some form of settler society influence. This exclusionary
tactic thus fosters acculturation, despite the provincial government's efforts at political
correctness. Included in this list, then, are such concerns as representation, questions of self and
identity, and Othering, as well as more local issues, such as racial prejudices and stereotypes,
substance abuse, and the balance of traditional ways with the demands and ideals of settler
society. Research here is strictly limited to Grade 11 and 12 students, a decision influenced by
several factors. Of these, the first involves issues of time and size; a study of all grades would
have simply been too large in scope and would not have allowed for close examination of textual
references and curriculum practices. It is also believed that Language Arts 11 and 12 and
Literature 12 represents the culmination of English studies in secondary school. Ideally, students
are expected to amalgamate all that has been learned in previous grades to construct a strong
working knowledge of language and literature.
Finally, Chapter Seven discusses possible alternatives to education for assimilation based """\
not only on personal recommendations developed from research, but also on approaches adopted

7

by schools elsewhere. Importantly, these suggestions are realistic in that they require small, but
fundamental changes to policy governing educational curricula. While such changes are necessary
across the curriculum, English in particular demands evolution. As indicated, the first
fundamental step would be the adoption of much more meaningful Native literature into the
English classroom. Attitudes concerned with teaching the canon and preparing students for the
future must be altered to recognize the importance and vitality of cultural

~

This is not

to suggest that sweeping reformation is necessary or that preparation for future success is a
negative aspect of education. Rather, the pedagogy of English must learn to accommodate
divergent perspectives into its curriculum, thereby limiting the influence of education for
assimilation into white settler society and promoting a more well-rounded learning environment.
Overview of the Literature
The analysis and research of this thesis, then, is divided into four central themes or
subjects: post-colonial theories of language and literature, the history of pedagogical assimilation,
the influence and role of contemporary education, and concluding recommendations.
Accordingly, the literature read as secondary resource material supplements these central
discussions and answers the rudimentary three questions discussed below. The review of these
sources will also be categorized in this manner. It is also :important to note that the literature
detailed below is considered to be the most influential to the theoretical basis of this thesis.
Although many texts were required to provide the necessary theoretical foundation, this selection
represents the materials used most frequently. It also excludes the two primary resources
examined exclusively in Chapters Five and Six, the respective Integrated Resource Packages.
These curriculum guides are described in enough detail in these chapters so as not to warrant
further discussion here.
Antonio Gramsci' s theories of hegemony as described in Selections from the Prison

Notebooks perhaps best explain the reasoning for and mechanisms behind education and its
substantial contributions to assimilation. In order to maintain their position, the dominant
majority needs a means through which their ideals, beliefs, and values can be communicated to an

8

impressionable, young audience. Pedagogy offers one of the best mediums in which to re-affirm
and legitimate the status quo and the supposed inferiority of the cultural Other, however defmed .
In Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, Louis Althusser describes this medium and others as
Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA), vehicles through which the ideology of those in and with
power is enforced and disseminated. These ISAs are so effective because they operate tacitly, yet
they are ubiquitous. So successful is education in this role, Althusser argues, that it has replaced
the influence of the Church.
Importantly, although education may be the location for the expression of this discourse,
the ideology of the dominant majority is, in turn, expressed through two primary means: language
and literature. In Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature, Ngugi
Wa Thiong'o recounts the impact upon both by imperialism, noting that the former is especially
significant in defining a culture and its sense of understanding. Benjamin Whorf and Edward
Sapir also note the importance of language in constructing 'truth' and 'reality,' though Thiong' o
carries this one step further, suggesting that language and literature were employed as 'cultural
bombs' aimed at destroying a culture's sense of its self. Thiong'o's work is also an important
contribution in that he describes the influence of literature in defining his sense of indigenous self
as based upon the 'reality' projected to him by the works of European authors. The result is
defmition according to difference, a principal tenet of the English language. Building on the
theories of Jacques Derrida, Roland Barthes in The Rustle of Language describes co1mnon
English vernacular as especially divisive because it is based upon a series of conceptual hierarchies
or binary oppositions. Edward Said also details this trait and its implications in the imperial
enterprise, though he describes it as Orientalism in a work by the same title. As a result of
decades of imperialism, a tradition of thought and discourse composed of an Us/Them mentality
has developed, in which Them is always the antithesis of Us. In this fashion, settler society not
only defines the ascribed Other, but also itself.
Though other measures certainly may be implicated, the application of language and
literature in education played a crucial role in the colonization of cultures. Efforts at the

9

assimilation of those encotmtered during colonialism therefore have deep historical roots. In
British Columbia, these were engendered shortly after first non-Native settlement. Robin Fisher's

Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774-1890 details the
dramatic transformation in attitudes towards the Native population following the conclusion of
the fur trade. Attempts at assimilation through pedagogical means cuhninated in the missionary
and residential schools, of which Metlakatla is taken to be paradigmatic. Celia Haig-Brown's

Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School is used to further explicate the
contextual history of residential schools. It is especially important because this mono graph, a
record of abuse and violence, documents many instances of efforts at acculturation as they are
represented in language and literature. J.R. Miller's Shingwauk' s Vision: A History of Native

Residential Schools is also an excellent resource for information on residential schools and their
impact upon Native children across Canada. A contemporary context of Native issues and
continued governmental efforts at assimilation was provided by James Frideres' Native Peoples in

Canada: Contemporary Conflicts, Pauline Comeau's The First Canadians: A Profile of
Canada's Native People Today, and Andrew Armitage's Comparing the Policy of Aboriginal
Assimilation: Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. All three texts are used extensively to
explain current policies of assimilation and to illustrate the maintenance of historical practices.
Although acculturation efforts are communicated through pedagogy, they are accepted
due to a number of complementary factors. Of these, the role of the teacher is perhaps most
significant. Generally, secondary school educators are valorized as the sources of 'truth' and
what they teach is accepted to be entirely valid. Paulo Freire in Pedagogy of the Oppressed
describes this tendency in contemporary education to be the result of a "banking ideology."
According to this logic, teachers deposit carefully filtered information into students whose success
depends upon their ability to reiterate what was read and spoken. Freire's text is also significant
in that it discusses not only the role of education in creating a 'culture of silence' but also the need
to give voice to those for whom pedagogy is oppressive. At the same time, this prominent role of
the educator is further complemented by the esteemed position given to the written word. As

10

Linda Christian-Smith and Michael Apple in The Politics of the Textbook emphasize, however,
associating the textbook and education with neutral knowledge is nai. ve. They point out that
education is controlled by the dominant majority and therefore what is taught, including
textbooks, is selectively filtered through an often biased lens. Teun A van Dijk makes note of
this bias in his analysis of racial discourse in education resource materials. He emphasizes the
construction of binary oppositions and how the cultural Other is often defined in literature in a
pejorative manner. Although the Ministry of Education, Skills and Training has, in recent years,
made several efforts to remove overtly prejudicial content from its curriculum reco1mnendations,
other factors nonetheless contribute to a misinformed representation of Native peoples, as will be
discussed. In The Empire Writes Back, Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin explain
one of the impediments to the teaching of meaningful Native contents to be a result of the material
conditions of the text in question. Solutions for making the curriculum more 'meaningful' in
terms of content are discussed by Hope MacLean and Roberta Jamieson inA Review of Indian

Education in North America as well as the editors of Native Education in the Province of
Alberta. Their recommendations are emphasized due to their regional application and conclude
this thesis, as do suggestions based upon personal research.
The literature described here represents only a small portion of the resources currently
available. Much of this work, however, focuses only on one of these particular themes or
subjects. Yet, other than Thiong 'o's Decolonizing the Mind, very few texts have attempted to
amalgamate all four themes. Perhaps the most significant contribution this thesis makes to
contemporary theories on education, post-colonialism, and hegemony, then, is its integration of all
these concepts within a local context. The combination of applied theoretical constructs with
qualitative content analysis in a local environment distinguish this work as a relatively unique
recipe. This formula presents itself as a possible methodological avenue for future studies of
education, especially those that examine other required courses. Arguably, perhaps the most
substantial limitation of this thesis (in terms of scope) is that it only focuses on two courses.
There is a pronounced need, therefore, for further review and evaluation of other secondary

11

school classes, analysis that may also demand quantitative research in addition to what is offered
here.
Statement of Purpose and Research Questions
The need for this thesis was born out of personal dissatisfaction with contemporary
secondary school pedagogy and its failure to represent adequately Native, post-colonial concerns
in its curriculum. While this interest extended to all aspects of secondary school education,
English and English Literature came to be the focus of study for a variety of reasons, the most
significant of which is their esteemed position in academia at this level. Both classes continue to
hold such a high value in secondary institutions that they remain key requirements for graduation.
Other reasons include their sole reliance on a language fraught with imperialist baggage and their
general neglect of literature that is representative of Native peoples, cultures, and concerns.
Through such means, settler society maintains its hegemonic control and, in turn, procures the
assimilation of all students involved into its predominantly Western, humanist ideals and
traditions.
As a result, the purpose of this study was to examine how such acculturation practices
work and the means by which they are incurred in the classroom. Consequently, the focus of the
research revolves around three primary questions:
(a)
(b)
(c)

How does the English language work to colonize?
What are its implications in the Language Arts 11 and 12 classroom?
Does the literature read in Language Arts 11 and 12 and English
Literature 12 promote assimilation? If so , how?

These questions are answered in the following chapters, each providing an in-depth analysis of the
various means by which acculturation is invoked and encouraged in the English classroom. The
study will conclude with a number of suggestions for reducing, and even eradicating, the current
pattern of pedagogical assimilation.

12

Chapter Two
A History of Pedagogical Assimilation
The biggest weapon wielded and actually daily unleashed by imperialism
against .. . collective defiance . .. [is] the cultural bomb. The effect of a cultural
bomb is to annihilate a people' s belief in their names, in their languages, in their
environment, in their heritage of struggle, in their unity, in their capacities and
ultimately in themselves. It makes them see their past as one wasteland of nonachievement and it makes them want to distance themselves from that wasteland.
It makes them want to identify with that which is furthest removed from
themselves . .. It makes them identify with that which would stop their own
springs of life. It even plants serious doubts about the moral righteousness of
struggle. Possibilities of triumph or victory are seen as remote, ridiculous dreams.
The intended results are despair, despondency, and a collective death wish.
-- Ngugi wa Thiongo, Decolonizing the Mind, 1989

Since contact, the relationship between the peoples of Native ancestry and the settlement
population perhaps has been best symbolized by Thiongo 's analogy. While many scholars
contend that initial encounters between traders and Native peoples were reciprocal in nature, the
majority also agree that this relationship soon devolved. With the institution of the Indian Act in
187 6, the settlement population formally initiated the first of many steps aimed at the assimilation
of Native peoples into the general mainstream of Canadian society. Provisions ranging from the
definition of "Indian" to the system of reservations characterize just a small example of the active
and passive attempts to eradicate the vestiges of Native social, economic, and cultural institutions.
Yet the most significant of these "weapons" is the policy of assimilation conducted through
pedagogy that began with missionary and residential schools and continues today in conventional,
provincially operated schools. This chapter will examine the historical applications of efforts at
acculturation through education undertaken by the provincial govermnent as well as the current
state of pedagogy in this context.
Antonio Gramsci' s notion of hegemony, a theory used to define both the institution and
division of power within society, offers a good explanation of the mechanism(s) behind
assimilation. Gramsci offers the following definition:

13

the spontaneous consent given by the great masses of the population to the general
direction imposed on social life by the dominant fundamental group: this consent is
'historically' caused by the prestige (and consequent confidence) which the
dominant group enjoys because of its position and function in the world of
production. (12)
The role and function of education in the operation of hegemony is to transmit the ideology
necessary for the acquiescence of a subjugated group to the interests of the dominant group.
Pedagogy acts as a principal vehicle through which the ideological structures of hegemony are
presented as common sense. Says Rick Hesch,
hegemony is maintained, primarily, through the operations of the institutions of
civil society, such as the church, trade union, schools, and the press. Civil society
is the site of ideological production. It is civil society that supports the persistence
of workers ' common sense, that is, those views 'inherited from the past and
uncritically absorbed' (Gramsci, 1971: 333). Hegemony depends, in large part, on
people accepting the ruling ideas in society as common sense. (429)
Importantly, it is the business of ideology to produce general acceptance of these "ruling ideas in
society as common sense." In his discussion of these ideas that govern popular thought and their
corresponding apparatuses, Louis Althusser notes that ideology and its state implementation
(what he terms Ideological State Apparatuses) provide the ruling elite with a mechanism of
control that does not rely on oppression. In this respect, education acts as a key medium for the
transmission of ideology, particularly that of the ruling class. Writes Althusser,
in the concert of IS As, one ideological State apparatus certainly has the dominant
role, although hardly anyone lends an ear to its music: it is so silent! This is the
School. It takes children from every class at infmit-school age, and then for years,
the years in which the child is most 'vulnerable', squeezed between the family
State apparatus and the educational State apparatus, it drums into them, whether it
uses new or old methods, a certain amount of 'know-how ' wrapped in the ruling
ideology ... or simply the ruling ideology in its pure state. (155)
Moreover, these structures operate so that their workings are not made apparent to the individual;
in fact, should their operation be consciously ascertained, their very function is lost. Consent to a

14

"general direction of social life" without revolution or violence usually requires a tacit modus

operandi. For this reason, "the organized sets of ideas most clearly expressed by
spokespersons ... [that provide] the ideational and evaluative content of most popular thought"
(Hesch 429)-ideologies-are transmitted via institutions such as education, producing, in
Gramsci's terms, a 'domination of consent.' This domination of consent, obtained via the
ideology of acculturation present in education, "is achieved through what is taught to the
colonised [and coloniser] , how it is taught, and the subsequent emplacement of the educated
subject as a part of the continuing imperial apparatus ... " (425). What is taught, then, is the
dominant mode of thought, those ideas set forth and defended by the dominant majority. And it is
taught as common sense, as views inherited from a pedagogical tradition to be uncritically
absorbed. Writes Althusser,
[the majority of teachers] do not even begin to suspect the 'work' the system
(which is bigger than they are and crushes them) forces them to do, or worse, put
all their heart and ingenuity into performing it with the most advanced
awareness .. . So little do they suspect it that their own devotion contributes to the
maintenance and nourishment of this ideological representation of the School,
which makes the school today as 'natural,' indispensable-useful and even
beneficial for our contemporaries as the Church was 'natural,' indispensable and
generous for our ancestors a few centuries ago. (157)
In the context of this argument, then, education for assimilation is indoctrinated into both the
dominant majority and the indigenous minority; the ideology concerning the forced, yet passive
acculturation of Native peoples is presented and accepted as common sense, as notions somehow
necessary for their cultural survival. Moreover, because hegemony is procured by the ideology of
the dominant majority and this ideology is fostered via pedagogy, what is taught is therefore
perpetuated. As Althusser' s comment on teachers argues, the eduqation which prepared them for
the position as instructor was one also assimilationist in nature; their viewpoints (and those of
others) are therefore often unconsciously governed by the limitations of their 'common sense' and
their evaluations of Native education rooted in (mis)conceptions concerning Native progress as
determined "by how well and how fast they can adopt the characteristics and qualifications

15

demanded of life in the contemporary society" (Hanson 67). Consequently, not only are they
indoctrinated via ideology into a system of acculturation, but so too are their students and the
process repeats itself.
In his influential book Contact and Conflict, Robin Fisher describes the initial relationship
between traders and British Columbia's Native peoples-a relationship largely based on the fur
trade-as a reciprocal one. Following first contact, trade and other business governed the
majority of the interactions between Natives and the foreign newcomers. Consequently, little
imposition of either culture over the other was brought into play in the relationship. 1 Instead,
exchanges between natives and newcomers were maintained at a strictly business level, one that
brought mutual benefits to each party involved. As fur resources depleted, however, so too did
the mutually beneficial relationship between both parties. At the same time, increasing non-Native
settlement saw the arrival of Europeans who cared little for the Native cultures they encatmtered
and who brought with them preconceptions about the original inhabitants of the land. Whereas
fur traders were dictated by economic necessity to accommodate their Native counterparts, the
arriving settlement population had no need for the Native population and therefore desired their
assimilation (Fisher 49-73). Fisher notes that this new attitude regarding Natives was engendered
in the first wave of gold miners. He writes,
the gold miners were the advance guard of the settlement frontier. These
newcomers not only had a different set of attitudes from those of the fur traders,
but they also made quite different demands on the Indians. The reciprocity of
interest between Indians and Europeans broke down because settlers came not so
much to acc01mnodate the frontier as to re-create the metropolis ..(96)
Mutual economic reciprocity turned into economic rivalry as the increasing hordes of settlers, first
arriving in great numbers following the discovery of gold, began to demand settlement lands.
Consequently, as large-scale settlement became a factor, "the Indian could not escape the
See Fisher, Robin. Contact and Conflict. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1977.
Also, Haig-Brown, Celia. Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School.
Vancouver: Tillacum Library, 1988.
1

16

unappreciative attention of the incoming developers and home-steaders" (Frideres 63). Given the
changed relationship between natives and newcomers, then, it is not surprising that the former lost
large amounts of its territory. With the establishment of the settlement frontier, missionaries also
began to re-assert their attempts at spreading Christianity amongst the Native population. As
Fisher indicates, while settlers "did not come to British Columbia with a specific policy of
transforming Indian culture" the missionaries, on the other hand, "had developed quite
deliberately and consciously thought out plans of acculturation for the Indians" (119).
Consequently, direct contact amongst the Native population gradually evolved into the formation
of missionary schools, institutions that will be discussed in greater detail elsewhere in this chapter.
What is significant to note here is that these missionary schools represented the first
institutionalized efforts at acculturating the Native population. At the same time, newly appointed
government bodies, working hand-in-hand with the churches responsible for education (Roman
Catholic, Anglican, and Methodist), instituted a number of steps specifically designed for the
eradication of Native cultural, social, and religious institutions. J.R. Miller describes these efforts
as Canada's "policy of the Bible and the plough," noting that
this complex of legislation and programs embraced the missions and schools of
which residential schools were a subset, campaigns to control and reshape
Aboriginal political behaviour, efforts on the western plains to coerce Native
hunters to become sedentary subsistence farmers, and attacks on traditional
Aboriginal customs such as the potlach on the Pacific and the Sun Dance and
Thirst Dance on the prairies. (186)
This policy of forced acculturation culminated in the Indian Act of 187 6. As Andrew Armitage
describes,

this single act made provisions for: the definition of 'Indian'; the recognition,
protection, management, and sale of reserves ; the payment of moneys to the
support and benefit of Indians, including, specifically, 'contribution to schools
frequented by such Indians '; the election of councils and chiefs; Indian privileges,
particularly the exemption from taxation and from debt obligations of all types;
provision for receiving the 'evidence of non-Christian Indians' in criminal
prosecutions; special measures for the control of intoxicants; and provisions for
'enfranchisement. ' (78)

17

Subsequent amendments to the Act, :includ:ing a strict ban on customs and ceremonies (:in British
Columbia, for :instance, it became a legal offence to celebrate the potlatch) and forced residential
school attendance, made its provisions even more effective :in achiev:ing the govermnent's goal of
assimilation. Perhaps most significantly, however, the Act assigned a label to Native peoples, a
precise definition to ensure that the requisite assimilationist services could be properly targeted
(Armitage 84). Three qualifications defined an :individual as an "Indian": any male person of
Indian blood reputed to belong to a particular band; any child of such a person; and any woman
who is or was married to such a person (Armitage 84). Notwithstand:ing the future problems that
would arise for Native women as a result of this definition,2 the term "Indian" provided the
government with a target denotation, a specific group to whom assimilationist tactics could be
imposed. Yet, while each provision either actively or passively pursued the assimilation of Native
cultures, education came to be regarded as the central vehicle by which Natives could be
transformed from barbarism and savagery to civilized life. Andrew Armitage, for example, notes
that from the passage of the first Indian Act (187 6) until the late 1960s, child welfare policy for
Native children was governed by massive attempts to use pedagogy as the method for chang:ing
both their cultures and their characters. 3 Future alterations to the Indian Act and the birth of
other policies did little to alter the govermnent' s objective of assimilation. For :instance, despite a
grow:ing concern for improv:ing race relations after the Second World War, cross-Canada hear:ings
between 1946-48 found that the current education system was :in fact h:inder:ing the ultimate goal
of assimilation (Brookes 169; Comeau 129; Frideres 15). As a result, Ottawa signed agreements
for the :integration of Native children :into prov:incially operated schools, a policy also legislated by

For further reading, please refer to Women of the First Nations: · Power, Wisdom, and
Strength, an anthology of essays edited by Christ:ine Miller and Patricia Chuchryk that discusses
the impacts of colonization, :includ:ing the legislation of the Indian Act, upon Native women.

2

See also Brookes, Sonia. "The Persistence of Native Educational Policy :in Canada". Th e
Cultural Maze: Complex Questions on Native Destiny in Western Canada. Calgary: Detselig
Enterprises, 1991. pp. 163-180.

3

18

the 1951 Indian Act. Within a decade, approximately 45 percent of the Native school population
was enrolled in provincial institutions (Brookes 170). Despite the rather high figures, however,
the education for assimilation policy was marked by serious flaws, particularly in achieving its
objective. According to the Hawthorn Report of 1966-67 which measured the success or failure
of Indian education, Native children were academically far behind their non-Native counterparts.
Significantly, however, the Report equated success with acculturation; students were judged
according to their participation as 'social equals of other Canadians, ' an evaluation indicating the
ultimate goal of Native education. Since the 1951 Indian Act, several other administrative
strategies at assimilation via pedagogy have been attempted, while others, like the White Paper of
1969, have been soundly rejected. These and other initiatives attempted since this period reflect a
policy of assimilation through education that has persisted in those institutions not regulated and
maintained by Native cultures. Today, Comeau notes, a little less than half of the 100,000 status
Indians enrolled in schools across Canada attend such schools (131). For these students,
pedagogy bears little if any resemblance to the culture experienced at home. Consequently, "for
many Indian/Native people within this reality, the current educational process is a continuation of
the earlier indoctrination process of civilization, Christianization, and colonization ... " (Hanson
74).
The roots of this institutionalized process in British Columbia stretch back to the frrst
missionaries in British Columbia, who felt it was their obligation to 'Christianize' the 'pagan
savages' encountered with European settlement. To achieve this goal, missionaries established a
number of schools designed to introduce Native peoples to a more 'civilized' way of life. It was
believed that through Christianity, Native children could be saved from a life of heathenism; an
education that emphasized Christian studies would allow them to shed their 'pagan' skin and
initiate their assimilation into the general mainstream of Christian white society. Paramount to
their missionary work, then, was a self-prescribed need to 'Christianize/civilize' the Native
population-education offered the best means for accomplishing this task. Robin Fisher suggests
that initial 'civilizing' attempts may have been acts of blind benevolence, well-intentioned deeds

19

originating in good faith, especially in comparison to the attitudes expressed by their settler
counterparts:
as far as many of the settlers were concerned, the Indians had no future. To the
missionaries, however, the Indians very definitely had a future; although it was
seen in terms of them ceasing to be Indians and closely imitating the whites. The
belief that the Indians would soon die out, which some settlers used as an excuse
to ignore their problems, was, for the missionary, a spur to :immediate action. The
missionaries thought that the Indians could be saved from extinction if they could
be turned, as quickly as possible, into red-skinned replicas of the Europeans. [The
missionaries] believed that with appropriate action and legislation the Indians could
be saved, even though their culture would be destroyed. (142)
No matter what the intent was, the goal was assimilation. This is where pedagogy was perceived
to offer its most supportive role. In conjunction with other legislative action aimed at
'conversion,' education was regarded as the perfect vehicle for the ':improvement ofthe heathen,'
terminology that was usually synonymous with westernization. As a result, re-education usually
meant a total transformation of Native students, often with little regard for indigenous cultures.
With this firmly set in mind, therefore, early educational institutimis following initial contact were
closely modeled after ideals of the Catholic church (Armitage 105; Fisher 13 8). 4 Here,
missionaries believed, students free of traditional influences would be easily moulded into
hybridized versions of both their instructors and European society in general.
While noting many illustrations of the missionary schools established after initial
settlement, Robin Fisher provides a close discussion of one in particular, emphasizing that its
founder, William Duncan, was "in many ways typical of the rest [i.e. the other missionaries] "
(124). Certainly, not all possessed the zeal which went into the founding and operation of
Metlakatla, Duncan's model village among the Tsimshian people. A paradigm of the
assirnilationist ideal, Metlakatla represented the fundamental manifestation of missionary
The authors of the Indian Education Paper (1982) also note that programs within such
missionary schools naturally concentrated on religious matters. They write, "for a considerable
period the main moving force in European-style education for Indians continued to be various
orders of the Roman Catholic Church" (3).
4

20

objectives, namely the Christianization!Westernization of Native cultures. Here, isolated from any
"Indian influence," a select group of Tsimshian began a process designed to disengage them from
their Native culture. As described by Duncan, the objective was to "draw the Indians out of the
miasma of heathen life, and away from the deadening and enthralling influence of heathen
customs" (qtd. in Fisher 132). The point of setting it in isolation, then, was not to foster the
continued existence of Native customs and heritage, but to deny both, as was emphasized in the
number of strict rules developed and enforced by Duncan. Of these, schooling for Native children
ranked highly, thus encouraging the ingratiation of future generations into European settler
society. While similar ventures were attempted, none achieved as great as 'success' as
Metlakatla. 5 In this regard, Duncan's outpost of Christianity was unique; yet its very existence
and success indicate the origin of a disturbing trend in the future of education for the Native
population. Metlakatla stands out as one of the first institutions in British Columbia with the
specific objective of assimilating Native peoples. No matter the intent-whether benevolent zeal
or intentional assimilation-it represents the first of many pedagogical efforts by governing bodies
at acculturation. More importantly, it was in Metlakatla that education came to be seen as a
principal vehicle for accomplishing this aim. Future residential schools followed a similar pattern,
setting themselves apart from traditional Native cultures and communities so as to ensure both
uninterrupted contact with and the acculturation of its pupils to the mainstream of society.
The first residential schools were established following the Bagot Commission of 1842
which concluded "that day schools were inadequate to the task of assimilating First Nations
children" (Armitage 103). In British Columbia, the development of schooling for Native students
was strongly influenced by a report published by the Province of Canada in 1847, a document
loosely based on the ideas of Egerton Ryerson. As Celia Haig-Brownnotes in her monograph on
residential schooling in the Kamloops area, this report clearly expressed the desire to further
advance Native assimilation through education. At the same time, however, "the contradictory
5

See Fisher, Contact and Conflict, pp. 130-140.

21

need to isolate Indians from the evil influences of white society" (29) was also acknowledged.
The failings of missionary schools, it was believed, were the result ofthe fact that Native peoples
had been 'corrupted' by the evils of European society, a notion that paralleled the Romantic
conception of the 'noble savage.' To combat such problems, residential schools were established,
designed for 'protection through segregation' under the continued guidance of missionaries. It
was here, as in Metlakatla, that cultural oppression through pedagogy became written policy. For
instance, within the discussion of the recommendations for residential schooling is the following
comment:
their education must consist not merely of the training of the mind, but of a
weaning from the habits and feelings of their ancestors, and the acquirements of
the language, arts, and customs of civilized life. (Prentice and Houston, qtd. in
Haig-Brown 29)
Like that for their historical predecessor, then, the principle objective of residential schools
remained acculturation, an aim that was invoked in a number of ways. J.R. Miller, for instance,
notes that a substantial component of this "hidden curriculum" resided in aesthetics; assimilation,
it was believed, could in large part be procured through forced adoption of English styles in dress
and grooming. Dress was often viewed to be one of the indicators of successful acculturation, as
is evidenced in the many before-and-after photographs church officials and bureaucrats were so
fond of (195-96). The most prominent ofthese efforts at assimilation, however, dwelled in the
assault on the use of Native languages. While Miller notes that the assimilative linguistic
campaign was not wholly successful (201), the impact of the strict, and often violent, enforcement
of the English language cannot be denied. In her collection of thirteen interviews with select
Native people of the central Interior of British Columbia, for instance, Celia Haig-Brown writes of
horrific stories of abuse whenever Native dialects were spoken (56-59, 82, 92-94). Miller also
recounts the story of one woman who was told "her language belonged to the Devil" (205).
Recognizing that language is the medium of a culture, by prohibiting the use of Native dialects,
bureaucrats and educators alike simultaneously worked to silence Native cultures.

22

Current Trends in this Context

Significantly, the ideology surrounding both the creation and operation of missionary and
residential schools carried forward into the development of provincially funded educational
institutions, which is the focus of this study. A5 Eber Hampton indicates,
the education of Indians [continues to be] carried out by Anglos using Anglo
models to satisfy Anglo purposes. In contrast to schooling for self-determination,
these schools for assimilation have been characterized by high failure rates in
literacy and educational attainment, having assimilation rather than selfdetermination as goals, poor school-community relations, negative attitudes
towards Natives cultures; and prohibition or non-use of Native languages (Oleksa
and Dauenhauer 1982). (9)
Following a Special Joint Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons (1946-48)
recommendation, the 1951 Indian Act emphasized practical measures for the integration of Native
peoples into the Canadian melting pot. Included in the provisions was a call for "the development
of agreements with the provinces for the provision of services to Indian peoples, including their
integration into the regular school system" (Armitage 104). By 1964, 26,000 Native children, or
about 45 per cent of the Native school population, were enrolled in about 950 provincial schools
·across Canada (Brookes 170).

The Hawthorn Report of 1967, an in-depth analysis "of the

political, economic and educational problems of Indians" (Indian Education Paper 7), provided
further impetus for increasing these numbers. According to the Indian Education Paper (1982) ,
the recommendation of the Hawthorn Report that
Indian students should be integrated with the rest of school population
strengthened Government resolve in pursuing this policy. It was believed that
decentralization of the federal system would increase efficiency and allow for
increased Indian involvement. It was considered that provincial systems were able
to offer better programs and a wider range of educational opportunities. Above all
it was thought that the economic and social assimilation of Indians could be
brought about by this means. (7)

23

In 1972, then Indian Affairs Minister Jean Chretien promised a significant alteration in the manner
in which the education of Native students would take place, indicating that the curriculum,
teaching staff, and parental involvement would come under Native jurisdiction. Twenty-five years
later, however, "Ottawa [only] provides a per-pupil grant to operate the schools and cover staff
salaries. The teaching staff ... work from a provincially approved curriculum, using specific
texts" (Comeau 130). Despite increasing calls for the "recognition" and "appreciation" of Native
cultures by provincial curricula, however, the general trend in such pedagogy remains education
for acculturation. The Integrated Resource Package for Language Arts 11 and 12 (1996-97), for
instance, argues that "language experiences should encourage students to tmderstand and respect
cultural, racial, and linguistic diversity" (2), while literature should allow students to "increase
their understanding of and respect for their own and other cultures" (3). Nonetheless, writes Bill
Hanson,
for many Indian/Native people within this reality, the current educational process is
a continuation of the earlier indoctrination process of civilization, Christianization,
and colonization ... Education within the single reality concept of human
development [what currently exists], serves not to enrich the traditional
Indian/Native's ~
way of life, but rather to take away the human resources
it requires to continue as an aboriginal collectivity. (7 4)
In the twenty-five years since releasing the White Paper (which proposed the elimination of all
federal and legislative bases of discrimination against Natives), moreover, Ottawa has spent more
than $7.5 billion on Native education with minimal results (Comeau 126). Writes Comeau,
"Indian students continue to show higher drop-out rates, poorer test scores, and a greater number
of grade failures compared to national and provincial averages" (126). Much of this money has
been spent on extending provincial services from federal coffers to Native peoples, further
evidence that the assimilationist policy of integration continues. Though Native children attend
provincial schools, every student is carefully counted so that the province can be reimbursed by
Ottawa. As a result, "First Nations peoples are still not provincial citizens in practical, everyday

24

matters of social policy-their services are determined not by elections and provincial taxes but by
negotiations between federal and provincial governments" (Armitage 98). Comeau also points to
the outcome of the 1991 census which revealed that "28 percent of the adult Indian population
was considered illiterate or had less than a Grade 9 education, and 1.3 per cent of Native people
were university graduates" (127). While many attribute the poor results to stereotypical
generalizations concerning Native peoples, there exists fundamental flaws in the methods and
styles of instruction and the provincial curricula, as will be discussed. It is simply too easy (and
prejudicial) to blame Native students for failure, especially when success is measured according to
non-Native criteria. For instance, the Hawthorn Report of 1966-67 "viewed the success or failure
of Indian education in terms of how well the system managed to encourage Indians to engage
fully in economic competition as the 'social equals of other Canadians"' (Brookes 171). In a
similar vein, the Integrated Resource Package for Language Arts 11 and 12 (1996-97) notes that
high assessment of the student depends upon his/her comprehension of both the English language
and canonical literature. Not only are Native students faced with legislative cutbacks concerning
such things as curriculum development, but they must also endure a system that does little to
incorporate Native languages, texts, history, or to address issues of representation and identity.
Rather than developing new standards and curricula that reflects Native concerns, Ottawa has
generally done little to change a system rooted in the historical precedent set by missionary and
residential schools. Argues Comeau,
the federal government has no legislative right to allow for the creation of Indian
education authorities. There is no national Indian education act. Academic
standards are set by each province. The entire framework of Indian education is
the creation of cabinet orders and Treasury Board guidelines. Without a
legislative framework to prescribe education pro grams and without federal
funding, Ottawa offers only programs that it deems necessary or that it is
pressured into providing .. .. [At the same time], Ottawa has reduced its funding
for curriculum development, teacher and student support, and the monitoring of
standards. ( 131)
This pronounced lack of development concerning education for the Native student populace is
also evidenced at the micro level. Analysis of the senior Language Arts and English Literature

25

programmes, for illstance, reveals a strong trend towards the mailltenance of non-Native
hegemony, rather than challengillg its fundamentally Western precepts. In this respect, provillcial
schools thus represent a contilluation of the ideology and processes illstitutionalized by their
historical precedents, namely the encouragement of acculturation and, ill turn, the preservation of
hegemony.
In this education for assimilation, then, illstruction ill English language arts and literature
focuses on illdoctrillatillg the student illto acceptillg contemporary conditions of existence as
elements of 'common sense.' For Native students, this means illculcatillg an ideology of
oppression and a system that is specifically designed for their assimilation illto the general
maillstream of Canadian society. Yet while all pedagogy is at fault (illcludillg the sciences and the
humanities), one discipline ill particular displays a penchant for assimilationist discourse. In its
reliance both on language (that of settler society) and a canonical curriculum, English perhaps best
demonstrates acculturation efforts through education. Moreover, because it concurrently acts as
both a medium and a subject of illstruction, the illfluence of English ill the
pedagogical/assimilation process is compounded. Barbara Burnaby notes the distinction between
the two, writillg that while medium of illstruction refers "to the language which is used by the
teacher to teach any subject matter," a language is considered to be a subject of illstruction "if it is
beillg taught as an end to itself ' (18). English is both, and while this thesis focuses on the latter,
English as a medium of illstruction cannot be overlooked. While there is no law that legislates the
use of any particular language ill the classroom, 6 English is used primarily because it is regarded to
be the language which will best prepare students for the future. As Burnaby goes on to note,
schooling for Native children is conducted ill the language of the majority s:imply for that reason:
the majority feel that English schooling offers the best education for Native
children. They feel that it is important for Native-speakillg children to learn
English or French and that the best way to teach them is to put them illto an
Barbara Burnaby, for example, notes that it is legally possible for a Native language to be the
medium of illstruction ill provillcial schools in some provillces (19) .
6

26

environment :in which they hear and use the language all the time ... Even if
Native medium education were provided :in school, all higher education and
tra:in:ing demands a knowledge of English or French. Also, English or French is
necessary for most jobs and for many other kinds of participation in everyday life.
(23-4)

Although an :in-depth analysis of the English language as a neo-colonial tool is provided :in
Chapter Three, it is important to note here that, while education :in the English language may
prepare the student for life beyond academia, his/her 'participation' is limited to 'everyday life' :in

settler society. In this respect, English as a medium of :instruction also acculturates, forcing the
Native student to adopt the central means of communication not only for success :in the classroom
but also for economic and social survival follow:ing graduation.
While the significance of English as a medium of :instruction and as a tool for colonisation
cannot be denied (as will be discussed elsewhere), the subject of English represents a central
:instrument for what I call pedagogical acculturation. Here, through a variety of mechanisms
:includ:ing the use of a canonical curriculum, critical claims to 'universality', misrepresentation, and
fundamental curricular impediments, settler society perpetuates the historical tradition of
assimilation through education. As the archaic title still ascribed to the discipline suggests, the
focus rema:ins the study of English language and literature, despite the proliferation of other
linguistic and textual resources. Moreover, while alternate classes do exist (though they are few
in size and number), they remain electives. Students' :introduction to other cultures, in this case
those of Native, is fostered in the English classroom through the literature read and discussed :in
class. As Agnes Grant notes, "literature is generally considered an effective vehicle for the
transmission and understanding of a culture. It has the power to recreate reality and it combines
cognitive and affective :insights :in a manner that may be lacking :in other disciplines" (6). In a

.

similar ve:in, the Integrated Resource Package for Language Arts 11 and 12 (1996) upon which
the future curriculum for English classes is based :insists that English fosters awareness and
appreciation of other cultures. Yet, if literature other than that of the literary canon is not read,
there seems to be little chance for such awareness and appreciation to develop. As will be

27

demonstrated, the resources recommended for use in the Language Arts 11 and 12 classrooms,
for instance, though superficially substantial in number, are heavily burdened with a number of
impediments that inhibit effective teaching and understanding of them. On the rare instances that
Native literature is incorporated into the curricula, claims of its universality eradicate the
conditions involved in its existence as well as any issues or concerns presented. Like the
employment of canonical texts which "continually display and repeat for the colonised subject, the
original capture of his/her alterity and the process of its annihilation" (Tiffin 98), claims to the
universal qualities of literature ignore the "multiplicity of cultural experiences" (Larson 65). The
idea of broad, universal qualities to literature dismisses particular cultural differences and issues
presented in texts, subordinating them to larger concerns perceived to be more 'worldly' in scope.
The result is often a misrepresentation of Native cultures and concerns. Either subsumed to the
whole or reduced to stereotypical generalizations, literary representations of Native post-colonial
concerns are typically cast aside. In this respect, Native and non-Native students alike are taught
an important part of material imperial practice, namely the continual display and repetition of "the
original capture of [the colonised subject's] alterity and the processes of its annihilation,
marginalisation, or naturalisation as if this were axiomatic, culturally ungrounded, 'universal',
natural" (98) .
Despite the many fundamental problems inherent to pedagogy in general and the English
class in particular, both remain locations for change. The assimilationist trend in education can be
reversed; a first step is the institution of Native classes into the curriculum, a move initiated by a
number of schools. 7 Designed for those of all cultural backgrounds, such classes introduce
students to Native languages, philosophies, religions, and so forth. Conventional, hegemonic
patterns of thought are thus challenged, in part denouncing traditional education for assimilation.
7

Prince George Secondary School (PGSS) is the first, provincially-funded secondary institution in
this area to have such a program. Carol McCauley, First Nations Programme Director at PGSS,
notes that 51 school districts across British Columbia have developed similar additions to their
~ curriculum.

28

Other avenues for change are suggested in the Indian Education Paper: Phase 1 of 1982 (see
Appendix I). On

amuch smaller, though in no way less significant, scale, curricular

transformations should also occur in the English class, often a student's only introduction to
Native cultures. While instruction in Native languages may not be feasible at this point in time,
Native literature could be incorporated into the curricula. It is believed that such small, yet highly
significant, developments would initiate the first of the many steps required to alter the ideologies
that support the contemporary hegemony. Until this occurs, however, education for acculturation
will not only continue to maintain the patterns of hegemony as they currently exist but also
continue to act as the principal 'cultural bomb ' employed against Native cultures. Chapter Three
examines the role and function of the English language in this assimilation process, its
employment as a colonising tool, its historical applications in this context, and its influence today
in the classroom.

29

Chapter Three
Rationale for Assimilation:
Language, Reality, and Pedagogy-Colonial Tools for Assimilation
"You taught me language, and my profit on' t I Is, I know how to curse"
Caliban in Th e Tempest (I.:ii.365-366)

Though not all languages are the same, we are always involved in the realm and
scope of a particular vernacular. Roland Barthes notes that "everything suggests that we
cannot escape: by culture, by political choice, we must be committed, [to] engage in one
of the particular languages to which our world, our history, compels us" (109) . This
involvement is further enhanced because no culture is without some form of linguistic
dialect. Language empowers the individual by granting license to dialogue with others and
because this communication is "so important to [our] survival" (Salzmann 14), we are
forever bound within its freedoms and, conversely, its constraints. While acting as the
medium of communication, then, language is also so much more. Teun A van Dijk
describes it as
the graphic layout, intonation, stylistic variations of word selection or
syntax, semantic implications and coherence, . . . schematic forms and
strategies of argumentation or news reports, [and] rhetorical figures such
as metaphors and hyperboles, speech acts, and dialogical strategies of face
keeping and persuasion . . . (12)
In his analysis of the subject, Roland Barthes divides languages into two distinct
categories, "encratic" and "acratic" (108), the former of which is particularly relevant to
the involvement of language in the colonial enterprise (see Introduction). Defining it as
"vague, diffuse, apparently 'natural,' and therefore not easily discerned," encratic language
"is the language of mass culture (popular press, radio , television) and it is also , in a sense,
the language of conversation, of public design (of the doxa); [it] is both (a contradiction
which constitutes its strength) clandestine (it is not easily recognizable) and triumphant (it

30

is inescapable) .... (107-108). Sylvia Soderlind carries Barthes' model one step further,
distinguishing between four classifications oflanguages she labels the vernacular, the
mythic, the referential, and the .vehicular.' What is important to note here is that in each
definition, language is described in terms of its direct relation to the power involved in its
creation, dissemination, and imposition. Barthes' definition of encratic language, for
instance, suggests that it is the language of the oppressors, those with the power to
control not only the mediums of popular culture, but also to determine doxa. The very
fact that it is concurrently clandestine and triumphant implies such a relationship. This is
not to suggest, however, that all persons involved in language usage are guilty of
oppression, but rather to indicate the inherent power at the heart of a language. It is also
important to recognize the subtle, yet significant, difference between language and a
language, between the latter which "refers to any one of the several thousand systems of
oral communication used by different societies" and language in general which is described
as simply "the gift of speech" (Salzmann 155). This chapter is primarily concerned with
English, the vernacular of those who colonized the greater part of the Occidental world,
including Canada.
What is of significance here is not the words themselves , but the power implicitly
behind them. The words that constitute a language are themselves without power,
without a moral, political, or social influence. Left simply to their denotation words are
' Soderlind describes these categories as follows: "the language most closely linked to the
territory is the vernacular, the mother tongue, which is primarily spoken, and whose
ftmction is to establish a 'communion' rather than a communication between the
interlocutors"; at the opposite end of vernacular, we find the mythic, . . . the sacred
language . .. [which] demarcates a realm of beliefs shared by all members of the
community. It is a paradigmatic, static, and conservative language"; "between the
vernacular and the sacred we fmd the referential languages, which is the locus of culture as
defined by sociologists and anthropologists in terms of common heritage or collective
memory .. . this is the language of the past"; finally, the vehicular "belongs to the city and
to bureaucracy; alienated from any territory, it is addressed by anybody to whom it may
concern" (Soderlind, Margin/Alias, 9) .

31

generally weak and ineffectual; it is the connotations of a particular term that give it
power, give it the capacity to influence. The word "Indian," for instance, when analyzed
strictly in a Canadian denotative context, indicates a title given to peoples as a result of a
historical blunder. The connotations of the same term, however, suggest much more:
stereotypes and generalizations regarding the cultures, ideologies, and practices of
Canada's Native population. As Simon During writes, "[what] one encounters here is a
politics of language which rests not on the power within language, the power of rhetoric,
but on the power behind language" (128). In The Rustle of Language, Barthes describes
this power inherent in language as a "discursive weapon" that accounts for "the aggressive
force, the power of domination of a discursive system" (109). This power is solicited
from discourse in three ways. First: every discourse is a representation, a drama in which
words only metaphorically represent, rather than define with precision. No truth(s) can be
ascribed to a word, then, only representation, one that is collectively and culturally
regarded to be axiomatic. Second: y.'ithin this discourse there exists certain "figures of
system" designed to close the system to those defined as the adversary (the Other). These
figures operate via inclusion as object rather than subject; objectifying the Other in
discourse as a simple object makes it much easier to exclude it from "the community of
subjects speaking the strong language" (109) . In this regard, the Other (in this case, the
Native population) is talked about and for, rather than given a voice and permitted to
speak for itself. Finally, Barthes speculates that the sentence itself is a weapon, "an
operator of intimidation". He indicates that "there is a mastery of the sentence which is
very close to power: to be strong is first of all to finish one's sentences. Does not
grammar itself describe the sentence in terms of power, of hierarchy: subject, subordinate,
complement, etc.?" ( 109). While this latter thought is mere speculation, it nonetheless
raises a fundamental issue in what I call education for assimilation: students are rewarded
in English for mastery of the sentence (its construction, complements, and so forth) .

32

Power is thus given to the pupil who skillfully exhibits an above average tmderstanding of
sentences as well as to those who first "finish [their] sentences" (109).
The relationship between a language and power is of particular interest to postcolonial studies for a number of reasons , all of which centre on the fact that "the colonial
process itself begins in language. The control over language by the imperial centre-whether achieved by displacing native languages, by installing itself as a 'standard ' against
other variants which are constituted as 'impurities, ' or by planting the language of empire
in a new place-remains the most potent instrument of cultural control" (Ashcroft 283).
Thus, although the physical aspects of imperialism may have atrophied (e.g. the overt
territorial expansion of Empire), the ideological principles behind the imperial enterprise
remain intact. This is not to suggest that imperialism was marked by a single,
homogeneous effort aimed at complete domination, but rather to indicate that while a
variety of nations were involved in this enterprise, each was driven by similar philosophies
concerning those they colonized. These attitudes were (and are) reflected in the imperial
"control over language" discussed by Ashcroft above. This form of neo-colonialism2
operates at various levels, perpetuating traditional/historical ideologies concerning race
and difference through such mediums as the law, media, and pedagogy. The ideology of
imperialism is thus in effect prolonged to preserve the contemporary status quo of
inequality while at the same time presenting oppression and suppression as a 'fact of life'
to both colonizers and the colonized. Its very power resides in the fact that it operates
\

unbeknownst to the general populace, generating acquiescence to historical, imperial
ideologies. One of the principal means for tacitly inducing 'acceptance' of these
ideologies is through education, in which language and language use play a prominent
role. Here, students are taught, not only through language but also in language, a cardinal
tenet of education for assimilation, a point to be discussed further. As Philip G. Altbach
2

For a definition of neo-colonialism, please see the Introduction.

33

concludes, "the continued use of European languages [especially English] in many
developing countries is one of the most important aspects of neocolonialism and the
impact of the colonial heritage on [colonized nations]" (454).
At the core of this relationship between language and colonialism is the role of the
former in providing the terms by which 'truth' and 'reality' are constituted. It is language,
after all, which offers a means for explaining and understanding the world and from which
conceptions of 'truth' and 'reality,' though culturally specific, are derived. Language,
then, is the vehicle through which the generally accepted axioms and standards of a culture
originate and are expressed and legitimated as truths and the real. The ability to give
meaning to the lived world, however, to give title to both 'truth' and 'reality, ' inherently
involves an expression of power, one that is produced in two ways. First: the ability to
name an object, and hence give meaning to it, grants the speaker a position from which the
world can be understood. In this regard, he/she is gradually incorporated into the culture
and is permitted a linguistic license to communicate with others. Second: the assertion of
one's 'reality' as it is constructed and defined by language over another's further grants
the individual a significant measure of power. For example, one need only think of a
parent correcting his/her child when the latter incorrectly identifies an object. The parent
is telling his/her child that the definition is wrong, thereby asserting the 'culturally
accepted ' denotation as ' truth' and one that the child learns to understand as the real. In a
similar vein, colonizers forcibly interjected their interpretations of the known and the real
upon the colonized, deeming all other meanings as either false or, more often, ~ pagan,
uncivilized beliefs. While the medium of communication for a culture, language is also a
tool for subjugation, for the silencing of those interpretations of reality deemed unworthy.
As far as the neo-colonial role of pedagogy is concerned, this subversion of other voices is
further strengthened by the (im)balance of power that exists in the student/teacher
relationship and privileges the latter as Author(ity). Moreover, current educational
practices largely focus on a textually based curriculum, one that valorizes the written

34

word. In this manner, what is written is often regarded to be true according to a Western,
humanist tradition, a point to be discussed elsewhere. Education remains liberal and
contestatory but, like ripples in a pond, is restricted by governing boundaries that dispel
substantial challenges. Hence, different perspectives are permitted so long as the waves
they make do not upset the status quo. In this fashion, pedagogy's affirmation of the
ideals of settler society is maintained and the 'truths ' and 'reality' of this dominant
majority are legitimated.
As early as 1929, linguistic anthropologists questioned the function of language in ·
the creation of an individual's conception of the known world. Edward Sapir, for
example, is noted as stating at a conference that "language is a guide to 'social reality" '
(Salzmann 153). One decade later, Benjamin Wharf (1940:61) developed his now famous
hypothesis, included in which is his concept of linguistic determinism: "the way one thinks
is determined by the language one speaks" (152). Despite the objections of Salzmann3 and
others, language has generally come to be recognized as constituting an individual's and,
subsequently, a culture' s, understanding of the known world, of 'truth' and 'reality.' With
the advent of post-modernism in the 1960s, these latter concepts underwent radical redefmition as both became subjects of focus in a number of critical essays. Lyotard, on the
one hand, questions the structure of known reality as it had been traditionally defined with
his proclamation on the 'growing incredulity to the cultural meta-narratives ' he identified
as Emancipation and Enlightemnent. Some years later, Jean Baudrillard introduced his

Salzmann remains rather obscure on this subject, asking in Language, Culture, and
Society, "do grammatical features have any influence on how speakers of a language
perceive and categorize around them? In some instances they do, at least to some extent.
In others, the influence is negligible, if present at all" (158).
3

See also : Edwards, John. "Identity and Language in the Canadian Educational Context."
Heritage Languages and Education: The Canadian Experience. Eds. Marcel Danesi et
al. Oakville: Mosaic Press, 1993.

35

conception of the simulacra4 as the new basis of the real. No matter the theoretical
discussion, the important thing to note here is that whereas 'truth' and 'reality' were once
largely conceived as being objective constructs, both have generally come to be accepted
as social formulations. Truth is regarded by many to be not an existential property, but
rather a construct of society. As Steinar Kvale writes, "postmodern thought is
characterized by a loss of belief in an objective world and an incredulity towards metanarratives of legitimation. With a delegitimation of global systems of thought, there is no
foundation to secure a universal and objective reality" (19). Truths and the reality they
constitute are thus subjective, particular to the individual or culture that ascribes
significance and validity to certain interpretations of the world over others. While
culturally specific, both are enunciated, transmitted, and enforced through the medium of
language, whether it be orally or textually based. Language is therefore ubiquitous. As a
result, conceptions of truth and reality cannot be understood beyond linguistic terms. And
since no subject is divorced from languageS, both the individual (the subject) and his/her
tmderstanding of the world (his/her weltanschauung) are also always involved in a
language, a point Barthes elsewhere emphasizes as being an inescapable fact of culture. In
this regard, "language and knowledge do not copy reality. Rather, language constitutes
reality, each language constructing specific aspects of reality in its own way" (Kvale 21).
To name the world is therefore to understand it and to have control over it.

Baudrillard uses this term to describe the superabundance of disconnected linages and
styles that characterize postmodern culture. In this respect, postmodernity is said to be a
"culture of fragmentary sensations, eclectic nostalgia, disposable superficiality, in which
the traditionally valued qualities of depth, coherence, meaning, originality, and authenticity
[i.e. the real] are evacuated or dissolved amid the random swirl of empty signals" (Baldick
174-75).
4

Writes Barthes, "there is no subject outside language, since language is what constitutes
the subject through and through ... " (101).

5

36

In designating an object with a specific title, however, and therefore denoting it as
both a 'truth' and an understanding of reality, the speaker is not only imbued with
significant power, but he/she also concurrently restricts further definition of the same
object. The ability to name the world and the privilege to define societal norms is
simultaneously the power to displace other meanings. It is :important to note here,
however, that language is a tool for cultural accommodation and therefore naming is an
entirely arbitrary act. We are socialized by language to make the jump from simple
referential meaning to semiotic interpretation, from labeling to meaning. In other words,
our socialization leads to the acceptance of terms not for their denotation but for what
they identify. Thus, it is when a particular relationship between the signified and the
signifier6 is asserted as a 'truth' and/or 'reality' (thereby restricting alternate definitions of
each) that power is inscribed in language. The power of a language thus lies not in the
word itself, but in a series of related conditions including the speaker, the context in which
it was spoken, and the connotations of the word. In this way, language becomes a
'discursive weapon,' subverting one system of understanding and meaning for that of "the
community of subjects speaking the strong language" (Barthes 109). And while the
language of those responsible for the imperial enterprise was certainly not stronger than
that of the Native population, it was supported by a combination of overt and tacit
mechanisms, including pedagogy. As a result, English was employed by colonial
oppressors to subjugate and silence the Other, a tactic still solicited today.

From Ferdinand de Saussure and his notion of the sign, a basic element of
communication that is either linguistic or non-linguistic (e.g. a picture). The former unites
a concept and what he titles a "sound-image." The sound image is not the material sound,
but rather the linage, the ilnpression, the sound makes upon us. This psychological
:llnprint is defined as the signifier and the concept is indicated to be the signified. The
relationship between the two, :llnportantly, is arbitrary, based upon social convention
rather than on natural necessity.
6

37

In denoting specificity to an object, not only is a certain 'truth' and 'reality'
ascribed to the word(s) but, at the same time, differences are embedded and the object
comes to be defined by that which it is not. Identifying an object, emotion, or action with
a specific, though usually broad, title privileges that term over other interpretations of the
same thing, authorizing it as the 'true' designation of validity. As a result, implicit
differences within the object itself are buried within this limiting denotation. The term
"education," for instance, has numerous interpretations, with each culture affirming its
particularities. Similarly, the word "pipe" means something entirely different to someone
of settler society than it does to a Native elder. Thus, while naming may be an arbitrary
act, the assertion of this name as the synchronous interpretation for all to accept severely
restricts further, alternate conceptions. This logocentric tradition7 produces a complex
series of often violent, conceptual hierarchies in which the central term is privileged over
the marginal alternatives. As Barthes writes, "in our culture, in the Pax culturalis to
which we are subject, there is an inveterate war of languages: our languages exclude each
other; in a society divided (by social class, money, academic origin), language itself
divides" ( 101). This binary pattern of thought is fundamental in understanding the
philosophy of many in settler society. There exists in this society a tradition of thought
composed of an Us/Them mentality in which Them is always the Other, always the
antithesis of Us. Them is thus constructed as a representation and a figure of systems (as
Barthes outlines) of everything Us or We are not: civilized/savage, advanced/primitive,
Christian/heathen, and so on. 8 In each instance, the subaltern (Them) is assigned both a
From the deconstructionist term logocentrism, the term "used by Jacques Derrida and
other exponents of deconstruction to designate the desire for a centre or original
.
guarantee of all meanings, which in Derrida's view has characterized Western philosophy
since Plato. The Greek word logos can just mean 'word,' but in philosophy it often
denotes an ultimate principle of truth or reason, while in Christian theology it refers to the
Word of God as the origin and foundation of all things" (Baldick 125).

7

The idea of a centre/peripheral dichotomy, however, is described by Ashcroft as "a myth
which is only retained by post-colonial discourse in order to be deconstructed. As a

8

38

negative denotation and a connotation, as each word is fraught with often repugnant
baggage that defines Them beyond their literal definition. The term 'savage,' for instance,
has been given many other meanings, usually terms that dehumanize. Edward Said, in his
analysis of its application in the Far East, describes this destructive thought process as
Orientalism in which
the Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europe's
greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and
languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring
images of the Other. In addition, the Orient has helped to define Europe
(or the West) as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience. (87)
The role and function of such a system of thought is particularly relevant to the colonial
enterprise in Canada for a number of reasons. First: it is much easier to colonize a culture,
to subjugate is populace and suppress their voice, when it has first been demonized. To
see the objects of colonialism as subjects, as Us rather than Them, would morally and
spiritually hinder any form of imperial 'development. ' Second: labeling the Other
legitimates the imperial process as it becomes, as so often was repeated, the "white man' s
burden" to "civilize" the "primitive heathens." 9 Finally, such dichotomous thinking is
perpetuated in the modem classroom, represented in the curriculum and style of teaching
and thus acculturating the unquestioning student.

geographical myth the centre/margin binarism leads by logical extension to such
absurdities as the idea that all people in colonies are marginalised while nobody at the
imperial centre can be marginalised; or, even more crudely, that whites are the colonisers
and blacks the colonised. Obviously if we try to find the centre of the empire, we will
never find it, ... because the stmctural notion omits the institutions and process by which
power is disseminated and maintained" (213).
For the best example of this attitude, refer to Rudyard Kipling's 'White Man's Burden,"
a poem that patronizingly discusses the role of European society in :imperialism, that being
the 'civilization' of pagan cultures. While Kipling's poem refers to India specifically, its
intonation is one that governed a majority of colonizing efforts.
9

39

Once again, however, what is emphasized here is not the word itself, but the
connotative power inherent in the term. While settler society may think in terms of such
conceptual hierarchies, such binarisms alone do not constitute colonialism. Instead, they
act as the foundation upon which the imperial enterprise is not only legitimated, but also
perpetuated. Such binarisms serve as the ideological basis of the colonial process which,
in conjunction with the subversion of Native conceptions of 'truth' and 'reality,' worked
to advance Empire. So effective was this process that it has become ingrained in the
collective mind of contemporary settler society and has become part of the settler's
conscious awareness of the Other. In The Economy of the Manichean Allegory,
JanMohamed writes:
By thus subjugating the native, the European settler is able to compel the
Other's recognition of him and, in the process, allows his own identity to
become deeply dependent on his position as a master .... This process
operates by substituting natural or generic for those that are socially or
ideologically determined. All the evil characteristics and habits with which
the colonialist endows the native are thereby not presented as the products
of social and cultural difference but as characteristics inherent in the racein the 'blood'-ofthe native. (20-21)
This is not to deny the role and/or function of guns, guile, and disease in the colonial
venture, but rather to emphasize the participatory and exclusionary nature of language as
it operated in this process. The pronounced military presence of the English and the
arrival of foreign diseases undoubtedly played a crucial role in the colonization of Canada,
for instance. Yet, without a language through which meaning could be redefined, the
impact of both would have likely been momentary. After all, the native population was
certainly not eradicated as a result of military pressure, and while disease greatly reduced
their numbers, it could not persist as immuno-defences evolved. Rather, the introduction
.and imposition of an alternate language-and, hence, sense of truth and reality-allows
the colonizer "to dehistoricize and desocialize the conquered world, to present it as a
metaphysical 'fact of life' ... " (JanMohamed 22). In a similar vein, D.K. Fieldhouse

40

(1965: 103) notes that "the basis of imperial authority ... was the mental attitude of the
colonist. His [sic] acceptance of subordination-whether through a positive sense of
common interest with the parent state, or through inability to conceive of any
alternative-made empire durable" (qtd. in Said, Culture and Imp erialism 11). Accepting
subordination, however, does not imply the simple subjugation of an 'inferior' culture by
one more 'civilized.' Rather, passive acceptance of subordination results from the
imposition of the language-and hence the 'truths' and the 'reality'-of the colonizers, a
process legitimated as a result of the construction of hierarchies and the implementation of
colonial law and pedagogy that indoctrinate the colonized into the 'new' order. It is not
insignificant that one of the first actions taken by colonizers in Canada was the legal
prohibition of Native dialects in favour of the language spoken by those in and with
power. Because humans are, as Sapir indicates, "very much at the mercy of the particular
language which has become the medium of expression for their society" (qtd. in Salzmann
153), the enforced subversion of this language by another eliminates the former as a guide
for social reality. Traditional loci of meaning are thus disrupted and replaced by foreign
conceptions of the real to which the colonized must become accustomed.
Such a process thus acted as a principal colonial tool. Yet, while the era of
territorial, imperial expansion has subsided, such discursive weapons persist, perpetuated
in the neo-colonial arena through such avenues as law, media, and pedagogy. In
particular, the continued application and use of the English language in all three mediums
plays a primary role in the tacit, yet ubiquitous maintenance of imperial ideologies
concerning the Other. And nowhere is this more apparent than in contemporary
pedagogy, especially education at the secondary level. Here, all aspects of the application
of language in the imperial enterprise come into play, including the enforced
implementation of 'truth' and 'reality' as they are constructed and defined by settler
society. Here, too , conceptual hierarchies are legitimated, preserved by a culture that
often prescribes validity to the written word. Barthes' notion of encratic and acratic

41

languages also come into being, as does Soderlind's division oflanguage into four
classifications. In this manner, education for assimilation is transmitted, projected in the
classroom, and instituted as the 'truth. ' Consequently, 'reality,' as it pertains to
colonialism, language, history, and relations with the Other, is often confused with that
which is learned in this situation, a process that is conducted apparently 'naturally' or
encratically. Remembering Gramsci's definition of 'domination by consent,' students are
indoctrinated into the status quo via education. Consent "is achieved through what is
taught to the colonised, how it is taught, and the subsequent emplacement of the educated
subject as a part of the continuing :imperial apparatus . . . (425). What is taught is
concurrently the 'truths ' and 'reality' of settler society in conjunction with imperial
binarisms of difference. Consequently, colonizers and the colonized alike are instructed in
the supposed inferiority of the subaltern. Noting the agenda of education in this neocolonial enterprise, Ashcroft writes that
education becomes a technology of colonialist subjectification in two .. .
important and intrinsically interwoven ways. It establishes the locally
English or British as normative through critical claims to 'universality' of
the values embodied in English literary texts, and it represents the
colonised to themselves as inherently inferior beings-' wild ,' 'barbarous,'
'uncivilised. ' (426)
In his foreword to Paulo Freire' s now famous thesis, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Richard
Schaull notes that there
is no such thing as a neutral educational process. Education either
functions as an instrument which is used to facilitate the integration of the
younger generation into the logic of the present system and bring about
conformity to it, or it becomes 'the practice of freedom, ' the means by
which men and women deal critically and creatively with reality and
discover how to participate in the transformation of their world. (15)
This lack of neutrality more often than not weighs heavily in favour of the former;
pedagogy thus facilitates the assimilation of students into the general mainstream of

42

society. In this respect, education thus becomes a neo-colonial assault on another form of
territory: on the minds of its students as they are indoctrinated into the status quo . As
Richard Schaull goes on to summarize, Freire' s examination of the oppressed
led him to the discovery of what he describes as the 'culture of silence' of
the dispossessed. He came to realize that their ignorance and lethargy
were the direct product of the whole situation of economic, social, and
political domination-and of the paternalism-·of which they were victims.
Rather than being encouraged and equipped to know and respond to the
concrete realities of their world, they were kept 'submerged' in a situation ·
in which such critical awareness and response were practically :impossible.
And it became clear to him that the whole educational system was one of
the major instruments for the maintenance of this culture of silence. ( 10-11)
All of the linguistic techniques employed during the colonization of cultures-the
subversion of truth and reality, the construction of binarisms-have thus been carried
forward into the neo-colonial landscape and are manifested in pedagogical applications.
Education therefore works to inculcate imperial conceptions of 'truth' and 'reality' as well
as to legitimate historical, conceptual hierarchies of difference. As Freire describes, the
result is a 'culture of silence,' one that influences not just the dispossessed, but all
students. The implementation of such techniques comes about as a result of two key
factors. First: because settler society valorizes the written word as the ultimate source of
verisimilitude, textbooks are regarded by many to be the loci of meaning despite their
often prejudicial nature and the politics involved in their dissemination. Second: there
exists a pronounced imbalance of power between student and teacher that privileges the
latter as author(ity) and therefore the source of truth and reality.
Describing the invention of books as "signs taken for wonders," 10 Homi K. Bhabha
notes the double edged nature of language: the erroneous assumption of words as

Bhabha writes that "the discovery of the book installs the sign of appropriate
representation: the word of God, truth, art and creates the conditions for a beginning, a
practice of history and narrative. But the institution of the Word in the wilds is also an
10

43

'wonders,' their ability to (re)present a narrative, and their tendency to displace and to
distort those they discuss. While each illustration asserts a specific conception of 'truth'
and 'reality,' each is merely a sign, a metaphor or metonymy, yet confusingly regarded to
be the denotation of both. Naming is, after all, an abstract act. While all books contribute
to this common fallacy, textbooks in particular are of special concern because it is through
them that much of the other is represented and understood. And because 'truth' is
generally believed to be held within their pages, their interpretation of the real is regarded
to be valid. In this manner, subaltern perceptions of each are generally silenced and, if
discussed, are often done so in what appears to be peripheral, and even patronizing,
terminology. Titles such as The History of Peripheral Areas or First Nations Literature,
while important classes in themselves, can suggest that such topics are secondary to the
overall educational enviromnent. In those classes that follow a traditional curriculum,
however, a hegemonic attitude is often expressed (remembering the discussion of
Gramsci' s ideas on hegemony) and what is emphasized is the teaching of English and
English literature. Such a perspective in effect valorizes the textbook, the contents of
which are legitimated not only as decisive marks of superiority but also as the derivative of
truth as defined by humanist ideals. As the same time, orality is presented as not being
conducive to either the learning environment or verisimilitude. It is vital to remember,
however, that in inscribing 'truth' to only the written word, as is so often the case, the
politics of the textbook are overlooked. Michael Apple and Linda Christian-Smith, for
instance, equate the idea of neutral knowledge with naivete, noting that both curriculum
and textbooks signify particular constructions of reality (34). Textbooks, in particular,
embody a strictly subjective vision of 'legitimate' knowledge, "one that in the process of
enfranchising one groups ' cultural capital disenfranchises another's" (34). Equating

Enstellung, a process of displacement, distortion, dislocation, repetition--the dazzling light
of literature sheds only areas of darkness" (32).

44

textuality with validity thus ignores the presentation, and hence unquestioned reception, of
the known world as it is defined by settler society. It is, after all, settler society that not
only produces the majority of textbooks currently employed in the classroom, but also is
largely responsible for curriculum material in public schools. And in order to maintain
hegemony and 'domination by consent,' the processes of imperialism-as well as the
current neo-colonial enviromnent-are cast as 'natural.' As constructed by settler society,
reality is presented to the average student who generally accepts such interpretations as
the truth. Assimilation into the general mainstream of the dominant majority is thereby in
part procured.
At the same tune, these textbooks often advance the conceptual hierarchies of
imperialism (civilized/savage, and so forth), a point emphasized by Teun A van Dijk
whose study of texts used in high schools found that
stereotypes and occasionally even blatant prejudices characterize most
passages on the Others, as is also the case for textbook discourse on the
Third World. The Others are poor, stupid, backward, superstitious,
aggressive, totalitarian, and the like. At the same time, their own group
[i.e. those who write the texts] is associated with positive properties,
namely modernity, democracy, hospitality, tolerance, and unselfishly helpful
to Them. (287)
Such binary representations are unfortunately often conceived of as accounts of objective
truth. In this neo-colonial Zeitgeist, the historical, hegemonic dialect of difference that
affronts Native conceptions of the known world and defines Native culture in terms of
opposition is employed, cont:llming a precedent established following first non-Native
settlement. Historically characterized by an Us/Them dichotomy, then, the Other is
further represented in the contemporary educational arena by s:llnilar connotations,
connotations legitimated and given validity through the textbook and the curricula. As is
discussed in the following chapters, though steps have been undertaken to eliminate
blatantly prejudicial literature from the curriculum, there still exists works that advance

45

racial stereotypes. More pronounced, however, is the lack of literature actually written by
Native authors or material representative of Native concerns as they have been defined
earlier. As a result, students from all ethnic backgrounds, if not taught the supposedly
'inferior' nature of the colonial Other, are not permitted insight into and hence
tmderstanding of indigenous cultures. For those of settler society, on the one hand,
pronounced stereotypes and generalizations are reinforced. On the other, the oppressed
find themselves victims of self-depreciation, a characteristic "which derives from their
internalization of the opinion of the oppressors hold of them. So often do they hear [and
read] that they are good for nothing, know nothing, and are incapable of learning
anything-that they are sick, lazy, and unproductive-that in the end they become
convinced of their own unfitness" (Freire 49). For all involved, the net result is
acculturation into an ideology which governs the collective mind set of settler society,
namely the garrison mentality of Us/Them.
The power of the written word as constructed in textuality is further strengthened
in the relationship between student and educator, a power structure that the privileges the
latter as both author and authority of 'truth. ' In this regard, not only does the Occidental
valorization of the text often result in a fallible representation of 'truth,' but the role and
elevated position of the teacher further legitimates this misconception. Paulo Freire
describes the current pedagogical system using a banking ideology within which the
students are the depositories and the professor the depositor. In this relationship, "the
teacher presents himself [sic] to his students as their necessary opposite; by considering
their ignorance absolute, he justifies his own existence" (59). The result, then, is a
hierarchical structure which bears much resemblance to the binarisms constructed by
imperialism. Like the colonizer, the teacher regards him/herself as superior to his/her
students and as the vehicle by which they can 'improve, ' can join the ranks of the civilized
(i.e. acculturate). In light of this role as simple depositor, the teacher is also largely
responsible for the development of a student's consciousness-and therefore passive

46

acceptance-of settler society' s conceptions of 'truth' and 'reality.' It is the teacher, after
all, who implements curriculum, interprets texts, and acts as guide for his/her students. It
is he/she who therefore helps in the development of a student's growing recognition of the
known and the real. As Freire indicates:
it follows logically from the banking notion of consciousness that the
educator's role is to regulate the way the world 'enters into ' the students
[as well as what world is entered]. His [sic] task is to organize a process
which already occurs spontaneously, to 'fill' the students by making
deposits of information which he considers to constitute true knowledge.
And since men 'receive' the world as passive entities, education should
make them more passive still, and adapt them to the world. The
educated man is the adapted man, because he is better 'fit ' for the world.
Translated into practice, the concept is well suited to the purpose of
the oppressors, whose tranquillity rests on how well men fit the world the
oppressors have created, and how little they question it. (62-63)
And although some teachers may try to incorporate 'alternative' views and voices into
their curriculum it is very difficult for them to divorce themselves completely from this
'banking' ideology. They, too, after all, are educated within such a system and are taught
similar techniques. In this manner, students are assimilated into a mechanism that
encourages passive acceptance and 'adaptation' to the 'real' world. Consequently, those
views educators present in the pedagogical setting continue to be measured by one' s
ability to maintain the status quo by accepting and reiterating the deposits of instruction .
determined by the teacher to be 'true' knowledge. Such an (im)balance of power is
particularly critical in the English and English literature classrooms because of their
emphasis on language. While other classes stress linguistic and composition skills, no
other discipline requires students to have a complete understanding of a language in order
for high levels of success (other than second language classes). Although the majority of
classes demand a particular reading and writing competency, none are simultaneously the
subject and medium of instruction. 11 Within such classes, a student's level of success is
11

For a definition of both, please refer to Chapter One.

47

measured by his/her demonstration of literacy, especially written communication.
Moreover, this means that the ideology of settler society concerning the other as it is
constructed in language, particularly notions centring on such conceptual hierarchies as
Us/Them, is advanced in the classroom environment. In this way, students are instructed
in the validity of such propositions, the implications of which initiate acculturation into, at
the very least, the ideologies that generally govern settler society and people's thinking.
This is not is to deny, however, the existence of either teachers and/or curriculum
that subvert conventional educational patterns and methods. Indeed, there are institutions
that promote alternative pedagogical techniques and teachers who attempt to practice
alternative teaching methods. Unfortunately, both are rare and are usually found in
schools not administered by governmental policy. For those educators within this latter
environment, education largely remains bound by strict curriculum rules that govern what
is taught and how it is presented. Provincial publications such as the Integrated Resource
Package for Language Arts 11 and 12 (IRP), for instance, stipulate recommended
resource materials and methods for teaching and evaluation. Like its curriculum
predecessors, the IRP follows conventional guidelines regarding pedagogy, encouraging
assimilation tactics such as a limited reading list. In addition, the teachers of tomorrow
are taught a system that is entirely self-perpetuating; that which they learn is, in turn,
passed on to their pupils.
There are notable exceptions, just as there are exceptions to a curriculum governed
by a language and literature that advances assimilation through education. In the hands of
many, language is a subversive tool. Many contend that genuine subversion can occur and
write in various styles to alter the "rules of recognition" and estrange colonizers from their
language. Alternatively, there is the question of whether or not such literature can exist at
all in recognition that the subaltern author cannot divorce him/herself from the conditions
of his/her existence, namely the (neo )colonial situation. A number of factors also
contribute to the general lack of success of subversive language and literature within the

48

conventional secondary school environment. First: rather than learning to recognize the
multiplicity of cultural experiences of non-Western literature, teachers and students alike
are instead taught the concept of 'universality,' the examination of a piece of literature for
its universal, rather than culturally specific, meanings and applications. The result, as
Arun P. Mukherjee indicates, is that even the most provocative piece of literary work
"when seen from such a perspective, is emptied of its subversive content" (451).
Commenting on his students' responses to Margaret Laurence's short story, ''The Perfume
Sea," Mukherjee goes on to describe the effects of such a viewpoint:
I was astounded by my student's ability is to close themselves off to the
disturbing implications of my interpretation and devote their attention to
expatiating upon 'the anxiety and hope of humanity,' and other such
generalizations that were ideological. They enabled my students to efface
the differences between British bureaucrats and British traders, between
colonizing whites and colonized blacks, and between rich blacks and poor
blacks. They enabled them to believe that all human beings faced dilemmas
similar to the ones faced by the two main characters in the story. (449)
Culturally specific meanings, attitudes, and ideologies as presented in literature are thus
reduced to discussions of traits and qualities more universal in nature. As a result,
students are not taught the particular aspects of a culture as they are exhibited in a literary
work, often their only introduction to cultural difference. In this regard, the ripples in the
pedagogical pond are kept to a minimum, easily dispelled along the banks of senior
Language Arts.
In addition, because teachers within public schools are governed by what can be
rather strict curriculum policies, the literature read is far from subversive. Rather, texts
are heavily screened for content and those that present 'controversial' subjects-however
defined-are accompanied with an appendix to warn teachers. 12 The IRP for Language
For instance, the fihn 4 Sight is annotated with the following cautionary note" "Safety
issue in segment #2 involves driving and dialing a cellular phone. Contentious issues of
self-govermnent and aboriginal fishing rights presented with First Nations viewpoint only"
(B-10)
12

49

Arts 11 and 12 contains a clause in its introduction, stating that its curriculum described
within is only a suggestion, but teachers who choose to bend its recommendations require
permission from local authorities and do so at their own discretion. 13 Although this is
examined in much greater detail in Chapters Four and Five, it is important to note here this
process is not without significant flaws.
Finally, as discussed in Chapter Two, it is firmly believed by educators and those
responsible for curriculum that education in English as well as the teaching of English and
English Literature will best serve the student' s interests in the 'real' world. Despite its
best intentions, however, this perception in fact encourages assimilation in a number of
ways. Consequently, although teachers may have an interest in teaching subversive
literature, to do so becomes simultaneously a political and a moral issue. John Docker, for
instance, writes that while many literature teachers have a strong interest in post-colonial
texts and devote much time to them, "the actual teaching remains anglocentric, dominated
by the assumption that English literature is central and necessary to a student's critical
education" (445). For this reason, that which students read is largely the literature of
Empire, 'canonical' texts accorded hierarchical merit based on such qualifiers as
profundity, depth of meaning, and universality. Although the teaching of such texts
introduces the student to the core of literature, "the reciting of poetry, dramatic set-pieces
or prose passages from the works of English writers [is] not just a practice of literary
teaching throughout the empire-it is also an effective mode of moral, spiritual, and
political inculcation" (Ashcroft 426). Reluctant to jeopardize their students ' interests as
far as they pertain to success in the 'real' world, many educators only teach canonical
texts. As a result, only English literature is assumed to be vital to a student's "critical
education" and to success in future endeavours. Consequently, with the best interests of
According to the IRP, "teachers who wish to use non-provincially recommended
resources to met specific local needs must have these resources evaluated through a local
district approval process" (11) .
13

50

the student firmly in mind, literary works deemed to be subversive in nature are generally
avoided.
The relationship of language and neo-colonialism in the pedagogical environment,
while not the focus of much scholarly attention, is difficult to ignore. Conventional
education continues the traditions set by early imperialism in the subversion of Native
conceptions of truth and reality for those of settler society. Students are seductively
ingratiated into this ideology via a system that valorizes the textbook and advances
conceptual, imperial hierarchies of difference. This assimilation is further procured by a
power imbalance that privileges the educator as both the author and authority of truth.
Consequently, representations read and heard in high school classrooms are largely
regarded to be definitional, specifically those that represent the Other. And while
subversive pedagogical mechanisms and literature exists, they are rarely incorporated into
the classroom for a variety of reasons. Rather, a fundamental series of impediments
operate which can inhibit a teacher's motivation and ability to communicate post-colonial
concerns effectively represented in language and literature. The following chapter
examines the methodology upon which this conclusion is based and illustrates the means in
which this data was collected.

51

Chapter Four
Methodology and Research Design
Methodology
The principal objective of this research is to illustrate the role of and mechanisms through
which English language arts and literature work to assimilate all students involved. Interest in this
field began with the role of the English language as a key aspect of the imperial enterprise. In
applying this interest to pedagogy, I recognized that such patterns persist today. I also realized
that much of the prejudice and stereotypes against Native peoples and cultures is directly
influenced by the substantial lack of meaningful information given to students.
The actual writing of the work essentially can be divided into two parts: theoretical
examination and pragmatic application or, more simply, theory and practice. Beginning in
September 1997, the majority of my time was spent researching and writing the theoretical
components of the document. Special significance was given to the writings of post -colonial
theorists on the subjects of language and literature and the relationship of both to colonialism.
Much of what these authors expressed concurred with the aim of my thesis, though little work
had been performed by the former in applying these theoretical constructs to "the real world."
During this time, I decided to limit the geographical scope of the research to the local region.
Because the IRPs are provincial documents, examination at this microcosmic level is a reflection
of future curriculum on a broader scale. Time and financial restraints also restricted this
researcher to the Prince George area.
In light of this, a number of questionnaires were developed. I had hoped qualitative
research combining a case study with triangulation would successfully complement the theoretical
framework expressed. Consequently, I spent much of November and December drafting these
questions to be asked of grade 11 and 12 students of high schools in the Prince George region of
School District #57. I also developed a questionnaire for the Ministry of Education, Skills and

52

Training that was aimed at discovering information on the newest and future curriculum guides,
the Integrated Resource Packages. Despite several repeated efforts and personal contact with
secondary school principals in the city, the questionnaire for students was met with a generally
unfavorable response. Although one of the five principals gave a reason as to his decision to deny
my request, three other simply stated their objection. One other principal, though giving
permission for the research to be conducted, named a teacher as a liaison who unfortunately never
returned repeated messages by this researcher. Secondary contact with a First Nations instructor
at Prince George Secondary School (PGSS), while providing valuable insight into the nature of
First Nations Studies programmes in this district, also proved futile. On my behalf, she too spoke
to the principal of PGSS, but to no avail.
Facing such problems, I then decided that the questions designed for the pupils, though
desirable, were not necessary to the actual body of the work. Instead, in recognition of the
English component of this thesis, I realized that an emphasis on the texts and curriculum would in
fact make the completed work much stronger. A realization of the inherent problems with
qualitative research such as bias further solidified this decision. The questions oriented towards
the Ministry of Education, however, were sent to the government offices in Victoria and returned
approximately two months later.
Having moved away from an examination of student responses to the two disciplines, I
then focused my analysis on the actual curriculum itself, codified in the Integrated Resource
Package for Language Arts 11 and 12 and its cousin, the IRP for English Literature 12. Both

represent several years of research and are part of a larger, cross-curriculum campaign aimed at
reformation of the entire K-12 educational system. Though much of the research concentrates on
the actual content of the resources suggested, the general tone of the IRP in its Rationale section
is also noted, particularly its objectives in introducing students to other cultures. A background
to the IRPs was supplied by the Director of School Services for District #57 during consecutive
hours of personal communication. The Director, in turn, steered me to the District Resource
Centre, a library housing all the resources (texts, videos, and multimedia) currently available to

53

local educators, as well as those recommended by the curriculum packages. Texts noted as being
for an audience level below grades 11 and 12 were not examined, keeping in mind the focus of the
study. Point form notes were kept and later developed to form an mmotated bibliography (Figure
1). My examination of these resources revealed the numerous impediments inherent to the

curriculum, as well as those placed on teachers that inhibit either a discussion of these works in a
post-colonial context or the teaching of post-colonial resources.

Research Design

This research focused on the curriculum of English Language Arts 11 and 12 and English
Literature 12 and the literature recmmnended by their respective Integrated Resource Packages.
These curriculum guides deflne the parmneters for the implementation of curricula in all
progrmmnes from Kindergarten to Grade 12. They also list a number of recommended resources,
materials reviewed and evaluated by the Ministry and perceived to be adequately accomplishing
provincial goals and standards. As the research of these guides and recommended resources
evolved, a number of fundmnental impediments to the teaching of post-colonial theories and
issues as they are represented in literature surfaced (see Chapter Five). A teacher's ability to
integrate these concerns into the English classroom environment is severely hampered by these
often formidable barriers. In combination with the colonizing function of language and m1
exclusion of 'meaningful' Native content, these impediments provoke acculturation into the
humanist ideals of settler society. The contemporary role of education in this context echoes a
disturbing trend, one with deep historical roots. As one of the principle means for cmmnunicating
the ideals, values, and beliefs of the dominant majority, education, but English Language Arts and
Literature in particular, perpetuates both explicit and implicit efforts at acculturation.
Examination of the content of these classes is therefore necessary to illustrate how language m1d
literature work to procure assimilation.

54

Study Parameters
In order to limit the sampling size and breadth of the research conducted, a number of
parameters had to be imposed. It is believed, however, that these parameters do not limit the
impact of the work or the results produced. Rather, though the sample was restricted, it is
reflective of provincial standards and practices as the IRPs define both for all provincial school
districts. These fundamental parameters are as follows:
1.

Although the study emphasizes the assimilationist role of all pedagogy, it would
only focus on two classes, English Language Arts 11 and 12 and English
Literature 12, for reasons explained elsewhere.

2.

Only the curriculum for Grades 11 and 12 would be examined.

3.

Content analysis would focus only on those resources recmmnended by the
curriculum packages. These are the materials believed to best cmmnunicate
curriculum objectives. The process of integrating 'alternate' resources would also
be studied, though the actual works would not be reviewed .

4.

The study would also advocate the use of interviews and a questionnaire to give
further validity to the arguments and research presented.

Sample Source
The setting of this study was limited solely to Prince George, British Columbia. All of the
research was conducted at the School Board Offices for School District #57 and the regional
District Resource Centre. Because the Integrated Resource Packag es examined are intended for
a provincial audience, however, the research is also applicable at a much broader, macrocosmic
level. The responses received from a representative of the Ministry of Education, Skills and
Training also reflect the larger scope of the research in this sense.
Data Collection

55

Collection of the data available in the District Resource Centre took place over two
consecutive weeks commencing AprilS , 1997. Eleven boxes of materials were reviewed and
evaluated for their "manifest" and "latent" content (Fraenkel and Wallen 411). At this time, point
notes on each text or video were made and an annotated bibliography was formed. These notes
were later developed into Figure 1.
In order to supplement the information supplied by the Integrated R esource Packages, a
questionnaire was sent to the Ministry of Education, Skills and Training in Victoria (see Appendix
4.3). The responses were recorded and incorporated into the text of the work. An informal
interview with the Director of School Service for School District #57 was conducted April29,
1997 and his statements are used to provide an historical background to the development of the
curriculum guides. A subsequent interview took place June 19, 1997 to provide further
information in this aspect.
Classification of Study
Following the paradigm defined by Fraenkel and Wallen (1996), the research method
applied is classified as qualitative content analysis. This technique "enables researchers to study
human behavior in an indirect way, through an analysis of their cmmnunications" (405). Here,
communication is strictly limited to a pedagogical context and therefore recognizes the curriculum
guides as the means for the transmission of "[a] person or group 's conscious and unconscious
beliefs, attitudes , values, and ideas ... ." (405) . As Fraenkel and Wallen (1996) further indicate,
content analysis is an especially proficient methodological approach to apply to education (406),
particularly when analyzing trends and inferring attitudes and values. Supplementary methods of
research were also incorporated and took the form of casual interviews and a questionnaire to the
Ministry of Education, Skills and Training in Victoria, British Columbia. The objective was to

56

work towards the triangulation of the three major variations of content analysis research, as
defined by Fraenkel and Wallen (1996). Briefly, these are described as: analysis in terms of
frequency counts; qualitative or nonfrequency analysis; and contingency analysis. It is believed
the observations made and the data collected will indicate the successful amalgamation of all
three. In analyzing this particular form of educational communication, special care was also given
to coding both "manifest" and "latent" content. As defined by Fraenkel and Wallen (1996), the
former "refers to the obvious, surface content" of the form of cmrununication in question (411).
The latent content of a work, on the other hand, "refers to the meaning underlying what is said or
shown" (411). Though the manifest content as it is defined here has improved substantially in
recent years, a number of obviously negative references to Native peoples and/or cultures was
discovered. More specifically, however, the research focused on the latent content of the
curriculum and its recommended resources, particularly their influence in acculturation.
Researcher's Perspectives
Ideally, a central aim of any research project is the maintenance of objectivity. The
researcher's role as interpreter of the events measured or, in this case, content studied, however,
makes such a goal nearly impossible to obtain. Interpretations reflect the researcher's particular
objectives and subjective assumptions. My assumptions directly influence this research:
1.

Colonialism is an on-going, rather than static, process. In other words, though
historical forms of imperialism such as territorial expansion may have declined,
the processes and ideologies governing the enterprise persist.

2.

Language defmes according to difference. Our understanding of an object,
emotion, or thing ("x") is determined by that which it ("x") is not.

3.

Language constitutes reality and is responsible for a culture's conception and
understanding of its conscious experiences.

57

4.

Education in general advocates assimilation, continuing a tradition established
nearly a century ago. English Language Arts and Literature are especially
involved in the communication of this tendency.

5.

Students are introduced to other cultures through literature, which provides a
medium for the transmission of contradictory perspectives and understanding.

6.

More meaningful literature and greater Native representation fosters greater
understanding of Native peoples, cultures, and issues. In turn, prejudices are
eradicated and alterity is encouraged.

7.

Discussion of the educational discourse in question (English) does not lead one to
perpetuate its inherent misgivings so long as a critical awareness of these
problems is maintained.

Assumptions
With regards to the methodological approach utilized, a number of fundamental
assumptions were made by this researcher. First, it is assumed that students on the whole accept,
without direct or open question, the curriculum that is presented to them. This assumption is
based upon experience as both a student and an instructor. Students at the secondary level tend
to be "teacher driven. " In other words, the majority tend to require direction and motivation from
the educator, rather than being wholly independent thinkers. Furthermore, teachers are generally
valorized as figures of 'truth. ' Accordingly, while there may be questions about the style of
teaching or the teacher him/herself, what is taught is usually accepted to be valid.
Second, it may be assumed that teachers are not made aware of or given access to the
post-colonial issues described in this research. And even if teachers are willing to integrate these
issues into their respective English classrooms, there are several fundamental impediments that
restrict their ability to do so. It is also assumed that it is not the intention of secondary school
teachers to choose literature exclusively representing the ideals of settler society. Rather, it is the
current system that disables motivation to pursue 'alternate' interests.

58

Third , one of the assumptions made is that those responsible for curriculum also do not
openly intend exclusion. A numerical analysis of the proportion of Native representation in
English Language Arts 11 and 12, for instance, indicates this is not the case. An examination of
the latent content of the recommended resources, however, indicates a sharp discrepancy between
specified objectives and practical application.
Finally, School District #57 (Prince George and area) is assumed to be representative of
Districts across the province in terms of the resources used and the manner in which they are
housed.
Logic of Approach
The rationale for the methodology used in this research is based upon the notion that
education has long been a method for acculturating Native students and current pedagogical
practices and philosophies continue this trend. It also recognizes that several alterations must be
initiated in order to reverse this process. Though post-colonial theorists have long criticized the
application of education in the imperial enterprise, little has been done to amalgamate theory with
practice. To do so requires a review and an evaluation of the content used and its relation to
theory, as well as to acculturating practices used in language and in literature. Qualitative
content analysis best defines the parameters through which research :in this context must be
undertaken.
The review of the literature recommended by the curriculum guides is an assessment of
these assimilating mechanisms. The various impediments that hinder a teacher's motivation and
ability to communicate post-colonial concerns developed from this review. The informal
interviews with the Director of School Services and the questions asked of the Ministry of
Education are intended to supply information not made available by the curriculmn guides or to

59

clarify questionable areas. The Director, for instance, provided the contextual history of the IRPs
and the developments leading up to their publication. The Ministry, on the other hand, provided
information on the future of these resource packages.
Limitations of the Study Design
In any qualitative content analysis project, the reliability and validity of the research are
often the most suspect (Fraenkel and Wallen 411). Limiting coding to only the latent content of a
communication, for instance, comes at some cost in reliability (411). Personal bias in determining
what is 'meaningful' Native representation means other researchers may not arrive at similar
conclusions. This limitation was combated in two ways . First, the manifest content (as well as
the latent content) of the curriculum for English Language Arts 11 and 12 and English Literature
12 was studied. Second, the focus of this research turned away from simply an evaluation of the
resources used for content to an emphasis on the fundamental impediments that arise to prevent
educators from teaching post-colonial literature. At the same time, research was conducted on
materials that are representative of provincial guidelines and recommendations to give a broad
coding context.
With respect to validity, Fraenkel and Wallen (1996) recommend checking manifest
against latent content (412). In the context of this research, however, such a proposal is difficult
in that the manifest content of the materials suggests satisfactory Native representation. An
examination of the latter, on the other hand, gives a sharply contrasting perspective, as these
materials are severely restricted by a number of latent barriers. This study examines both "latent"
and "manifest" content in combination with the coding of latent messages.
Data Analysis

60

The data recovered from this research was analyzed according to parameters defined by
Verna J. Kirkness (see Figure 1). In particular, texts were reviewed and evaluated for Native
representation in the context of issues, peoples, or cultures presented. Measurement of the
manifest content of these resources involved simply 'counting ' the number of times this
representation occurred; the frequency of incidents in this context is documented in Chapters Five
and Six. Analysis of the "latent" content, though much more difiicult to obtain and record, is also
noted in both chapters and takes the form of the substantial impediments that hinder the successful
teaching of these materials. The responses generated from the interviews with the Director of
School Services for School District #57 and those from the questimmaire are quoted verbatim
whenever possible in order to avoid editorial bias.

61

Chapter Five

The Current Status of Assimilation:
The Integrated Resource Package for Language Arts 11 and
12
One of the effects of assimilation, indoctrination, ... is that you believe
absolutely in the hegemony of the King's English and in the form in which
it is meant to be expressed. Or else your writing is not literature; it is
folklore, and folklore can never be art .... The Anglican ideal-Milton,
Wordsworth, Keats-was held before us with an assurance that we were
unable, and would never be enabled, to compose a work of similar
correctness. (Cliff 85-6)

As was illustrated in Chapter Three, language is fundamental to the creation and
development of meaning, of perceptions of ' truth' and 'reality. ' At the same time, because
it is inherently based in difference, language defines according to conceptual hierarchies of
contrast. Objects, emotions, things are defined by that which they are not, a pattern of
thinking with particularly destructive implications in the development of an Us/Them,
Othering ideology. Together, this combination played a key role in the colonization of the
Native population of Canada. While conventional forms of imperialism such as territorial
expansion may no longer exist, the involvement of language in this neo-colonial venture
persists. As has been discussed in previous chapters, for instance, language use as it is
constructed and developed in the secondary school English curriculum continues to
advance these patterns of thinking and understanding. Yet, the average English class (or
Language Arts as it will soon be titled) does not solely educate students in the nature of
language use and construction; a great deal of time is also dedicated to the study of
literature. As is the case with language, literature also serves a figurative role in the

62

presentation and legitimization of particular conceptions of reality. The purpose of this
chapter is to analyze the "manifest" and "latent" content of the literature reco1mnended by
the province and illustrate its influence in the acculturation of students. In so doing, the
provincial handbook for future curricuhun, the Integrated Resource Package for
Language Arts 11 and 12 , is also examined as the source of this literature in the
classroom.
The principle source on which the future curriculum for senior English in
secondary schools across British Columbia will be based is a provincial government
publication entitled the Integrated Resource Package (IRP) for Language Arts 11 and 12.
Intended to be an instruction manual for educators, the IRP represents the new curriculum
for English which was developed after a cross-provincial review (late 1980s) of the
Kindergarten to Grade 12 pro grams. Titled the Sullivan Cmmnission, this review
concluded that substantial changes needed to be made to the entire curriculmn "to gear up
for the year 2000" (personal communication, Norm Monroe, June 19, 1997). As a result,
substantial revisions to pedagogy were engendered in an initiative known as the Year 2000
Program. Though this plan in principle was eventually dropped, a number of its ideas
persisted and were eventually modified to form the core of the IRPs (pers.
communication, Norm Monroe, June 19, 1997). Appendix 5.1 illustrates the future of
secondary school pedagogy in British Columbia as defined by this research. Each ring
represents the time-line in which various re-developed courses will be implemented.
Although every course will eventually be governed by an IRP, the curriculum does not
drastically differ from the original. Of the changes, the most significant is the end of the
dependence on core textbooks and the introduction of a multiplicity of resources which

63

the Ministry has reviewed, evaluated, and supplied, from which educators are free to
choose. While all schools have to "come on side" in the next two years (pers.
communication, Norm Monroe, April29, 1997 1), successful implementation of the IRP
depends on funding. Without adequate financial resources, schools may be forced to
continue to use traditional materials (Monroe). While the future of these pro grams is
2

uncertain, it is highly unlikely that they will undergo further revision. The IRP itself
details a variety of considerations for educators of Language Arts, including suggested
instructional and assessment strategies, the actual curriculum, prescribed learning
outcomes, and a recommended resource materials list. It opens with a rationale explaining
the reasons for the teaching of English language arts in contemporary pedagogy. This
rationale, also a justification for the existence of the IRP, is the key section of the entire
guide because it is here that the study of English language and literature is defended.
Above all, it stresses, language arts is governed by the principles of learning, namely
"learning requires the active participation of the student; people learn in a variety of ways
and at different rates ; and learning is both an individual and a group process" (1). The
main body of the IRP is subdivided into four columns, each describing these four
considerations as they apply to the particular lesson or objective. As their title suggests,
learning outcomes are fundamental expectations of what students in a particular grade
should know and be able to accomplish and therefore "set out the knowledge, enduring
All remaining references to Norm Monroe in this chapter are based on the interview
conducted on this date.
2
While Chapter 4 discusses this in much greater detail, the IRPs represent years of
research and review. For this reason, unless dramatic alterations are deemed necessary,
these guides and the courses they govern will endure for some time. The Ministry of
1

64

ideas, issues concepts, skills, and attitudes for each subject" (III). While these are meant
to serve as a benchmark for performance standards, it is expected that teachers will not
only incorporate their own experience and professional judgment when determining their
respective learning outcomes, but also that student performance will vary from class to
class (III). These learning outcomes determine the remaining considerations in that all
instructional, assessment, and learning resources are oriented around achieving the
prescribed knowledge goals. Consequently, instructional strategies emphasize the use of
techniques, methods, and activities to deliver the prescribed curriculum and quantify these
learning outcomes. Teachers can again adapt the recommendations as long as students
achieve the goals of the curriculum guide. The suggested assessment strategies are
recommended to gather information concerning student performance. Once more, as was
stressed in the description of the instructional strategies, the assessment tools "are
suggestions only" (IV). Of particular interest are the provincially recommended learning
resources or texts suggested by the province that are felt to meet the needs of teachers,
students, and the curriculum guide. Emphasizing that these resources are stringently
reviewed and evaluated by British Columbian teachers and the Ministry of Education, the
IRP goes on to note that teachers are nonetheless encouraged to "select those resources

that they find most relevant and useful for their students, and to supplement these with
locally approved materials and resources to meet specific local needs" (IV). The final
section of the IRP (nearly one-third of the entire guide) is dedicated to an introduction to
these resources and the description of each text is annotated with appropriate grade levels,

Education, Skills, and Training also indicates that they expect the new curriculmn to last a
minimmn of six years.

65

price, and, if deemed necessary, a cautionary note to educators on content. These texts
range from Shakespearean tragedies to short stories and other prose.
Although the focus here is on the literary resources recommended by the IRP and
their involvement in acculturation, the guide itself contains several hints at the
assimilationist role of both language and literature in the context of preparing the student
for life beyond school. In emphasizing the 'real-world' concerns and needs of the student,
then, the rationale concurrently advocates the significance of English language arts in
engendering assimilation. This is not to suggest that either the curriculum guide or the
educators who use it do not have students' best interests at heart. After all, it is the
objective of both to accommodate students' needs as well as prepare them for the future.
Yet, this future into which students are to be incorporated is that created and governed by
the ideals and hegemony of settler society. As both the author of curriculum and the
recipient of its products, the IRP reflects the interests of the dominant society that wishes
to ensure that this hegemony remains intact. For this reason, regardless of best intentions,
challenges to the status quo represented in language and literature are not part of the
curriculum. This is evident in both the recmmnended resources as well as throughout the
remaining sections of the Rationale. For instance, the IRP argues that "language
experiences should encourage students to understand and respect cultural, racial, and
linguistic diversity; language activities should also help students link classroom learning
with the languages and cultures in their homes" (2). These tasks unfortunately fail to
notice the discrepancy between theory and practice. Instruction in, and about, the English
language bears little relation to the creation of respect for cultural diversity, especially in
light of the arguments presented in Chapter Three. How can classroom learning in English

66

link students to "the culture in their homes" (2) when the literature read and the language
studied has no relation to this environment and generally promotes assimilation through a
variety of mechanisms? Of the many texts read in Language Arts 11 and 12, only a
relatively small proportion actually contain meaningful references to Native cultures or are
written by Native authors, as will be discussed. At the same time, there also exists a
number of significant impediments within the current system that substantially hinder the
successful implementation of literature even remotely communicating post-colonial issues.
These, too, will be discussed in greater detail further in this chapter. For these reasons, it
appears highly unlikely that such 'language and literature activities' can successfully tie a
native student's home environment, for instance, to his/her school experience, and vice
versa. Finally, it is the assertion of the IRP that language should work in conjunction with
the literature taught in Language Arts to teach understanding of and respect for other
cultures. In so doing, both should connect students to "the past, present, and future" as
well as to "the new" and "the familiar" (3). It is difficult to ascertain how students can
learn, understand, and gain respect for other cultures when the literature read in class is
not only limited by the material conditions of its production, but also often exhorts a
restricted, though very specific, discourse. Limited Native textual representation and a
reliance on resources burdened by a number of complementary impediments cannot
adequately foster an understanding of Native peoples and cultures. Instead, the status quo
as it is created and defmed by settler society is reaffirmed and preserved. Divergent
opinions and perspectives are not presented, thereby sustaining the historical role of
literature as a mechanism for acculturation.

67

Post-colonial theorists have long criticized the application and function of the
literature of Empire not only in the imperial enterprise but also in a neo-colonial context.
As Bill Ashcroft notes in The Empire Writes Back, "the study of English and the growth
of Empire proceeded from a single ideological climate and the development of the one is
intrinsically bound up with the development of the other . . ." (3). Literature offered a
means through which the ideology of Empire could be transmitted to colonial subjects. It
was here that students learned of the imperial Other as he/she was defined by such authors
as Rudyard Kipling and others. Ngugi Wa Thiong'o, for instance, speaks of this
experience in De colonizing the Mind:
In primary school I now read Dickens and Stevenson alongside Rider
Haggard. Jim Hawkins, Oliver Twist, Tom Brown - not Hare, Leopard,
and Lion - were now my daily companions in the world of imagination. In
secondary school, Scott and G.B. Shaw vied with more Rider Haggard,
John Buchan, Alan Paton, Captain W.E. Johns .... Thus language and
literature were taking us further and further from ourselves to other selves,
from our world to other worlds. (12)
At the same time, students from the colonized world learned of themselves as they were
portrayed in such literature and such conceptual hierarchies as Us/Them were created,
represented, and came to be accepted. Because literature is defined specifically by the
language of its construction, this dialect is pivotal to the creation and maintenance of
meaning and understanding. As was discussed in previous chapters, language was/is
crucial to the colonial process in its creation of 'truth' and 'reality' as well as its
construction of identity based on difference. As JanMohamed writes,
colonialist literature is an exploration and a representation of a world at the
boundaries of 'civilization', a world that has not (yet) been domesticated by
European signification or codified in detail by its ideology. The world is
therefore perceived as uncontrollable, chaotic, unattainable, and ultimately

68

evil. Motivated by his desire to conquer and dominate, the imperialist
configures the colonial realm as a confrontation based on differences in
race, language, social customs, cultural values, and modes of production.
(18)
In this ma1mer, the ideology of Empire, a representation of Others to Europe and Europe
to itself, was in large part transmitted. Yet, what was projected were not 'facts ' or
'truths' concerning colonial states and peoples, but rather European fears and desires
masquerading as 'objective' reality (Ashcroft 425). What students read, then, were
anglocentric interpretations of other cultures and peoples designed at simultaneously
defining Them as well as Us. Remembering that language defines according to difference,
Europeans were given portraits of Others that not only defined them according to a
combination of myths, legends, and stereotypes but also defmed Europeans as their very
antithesis. Such conceptions were generally regarded to be valid representations by both
the colonized and the colonizer. As a result, two equally violent perspectives dominated
imperial thought: the Other must be 'civilized ' through any and every means necessary (of
which education was predominant) or he/she must be destroyed to make way for Progress.
In either case, the Other was vilified and the imperial process justified; one need only read
Kipling 's "White Man's Burden" to witness the prevailing colonial attitude of the period.
At the same time, because colonizers believed a European education would best profit
Native students (though the motive of assimilation undoubtedly lay at the heart of such a
decision), these pupils were taught within an imperial system. Consequently, they read
literature that presented imperial conceptions of colonial reality and represented native
cultures (i.e. their cultures) in a significantly negative light. Such literature-which
captured the non-European subject within European frameworks-defmed the latter's

69

alterity as 'savage,' 'pagan,' and overtly 'wrong ' andre-projected these relations back to
the colonized. Because this was carried out through formal education and validated as
authentic pictures of the Other, the colonized often came to regard themselves in terms
defined by the imperial power. In this regard, the supposed inferiority of the colonial
Other was often represented to and accepted by the colonizer and the colonized. At the
same time, the power and the privileges of the imperialist were maintained as the
imbalanced status quo was preserved. As Ashcroft concludes, "the reciting of poetry,
dramatic set-pieces or prose passages from the works of English writers was not just a
practice of literary teaching throughout the empire-it was also an effective mode of
moral, spiritual, and political inculcation" (426).
It is through such applications of literature that the historical imperial enterprise
was effectively legitimated and representations of the Other were conceived of as 'truth.'
Significantly, however, such a process also exists today in a neo-colonial context. Hence,
although a number of significant advances have been made concerning literary content, 3
students from all backgrounds are nonetheless taught ideologies several decades old as
they are presented in a textual context. In particular, as a result of inadequate Native
representation, students are not only taught a binary discourse, one that sustains an
Us/Them attitude but are also taught a restricted conception of 'truth' and 'reality,'
It should be noted that in recent years there has been a dramatic transformation in the
literature component of the English curriculum. No longer are texts that promote blatant
stereotypes and/or racial prejudices presented. Changes to content rules have tried to
incorporate cultural diversity through the inclusion of non-European texts or authors (i.e.
non-canonical literature). While positive steps have been enacted in this aspect, many
more initiatives have to be undertaken to promote more widespread acceptance and
reduce the impact of education for assimilation. Suggestions for the future in this regard
3

70

namely that of settler society. Ignorance and acculturation, then, are complementary.
Failure to recognize other divergent perspectives induces consent solely to those ideals
and attitudes presented. And although subversive literature does exist and offers a means
to counter these trends, it is generally not a subject of discussion in the majority of
schools. As was discussed in Chapter Three, a number of reasons generally prohibit not
only the production of such literature, but also its dissemination in the public, pedagogical
enviromnent. Though these are discussed in a broader, material context further in this
chapter, educators specifically exclude disparate works in their class for reasons
emphasizing educational 'value. ' First: it is largely assumed that canonical English is
central to the student's critical education and future success. Consequently, while postcolonial texts and/or those that promote divergent perspectives do exist, they are generally
avoided in the classroom, even if educators have strong interest in teaching them. Second:
it is somewhat naive to assume that a work written by an "Other," however defmed, can
divorce itself from the material conditions of its existence, namely authorship in a settler
society. As a result, texts that offer a direct challenge to the status quo, whether it be in
subjects discussed or literary structure, are rarely offered in the Language Arts classroom,
as an analysis of the recmmnended resource materials indicates. As it currently stands, the
future provincial curriculum for Language Arts 11 and 12 is also severely burdened by a
number of fundamental impediments that impair successful implementation of postcolonial themes. As well, it offers relatively little in the way of the incorporation of
literary articulations about and/or by the cultural Other in its rather copious list of

will be discussed in the final chapter, as will policies initiated by other institutions and
school boards across Canada and the United States.

71

rec01mnended resource materials. As a result of both, students are therefore neither
introduced to nor taught appreciation for alterity and/or cultural differences as they are
represented in literature. For the purposes of this study, only materials from this list
showcasing Native authors or representation will be examined. At a macro level, this
curriculum is poor overall in terms of literary representation of the cultural Other.
As previously mentioned, the section of the Integrated Resource Package dealing
with recommended resource materials occupies nearly one-third of the entire curriculum
manual (82 pages in total). Each text is annotated with a brief description of the work, its
appropriate audience level as defined by provincial standards, curriculum organizers (the
expected learning goals and outcomes), and the supplier. Included in the list are texts
ranging from dictionaries and anthologies of composition to various works of poetry and
prose. According to the IRP, these resources are evaluated by practicing teachers who
critically examine each work for such elements as content, profundity, and relevance to the
learning outcomes of the discipline (10). These recommended resources are not limited to
texts, however, and also include various multimedia materials (work in software and
video). Educators are encouraged to incorporate a variety of these resources in their
classroom in order to maximize student potential and learning. Of the more than 90
resources that are provincially acceptable, only a handful are actually meaningful in terms
of the Native post-colonial concerns and issues presented. The concise annotations
contained within the guide provide a means to determine the content of the respective
material and its appropriateness in this context, as does their availability at the local
District Resource Centre (DRC). In total, the recommended resource materials list
documents a total of twenty-one materials (of more than 90) that introduce students to

72

Native literature. Of these, twenty are anthologies and only one is edited by Native
authors. Proportionally, these numbers suggest an adequate reflection of Native
representation in Language Arts 11 and 12: 21 texts of more than 90 available represent
approximately 20 percent of the curriculum devoted to Native authors, a figure equivalent
to the proportion of Native peoples in this province. However, the textual resources in
which Native representation is included are ftmdamentally flawed, encumbered by a
number of impediments that prohibit their successft1l presentation in the Language Arts
classroom, as will be discussed shortly. The sole video dealing with Native concerns is
short at only 23 minutes in length. Ironically, there is also a warning in the annotation that
the material and issues presented in the video are from a Native viewpoint only.
Considering that more than seventy resources do not provide meaningful Native content,
this is indeed unfortunately ironic, as the worry is that these materials are not appendixed
with citations expressing their limited, usually Eurocentric perspectives.
Despite the concerns of curriculum editors, this video offers perhaps the best
introduction to Native issues and philosophies not refracted through an Occidental lens.
As the IRP notes, 4 Sight examines the lives of four Native individuals and their opinions

on such issues as self-government, aboriginal fisheries, and Native education (B-10).
While this video could not be reviewed for content4 , it is likely that it might well be one of
the best resources for students and teachers wishing to gain insight into Native concerns.
Yet, in describing the video, even the IRP callllot escape the Western, humanist ideals in
which it is grounded. The a.Imotation of 4 Sight acknowledges that the film "examines the

Unless one is a local teacher, textual materials cam1ot be taken out of the District
Resource Centre.
4

73

lives of two male and two female successful [italics mine] First Nations leaders, a
writer/publisher, a writer/filmmaker, an educator, and a Metis leader" (B-10). Such
terminology suggests that success can only be defined by one's ability to achieve in a
Western context, an important lesson for students as well as those concerned with
education for assimilation. The stern warnings in the annotation to the description of the
film, which read "contentious issues of self-government and aboriginal fishing rights
presented with First Nations viewpoint only" (B-10), also suggest educators might want
to avoid showing it in class for fear of repercussion.
Other than this video, the only other resources of particular relevance to Native
cultures, peoples, and concerns not refracted through the lens of settler society and listed
in the IRP are three texts: Keeper 'n Me, a short novel, "Just Talking About Ourselves":
Voices of Our Youth, and Voices of the First Nations. The frrst, Keeper 'n Me, is a story
about an Ojibway youth (Me) seeking his identity with the help of an elder who is firmly
rooted in traditional ways and practices. Together, they come to a solution that balances
traditions with contemporary lifestyles. Like that for the video 4 Sight, however, the
general description of the novel falters under the weight of its own language. For
instance, the Keeper is described as "an old man" rather than an elder and the novel itself
is described in terms of its universal, rather than culturally specific, nature, the implications
of which were discussed in Chapter Three: "the story comprises comic, philosophical, and
spiritual elements" (B-44). Nonetheless , as the only novel written by a Native author to
be included in the curriculum guide, Keeper 'n Me is an anomaly in the textual curriculum
of Language Arts 11 and 12. So , too, are the other two texts, "Just Talking About
Ourselves" and Voices of the First Nations, though they are anthologies rather than

74

novels. The former is especially relevant, as it is a collection of poetry and prose written
by young native authors from within British Columbia. The regional quality of this
anthology furthers understanding in that it provides a local context for students. The first
half of this text, created by those who participated in Canada's Drug Strategy Programme,
is dedicated to the work of young Native authors. The remaining section concerns itself
with lists of other f1.mded projects and resources for educators and counselors wishing to
develop a similar programme. On the other hand, Voices of the First Nations is entirely
devoted to the fiction and non-fiction of Native authors. Many ofthe non-fiction pieces
are especially relevant to Native concerns as they present such issues as land claims and
substance abuse from a Native perspective. Like those offered by the video, these
viewpoints are not distorted by a non-Native lens. As a result, students can obtain firsthand insight into such issues. Both texts thus provide a mechanism for students to be
introduced to Native ideas and perspectives (of, among other things, 'truth' and 'reality' )
as they are represented in literature.
Though such literature has been incorporated into the curriculum and,
proportionally, the numbers suggest adequate Native representation, there exists a number
of fundamental impediments to the successful teaching of these resources. Working in
conjunction, these hurdles resemble the proverbial Albatross, greatly inhibiting an
educator's chances of successfully communicating any post-colonial concerns represented
in the literature. Importantly, each of these barriers detracts from the whole, so that any
figure (no matter how substantial) signifies an initiative more towards political correctness
than adequate representation. In this context, these impediments are identified as the
following: Native inclusion in works edited by predominantly white editors; small Native

75

representation in anthologies, some of which contain over 200 entries; a reliance on the
literature of a select elite of canonized Native authors whose writings contribute to
Western preconceptions of Native cultures; a system which makes obtaining material a
laborious process; and, fmally, bureaucratic mechanisms which significantly hinder the
actual teaching of these resources. Each of these impediments are described in further
detail below. It is important to note here that these impediments constitute the "latent"
content of the cmmnunication studied. Thus, not only are the recommended resources
themselves subjects of analysis, so too is the process involved in their production and
dissemination.
Of these hurdles , none is perhaps more influential than the tedious process aspiring
teachers must go through should they wish to teach a work not recommended by the IRP
and the immense responsibility that follows. As is stressed throughout the curriculmn
guide, the resources recmmnended are suggestions only. These materials have been
reviewed and evaluated according to provincial requirements and "approved through
Minister's Order" (11), a process that examines each resource for a number of criteria, but
especially content. Teachers are also expected to use their education and practical
experience to incorporate alternative resources into their respective English classrooms.
As is mentioned, early in the Rationale section of the IRP, "[teachers] and school districts
are encouraged to select those resources that they find most relevant and useful for their
students, and to supplement these with locally approved materials and resources to meet
specific local needs" (IV). Reco1mnended materials, therefore, are those sources that have
been reviewed to best accomplish the learning and assessment strategies delineated by the
curriculum guide. Allowing for the addition of other resources, while also enhancing the

76

overall educational environment, nonetheless implies a move aimed at protecting the
curriculum from any future repercussions. If complications or challenges arise to its
curriculum recommendations, blame can shifted to educators who followed these
suggestions too closely or were too liberal with their adoption of other materials.
Moreover, despite claims stating otherwise, this adoption process is a long and tedious
one. According to Norm Monroe, Director of School Services for School District #57 ,
the local approval process is relatively easy, yet he describes a bureaucratic process
severely hampered by red tape. 5 Respective educators are responsible for knowing the
content of the text or video in question. The teacher's full review of the material is then
given to the principal who also examines the work for similar criteria. If he/she perceives
the text or video to be of controversial nature, the school librarians also review and
evaluate the work. The request, reviews, and the resource are then sent to Monroe, who
further inspects the material and, upon accepting the text or video, gives written approval
of its incorporation into the respective English classroom. If, however, a further analysis
is deemed necessary, the librarians of the District Resource Centre are expected to study it
and provide feedback, as is a review committee. This fmal step is a "built in check" and
rarely occurs (Monroe). If the teacher disagrees with the final decision, he/she can make a
motion for appeal through the District Superintendent, though this too seldom happens
(Monroe). As it currently stands, teachers often bring forth suggestions for other texts,
though this may reflect a pronounced lack of available resources rather than teacher
initiative. Because the IRP recommends a large number of resource tools, the need to :fiild

Please refer to Appendix 5.2 for the documentation required in this local approval
process.

5

77

alternate materials may disappear. Significantly, Monroe notes that teachers generally do
not question the established selection of novels and seldom suggest an alternative literary
work. Instead, textbooks constitute the majority of requests that are required to go
through this review process (Monroe). Despite this complex system of reviews and
evaluation by all levels within the school hierarchy, the teacher is left ultimately
responsible for problems that may arise as a result of the teaching of the work in question.
To assume this responsibility is certainly a laudable task, though one that leaves the
educator in a rather precarious position. Should contentious issues of content and/or
censure arise, he/she is left to assume full responsibility, without the support of the school
district. Fear of dismissal in the face of public outcry may be enough to inhibit an
educator's motivation to teach a non-recommended resource. For this reason, English
teachers likely limit their challenge of the recommended resource materials list to
textbooks only. It is extremely rare that contemporary textbooks-the materials that most
often go through the review process-present material controversial enough to raise alarm
from concerned parents. The content of the texts recommended by the IRP , for instance,
do not contain any references that may be considered offensive, despite its stern warnings.
Novels, on the other hand, pose an entirely new dilemma, as many contain content judged
to be simply too risky for the average classroom, particularly those that threaten the status
quo. For instance, one need only to think of the recent controversy in Surrey, British
Columbia surrounding the teaching of a story portraying same-sex parents. By imposing
such restrictions on the teaching of 'alternative ' literary works, then, the esteemed state of
canonical literature is reaffirmed and Other voices are marginalized. The very real fear of
retribution is therefore perhaps one of the most significant impediments to the teaching of

78

'extra-curricular' materials. Resources of this type-materials not recmmnended by the
curriculum guides-are necessary as those materials advocated by the IRP fail to represent
Native post-colonial concerns adequately. In turn, these recommended texts are
themselves bound by further impediments.
For instance, though there are a proportionally significant number of resources that
contain some form of Native representation, no mechanism for either understanding postcolonialism or bringing it to light is provided. At the same time, finding these resources
can be an extremely tiresome process, one that already busy teachers may avoid. All of
these materials-texts, videos, and computer software-are found in the local District
Resource Centre, the library which houses the resources currently used and/or available to
local teachers, as well as those suggested by the IRP in preparation for its implementation.
The resources within this library serve as research and resource material for educators
who, upon examination of a particular work, then order the necessary amount for their
classroom. Because all the resources have been screened and accepted according to
specifications set out in the IRP, there is no need for teachers to undertake any further
steps.

An examination of these resources took place over two consecutive weeks

commencing April 8, 1997, during which time fourteen boxes of resource materials were
studied for literary content. In keeping with the scope of this thesis, only resources
defined appropriate for a Grade 11 and/or 12 audience were reviewed and evaluated.
Each piece of resource material contains a sticker denoting the suitable audience level
according to provincial guidelines. This level is not meant to be restrictive and Grade 12
students may often use a text intended for a Grade 8 audience, and vice versa. Such an

79

occasion is rare, however, as works designated a Grade 12 status are more difficult in
terms of content and syntax, and therefore generally specific to this grade. While an
armotated and bibliographic review of these materials can be seen in Figure 1, what is
important to note here is the actual process local educators must go through to fmd these
resources. If those few materials which fairly and accurately represent Native concerns
and/or cultures are to be found, the system must be altered as it currently discourages
accessibility. For instar1ce, while the DRC is itself easily accessed, teachers are required to
use their own time to fmd new resources, either by computer or through personal
research. Considering the business hours of the library, simply getting in the door can be a
difficult task. The resources themselves are stored in boxes and catalogued in no
particular order. Generally, each box contains materials for all grade levels and,
consequently, a sorting or filing system does not exist. Though the cover sticker denotes
the applicable audience level, a number of boxes contain as many as 30 resources. Should
a teacher wish to give a potential resource a more thorough exarnination-though this
means first researching it in the /RP-he/she must then sift through the many irrelevant
materials. And though the IRP provides some armotation on each text, it is often simply
too concise and even inaccurate to give insight as to the nature of the content. This
means a11 educator must then, having first found the material, analyze its contents. Again,
such a task become the entire responsibility of the teacher in question as no further
substantial annotation of each resource is supplied by the DRC. Materials are not listed by
theme or genre which would greatly reduce the arnount of time and labour currently
required in this research process. Finally, should a teacher be willing to undertake these
many requirements, only extremely limited assistar1ce is provided by teacher's guides or

80

manuals to aid in the successful implementation of post-colonial theory and/or concerns.
Though a number of guides exist, only three offer suggestions as to how particular postcolonial references of a short story, essay, or poem may be elucidated to students. And
while the remaining teacher's resources give reference to Native content, they often do so
in a disparaging manner. The guide to Amazing! Canadian Newspaper Stories, for
instance, provides mechanisms for stimulating classroom discussion on a story concerning
the history of the Inuit peoples. However, it notes that teachers should illustrate how life
for the Inuit culture was not altered by colonization and how the Inuit people have come
to be entirely dependent upon the federal government. Assuming teachers have no
background in such issues, without manuals to help bring them to light, it is highly unlikely
that alterity, representation, or identity in a Native context will be discussed.
For instance, Discovering Literature: Fiction, Poetry, and Drama features a
poem by Tlingit poet Nora Dauenhauer (454) in which the Tlingit word for apple (x'aax')
is used to create a picture of the word. The stem of this poem/drawing is structured by
the Tlingit name for the object drawn. This work, though certainly open to many
interpretations, can be seen as an example of subversive literature, a piece of writing that
subverts Western conceptions of a well-known object. Our understanding of the known
and the real (the 'truth), though sustained by the linage created, is disrupted by the use of
an unfamiliar term. Thus, though Dauenhauer's poem may be interpreted as such, the
themes and issues presented may not be understood without the necessary background or
means of interpretation. The teacher's manual, for example, notes that this concrete poem
has appeared "il1 various forms, in several other languages" (Rico and Guth 37). It then
suggests to educators that students should work individually or in groups to develop a

81

similar concrete poem (37). No mention is given to the possible interpretation described
above. In this way, literary works that pose significant post-colonial concerns are 'glossed
over' or misread by educators unfamiliar with the subjects represented.
As is evident, then, though literature that may be interpreted as subversive is
included in the curriculum of Language Arts 11 and 12, its successful implementation and
tmderstanding is questionable without supplementary reference materials. Even if teachers
are given the means to interpret post-colonial issues or have the necessary history to do
so, the amount of literature which demands this interpretation is relatively small. This also
assumes that teachers are willing to tackle weighty post-colonial issues rather than simply
give their textual representation a superficial reading. Even if an educator is motivated to
assume such a challenge, the curriculum relies heavily on a select elite of Native authors,
writers who, though not of settler society, nonetheless often espouse its philosophies and
attitudes. And although these authors may write material wholly divergent to settler
hegemony, this writing is not reflected in secondary school reading lists. Rather, a limited
few of Native writers are represented and the perspectives delineated in their particular
literary work generally contribute to the ideals and preconceptions currently held by the
dominant majority, as will be discussed in more depth shortly.
In The Empire Writes Back, Bill Ashcroft lays blame for this not on the authors of
such resources, but on "the second stage of production within the evolving discourse of
the post colonial" (5). Unlike the first stage of this process which is defined by literature
produced by writers who primarily identify with the colonizing power, the second stage is
marked by a greater potential for subversion. These works too, however, are produced
under 'license' from the imperial centre. And though Ashcroft cites works produced in

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the nineteenth century as examples of this secondary stage (5), his definition is nonetheless
currently applicable, a reflection, perhaps, of the relative youth of Canada's textual history
in relation to the examples given. Analysis of much of the writing included in the
Language Arts curriculum also reveals this historical time-lag and relevancy of Ashcroft's
argument in this contemporary context. Thus, although these recommended works deal
with such material as the construction of binary oppositions as a result of imperialism
(Whitecloud's, "Blue Winds Dancing"), cultural differences and Othering (Pelletier's, "For
Every North American Indian ... "and Geddes ', "Growing Up Native") , or questions of
representation and identity (Silko's, "Landscape, History, and Pueblo Imagination"), they
are prevented, as Ashcroft notes, "from fully exploring their anti-imperial nature" (6). He
goes on to write that this possibility is restrained by both "the available discourse and the
material conditions of production for literature" in Canada (6). The institution of
'Literature'
in the colony is under the direct control of the imperial ruling class who
alone license the acceptable form and permit the publication and
distribution of the resulting work. So, texts of this kind come into being
within the constraints of a discourse and the institutional practice of a
patronage system which limits and undercuts their assertion of a different
perspective. (6)
In this marmer, only material acceptable to the maintenance of hegemony is disseminated,
a fact evidenced in the literature included in the many anthologies of Language Arts 11
and 12. The vast majority of this writing is not only limited to a select handful of elite
authors, but its content is also often one that reaffirms traditional stereotypes of Native
cultures ar1d/or peoples. For instance, of the twenty-one resources that include some form
of Native representation, N. Scott Momaday is featured four times and twice in the same

83

book. His short story, "The Way to Rainy Mountain," is found in two different
anthologies. Other Native authors prominently featured include Chief Dan George
(twice), Jeannette Armstrong (twice), Leslie Marmon Silko (once), and William LeastHeat Moon (once). Concurrently, the material presented generally supports Western
preconceptions of the Native population. For instance, one of the most common
stereotypes repeatedly asserted is that of Natives as saviors of the wilderness. This notion
of Native peoples as strictly earthly and pastoral is cmmnunicated in a number of the
anthologies. This attitude, for instance, is evident in Timeless Voices, a collection of
poetry that supposedly venerates old age. Despite the proclaimed thematic nature of the
work, the writings of the Native authors represented perpetuate this commonly held belief.
This perception is also witnessed in Family Issues, Matters of Gender, Inquiry: A CrossCurricular R eader, Discovering Literature, and Breaking Free: A Cross-Cultural
Anthology. In each, a selection of those Native pieces included depicts Native peoples

and cultures as entirely attune to nature and as the last and only defenders against its
destruction. Undoubtedly, the authors named above have written material other than that
which reaffirms Western notions of Native cultures. But, both the available discourse and
the conditions of literary production have directly influenced which of the writings is
incorporated into a secondary school Language Arts anthology. Rather than choosing
resources that assert a different or even challenging perspective, then, what is selected are
materials that reaffirm settler society notions of Native cultures and peoples.
Though this and other stereotypes are not made openly explicit, there are
occasions in some of the literature recommended by the IRP in which racial prejudices are
clearly prevalent. While dramatic improvements to the curriculum in this aspect have been

84

orchestrated, there nonetheless exists a number of instances in which Native cultures
and/or peoples are described in disparaging terms. Written by non-Native authors, these
works also contribute to the reification of the Native population, albeit far more overtly.
Two anthologies in particular describe their Native subjects in stereotypical fashion. For
instance, in Ken and Cecile Weber' s Th e Spirit of Vo cabulary Canada, an essay titled
'The first sit-in in Canada" describes the 1882 protest launched by Pi-A-Pot against the
federal government's activities in Saskatchewan. Not only does its derogatory and
patronizing title suggest such activity is indicative of Native cultures, but much of the tone
of this piece also implies the 'savage' nature of the activity and of the peoples involved.
The authors note, for example, that upon their arrival at the scene, the North West
Mounted Police (NWMP) found that
Pi-A-Pot's men had gathered around the teepee in a menacing [menacing
is highlighted as a vocabulary word for definition, synonym use, and the
like] circle. The railway workers had run for safety. The track boss sent a
message for more help. (57)
The essay then goes on to discuss how the strong-willed Corporal Wilde of the NWMP
stood his ground against this "menace," giving the Natives 15 minutes to move. It also
concludes that although Pi-A-Pot "could have finished Corporal Wilde and brought war to
the Canadian West," he inevitably "backed down." Also included in the exercises that
follow is an historic photograph of Pi-A-Pot from a "Series oflndian Portraits" titled
"Birth of the West." What is portrayed is the stereo typical image of the 'proud' Indian
discussed by Daniel Francis and others. The very existence and inclusion of the
photograph in this context also implies that the "Birth ofthe West" came about only as a
result of European colonization. The other anthology/workbook of the same authors, The

85

Style of Vocabulary Canada, also portrays an historical Native leader in a similar mmmer,
though this representation is not nearly as wholly prejudicial. Here, in the story of
Tecumseh and his participation in the War of 1812, the chief of the Shawnee nation is
describes as being "wily," a term often used to defme the perceived prowess of Native
peoples in war. Though such terms may appear to be of trivial concern, their
communication in the classroom contributes to the maintenance of settler society
hegemony. Like those resources described earlier, both of these anthologies are produced
according to complementary qualifiers that restrain the possibility of divergence. The very
language used in these selections, moreover, prevents even the most remote efforts at
acknowledging a different perspective to develop . Instead, traditional attitudes are
transmitted in a modern context through a popular educational medium, the anthology.
Ashcroft's notion of the "second stage of production" as it applies to
contemporary curriculum is also realized in the very structure of the anthologies used in
Language Arts 11 and 12. Of the more than 40 which constitute the majority of resources
used in the course, all but two are edited by members of settler society. This number
alone perhaps explains the logic behind, first, the selection of those Native authors
represented and, second, the content of these resources . Unless determined to produce an
anthology aimed specifically at subversion, it seems highly unlikely that editors would go
out of their way to include literature that contradicts Western ideals. After all, inherent to
the material conditions of literary production is a desire to sell books. For this reason
alone, editors likely choose works of Native authors considered to be generically safe in
terms of the content presented. Consequently, whether or not affirmation of the status
quo is intended, it is nonetheless procured. Such ail attitude is also reflected in the actual

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number of Natives represented. Though on the whole statistical analysis suggests
adequate and even proportional representation of Native writers and their works, closer
examination reveals a much different picture. In the many anthologies that constitute
Language Arts 11 and 12, Native representation is disproportionally low, and, in some
instances, non-existent. For instance, Discovering Literature: Fiction, Poetry, and

Drama contains over 250 different entries, though only four feature Native authors.
Moreover, these authors fit the description discussed above in that not only are they
representative of a First Nations literary canon (one created by settler society), but their
works also reaffirm Western preconceptions of Native cultures. Though this number
reflects the largest relative discrepancy between Native and non-Native representation in
an anthology, it is by no means unique. Other recommended resources such as Themes

For All Times, Horizons: Exploring Poetry, Prose, and Non-Fiction, and 75 Readings:
An Anthology, while large in size and in scope, contain little to no Native representation.
Even works that imply acknowledgment of writings across cultures in their title, such as

Encountering Cultures: Reading and Writing in a Changed World or Breaking Free: A
Cross-Cultural Anthology, contain little Native representation in this sense.
With so many impediments restricting the application of post -colonialism into the
Language Arts classroom, it is not surprising that students are not taught its core
elements. Yet, teachers should not be expected to work through these barriers if
education in such matters is desired. In most cases, these hurdles are often too large to be
overcome and may even result in loss of employment. Consequently, educators are not to
blame for the effects of these impediments; instead, these barriers can be addressed by reexamining and even altering the curriculum. Aspiring teachers are thus trapped between a

87

proverbial "rock and a hard place." The literature recommended by the IRP and currently
housed in the DRC is fundamentally hindered by the problems described. Yet, should they
wish to teach a text not found in either location, educators must assume full responsibility
if controversy arises. Given these problems, teachers are more likely to adhere to
curriculum recommendations rather than pursue their own academic agenda, no matter
how progressive it may be. Through such means, intentional or otherwise, the system
designed for acculturation is advanced. This maintenance of hegemony as it is constructed
in and disseminated through pedagogy is further examined in Chapter Six which analyzes
the discipline of English Literature 12 for similar concerns.

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Chapter Six
English Literature and Assimilation:
An Analysis of the Discipline of the English Literature 12 Curriculum
The Stranglehold of English Lit.
Felix Mnthali
Those questions, sister,
those questions
stand
stab
jab
and gore
too close to the centre
For if we had asked
why Jane Austen's people
carouse all day
and do no work
would Europe in Africa
have stood
the test of time?
Would she?
Your elegance of deceit,
Jane Austen,
lulled the sons and daughters
of the dispossessed
into a calf·love
with irony and satire
around imaginary people.
While history went on mocking
the victims of branding irons
and sugar-plantations
that made Jane Austen's people
wealthy beyond compare!
Eng. Lit., my sister,
was more than a cruel joke-it was the heart
of alien conquest.

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Like that for Language Arts 11 and 12, the future of curriculum for English
Literature 12 is also governed by an Integrated Resource Package. Here, too, prescribed
learning outcomes, instructional and assessment strategies, and recommended resource
materials are stipulated, guided by the principles of learning as defmed by the provincial
Ministri . The structure of thiS IRP mirrors that for Language Arts 11 and 12, opening
with a rationale for the teaching of English Literature followed with the actual curriculum
for what is termed "Core Studies" and the recmmnended resource materials list. This
resemblance, however, also extends far beyond simple aesthetics. In particular, the
curriculum for English Literature 12 as defined by the IRP also reflects a pronounced lack
of adequate Native representation. In this case, however, the impediments discussed
earlier do not influence this exclusion or a teacher's direct involvement in incorporating
·more meaningful literature in the classroom. Rather, English Literature 12 is, as the very
title of the course implies, primarily concerned with the discussion of canonical literary
works. This in itself can be viewed as an impediment to the very objectives expressed in
the curriculum guide as well as to the communication of Native issues and concerns. As
was the case with the IRP for Language Arts 11 and 12 , the role of literature as a
foundation for an understanding of other cultures is repeatedly stressed. Yet, the materials
reco1mnended and those currently in use contain no such representation. In fact, there is
no indication that any of the literary works recmmnended by the IRP reflect Native
peoples, cultures, and/or concerns.

See Chapter Three for these Learning Principles as delineated by the IRP for Language
Arts 11 and 12.
1

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Much of the argument on behalf of the teaching of English Literature in the
secondary school environment focuses on the question of literary excellence and the
notion than only literature that "has stood the test of time" can express the "universal"
values of Western liberal humanism. For this reason, the discipline has traditionally
limited its breadth to only those works by authors well established in the canon, a
structured hierarchy of literary "giants" so determined by decades of critical recognition
and value judgments. Entirely unofficial in creation and design, this canon determined that
a particular group of authors should be elevated above others in their respective period for
such qualifiers as profundity, universality, and imagination. Authors are consequently
often identified in relation to their position in this rating scale. William Shakespeare, for
instance, is often credited with being at the zenith of this pyramid, with other well
established writers following in sequential order. Significantly, this canon is structurally
eurocentric in that traditional conceptions of the hierarchy only feature authors of British
descent. Though it has come to recognize the talents of "peripheral" writers, it
nonetheless continues to support this historical framework. Since the canon represents
perceptions of literary greatness, its readers have, in turn, come to be associated with this
status. The study of such works, it was believed, elevated the reader and distinguished
him/her from others. Such a trend still exists today as an individual's degree of 'Culture'
is often com1ected to his/her depth of knowledge of canonical writers. One's ability to cite
passages from Shakespeare, for example, is often recognized to be a mark of social
distinction and even superiority. This divisive attitude is also reflected in the curriculum
for English Literature 12 and is first communicated in the rationale section of the IRP.

91

Like that for its cousin, the IRP for English Literature 12 also begins with a
rationale explaining the reasons for and objectives of the teaching of the discipline. Here,
the logistics behind the course are explained. The general tone of this rationale, however,
makes a sharp distinction between the reading of 'normal' or 'regular' works-those of
Language Arts-and the literature read in English Literature 12. For instance, the IRP of
the latter notes that
Research has shown that reading widely is an important factor in academic
success. By reading works that are sophisticated in thought and style,
English Literature 12 students strengthen the skills needed to acquire
information accurately and make informed judgments. Such skills are vital
for the educated citizen and lifelong learner. The study of great works of
English literature increases students' interpersonal skills, aesthetic
appreciation, and critical judgment. In addition, it promotes the
development of strong cmmnunication skills, intellectual discipline, and the
open-mindedness required for the world of work and further learning. (1)
In comparison, the curriculum guide for Language Arts strictly focuses on the role and
function oflanguage arts studies in providing entrance into the workp!ace (1-3). In this
manner, the reading of "great works of English literature" (1) continues to be recognized
as a decisive indicator of educational and social superiority. It is implied, then, that while
Language Arts simply prepares one for the mundane workplace, the study of canonical
literature inevitably produces success, however defined . Though assimilation is still
facilitated, English Literature 12, we are told, fosters elevated status within the hegemony.
All students are acculturated, but those who study English literature, the IRP implies, are
destined for distinguished achievement-financial, social, political, and moral-within the
status quo .
The opening statement of the Rationale, however, is indicative of efforts within
this curriculum to accommodate a changed world and the literature which represents it:
"the [aim] of English Literature 12 is to enhance students' literacy through the study of a

92

body of works representative of the literary heritage of English-speaking peoples" (1).
Statements such as this suggest that all literature must be recognized and canonical
literature no longer holds its once esteemed stature. Those responsible for the curriculum
guide even make a point of this transformation, noting that while English Literature once
meant the strict study of "major figures of British literature," the English literature defmed
by the IRP "has been expanded to include later 20th-century literature and works of
English-speaking writers from Canada, other Commonwealth countries, and the United
States. Students will have opportunities to examine the ways in which our definition of
literature has expanded over time and the extent to which literature both reflects and
shapes culture [italics mine]" (2). Failure to recognize alterity-only one 'culture' is
given credence in the above statement-ignores the multiplicity of cultures and peoples
whose lives and literatures have been directly influenced by imperialism and the English
language. At the same time, this defmition also hints at the social stratification defmed
earlier to be a product of the study of canonical literature. In this case, the association of
English Literature with perceptions of "Culture" is again emphasized.
A similar attitude is also evidenced in the resources examined by students in what
is termed "Core Studies." All students of English Literature 12 are required to take the
Core Studies module which occupies twenty-five percent oftotal course time (IRP 2).
The remaining seventy-five percent involves the study of "optional modules," selections
from poetry, prose, drama, and independent studies (intended to be a combination of all
three) . Significantly, all but three of those authors examined in the "core studies"
component originate from Britain and all are from former Commonwealth nations (refer to
Appendix 6.1 for a complete listing). A cursory examination of these materials illustrates
the general exclusion of works representative of the ascribed Other2, whether it be texts
I refer to the Other here rather than a specific group defmed as such (including First
Nations cultures and/or peoples) in order to indicate the general failure of English
Literature 12 to incorporate the voice of any cultural group other than that of the British,
distinctly male writer. It is perhaps rather foolish to expect First Nations representation in
2

93

from authors of 'peripheral' areas or works by women. Perhaps more importantly, in
identifying these works as the central or most important part ('core') of literature, the
curriculum simultaneously constructs a touchstone against which all other resources are
inherently judged. Associating this literature with the "centre," then, specifies all literary
works other than those defined by this parameter as "peripheral" or secondary nature.
Much like the centre/periphery dichotomy established during imperialism, then, the
literature of the former is taken to be "central," "sophisticated," and, therefore, inherently
"superior." The selection of these works for what is termed "Core Studies" thus mirrors
and maintains the binary oppositions constructed by colonialism. In this light, the
formation of the canon as it has been traditionally defined and as it is represented in "Core
Studies" is intimately com1ected to imperial conceptions of difference and the Other, even
though the literature represented may not directly express such perspectives. Chaucer' s

The Canterbury Tales, William Shakespeare's Hamlet, or John Keats' "Ode To A
Nightingale," for instance, do not overtly communicate negative attitudes about the
colonial Other. Nonetheless, their very definition as "core study" resources re-establishes
the literature of the "centre" and, in turn, the Empire as the loci of meaning.
As was briefly discussed earlier, the majority of English Literature 12 is composed
of what the IRP defines as "optional modules," components that allow students greater
academic freedom in terms of curriculum, texts, and field of study. While all students are
required to complete the "core studies" aspect of the course, the remaining 75 percent of
English Literature 12 involves the in-depth study of three of four possible modules: drama,
prose, poetry, and/or independent study. According to the IRP, these optional modules
give students the opportunity to "explore issues, themes, periods, and genres relevant to
the study of literature written in English from the medieval to the modern periods" (5).
a class titled English Literature, yet one would expect representation from the broad
spectrum of peoples and cultures that constituted the Commonwealth. References to the
Other will be denoted in this manner throughout this chapter.

94

While it is also suggested that themes of gender, class, and ethnicity are best discussed
during the implementation of these optional modules, the literature recommended by the
IRP in this context again disregards such concerns. Rather, it too displays a pronounced

reliance on the literary canon, emphasizing those works detennined to be "central," not
only to literature but also to a student's education. Consequently, works by such literary
"greats" as Shakespeare, Eliot, Thomas, and others dominate the recmmnended resources
of the optional modules. In a number of places throughout the introduction to the
"optional modules," the IRP suggests educators should choose works written in English
from Canadian, American, and Commonwealth sources (5). As was the case for
Language Arts 11 and 12, however, significant impediments are erected against the
selection of these resources, the most substantial of which is the lack of access to materials
in the District Resource Centre (DRC). In fact, no boxes of resources could be fatmd in
the District library. Though other school districts may make other resources more readily
available to teachers, the lack of any materials here is indicative of the co1onialnature of
the course as well as funding limitations that prevent the purchase of newer selections
each year. The implication is that resources other than those of a canonical nature are of
secondary importance. At the same time, the onus to exmnine such works critically for
those themes mentioned above is also placed on the student, especially if he/she chooses
to attempt what is termed "Independent Study" (5). Hence, though students are given
assistance by their respective educator, they are expected to work alone in elucidating
other issues and/or concerns not overtly represented in the canonical literature read. And
if alterity, ethnicity, or cultural differences are portrayed in these materials, the Other is
usually spoken about rather than given voice, a common tradition in literature written by
the colonial power. Representation is therefore limited to discussions about the cultural
Other rather than by this marginalized group.
Like that for the IRP discussed in the preceding chapter, these recmmnended
resource materials are annotated with a brief introduction to the work, an appropriate

95

audience and grade level, the year the resource was recommended, and the price. The
distinguishing feature of the latter, however, is a subsidiary note to each resource
documenting the respective curriculum organizer. In other words, the annotation of each
text, video, or item of computer software includes a section detailing the appointed
module: core studies, drama, prose, poetry, or independent study. As was the case for
those resources reviewed and evaluated for Language Arts 11 and 12, these materials have
also been screened by teachers according to provincial standards and are recommendations
only. Educators are encouraged throughout to incorporate alternative resources as they
see necessary. This process was discussed in Chapter Five, but a similar impediment
applies; teachers rarely bring forth novels and instead limit their challenge of the
recommended resources to textbooks (pers. communication with Norm Monroe, June 19,
1997\ Moreover, these recommended materials are intended only for the optional
modules since there can be no alteration to the texts used in Core Studies. Analysis of
these resources is severely restricted by the fact that, as was mentioned, the DRC currently
does not have materials for English Literature 12 in its library. Teachers interested in
obtaining textual resources then, must depend upon the annotations of each work supplied
by the curriculum guide. Though this gives a limited perspective, the IRPs in both cases
make a point of indicating resources that tend to transgress the traditional parameters of
canonical literature. Resources that include a broad range of writers from various
geographical and social backgrounds, for instance, are specifically stated as doing so. In
this light, of the more than 60 materials recommended by the IRP, only eleven may contain
some form of representation relevant to the cultural Other, however defined. Even this
figure, however, is questionable as it is largely determined by the mention of
"Cmmnonwealth" authors or literatures in the mmotation4 . For instance, Adventures in

English Literature, Athena Edition is included in this number because the IRP notes that
3
4

All other references to Monroe refer to this interview.
See Appendix 6.2 for a complete annotated listing of these works.

96

"[some] 20th-century Commonwealth writers are featured" (D-3). Other works are
counted in this list for similar reasons. Only one text, Rethinking the Future, is noted to
include Native representation in its collection of essays. No mention is given by the
curriculum guide, however, as to how the Commonwealth is defined or exactly what
topics are "often associated with the 20th century" (D-17). If these qualifiers are
removed, the total number of resources that potentially incorporate themes, issues, and
even portrayals of cultural groups beyond the imperial "centre" falls to zero. At the same
time, the IRP does not define how those authors or resources of this eleven were selected.
It is only in recent years that post-colonialliterature has challenged the canon and issues of
representation in the works defined by this hierarchy. Resources said to be representative
of Commonwealth writers and literatures, therefore, likely do not reflect this challenge but
instead reaffirm the status of the canon and the position of those on this ladder. It is
highly unlikely, then, that resources meant for a secondary school audience contain such
enunciation for this and other reasons previously discussed. As was mentioned in
Chapters Three and Five, teachers generally teach standard, canonical English to help
students achieve social mobility and success in future endeavors, believing only it can offer
these advantages. This attitude is especially true for English Literature 12.
Like those for Language Arts 11 and 12, these resources are recommendations
only and teachers are in no way directly restricted to their use. It is stressed a number of
times that educators should incorporate other materials as they judge necessary. The IRP
even emphasizes that the selection of resources should not be static, but rather "an
ongoing process to ensure a constant flow of new materials into the classroom" (B-5).
These texts, videos, and computer software, however, must also be reviewed and
evaluated through the laborious process described earlier. Consequently, although it is
specified by the IRP that teachers are not restricted to just using the recommended
resources, they are hindered in some way by this approval process that makes alterations
to the curriculum unlikely. The fear of attack by a vocal minority of parents also figures in

97

the decision to adhere exclusively to curriculum suggestions. The widely-held conception
of the canonical nature of the resources used in English Literature 12 must also play a
figurative role in the selection, or lack thereof, of non-recommended works. As the tone
of the rationale implies, English Literature 12 is the study of works that represent the
foundation of literature written in English. It is the examination of works believed to be
seminal to the history of literature and literary developments. For this reason, a majority
of educators may be quite reluctant to challenge the canon for fear of jeopardizing a
student's education. Restricting materials to only those of the canon is also perceived to
be benefiting the student who, as the IRP repeatedly asserts in various tones, receives
enhanced "interpersonal skills, aesthetic appreciation, and critical judgment" (1) as a
result. The rare exception in which non-canonical literature still within the parameters of
"English Literature" may be read is if a student chooses to pursue a particular theme as an
Independent Study. The onus is thus placed on the aspiring student; if, however, the
literature in question is not recommended by the IRP and requires extensive local school
board review, evaluation, and approval, the student's request may likely be denied.
Although under the supervision of a teacher who would assume these responsibilities, this
process is so laborious that it encourages a cautious or conservative curriculum. And
while the IRP suggests that the Independent Study provides opportunities to explore
"multicultural issues" (5) , it makes no recommendations for supporting literature. As
well, the exercises presented as examples of possible study involve canonical works (6).
In stressing the application of such literary works, the IRP also notes the crosscurriculum potential of English Literature 12 (as well as Language Arts) with other
disciplines, including First Nations Studies. It is recommended that teachers of English
Literature 12, for instance, amalgamate the resources and curriculum of other classes with
this one and vice versa. According to both IRPs, the cross-curricular reviews are
"intended to guide the users of [the] document as they engage in school and classroom
organization and instructional planning and practice" (C-3). Of particular interest to this

98

discussion, it is noted in both curriculum Packages that there exists an inherent value to
integrating First Nations studies into the respective English programs. First aptly
recognizing the "richness and diversity of Aboriginal cultures and languages" (C-7), each
IRP then goes on to discuss expectations for students studying both, as well as possible

mechanisms for coupling First Nations studies with English Literature and Language Arts.
It is suggested that "portrayals and linages of First Nations peoples in various works of
literature" be analyzed (C-8), yet, for n1stance, the IRP for English Literature 12
recommends only one resource that mentions Native representation. And as was
previously discussed, there exists a number of fundamental impediments to the teachiJ1g of
post-colonial issues in both classes. As for English Literature 12, the curriculum relies
heavily on canonical literary works, none of which are known for their inclusion of Native
representation, whatever form this may take. Even those that offer some form of Native
representation often do so in an overtly stereotypical or prejudicial manner. In
acknowledgn1g the importance of literature as a priJnary means of learning about other
cultures, the iJ1tentions of each IRP n1 terms of cross-curriculum integration are significant.
Literature often introduces students to the cultures, peoples, and issues of the "Other," in
this case, people of Native ancestry. The general exclusion of resources that actually
present such concerns in an informed, unbiased manner, however, contradicts even the
best of these intentions. Although designed "to meet the needs of all learners" (C-3), the
cross-curricular recommendations of both IRPs displays a contradictory objective,
iJnplying the need for integration with First Nations Studies on the one hand, but on the
other offering nothing in terms of recommended resources to iJnplement the suggestion.
Despite these fundamental problems, it does not appear as if the Integrated
Resource Package for English Literature 12 will undergo any substantial changes for a

number of reasons. As part of a body of works representing a provincial, crosscurriculum review of primary and secondary education, it seems highly unlikely that steps
would be initiated to change a system years n1 the making. In response to this question,

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the Ministry of Education, Skills and Training stresses that future alterations to the IRPs
are not under consideration. It also notes that the content of the curriculum guides "was
informed by provincial and national assessments of literacy and communication, and the
Western Canada Protocol Framework" (pers. communication, Valerie Collins, May 20,
1997\ Consequently, the Ministry anticipates "a six-year cycle of curriculum revisions"
(Collins). Echoing this argument, Nann Monroe, Director of School Services, asserts that
those responsible for the IRP as well as provincial teachers stand firmly behind its
standards and recommendations, believing it to be the solution to the necessity of "gearing
up for the year 2000" (Monroet A recognition of governmental process also dictates
that the curriculum defined by the IRPs is here to stay for some time, barring any
unforeseen and/or substantial problems. It is, after all, representative of years of effort and
pro gram review and for this reason alone appears unlikely to be modified. Other
questions asked of the Ministry were not met with such a definitive tone (refer to
Appendix 6.2), though it is especially valuable to note its response to queries on the
assimilationist role of English Language Arts and Literature. According to Valerie
Collins, English Language Arts Coordinator at the Ministry of Education, Skills and
Training, English should successfully guide all students into the workplace or other future
endeavors. When asked to define success, Collins quotes directly from The Mission

Statement for British Columbia Schools: "the purpose of the BC school system is to
enable all learners to develop their individual potential and to acquire the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes needed to contribute to a healthy, democratic, and pluralistic society
and a prosperous and sustainable economy" (3) . While indicating a marked concern for
student achievement and future well-being, such a response nonetheless reaffirms the
points highlighted in this thesis, namely that English fosters acculturation in all students
involved. In light of this recognition, Chapter Seven proposes some of the central
5
6

Subsequent references to this name refer to this personal communication on this date.
From an interview with N onn Monroe, April 29, 1997.

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changes that need to be implemented should this assimilation process be eradicated. These
suggestions are derived from personal recommendations based on the research conducted
as well as from programs initiated by other institutions.

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Chapter Seven
Dismantling the Assimilation Process
And
Ending Pedagogical Acculturation

Introduction
Despite the many fundamental problems inherent to pedagogy in general and
English language arts and literature classes in particular, there are many avenues for
reformation. As Agnes Grant writes, for instance, "to understand and appreciate the art,
the reader must understand the tradition from which it comes. This is particularly true of
literature temporally and culturally different from the Western literature in our education
systems. Ignorance of Native culture has too long been used as an excuse for excluding
Native literature from curricula" (63).

This chapter examines some of the ftmdamental

changes that need to be implemented in order to alleviate the influence of what previously
has been termed education for assimilation. These solutions must be realized at two
equally significant levels: the macro level at which ftmding is determined and curriculum is
written and at the micro level, at which implementation of these resources occurs. Of
these, perhaps the most significant involves an end to the various impediments which
currently stifle an educator's ability to teach Native concerns effectively as they are
represented in language and literature. Other changes include an increased recognition of
cultural diversity and the varying, multicultural needs of Native pupils, a greater awareness
of post-colonialism and its implication in and for pedagogy, and alterations to the ft1ture
English language arts and literature curriculum to eradicate the assimilationist nature of
the discipline. These changes will be discussed in further detail below, as will ftlrther
suggestions based on programs initiated by other institutions. For instance, many of the
initiatives of the Nisga' a offer a paradigm which public schools across the province can
modify to fit their respective curriculum objectives. While a number of these initiatives

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require an extensive overhaul of the current program, the majority are pragmatic and are
necessary in order to rectify the contemporary pattern of education for acculturation.
Smmnary
As has been discussed, there are a number of inherent flaws in the current
secondary English Language Arts 11 and 12 and English Literature 12 programs, each of
which work towards acculturating the students participating. In marrying post-colonial
theories of language and literature with qualitative content analysis, this thesis
demonstrates the current nature of education for assimilation. It also recognizes the
limitations of such an approach, especially those concerned with validity and reliability.
These barriers were overcome through a series of precautionary measures discussed in
Chapter Four. This work reviews and evaluates contemporary patterns in English
Language Arts and Literature rather than stressing any definitive results.
Importantly, the mechanisms of acculturation are neither new nor unique to a
particular discipline. Rather, the trend of education designed for acculturation has long
historical roots in Canada dating back to initial efforts by missionaries to 'civilize' what
they perceived to be the 'pagan ' cultures of the Native population. Current attitudes
regarding pedagogy in this context do not reflect such overt attempts at assimilation as the
missionary and/or residential school, nor do they mirror the blatantly racist objectives
expressed by many of the politicians and bureaucrats of the period. Today' s policies
regarding education, however, nonetheless perpetuate similar philosophies. Contemporary
applications of pedagogy thus involve more tacit, ubiquitous means of acculturation and
the goal of the dominant majority responsible for the curriculum and its application
continues to adhere to Western principles and ideals. The study of English Language Arts
and Literature is especially significant in this function for a number of reasons. First:
because of its reliance on the English language as both a subject and a medium of
instruction, Language Arts promotes historical binarisms of Us/Them and imposes foreign
conceptions of 'truth.' Both are maintained in the classroom as a result of the privileged

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position of the textbook and the educator. In this manner, 'truth' and 'reality' as they are
defined and legitimated by settler society are disseminated in the classroom enviromnent.
Second: the current system reaffirms Western hegemony by imposing on educators of
language arts and literature a number of formidable barriers that restrict their access to
meaningful material of Native representation. Because Language Arts is often a student's
only introduction to and means of understanding Native cultures and concerns, it is vital
that the curriculum contain resources that reflect both. While there has been a dramatic
improvement in the quantity of Native representation in the curriculum, much of these
renovations are superficial. Rather, deeper examination of the materials indicates a
number of inherent flaws that substantially detract from the statistics used to identify
adequate Native representation. This combination of language and literature, while the
very essence of senior English studies, fosters the acculturation of all students into the
humanist ideals of the predominantly Western majority.
The Research Questions
As was stated much earlier, the purpose of this study was to examine how
acculturation practices continue to be utilized in the English Language Arts and Literature
classrooms. In so doing, the focus of the research revolved around three primary
questions, each of which has been answered in-depth. First, the English language
colonizes in two key, yet complementary ways. As the basis for defmition and
understanding of 'truth' and 'reality,' language is a method of communication as well as a
carrier of culture. During the age of imperialism, colonizers emphasized the use of the
English language not only for ease of communication but also as another tactic for
subjugation. Further use of the "mother tongue" was legitimated through the law,
religion, and, most important to this thesis, pedagogy. In asserting one definition of
'truth' and 'reality' over others, colonizers also manipulated the language to create a
complex series of conceptual hierarchies. These binary oppositions defined the cultural
Other as the antithesis of settler society. Defining Them as always negative, even

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subhuman, not only makes colonization easier but also justifies the act. It is, after all,
much easier to alter a culture completely if it is first viewed as inferior and therefore
requiring 'civilization. '
Second, although the age of territorial expansion has arguably ended, the
mechanisms through which language colonizes continue to be implemented. The
implications for English Language Arts 11 and 12 are therefore many. Above all, the class
relies heavily on the teaching of the English language, as the very title of the course
suggests. As a result, it sustains and legitimates these traditional imperial offensives.
Western, humanist ideals and beliefs continue to be affirmed, then, as do historical binary
oppositions.
The mechanisms for assimilation through education are not limited to language,
however, as the literature read in this class and that studied in English Literature 12 also
promote acculturation. Refracted by the lens of settler society and hindered by the
material conditions of their existence, the resource materials used in Language Arts
reiterate exactly those imperialist offensives described above. Literature, then, offers a
means through which other cultures can be represented and binarisms may be projected.
What students read, therefore, are perspectives of cultures defined by those who not only
allow for the book's publication but also govern its dissemination. At the same time,
several formidable impediments seriously hinder a teacher's ability to present more
'meaningful' Native concerns and/or post-colonial issues as they are represented in
literature. For instance, simply challenging the recommended resource materials forces an
educator to assume an immense responsibility, one that may result in the loss of
employment.
Recommendations
In light of these problems, there are many avenues for reformation of the
curriculum governing Language Arts 11 and 12 and English Literature 12. As was noted,
much of the future of curriculum for both studies is now or will be invigilated by

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respective Integrated Resource Packages. Representative of several years of review of
older policies, of assessment and learning strategies, and of literature, these guides are
perceived by the Ministry to be the authors of student success for the next century. In this
respect, the IRPs must be cmmnended. Nonetheless, the new curriculum as defmed by
these provincial benchmarks continues to foster strict adherence to policies and
philosophies of settler society. Accordingly, then, the first area of possible revision should
begin at the root of both studies: the curriculum itself. While both advocate the
significance of enhancing recognition of and appreciation for other cultures, neither offer
meaningful mechanisms for communicating this knowledge, especially English Literature
12. Because the impediments discussed in the previous chapters are so entrenched in the
current system, simply eradicating them is not a viable solution. To do so would collapse
the infrastructure upon which contemporary (and future) pedagogy operates. After all,
guidelines are needed to illustrate to the public the objectives of education. As well, the
provincial government needs some fundamental criteria for definition of these goals,
learning and assessment standards, curriculum standards, funding, and so forth.
Accordingly, this infrastructure must instead be redeveloped to make accessing these
necessary resources more hospitable. This means changing the current indexing system of
the DRC library to ensure researching for resources is not such a formidable task. A
manual for prospective educators, for instance, that classifies each text housed in the DRC
according to theme or genre would greatly reduce the amount of time currently required
to obtain applicable materials. This would also require a much more efficient cataloguing
system than just boxes and their contents in random order on shelves in the library. These
necessary revisions would permit a teacher, who, knowing the subjects he/she wishes to
discuss in class, to limit his/her search quickly and effectively to a handful of resources .
And this improvement need not be limited to just one discipline, but should be effected
across the curriculum. English Literature 12, for instance, must address its reliance on
canonical texts and the subsequent contradiction this poses in meeting its objectives of

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"encompassing a range of voices" (2). A first step would be the housing of various
resources in the DRC, a step that has yet to be initiated. At the same time, those
fundamental impediments currently influencing English Language Arts also need to be
addressed and resolved by the provincial government and local school boards. To
summarize, these are: Native inclusion in works edited by predominantly non-Native
editors; limited Native representation in anthologies, some of which contain over 200
entries; a reliance on the literature of a restricted elite of canonical Native authors whose
writings selected reaffmn Western preconceptions of Native cultures; a system which
currently makes finding any material a laborious, time-consuming process (as was
discussed above); and, finally, a bureaucratic mechanism which prevents all but the bravest
educators from teaching non-recmrunended resources. The means to satisfy these
concerns are vast, but because each revolves around the nature of resource content, so too
must the solutions. This suggestion is also expressed by Hope MacLean and Roberta
Jamieson inA Review of Indian Education in North America who write, "the most
important recmrunendation is for Native cultural content in the educational system" (143).
They go on to state:
the [Native] child should learn new concepts using the environment around
him [sic], then he can be taught to generalize his knowledge to different
environments. The child should not be expected to begin with things he is
unfamiliar with, and then be labeled 'slow' when he fails to understand ...
.There is tremendous need for content which is meaningful to the Indian.
The amount of Native content and what is most relevant should be decided
by the Indians themselves. (143)
The numbers that currently suggest adequate representation of Native materials are purely
superficial in that this figure (21 of more than 90) only reflects a head count of Native
authors represented. It does take into account the content of the actual material or the
select minority of writers included. Consequently, little of the resources recommended
contain, as MacLean and Jamieson indicate, "content which is meaningful to the Indian"

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(143). And until "the amount of Native content and what is most relevant ... [is] decided
by t!he Indians themselves" (143) , the Ministry cmmot lay claim to adequate Native
representation. Accordingly, the content and curriculum of Language Arts 11 and 12 aild
English Literature 12 must be modified in order to accommodate these inherent problems.
Solutions, therefore, include a greater inclusion of Native writings not refracted by the
lens of settler society, whether this be non-Native authors or editors, and a much broader
depth of representation to include Native authors not just of a specified Cailonical elite. As
was illustrated, all but four of the more than 90 resources recommended for Language
Arts 11 and 12 are materials edited or written by members of settler society. The scenario
is even worse for English Literature 12 in which only one resource is mentioned to include
Native representation. Though these works are also influenced by the material conditions
of their production, they are not, as Ashcroft writes, "under the direct control of the
imperial ruling class who alone license the acceptable form and permit the publication and
distribution of the resulting work" (6). For instance, "Just Talking About Ourselves" is
published by Theytus Press, an independent organization completely owned and operated
by the Okanagan tribal council in Penticton, British Columbia. This text is also especially
significmlt in that it represents a much greater diversity of Native writers. Current trends
in the Language Arts 11 and 12 curriculum indicate a reliance on a core group of Native
authors. "lust Talking About Ourselves" is unique in this sense in that it incorporates a
broad spectrum of Native writers from across British Columbia, thus providing a regional
context as well as a more holistic approach to pedagogy. In order to successfully
accommodate these recommendations, steps must also be initiated to provide teachers
with the means and the knowledge to elucidate post-colonial concerns in literature.
Suggestions for making the DRC more accessible in this context have already been
discussed. Other mechanisms, however, include workshops, Native guest speakers, and,
at a macro scale, an overall increase in the number of Native instructors. At the same
time, local school boards must also be willing to stand behind the decisions made by

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teachers should public outcry arise due to the teaching of resources containing
'questionable' content. Currently, the burden of responsibility for the text :in question is
placed entirely on the shoulders of the educator. School boards need to assume a greater
role as 'support staff' in defense of teachers if the latter are to be encouraged to select
resources that may induce serious repercussions 1• It is believed that such modilications
will produce three complementary results: students will gain a greater understanding of
Native cultures in a post-colonial context, students will be given the necessary
"recognition of and appreciation for" (3) 6ther cultures stated to be one of the principal
objectives of both IRPs, and, most importantly, English language arts and literature will be
made more meaningful to Native pupils. Acceptance of such resources, however, may
lead the provincial government to be concerned less with seemingly trivial content
concerns and more with the underlying issues of educational assimilation.
Another means for reducing this acculturating influence in the Language Arts
classroom involves the increased recognition and future application of both oral literatures
and Native languages. Admittingly, the very titles of the subjects studied emphasize the
eurocentric nature of the disciplines (English language arts and English Literature) , but if
the practice of acculturation through educational means is to be reduced, divergent
perspectives on language and different languages themselves must be recognized by the
curriculum. As was stressed throughout Chapter Three, language is the means through
which 'truth' and 'reality' are communicated and understood. The subversion of Native
conceptions of both in favor of primarily English denotations was and continues to be a
fundamental aspect of the (neo )imperial enterprise. Alternate means of communication,
therefore, especially those vital to Native cultures, while perhaps impossible to incorporate
into an English classroom, need to be acknowledged. As MacLean and Jamieson state,
The severity of these repercussions in large part depends upon the nature of the content.
Though teachers are likely not be dismissed because of controversy, they potentially face
public outcry, an embarrassing and humiliating experience for educators left entirely alone
to assume this responsibility.
1

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"the culture [sic] of the North American Native peoples is one that is mainly preserved
through oral tradition. If this method of preservation is destroyed, much of the culture
will be lost" (144). Until such programmes as those offered at a handful of institutionsFirst Nations Studies and/or languages of regional Native cultures-are mandatory, a
broader recognition of and appreciation for Native cultures cannot be achieved. At the
most fundamental level, such improvements could be fostered through literature that
stresses the significance of oral narratives in Native societies. Such a tactic would mean
giving less significance to the written word as the seminal source of 'truth' and
recognizing the validity of oral narratives. As has been discussed, texts are generally
privileged as sources of truth. Teaching students to examine textual discourse in
conjunction with the inclusion of an oral/aural component would not only teach the
importance of oral narratives in Native cultures, but would also, in turn, facilitate greater
success in achieving expressed curriculum objectives. Educators could then extrapolate
on this introduction to teach students the importance of story and the means through
which it communicates history and culture. Alternative mechanisms include more direct
involvement of Native elders in the classroom; pupils could learn first-hand not only the
importance of orality, but also a selection of the stories themselves. Again, however, this
would pose another direct challenge to one of the fundamental conventions of
contemporary pedagogy-namely, the teacher as depositor of knowledge. In valorizing
the textbook and the educator as paradigms of validity, the education system
simultaneously refutes such alternative means of teaching students that must be accepted if
the process involved in education for acculturation are to be eradicated.
At the same time, educators must learn to question the resources presented to
them and examine everything that they are teaching for relevance to all students involved.
If what is being taught cannot be justified in terms of the child's needs and goals, then
teachers must re-evaluate both the materials used and their particular teaching style to

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accommodate necessary revisions. Though they speak of pedagogy in general, the authors
of Native Education in the Province of Alberta illustrate this need:
... one of the major problems that a school must face when attempting to
provide education for an Indian child is making the activities of the school
meaningful to him [sic] . How meaningful is an education for the Indian
child when he is told by a non-Indian teacher that if he completes school,
he will be better prepared to take a 'white man's job' in some strange and
faraway place? (95)
While the respective Integrated Resource Packages have made greater alleviances for
educators not only to question their recommendations but also to initiate improvements,
much more needs to be done. As was discussed, a very real fear of retribution might
inhibit an educator's motivation to teach non-recommended resources, especially those
that pose divergent perspectives. If broader improvements are to be engendered, local
school boards must be willing to assume greater responsibility not only for the limitations
of the current curriculum, but also for materials other than those supplied by the Ministry.
If teachers knew they had the support of their respective school board, they would likely

be more willing to question the relevance of many of the works used. Education may then
come to be more meaningful to all students involved and the world not such a "strange
and faraway place" (95). This process is especially significant in the Language Arts and
English Literature classroom because it is the English language in cooperation with
literature that predominantly communicates Western culture. Revising these classes so
that they no longer foster assimilation means bringing more works of meaningful relevance
to Native students into the class enviromnent. Works such as Keeper 'n Me and "Just

Talking About Ourselves" represent the future of such necessary initiatives. Both offer
perceptions of 'reality' as defmed by Native representatives and, in so doing, provide a
more holistic approach to education. In particular, "Just Talking About Ourselves" is
especially significant in that it is not influenced by a number of these impediments
described earlier. This work would also prove especially valuable in the English Literature

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12 curriculum, though recognition of it frrst requires an end to a dependence on strictly
canonical literature. Until this occurs , it seems highly unlikely that these and other similar
resources will be implemented in Literature classroom. Nonetheless, both represent the
direction language arts and literature must take not only to reduce the impact of
acculturation in pedagogy but also to make education meaningful and perhaps even reduce
the high attrition rate amongst Native students.
At a much broader level, still other recommendations include a mandatory course
for teachers as well as students in the history of Native peoples to educate all involved
about the historical and cultural backgrounds of Canada' s Native population. This would
perhaps rectify the problem identified by Agnes Grant, namely that "ignorance of Native
culture has too long been used as an excuse for excluding Native literature from curricula"
(63). There should also be greater employment of Natives in administrative, resource, and
teaching positions (MacLean 144-145). Teachers of Native background are certainly
more likely to express their discontent with curriculum standards and introduce
modifications to reflect more pronounced Native content. These and other suggestions
are described in detail in Appendix 7 .1. It is important to note the goal of each to
represent divergent opinions and perspectives aimed at inverting the current trend of
education for assimilation.
Finally, a number of recommendations may derive from future research in related
areas. For instance, much work needs to be done to determine the 'comfort level' of
teachers and students alike in relation to the curriculum guides and their implementation in
the classroom. For a variety of reasons, this researcher was unable to determine the
general degree of satisfaction amongst both groups with current pedagogical standards
and practices. As well, further analysis of teacher's struggles with current policies
regarding the teaching of non-recommended resources needs to be performed. If indeed it
is discovered that educators are intimidated by contemporary practices, further
recommendations to alleviate this stress will likely be suggested. Future research should

112

also emphasize whether or not assimilation is a product of all classes across the curriculum
or spatially inclusive. It would also be interesting to determine .if acculturation is a strictly
local phenomenon or is evident throughout Canada.
Though they are broad in scope, these recommendations are pragmatic and have
been implemented in a number of institutions throughout Canada and the United States.
Each of these programmes focuses on the needs of the Native student and aims to satisfy
several common themes: "the student's discontinuity of experiences when he [sic] enters
school because of cultural d:ifferences; the student's alienation from his own culture, from
the dominant society and from the school itself; the unsuitable school curriculum that is
offered to the Indian student and the need for greater awareness and understanding of
cultural differences by teachers" (Native Education in Alberta 79). While responses to
such concerns have been introduced across the curriculum, a few in particular should be
singled out as exemplary models for future developments in education, both provincially
and nationally. And though these examples are based on schools controlled and operated
by various Native groups, there are important lessons to be learned from their study in a
public school context. For instance, the authors of Native Education in the Province of

Alberta cite the Rough Rock Demonstration School in Arizona as a paradigm for future
ventures in this cotmtry (135). Two central premises govern the operation of the
Demonstration School. First: "the school philosophy maintains that the Indian child can
and should be able to retain both his [sic] cultural identity and learn the Anglo culture (the
' both-and' philosophy)" (135). Second: though perhaps less relevant to the subject of
English, "the boarding school is completely administered, supervised and operated by the
Navaho people" (135). A number of other features, including strong parental
involvement, an emphasis on culture and cultural development, and the use of Native
languages and the teaching of English as a Second Language also make this programme
unique (137). Similar educational operations and initiatives have also begun in New
Mexico , Arizona (coordinated through Arizona State University), and North Dakota (a

113

joint venture between the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation and the University of North
Dakota). Each of these attempt to foster increased appreciation for Native cultures in all
students through alternative curricula and strong community participation.
A similar venture has also been implemented at the Manitoulin Secondary School
iJ1 Saskatchewan. Here, a programme was designed to attack three interrelated problems

in the education of Native students. The editors of A Review of Indian Education in
North America indicate these challenges:
cultural alienation ... is frequently cited as a major factor in the drop-out
rates of Indian students. On the other hand, a lack of knowledge about
their culture is also often characteristic of semi-acculturated modern
Indian students and can lead to a lack of self-pride and disinterest in
education. Secondly, the integration of Indians and non-Indians in the
same school is now an established trend. Discrilnination on both sides
and feelings of illferiority on the part of Indian students can result, partly
because of a lack of cultural understanding. Thirdly, the Indian language
is quickly being lost, as there are progressively fewer children who speak
only this language. (115)
To combat these problems, the Manitoulin school offers a course in Native cultures as
well as one in Ojibway language, the dialect of the local Native cultures. These courses
are offered to both Native and non-Native students in an effort to dismantle the barriers of
racial and cultural misunderstanding as well as to emphasize the significance of languages
other than English. At the request of parents as well as students, it was determmed that
the course would not discuss Native history, but rather focus on answering such questions
as 'Who are we?" and "Where are we gomg?" (115). In respondmg to these questions,
non-Native students are taught to appreciate other cultures and to learn to see through the
prejudices and stereotypes that often surround Native peoples. All in all, the course is
mdicated to be a marked success, and though not English ill nature, nonetheless serves as
a paradigmatic example of a potential avenue for future curriculum direction.
Still another possible model for reformation is evidenced in the Blue Quills
Residential School ill St. Paul, Alberta. Accordmg to the authors of Native Education in

114

the Province of Alberta, Blue Quills is directly operated by the federal government, unlike
most other Native schools which tend to come under the authority of the provincial
Ministry (144). Serving pupils on a grade four to nine basis, the school focuses on
satisfying the needs of its primarily Native student population. Early in its creation, these
needs were summarized in the mandate of the Blue Quills Native Education Council, an
expression that recognizes the inevitable confrontation with white society while affirming
the desire to develop a strong sense of pride and identity in its students:
Our greatest desire is that our children progress in the white man's
education, while continuing to retain their dignity as Indian people.
(Bryce, Mcintosh, 1971, qtd. in Native Education in the Province of
Alberta)
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the school's operation is it heavy reliance on the
participation of those beyond the walls of the institution. Community participation, it is
believed, contributes to a history of support for its programmes that include courses in
Native history and culture. The Blue Quills School Cotmcil has also been successful in
implementing "such arts and crafts courses as bead work and leather work. They have
[also] been able to set time aside for Native legends and stories and (with Native advisors)
have been able to make their Home Economics classes more relevant to the Indian
children" (146).
Conclusion
In British Columbia, though many efforts at increasing Native representation in the
classroom are being enacted, their effectiveness has yet to be determined due to their
relative youth and small total numbers. The Nisga' a, for instance, recently formed their
own school district on traditional territory designed specifically to provide students with
an education that combines the learning of traditional ways and Native history in
cooperation with modern non-Native standards. The schools, as Michiyo Kiwako Okuma
indicates, aim to satisfy a traditional Nisga' a educational philosophy, that learning is a way
of life that begins at birth (148). Accordingly, pedagogy has assumed a new form, one

115

that combines traditional ideas with the modern institution and its parameters. Because
they must adhere to provincial standards and requirements, however, the Nisga'a are
challenged by "several problems associated with the continued presence of non-Native
curriculum in the form of institutionalized teaching structures, methods, content, and so
forth" (Okuma ii). Locally, for instance, only one high school has included in its
curriculum a programme for First Nations Studies, though other institutions will soon
follow suit. 2 If future developments in British Columbia are to be implemented, the
Nisga' a experience is a vast resource for information and measurements of success, as are
other examples previously described. This thesis may also make substantial contributions
in this regard. More specifically, the success of any possible ventures will hinge on the
provincial Ministry's ability to satisfy the inherent problems in the current system. While
the majority of changes discussed reflect a predominantly Native context and environment,
such suggestions are transferable to the English Language Arts and Literature classrooms.
There are valuable lessons to be learned from these and other pro gra1mnes. Yet, without
the initiative to :implement even some of their most basic pedagogical philosophies, the
chances of seeing these revisions in the Language Arts and English Literature classroom
are slim. As has been stressed, the Ministry is content with the new direction of
curriculum activities a11d resources. And though teachers may recognize the failings of
these disciplines, the barriers erected against their questioning and researching of alternate
resources are significant enough to discourage any affirmative action. Thus, although
curriculum objectives demand recognition of other cultures and peoples, in practice these
do not manifest. Rather, the cultural Other is given obligatory representation and the
resources identified to reflect alternate perspectives do not stand up to scrutiny.
Prince George Senior Secondary is, thus far, the only local institution to include in its
curriculmn a progrme for First Nations Studies. Students are introduced to regional
Native cultures, their traditions and philosophies, and their languages. This class remains
an elective and contains relatively few students. Other high schools plan to implement a
sinlilar course in the near future.
2

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Contemporary pedagogy, especially English Language Arts and Literature, sustain a
tradition of assimilation through education, one with deep historical roots. In not
providing for students and teachers adequate mechanisms for the representation of
perspectives contradictory to the ideals of Western settler society, both can in no way
escape from reaffirming these attitudes within the classroom and without. Acculturation
will continue to be the lasting imprint of education, especially English language arts and
literature, until such fundamental alterations are made. Future initiatives should therefore
focus on these limitations of contemporary pedagogy, recognizing that though assimilation
is in no way directly intended it is nonetheless an mmecessary by-product of an otherwise
efficient system.

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Appendices
and
Figures

Ethics Committee Approval for Research

UNBC Research Ethics Committee
Certificate of Ethics Approval

Name of Researcher:

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Title of Research Project:
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~~ ~

()...r.d

~~
'"

~

I certify that this project was given ethics approval by the UNBC
Research Ethics Committee

Signed:

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Dean of Research and GradBate Studies

Date:Z<,J....

q

119

Appendix 1.1
Glossary of Terms
The following is a list of terms used throughout the thesis.

Aboriginal- see Native
Acculturation - the process through which the dominant culture of a nation
communicates and encourages absorption into its ideals, philosophies, and
weltanschaaung (world-view). This term is also used to label the results of this process.
Because acculturation is very similar to the activities involved in assimilation, these words
are used interchangeably throughout the thesis.
Acratic - one of the two categories of language as defined by Roland Barthes. Acratic
language "is separate, severed from the doxa (hence, it is paradoxical); its schismatic
strength derives from the fact that it is systematic, it is constructed around thought, not
ideology" (108).
Assimilation - see Acculturation
Culture- perhaps the best definition of this controversial term is that supplied by James
Clifford. He writes, "culture is enduring, traditional, structural (rather than contingent,
syncretic, historical). Culture is a process of ordering, not of disruption. It changes and
develops like a living organism. It does not normally 'survive' abrupt alterations" (64).
This word is not used in this thesis to make divisions between 'high' or 'low' culture.
Rather, it is meant to be all encompassing unless indicated otherwise.
Dominant majority - this term is used to refer to those who control the means of
material production. Generally, I refer to this group in reference to those who have and
control power in settler society.
Encratic - one of the two divisions of language defined by Roland Barthes. Encratic
language is the dialect of everyday conversation spoken by the dominant majority. In
the context of this thesis, it is significant because it is concurrently diffuse and not easily
discerned. It is everywhere, but because we do not recognize it, its influence, especially
its colonial subtext, is beyond detection.
First Nations- see Native
Indian- see Native

120

Native- the term used to describe all peoples of Native ancestry, including those oflnnu,
Inuit, and Metis descent as well as non-status individuals. Though many other terms are
currently in use, including First Nations, Aboriginal, and indigenous, I prefer to use the
word Native. Its use in this context, then, recognizes the multiplicity of terms in common
use. Generally, the title "First Nations" has been adopted in place of these terms, though
its denotation is geographically specific as it is meant for peoples of Native ancestry
residing in British Columbia. Patricia Monture-Angus also notes that in recent years this
title "has come to be used in an exclusionary way referring only to status Indians" (2). I
am also uncomfortable using the word "Indian(s)," a word that has historically been used
to describe the various First Nations cultures and peoples in a negative manner. I also
have no right to "re-claim [the] word" (2) as Monture-Angus and Jeannette Armstrong
have chosen to do .
Neo-colonialism - its use in this context is defined in the Introduction.
Status quo - a term meant to imply the current state of affairs as they are dominated and
controlled by those with power in settler society.
Verisimilitude- from the Oxford Minidictionary: "the appearance of being true" (589).
The word is used to describe many of the results of education in its creation of 'truth' and
'reality.' Truth is subjective and therefore one is only given an appearance of the real and
the known.
Zeitgeist - according to Chris Baldick, editor of the Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Literary Terms, this term is "the German word for 'time-spirit,' more often translated as
'spirit of the age.' It usually refers to the prevailing mood or attitude of a given period"
(243).

121

Appendix 5.1
Illustration of Dates for Curriculum Implementation
1999-2000

~

Development
Full Im!)lementation SchedUle
February 1997

ssu
Info Tech

' 8112

8-10

. Ot 12

App. ofPh 12

Jap. 11
Jao. 12

Source: Norm Monroe. Director of School Services, School District #57 . Personal
interview. April29 , 1997.

122

Appendix 5.2
Required Documentation for the Teaching
of Non-recommended resources
m.JCATICJIW. ~ MATEJUALS APFRDVAL

Scbool Diltrict No. 57 <rrmc:. OlarJe)

~

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P-.. campJ.te the EaJCAnCN41. ~
A~ APPROVAL FtmM &Dd nturD
~ to the Dlnctcr « Sclloal
s.rnc., C.Otnl MminidntioG Of'fa, Sclloal District No. 57,1894 NiDtll A~ PrUa Georp, 8C, V2M 1L7 roc c.otnl nptry
~

\

TJn.B

AUllDtlf.Dnat

PUBI.JSHP..R

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(Priat. AV,
Othlr)

I hereby att.t that the identir.d ~ matwial Jw been •s.cted iD aa:crcbDc:e with criteria establiJhed roc •JectiD& educaticmJ
roc a. in School DUtrict No. S7.

mou.rct matarials

Tac.ber'a signatun requesting appron.l
Principal's signatun of appron.l

Date« request r« appronl

123

Appendix 3.2 (con' t)
Educational Resource Materials Approval for School District No. 57
Selection Criteria
All library resources must be evaluated in accordance with the following criteria
established for selecting educational resource materials for use in School District No. 57.
It is understood, however, that not all criteria will be applicable to all resources reviewed.
For example, a novel may not have a teacher guide or durable cover and binding but still
be an appropriate learning resource. As well, a resource may be selected because it is
illustrative of a particular point of view or historical context.
1. There is no imbalance or bias with regard to the following:
* Age
* Belief System
* Ethnic Portrayals
* Language
* One-sided treatment of a topic or issue
* Philosophy

* Politics
* Race
* Religion
* Sex Roles
* Socioeconomic Status

2. The Book has the following:
* A durable cover and binding
* A good table of contents, glossary, index
* A readability level suitable for special needs
* A Teacher's guide which aids in developing an effective program
* A variety of learning
~
* Charts, graphs , illustrations and maps which are accurate, up-to-date, and easily
analyzed
* Legible print
3. Content is consistent with district, provincial, and school philosophies.
4. Content is supportive of the goals and objectives of the curriculum area.
5. The level of difficulty is appropriate to the target group.
6. The resource material contains student evaluation components.
7. The resource material will enhance learning.
8. The resource material will remain current for a suitable time period.

124

Appendix 6.1
The following are the required readings from the "Core Studies" component of English
Literature 12. These readings are subdivided according to period and represent what the Ministry
perceives to be the foundation of canonical literature necessary for all students in the course.
Note the country of origin of each author.

ClassicaUMedieval

*from Beowulf, "The Battle with Grendel"
*from Th e Canterbury Tales, "The Prologue" (Knight, Squire,
Wife of Bath, Miller, Monk, Friar, Nun, Parson, Oxford Cleric,
Summoner, Pardoner)
* "Get Up and Bar the Door" (ballad)

Renaissance/
17th Century

* Sir Thomas Wyatt the Elder, "Whoso List to Hunt"
*William Shakespeare, Sonnets 29, 73, 130; Hamlet, Th e Tempest,
or King Lear
* John Donne, "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning"
* John Milton, "On His Blindness"; from Paradise Lost, Book I,
lines 1-163

Enlightenment

* Alexander Pope, The Rape of the Lock

Pre-Romantic

* Robert Burns, "To a Louse"
* William Blake, "The Tyger"
* Thomas Gray, ''Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," lines 156

Romantic

* William Wordsworth, "My Heart Leaps Up"; "The World Is Too
Much with Us"
* Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Th e Rime of the Ancient Marin er,
Parts I and II
* George Gordon Lord Byron, "Apostrophe to the Ocean"
* Pe\CY Bysshe Shelley, "Ode to the West Wind"
* John Keats, "Ode to a Nightingale"

Victorian

* Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "Ulysses"
* Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Sonnet 43
* Robert Browning, "My Last Duchess"
* Matthew Arnold, "Dover Beach"
* Emily Bronte, "Song"
* Emily Dickinson, "Because I Could Not Stop for Death"

125

Early 20th Century

* Wilfred Owen, "Dulce et Decorum Est"
* T.S. Eliot, "The Hollow Men"
* William Butler Yeats, ''The Second Coming"

Late 20th Century

* Dylan Thomas, "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night"
* Margaret Atwood, "Disembarking at Quebec"
* Stevie Smith, "Pretty"

126

Appendix 6.2
The following is a list of those resources recommended by the Integrated Resource
Package for English Literature 12 that may contain representation of the marginalized
Other, however defined by settler society. This evaluation is based on the annotations
supplied by the IRP which are quoted verbatim below. Again, only the IRP could be
studied as the District Resource Centre does not currently contain any resources for
English Literature 12. Any mention of content from sources other than the literary canon
and/or material featuring Cmmnonwealth writers (which conceivably encompasses a broad
spectrum of authors) was perceived as potentially offering this representation, however
remote. Only those resources meant for student use are included here and all materials are
intended for a grade 12 level. It is important to note that of these materials, only one is
specified to contain Native content.
Title: Adventures in English Literature, Athena Edition
General Description: Resource package consists of a student text which surveys English
literature from the Anglo-Saxon period to present day, an annotated teacher's
edition, and a resource consisting of portfolio assessment and other support
materials. Some.20th-century Commonwealth writers are featured.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995
Title: An Anthology of Poetry by Women
General Description: Book contains a collection of poems by women ranging from the
Anglo-Saxon period to the present and representing diverse cultural backgrounds.
Works are arranged thematically (e.g. war, motherhood , death, love, passion,
social protest) with introductions.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995
Title: Fiction 's Many Worlds
General Description: Anthology of 142 stories features a wide selection of 19th- and
20th-century authors from around the world. Works are grouped into four literary
"worlds" (i.e. reality, dream, fable, story). A teacher's guide is included.
Caution: The story "The Sin of Jesus," a translation of "Isaac Babel," contains language
and events that some may consider sacrilegious.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recmmnended: 1995

127

Title: Five Modern Poets
General Description: Book features works of five modern poets, three of whom are
women, which cover a wide range of topics often associated with the 20th
century. Includes some supporting notes and biographical information.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995
Title: The Heath Introduction to Poetry, Fourth Edition
General Description: Anthology of poetry features works from the Anglo-Saxon period
to the 20th century. It is divided into eight sections featuring mainly British and
American poets. Preface includes historical notes and definitions of literary
terms.
Caution: Some poets included in the modern period contain explicit sexual or racial
references.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Rec01mnended: 1995
Title: An Introduction to Fiction, Sixth Edition
General Description: Anthology of mainly British and American short fiction features
writers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Selections are arranged around aspects of
the short story genre such as setting, character, theme, tone, and symbol.
Supporting information and an instructor's manual are provided. Language
concerns may arise with some 20th century writers.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995
Title: Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry and Drama, Compact Edition
General Description: Anthology of works by 19th- and 20th-century British and
American writers features a range of ethnic and female voices. C01mnentary is
interspersed throughout the text. Instructional strategies are provided. Language
concerns may arise with some 20th-century works.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995
Title: The Penguin Book of Canadian Short Stories
General Description: Book features works by more than 25 fiction writers who represent
Canada's literary heritage, including Atwood, Laurence, and Richler. The stories
deal with a range of 19th- and 20th-century themes such as "coming of age,"
"personal identity," and "personal quest. "
Caution: Story by Hubert Aqui, "Back on Aprilll ," deals with a failed suicide attempt;

128

"Foreigners," by Beth Harvon, has sexual references; "Brian, The Still Hunter," by
Susanna Moodie, makes reference to "nigger," a reference that is appropriate in
the social/historical context of the story; "Visions before Midnight," by Lawrence
Garber, contains some swearing.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995
Title: Pens of Many Colors: A Canadian Reader
General Description: Book contains a collection of 19th- and 20th-century Canadian
fiction, non-fiction, and poetry. A range of ethnic and women's voices is
included. Works are organized with both rhetorical and thematic considerations.
Includes author notes, topics for exploration, and suggestions for further study.
Some of the stories contain contentious language.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recmmnended: 1995
Title: Rethinking the Future
General Description: Book contai11s 21 essays by contemporary Canadian authors
exploring social issues for the 21st century. Topics cover technology, ethics,
change, population growth, resource depletion, media, the future, and First
Nations. Brief biographies are included.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995
Title: Ways of Seeing: Responding to Literature
General Description: Thirty-minute video focuses on critical approaches to literature and
features selected dramatic scenes and interviews with authors. Addresses the
historical role of literature in culture and literature as art. A teacher's guide is
available.
Audience: General
Category: Student, Teacher Resource
Year Recommended: 1995

Total Recmmnended Resources: 64
Total Resources Pertinent to Content Expressed Above: 11 (or 17.2%)

129

Appendix 6. 3
The following is the list of questions and cover letter sent to the Ministry of
Education, Skills and Training. The responses were received Monday May 27, 1997 and
are quoted below in verbatim.

Dear Sir or Madam,
Enclosed is a series of questions I have created as part of my MA thesis work in
First Nations Issues in Education. These questions focus primarily on the nature of the
curriculum for Language Arts 11 and 12 and its representation of Native concerns. Most
require a brief answer explaining current policies regarding education, Native issues, and
the English classroom. I would greatly appreciate any response you can provide as any
information will prove to be invaluable in my research efforts.
Your responses will be properly cited in my work and your participation will be
duly noted. Thank you for your time and I look forward to your response.

Ministry of Education

Thank you for taking the tune to respond. For those questions that request further
explanation, please use the space provided. These are the most important of the questions
and I therefore would greatly appreciate any response you can provide. If you need more
space, please use the reverse side of this sheet.
Curriculum
1. Is a new version of the Integrated Resource Package (IRP) for Language Arts 11 and
12--the curriculum guide for English and English Literature-- issued every year?
No_x_
Yes

2. Do you request that all English teachers follow the guidelines established by the
Integrated Resource Package (IRP)? Yes _x_ No _ _
3. How much have these guidelll1es changed over the years?
"The format has recently changed. Integrated Resource Packages contain 4
columns with prescribed learning outcomes, suggested instructional strategies, suggested
assessment strategies, recommended learning resources. The content in English Language

130

Arts has undergone significant change (e.g. applied focus ; media and technology
inclusion; teaching reading, grades 8-12)".
4. Are any alterations to the current curriculum guide (the IRP) for English 11 and 12
under consideration? Yes
No _ x _
If so , please explain:
"The English Language Arts K-12 IRPs were released in May 1996. The content
was informed by provincial and national assessments of literacy and cmmnunication, and
the Western Canadian Protocol Framework. IRPs are available electronically which
facilitates an 'evergreening' process. We anticipate a 6 year cycle curriculum revision" .
5. In terms of content, what criteria do you demand for the literature read in the English
11 and 12 classroom?
"Learning resources must be approved either provincially at the Ministry, or locally
by the School Board. At the Ministry, all materials are scrutinized by teacher evaluators
using 40 or so criteria: curriculum match/Content; Instructional and Technical Design;
Social Considerations. We include Canadian and BC literature, First Nations and
International Literature".

Teachers
1. Are there penalties for teachers of English 11 and 12 who do not follow the
recommendations and/or guidelines set out by curriculum guides such as the IRP?
Yes
No_x_
If yes, please explain:
"There are no such 'penalties' as such, although there are various forms of
accountability such as School Accreditation, Provincial exam results, performance of
students in learning assessments, and administrator's reviews of teachers' instructional
plans".
2. What do you feel to be the teacher' s role in educating students in the study of English
and English Literature?
"The teacher requires a sound knowledge of the discipline and a range of strategies
for effectively facilitating student learning. Teachers should provide exemplary models of
language use and cmmnunication skills. A love of language, literature and a passion for
teaching are needed for excellence-and caring for students' success.
*The following questions in the section below were not answered. *

131

First Nations Concerns
1. What do you perceive to be the cause(s) for the rather high drop-out figures within the
Native student population in public education?
2. Do you feel Native concerns (such as adequate representation, teacher and student
prejudice, etc.) in public education need to be addressed? Yes _ _ No _ _
If so, how?
4. Are there future plans to increase First Nations representation in the public classrooms
across British Columbia (e.g. as educators, counselors, and so forth)?
Yes
No
How?
5. Do you feel the current education system in British Columbia teaches respect for
Indigenous peoples and cultures? Yes _ _ No _ _
6. What do you feel English 11 and 12 have to offer First Nations students?

Education and the Future
1. Do you feel that education should successfully guide all students into the workplace or
other future endeavors? Yes _ x _ No _ __
2. Do you feel that English 11 and 12 should successfully guide all students into the
workplace or other future endeavors? Yes _ x _ No
3. How do you defme success?
"Mission statement for BC schools: 'The purpose of the BC school system is to
enable all learners to develop their individual potential and to acquire the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes need to contribute to a healthy, democratic, and pluralistic society and
a prosperous and sustainable economy' - this is success!"

132

Appendix 7.1
Source: Indian Education Paper: Phase I. May 1, 1982.
Published under the authority of the Hon. John C. Munro, P.C., M.P.
Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development
pp. 46-48
The following is the series of suggested work projects recognized by the authors of this paper as
necessary in order to resolve Indian education problems.
3.1 Quality of Education
3 .1.1

Curriculum development
- Identify basic provincial curricuhun
- Prepare an inventory of current special curriculum components in band, federal,
and provincial school systems
- Establish objectives for special curricuhun components
- Assess suitability of current special curriculum components
- Establish and cmmnunicate standards
-Establish methodology for the review, design and development of curriculum
- Explore the use of demonstration projects
- Consider the establishment of a curriculum clearing house for the distribution of
new materials to Indian education authorities

3.1.2

Facilities
- Identify provincial standards for education facilities
-Prepare an inventory of the current building and school construction backlog
- Explore feasible time frames for the construction program
- Explore alternate methods of financing schools

3.1.3

Student support
- Identify provincial standards for student support services
- Prepare an inventory of support services currently available to Indian students in
band and federal schools
- Assess suitability of current support services available to Indian students
- Identify the special support needs of Indian students
- Establish and cmmmmmicate standards
-Establish methodology for the review, design and development of student
support services

133

3.1.4

Sta:ffsupport
- Identify provincial standards for:
- teacher support services
- classroom consultants
- teacher orientation
- :in-service training
- professional development
-conferences and workshops
- teacher residences in isolated communities

- Identify current practices in band and federal schools
- Quantify differences, measured against provincial standards
- Assess the impact of these differences
- Identify effects of the Public Service Commission Staffing Policy
-Establish methodology for the review, design and development of staff support
standards
3.1.5

Monitoring

- Establish systems and procedures to monitor quality of education functions and
measure performance
3.2 Local Control
3.2.1

Role of Indian education authorities

- Establish terms of reference for Indian education authorities setting out such
matters as:
- roles and responsibilities
- relationship to community
- accountability for funding
- operating policies, structures, and procedures
- reporting requirements
- relationship to Indian Affairs
3.2.2

Education System

- Consideration of regional and national Indian professional education bodies for
the development of quality education
3.2.3

Indian Affairs accountability

0

134

- Develop accountability systems including qualitative accountability criteria,
program objectives and performance measures for use with band, federal and
provincial schools systems
3.2.4

Transfer process
- Develop guidelines and procedures for the transfer of control from Indian Affairs
to Indian education authorities including provisions for:
- community awareness and involvement
- structuring and training of band education authorities
- a comprehensive agreement for the transfer

3.2.5

Contribution agreements

- Develop a standard contribution agreement which would include, inter alia,
provisions for terms of reference for Indian education authorities, accountability
requirements and standards governing quality of education
3.2.6

Duplication of facilities
- Assess the current policy and identify its impact on Indian education
- Review the policy for appropriateness

3.3 Management framework
- Define departmental roles and responsibilities for the following functions:
- curriculum development
- facilities
- student support
- staff support
- monitoring
- relationship to Indian education authorities
- relationship to other Indian authorities
- relationship to provincial governments
- Design departmental headquarters and regional organizational structures required to
fulfill these roles and responsibilities
- Identify human resource requirements
- Explore mechanisms for input from Indian education authorities on program components
such as curriculum development and establishment of standards
- Consider the need for independent Indian education foundations to further Indianspecific education development

135

3.4 Funding
-Estimate incremental costs for the adoption of special progrmmning related to Indians
including:
- management framework
-curriculum development
- facilities
- student support
- staff support
- monitoring
- Indian Education authorities/organizations
3.5 Indian Consultation
- Depending on the outcome of DMC, serious consideration must be given to the
consultation process; its context, objectives, parmneters, process, etc. Hopefully this
would result in joint recommendations:
- Development of a paper for consultation
- Development of the consultation process
- Establish funding levels

136

FIGURE 1
Research at the District Resource Centre (School District #57), the source of this
information, was conducted over a one week period commencing April8, 1997. Only texts
designated to be appropriate for Grade 11 and 12 students were examined as the scope of this
thesis restricts itself to these levels. Following the bibliographic information of each text, a brief
annotation is provided detailing the content of the work and its relevance to Native peoples,
cultures, or concerns. Each series of texts is subdivided by the box number in which it can be
found. Texts and videos could only be reviewed within the Centre as materials could only be
signed out by teachers of School District #57. A total of fourteen boxes were examined and over
90 resource materials were analyzed (only those specific to Grades 11 and 12). Special thanks to
DRC librarians Dawn Farber, Flo Hoffman, and Jane McKay who helped me in this aspect of my
research.
Though the annotations represent my analysis and perspective of the resource materials,
the content of these materials were in part evaluated using the ten criteria described by Verna J.
Kirkness in her article, "Prejudice About Indians in Textbooks." These criteria provided the
conceptual (rather than methodological) structure of the evaluation and are as follows:
1. Bias by Omission: selecting information that reflects credit on only one group, frequently the
writer's group.
2. Bias by Defamation: calling attention to native persons ' faults rather than their virtues and
misrepresenting their nature.
3. Bias by Disparagement (disparagement: something that lowers a thing or person in worth or
importance): denying or belittling the contributions of Native people to Canadian culture.
4. Bias by Cumulative Implication: constantly creating the impression that only one group is
responsible for positive developments.
5. Bias by (lack of) Validity: failing to ensure that information about issues is always accurate
and ambiguous. (Ambiguous: having more than one possible meaning).
6. Bias by Inertia: perpetuation of legends and half-truths by failure to keep abreast of historical
scholarship.
7. Bias by Obliteration: ignoring significant aspects of Native history.
8. Bias by Disembodiment: referring in a casual and depersonalized way to the "Indian menace"
or representing the annihilation of Indian culture as part of "the march of progress."
9. Bias by (lack of) Concreteness: dealing with a race or group in platitudes and generalizations
(applying the shortcomings of one individual to a whole group). To be concrete, the material
must be factual, objective, and realistic.
10. Bias by (lack of) Comprehensiveness: failing to mention all relevant facts that may help to
form the opinion ofthe statement. (597-598)

* Each resource will be annotated with one of the following two terms:
NFNC =No First Nations Content
FNC =First Nations Content

137

BOX#Hl
Graham, Neil. Exploring Perspectives. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1991. Grades 10-12.
NFNC
This text defines itself as encouraging critical thinking and generating discussion of all
perspectives. It is subdivided into three sections: Focusing In (students are told to identify their
own perspectives and thoughts on the subject), Finding Out (students are expected to explore the
topic from various perspectives and to interpret them all objectively), and Following Through (the
wider perspective is applied to a situation that affects/involves the student at a personal level). A
strong text in the sense that it encourages critical thinking in a large number of areas including
advertising and censorship. However, such topics as racism, prejudice, and Othering are not
discussed.
One section, titled "Putting Your Best Voice Forward", discusses the various dialects and
vernaculars inherent to the English language. Here, aspects of language's role in assimilation, as
discussed in Chapter Three, are evident. For instance, the essay illustrates the importance of
speaking "proper spoken English" and focuses on the story of one speech therapist who teaches
ESL students not to "erase the traces of the original mother tongue," but to "adjust their way of
speaking to include more of the sounds commonly used and needed in English" (101). The author
also suggests that failure to speak proper English can lead to a pronounced lack of success in
future endeavors:
The results [of not having a good command ofthe English language] on a
professional level may be low sales, ineffective management, hampered business
deals because of mistmderstandings by clients, customers or staff, and a stalled
career. On a personal level, they may feel socially isolated and frustrated by their
inability to advance themselves through social contacts.
Other items deal with the importance of voice in the formation of personal and corporate
identity.
The teacher's guide does not contain any suggestions for implementing post-colonial
concerns.
Mellow, Brian and John Krisak. Matters of Fact. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., 1992.
Grades 10-12. NFNC
This work contains a number of short non-fiction articles covering a multitude of issues
arranged into thematic units, including "Exceptional Lives "(biographies) and "Earthkeeping"
(deals with environmental issues) which are designed to stimulate critical thinking.
Nelson, Jenny. West Coast Rhymes. Toronto : Gage Educational Publishing Company, 1993.
Grades: unknown (no sticker) FNC

138

A very small (30 page) book that conta:ins poetry by the author about the Haida nation and
culture. The poems focus on Haida perspectives concerning nature, relationships, and culture.
One of the few resources not limited by the impediments placed upon the conditions of its
existence as discussed :in Chapter Five.
Weber, Ken and Cecile Weber. Th e Spirit of Vocabulary Canada. Globe/Modern Curriculum
Press. Toronto, 1991. Grades 9-12. FNC
This text comb:ines vocabulary exercises with a brief story of contemporary relevance,
including the Elizabeth Manley Olympic win and the United Auto workers Strike of the past
decade. Students are expected to read the short biography or story and answer a number of
questions related to the language of the piece and their understand:ing. Entirely Canadian in
content, one series of exercises revolves around the story of Pi-A-Pot who staged a protest in
Saskatchewan (1882). The prejudicial nature of this piece is discussed in Chapter Five.

The Variety of Vocabulary Canada. Globe/Modern Curriculum Press. Toronto, 1991.
Grades 9-12. NFNC
Similar thematic structure as that described above.

---. The Style of Vocabulary Canada. Globe/Modern Curriculum Press. Toronto , 1991.
Grades 9-12. FNC
Same design and structure as similar works by the same authors.
One exercise revolves around the story of Tecumseh, "the great chief of the Shawnee
nation," and his involvement :in the War of 1812. Throughout the biography and the vocabulary
exercises, Tecumseh is described as "wily." Despite suggestions that Tecumsah was responsible
for the victory, the biography concludes with a paragraph on C01mnander Sir Isaac Brock. It is
suggested here that the First Nations chief was only an assistant in this w:in and it was Brock who
ultimately won the first battle against the Americans.

The Wonder of Vocabulary Canada. Globe/Modern Curriculum Press. Toronto , 1991.
Grades 9-12. NFNC
BOX#H2
Bates, Susan. Amazing! Canadian Newspaper Stories. Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall Inc. ,
1991. Teacher' Guide. Grades 10-12
FNC
The recommendations for stimulat:ing class discussion on Native issues as they are
:introduced by the literature are largely stereotypical. As was discussed :in Chapter Five, reference
to the Inuit culture, for instance, notes that the Native population has been dependent upon the
federal government for decades.

139

Clarke, Ron et al. Th emes for All Times. St. John's, Nfld: Jesperson Press, 1989. Grades lOll. FNC
This is an anthology of literary works representing three genres: stories, essays, and
poetry. The content of this text is organized around seven themes: "relationships," "faith and
belief," "conflict survival," "freedom and equality," "dealing with today," and "facing tomorrow."
Native content includes: "Prayer" by Chief Dan George (a daily prayer to the Creator) and
'The Declaration of The First Nations" (from the Assembly of First Nations Conference, 1980).
Also included is a class project in which students are asked to study the history of Aboriginal
peoples (i.e. reserves, land claims, living conditions on reserves) and present the fmdings to the
media.
The remaining 460 pages contain either canonical literature sustaining Western humanist
ideals or excerpts from literature by canonical authors espousing similar philosophies.
Jeroski, Sharon et al. Speak for Yourself. Scarborough, Ont.: Nelson Canada, 1990. Grades 812. NFNC
A collection of ideas and articles aimed at teaching critical thinking and reading. Chapter
One revolves around the issue of c01mnunication, stressing throughout that proper
communication is a key to success in life. Chapter Two discusses words and their meaning, in
part analyzing the importance of denotation and connotation. Special attention is paid to the
word "love," but no time is devoted to words to which negative connotations are often assigned.
Subsequent chapters deal with effective listening, critical listening, interviews, problem solving,
and cooperative learning.
The teacher's guide also does not contain any references on how to integrate post-colonial
themes or issues as they are communicated in language into the classroom.
Murphy, Raymond. Basic Grammar in Use: Reference and practice for students of English.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Grades: unknown (no sticker) NFNC
Another guide to grammar intended for more advanced audiences. This text deals mainly
with verb tenses, though questions, word order, prepositions, and adjectives/adverbs are also
examined.
Seidl, Jennifer. Grammar One. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Grades 4-12.

NFNC

A very basic gra1mnar textbook that covers all aspects concerning grmrunatical functions.
However, it is rather too simplistic for grades 10-12, despite the suggested grade levels, unless
used as a remedial guide.

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BOX #H4 -VIDEOS
Grades 11-12
NFNC
No videos were found that deal with First Nations concerns, issue, or representations. A
total of 7 videos are in the box, though "Words to Live By" is missing and may contain Aboriginal
content or pertinent references. Video subjects range from filmic adaptations of works from 0
Henry (The Gift of the Magi) and Edgar Allan Poe (The Fall of the House of the Usher and Th e
Cask of Amontillado) and L.M. Montgomery (lane of Lantern Hill) to stories dealing with the
effects of the bombing of Hiroshima on a Japanese teenager.

BOX #HS - NON-FICTION VIDEOS
Grades 8-12
FNC
A collection of non-fiction videos used by local schools as supplements to the English
class. One video in a collection of 19 titled "Chronicles of Pride" deals with First Nations
concerns. According to the cover of the video, the short film "features profile of contemporary
First Nations individuals who have contributed to society at various levels and in different walks
of life. Included are Gloria George, Judge Alfred Scow, Dorothy Francis, Vivian Wilson, and
Blanch Macdonald." Though I did not preview this video, the brief description supplied bears
much resemblance to that supplied for the only video dealing with First Nations content listed in
the IRP , 4 Sight, even though this video is not in this collection. Again, however, it sounds as if
success is defined and measured by parameters specified by settler society (how a small
percentage of a minority group has contributed to society), a fact also hinted at in that none of
those portrayed have their original, Aboriginal names.
Other videos ofier biographies of such individuals as Mark Twain, George Orwell,
Frederic Bank and Charles Dickens while others discuss the Japanese-Canadian internment, World
War 2, and the Bible as Literature.

BOX #H6 - POETRY (INCLUDES VIDEOS)
Videos (grades 8-12)
NFNC
These videos are filmic representations of the poetry of various canonical authors
including Earle Birney and Robert Service. Also included in this group are visual representations
of a poem ("Call My People Home") dealing with Japanese-Canadian internment and a video that
traces the history of the English language, beginning with Beowulf.
Texts:
Israel, Inge. Raking Zen Furrows: Encounters with Japan. Vancouver: Cacanadadada Press
Ltd. , 1991. Grades: 8-11. NFNC

141

As the jacket cover describes, "this Canadian collection of 53 poems was inspired by Inge
Israel's six-month residence in Japan .... The title, Raking Zen Furrows, summarizes Israel's
unique ability to 'rake' Western perceptions of nature and society into traditional Japanese
patterns of poetry." As such, this text successfully represents the amalgamation of cultures to
create a genuine appreciation for cultural diversity. In this regard, we are given insight into the
cultural Other, a viewing supplemented with brief introductions to many of Japan's customs and
traditions seen through the lens of Western society.
Larrain, Virginia, ed. Timeless Voices: A Poetry Anthology Celebrating the Fulfillment ofAge.
Berkeley, California: Celestial Arts, 1978. Grades 10-12.
Described as a "collection of poetry that captures the beauty and dignity of long life"
(back jacket), this collection of poems from a variety of authors includes those of the canon such
as Yeats and Dylan Thomas as well as from authors of "traditional cultures which venerate old
age" (including Sioux and Navaho). These latter works perpetuate stereotypes of Native peoples
as strictly "earthly," pastoral peoples, and as such is representative of the impediments impinging
on successful cmmnunication of post-colonial concerns.
Packard, William ed. The Poet's Craft: Interviews from The New York Quarterly. New York:
Paragon House Publishers, 1987. Grades: 11-12. NFNC
A collection of interviews with 25 American poets who respond to various questions
regarding their craft, styles, and techniques.
Saliani, Don ed. Poetry Alive Perspectives. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd., 1991. Grades:
unknown (no front sticker) NFNC
An nmnense collection of poetry from a variety of international authors, none of whom (as
far as I can tell) are of First Nations/ American Indian descent. Mainly the works of canonical
authors.

Poetry Alive Transitions. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd., 1991. Grades: unknown (no
sticker) NFNC
Same as above.

BOX #H9 - SHORT STORIES
Browne, Jane, ed. Points of Departure: Six Women Remember their Early Lives. London:
Hutchii1son Education, 1988. Grades: 10-12. NFNC
A collection of six autobiographies that together provide a "commentary on human
diversity" Uacket). Six very different women are featured, each separated by space, time, race,
country, and social class. All are from Europe, so the book is rather lllnited in this aspect.
Consequently, no First Nations women are portrayed.

142

Kellow, Brian, and John Krisak eds. Prose: Short Forms. Scarborough, Ont. : Prentice-Hall
Canada Inc., 1990. Grades: 10-12. NFNC
This text explores, through short stories and articles, a variety of themes, including
learning, aging, and public policy, all of which offer insightful examinations designed to encourage
critical thinking and reading. Each article/short story begins with questions designed to stimulate
the reader. Upon completion, a series of questions follow.

BOX#H62
All resources annotated below are for grade 11 and 12 students.

Ahenakew, Freda, et al. Voi ces of the First Nations. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited,
1995. FNC
This collection of essays, poetry, and prose by First Nations authors is dedicated entirely
to contemporary issues. Included in this text are essays dealing with the linage of the Indian,
stereotypes, prejudices, and so forth. I discuss this work in more depth in Chapter Five.
Barker-Sandbrook, Judith. Essays: Patterns and Perspectives. Toronto: Oxford University
Press, 1992. NFNC
A book emphasizing the writing of essays in all forms, each section detailing the various
types of essays and their characteristics is followed with a number of suggestions for practice
activities.
Catanoy, Nicholas. notes on a prison wall. Vancouver: Ronsdale/Cacanadadada, 1994.
NFNC
The memoirs of the author who was imprisoned by the Russians following their invasion
of Romania. The book is essentially a list of quotations--his own and those of others. No
Aboriginal references are found.
Colombo, John Robert. Worlds In Small: An Anthology of Miniature Literary Compositions.
Vancouver: Cacanadadada Press Ltd., 1992.
NFNC
This text claims to be the largest anthology of the shortest literary compositions ever
written. None of the works are more than 50 words in length.
Evans, Kathy, and Gi:llda Leitenberg, eds. Ethics. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Li.Inited,
1995. NFNC

143

A multi-genre anthology of prose, poetry, and essays dealing with issues of ethical
behavior. An excellent book covering many aspects of ethics designed to stimulate critical
thought. A number of essays are concerned with issues of the social Other. For instance, an
especially good piece on the damaging effects of racist jokes discusses how they hurt and
perpetuate stereotypes in a 'humorous' context. Nonetheless, none of the essays examine such
concerns as they directly pertain to First Nations peoples and cultures.
---, eds.

Family Issues. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 1995.

FNC

A multi-genre (poetry, prose, and essays) anthology that focuses on family issues: death,
old age, sexual abuse, adoption, parents, siblings, marriage, divorce, and so forth. Of the 61
works included, only two are relevant in an Aboriginal context, though the issues represented in
both works are reflective of the fundamental barriers imposed upon and enforced by the selection
of this literature. For instance, the first, a poem titled "Whose Mouth Do I Speak With,"
discusses the author's special relationship with her father and her memory of chewing spruce gum
he picked from trees. The other, a short story entitled "Woman With No Face," is the story of a
young girls' encounter with "the injured spirit of the earth." Realizing her fright, the girl's
grandmother sings to her the reasons for the spirit's arrival and, in so doing, tells a tale of
environmental degradation.
Haberman, Arthur, and Fran Cohen, eds. On The Edge: Literature and Imagination. Toronto:
Oxford University Press, 1993. FNC
An interdisciplinary anthology divided into thematic units (madness, dreams, time,
heritage, language and power, self- and other, risk, other worlds), this book contains some work
by First Nations authors. A small number of photo graphs feature the art of Bill Reid and an
excerpt from Hugh Brody's Maps and Dreams is also included. This literature (and art) is also
considered to contribute to those impediments discussed in Chapter Five.
The teacher's guide provides some background material to the Native authors and stories
represented in the text. It is recommended to teachers that issues of representation and identity be
discussed in class.

Kirkland, Glen, and Richard Davies, eds. Inside Stories for Senior Students. Toronto: Harcourt
Brace & Company, 1993. FNC
An anthology of short narratives with an emphasis on Canadian content, this book divides
the stories by literary focus into eight units: "Purpose," "Characters in Conflict," "Point of View,"
"Theme and Interpretation," Irony and Symbol," "The Texture of Story," Perspectives on Story,"
and "Stories for Further Reading." Included with these stories are critical essays on the work and
its author. Only one piece is by a First Nations author; Thomas King's "Totem" is the story about
a totem pole in an art gallery that emits disturbing noises. Despite all efforts by staff to silence the
chatter, the emissions persist. This story is interpreted by this author to be a metaphor for First
Nations cultures that refuse to be silenced by an oppressive majority. This is one of the few
works that may foster further examination of First Nations cultures in a post-colonial context,

144

though it too is a reflection of the impediments imposed on this literature. In particular, it is
representative of small First Nations inclusion in an anthology edited by non-Native authors.
The teacher's resource guide asks educators to stimulate discussion of King 's short story
on the subject of representation and the symbolism of the totem.
Misener, Judi, and Sandra Steele. Th e Business of English, Second Edition. Toronto: Oxford
University Press, 1995.
NFNC
A book dedicated to business co1mnmlications such as computer applications, reports, and
job searching with no First Nations representation.
The teacher's resource also does not contain any Native representation.
Nemiroff, Greta Hofmann, ed. Matters of Gender. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited,
1996. FNC
An anthology dealing with issues of sexuality, self-esteem, and gender pride, this text is an
excellent collection of works detailing the experiences of the social Other: gays and lesbians,
Native women, and so forth. Although a good book for developing critical thought on these
topics, many essays nonetheless demand extrapolation in order for such discussion to occur. First
Nations representation is limited to a small interview titled "Listening ... an Interview with
Bertha Petiquan," which is the biography of an elderly Native woman and her experiences living in
relative isolation. Far more humorous than controversial, this work might lead to a discussion of
alterity.
Roy, Ken. Horizons: Exploring Poetry, Prose, and Non-Fiction. Toronto: Harcourt Brace &
Company, 1994.
FNC
A multicultural collection of poetry, prose, and essays in which each work is book-ended
by questions designed to stimulate critical thought. Students are asked a series of questions prior
to reading the work and following its perusal. While this text is described as a multicultural
anthology, very few authors represented are not from Canada or the U1lited States. In fact, less
than 10% of the book includes works by authors from such nations as India, Japan, and South
Africa. There is small First Nations representation in the form of two poems. The first, "Original
Thought," by The Four Dancers, discusses the nature of original thought and asks if such a
concept actually exists. The second, titled "Wanted: Someone Who Cares," is a poem about
discovering one's sense of self. None of the questions ask for critical examination of postcolomal
concerns of First Nations authors, but rather emphasize the universal qualities of such literature.
The guide for teachers does not offer any suggestions on how to elucidate postcolomal
concerns as they may be seen in this literature.
Wagamese, Richard. Keeper 'N Me. Toronto: Doubleday Canada Limited, 1995.

FNC

As discussed in Chapter Five, this work is one of the few actually written by a First
Nations author. This novel is the story of a Native youth who, alone and in jail, receives a letter
from his long-lost Native family. This note leads him home to his reservation where he is able to

145

find a sense of place and identity. In discussing the redemptive powers of one's family and
traditions, this book is a good introduction to Ojibway culture.
Waldron, Ian, and Nancy Steinhauer, eds. Global Matters. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson
Limited, 1995. FNC
This collection of multi-genre works revolves around discussions on the environment and
the influences upon it, including development, overpopulation, and environmental destruction.
Although the majority of works focus on the developing world, the two works by First Nations
writers eloquently point out the concerns of Aboriginal cultures. Tanure Ojaide, in "No Longer
Our Own Country," describes the effects of colonialism on the First Nations population in
Canada. The second poem, "Walking Both Sides of an Invisible Border," discusses the trouble
many Aboriginal peoples face in trying to balance traditional First Nations culture and the
demands of settler society. These two poems are the only two works of more than 60 that
contain some form of First Nations representation.
Wowk, Jerry, and Carol Mayne. Travel and Tourism. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited,
1995. FNC
This text features multicultural perspectives on travel and tourism. Topics and issues
presented include: eco-tourism, travel as education, and issues in tourism. The only work of First
Nations representation is a poem, "Trickster Time," by Jeam1ette C. Armstrong, a work that
humorously explains how the chaos of air travel is a result of trickster' s influence. Again, this
work, although presenting a key aspect of First Nations philosophies (i.e. tricksters), does not
raise other, more controversial issues. It is also only one story in an anthology of more than 25.

BOX#H61
All resources are intended for a grade 11 and 12 audience.
Bloom, Lynn Z. , and Edward M. White, eds. Inquiry: A Cross-Curricular Reader. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1993. FNC
This is a university level collection of critical essays, stories, and poems grouped
thematically and preceded by a biography of the author. Each section also contains follow-up
questions for class discussion. Only three essays, of the more than 80 included, contain some
form of First Nations representation. The frrst is an essay by Leslie Marmon Silko titled
"Landscape, History, and the Pueblo Imagination" and discusses the importance of storytelling for
the Pueblo peoples. Stories, she writes, are vital to knowledge and the development of a
cormnunal sense of truth and self. The second of these works is another essay, this one by Linda
Hogan titled "Hearing Voices." This piece illustrates the importance of listening to the Earth, to
"the literal language of this continent" (413). Finally, Barry Lopez in "Searching for Ancestors"
recounts the archeological search for "tangible remains" of the Anasazi culture (447). Lopez
takes great pains to dispel the notion that prehistoric means 'primitive' and/or 'pagan. '

146

Drapeau, Patricia, et al., eds. Discoveries in Non-Fiction. Toronto: Oxford University Press,
1993.
NFNC
A collection of 37 personal essays, articles, and profiles on contemporary issues all linked
by their strong Canadian content. Questions for discussion bookend each piece.
The teacher's guide accompanying this text suggests a number of ways post-colonial
issues such as representation and identity may be introduced and discussed in class.
Fisher, David, and Sharon Jeroski. Voices 2: Contemporary Short Fiction. Toronto: Oxford
University Press, 1993. FNC
An anthology of short stories designed to reflect a wide variety of themes, writing styles,
and cultural contexts, this collection contains only one work by an Aboriginal author. This story,
"The Red Convertible" by Louise Erdrich, tells the tale of a smmner spent traveling the United
States in a red convertible and the development of the protagonists' to adulthood. Margaret
Atwood's "Death by Landscape" also includes some First Nations considerations in that it
discusses linages of Native peoples. However, this is a story about Aboriginal peoples rather than
by them.
Guth, Hans P., and Gabriele L. Rico. Discovering Fiction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1993.
NFNC
This anthology of short fiction is prefaced with a statement noting the n1tention of the
editors to redefine the canon. In order to accomplish this, the collection includes a combination
of 'classics' with what is termed "classics of tomorrow" and "multicultural writing."
The teacher's guide does not offer suggestions as to how any post-colonial themes or
issues may be discussed.
Kerr, Moira, and John Bennett. Myth. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd., 1966.

NFNC

This book is entirely dedicated to a study of Greek and Roman myths.
Mouland, Elisabeth, ed. Tracing One Warm Line: Poetry of Canada. St. John's, Nfld.:
Breakwater, 1994.
FNC
This text is a collection of poetry from various Canadian writers that is divided into 5
sections, one of which is titled "Aboriginals." However, only 8 pages are dedicated to this section
and all the poems tend to promote deep-rooted stereotypes concerning indigenous cultures. For
instance, :ll1cluded in these pages are poems on nature, a war chant, and a hunting song.
Although the teacher' s guide n1cludes Native representation, it is lllnited to a definition of
the symbolism of the animals in the poems by Native writers.

147

Novels:
Margaret Laurence: Th e Stone Angel
Susan Hill: The Mist in the Mirror
William Golding: Lord of the Flies
Daniel Quinn: Ishmael
W.O. Mitchell: Who Has Seen the Wind
Marjorie Darke: A Question of Courage
Charles Dickens: A Tale of Two Cities
---:A Christmas Carol
Lois Lowry: The Giver
Ernest Hemingway: A Farewell to Arms
Erich Maria Remarque: All Quiet on the Western Front
Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights
Drama:
Arthur Miller: An Enemy of the People

BOX#H63
All resources described below are designated for a grade 11 and 12 audience.

75 Readings: AnAnthology. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1995.

FNC

This collection contains 7 5 essays divided by format according to a variety of themes:
"Perspectives on Human Existence," "Descriptions of Place," "Portraits," "Culture and Identity,"
and so forth. Because only two canonized authors are represented, the content presented mirrors
the impediments discussed in this thesis . For instance, "Tuesday Morning" (61-65) by William
Least Heat-Moon is an exposition on the Navajo reservation, its peoples, culture, geography,
climate, and the like. N. Scott Momaday's "The Way to Rainy Mountain" (69-73) describes the
return of the author to his grandmother's graveside, at which point he describes her life, his
memories of her, and her stories.
Barry, James, and Joseph Griffin. Th e Storyteller: Short Stories From Around the World.
Scarborough, Ont.: Nelson Canada, 1992.
FNC
This is a collection of 37 short stories by international authors that is divided according to
continent and includes biographical notes of each writer represented. Unfortunately,
representation from continents is especially limited to white authors, particularly the stories from
Mrica and North America. The sole exception to this is "Blue Winds Dancing" by Thomas
Whitecloud, a story that describes the protagonist's journey from the world of settler society to
his home on a Native reservation and, in so doing, addresses colonialism and the cultural conflicts
or differences that arise.

148

Cochrane, Robertson. The Way We Word: Musing on the Meaning of Everyday English.
Saskatoon: Fifth House Publishers, 1993.
NFNC
A collection of articles that explores word origins and usage as well as the practical
applications of language.
Conrad, Ronald. The Act of Writing: Canadian Essays for Composition . Fourth Edition.
Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 1995.
FNC
This book features 50 essays divided by fundamental patterns of organization: narration,
example, description, cause and effect, comparison and contrast, and so forth. Questions follow
each essay. Only one is of First Nations content; Carol Geddes ' "Growing up Native" (32-40)
describes the life of a Tlingit woman and her experiences with racism and intolerance. The story
ends with her involvement in university and her aspirations of becoming an elder. As such, this
essay is a good introduction to First Nations concerns, including racism, prejudice, and Othering.
Process and Practice. Fourth Edition. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, 1993.
NFNC
A book designed to develop students' writing skills, this text features many examples,
exercises, and explanations devoted to this objective. Each section contains exercises in 3 levels
of difficulty that also discuss the writing process, construction of arguments, the process of
editing, and so forth.
Guth, Hans P., and Gabriele L. Rico. Discovering Literature: Fiction, Poetry, and Drama.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993.
FNC
A large collection of fiction, poetry, and drama that features a wide range of themes from
international sources and all arranged into units. Like Discovering Fiction, which is edited by the
same authors, this text also makes note of its redefinition of the literary canon through a variety of
mechanisms. Four short works are of Aboriginal content, the first of which is a poem by N. Scott
Momaday titled "New World" (451). This poem about nature is uniquely structured with four
sections, each one focusing on the elements of the day. The second, "Tlingit Concrete Poem" by
Nora Dauenhauer (454), is a poem that uses the Tlingit word for apple (x'aax') to give a picture
of an apple. This work is emphasized in Chapter Five as an example of potentially subversive
literature. However, the inherent impediments preventing the teaching of post-colonialism hinder
its impact. Louise Erdrich is also featured; her poem "Indian Boarding Schools: The Runaways"
(607) is perhaps the most challenging of these works in that it discusses life at a residential school
and an incident involving two runaways. Finally, N. Scott Momaday is featured again in a poem
titled "Earth and I Gave You Turquoise" (635). More than 250 works are featured in this
anthology, but these four are the only ones written by Native authors. The rest of the work does
contain some multicultural works, though much of the collection is devoted to canonical pieces.

149

Though background :information is provided on these short stories, the teacher's guide
does not offer any recommendations on how to :introduce post-colonial concerns or themes
presented by any of the above works.
Haml:in, Mike et al., eds. The New Windmill Book of Nineteenth Century Short Stories. Oxford:
He:inemann Educational Publishers, 1992.
NFNC
An anthology of short stories from various authors of the 19th century. A brief
introduction to the work and its author prefaces each story.
Holeton, Richard, ed. Encountering Cultures: Reading and Writing in a Changed World.
Second Edition. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995.
FNC
This book, a series of adult-level essays on cultural differences, cultural diversity,
language, and the development of stereotypes, is designed to facilitate critical th:ink:ing. Of all the
texts exam:ined, this is perhaps the best one for students to achieve the objectives of the IRP
concerning a "recognition of and appreciation for other cultures" (3). In providing critical
exam:inations of these and other themes, the text represents a key medium for the dismantl:ing of
traditional conceptions of First Nations peoples and cultures.
Haml:in, Mike et al. The New Windmill Book of Nineteenth Century Short Stories. Oxford:
He:inemann Educational Practices, 1992. NFNC
An anthology of short stories from various authors of the 19th century. A brief
introduction to the work and its author prefaces each story.

Holeton, Richard, ed. Encountering Cultures: Reading and Writing in a Changed World.
Second Edition. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995. FNC
This book, a series of adult -level essays on cultural differences, cultural diversity,
language, and the development of stereotypes, is designed to facilitate critical th:ink:ing. Of all the
texts examined, this is perhaps the best one for students to achieve the objectives of the IRP
concerning "a recognition of and appreciation for other cultures" (3). In providing critical
exam:inations of these and other themes, the text represents a key medium for the dismantl:ing of
traditional conceptions of Native peoples and cultures.
Kellow, Brian, and John Krisak. Essays: Thought and Style. Second Edition. Scarborough,
Ont.: Prentice Hall Ginn Canada, 1996. FNC
This text, an anthology of contemporary and classic essays, :includes Canadian, American,
and :international writers. The essays are grouped accord:ing to purposes in writing: to observe,
describe, narrate, defme, and expla:in. First Nations representation is limited solely to a small
essay by Chief Seattle (229-234) titled "Reply to the U.S. Government."

150

Miller, George. Th e Prentice Hall Reader. Fourth Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1995. FNC
An anthology of essays that provide examples of expository writing, narration, and
description, this text is organized according to theme and genre. Each section provides
instruction on how to write and revise each of these three forms as well as the schematics of
writing essays. Some First Nations content is represented, though, again, this representation is
limited to canonical First Nations authors only. N. Scott Momaday's "The Way to Rainy
Mountain" and William Least Heat-Moon are featured.

World Literature: Signature Edition. Macmillan Literature Series. Lake Forest, Illinois:
Glencoe, 1991.
NFNC
This large collection of multi-genre works from all over the world includes many Nobel Prize
winning authors. Each story is prefaced with a biography of the author and is followed with a
number of questions for class discussion. Although representation of the Other in a post-colonial
context is evident-for instance, issues of representation, identity, and colonialism--the book
remains an anthology of canonical literature. This text is like a who 's who of literature in that
only prominent names are represented.

BOX#H59
All resources described below are meant for a grade 11 and/or 12 audience.
Barry, James , ed. Coast to Coast: Canadian Stories, Poetry, Non-Fiction &Drama. Toronto:
Nelson Canada, 1995.
FNC
A multi-genre anthology of 20th century Canadian literature organized into nine themes,
including the land, cmrununication, identity, and love, this text covers the many aspects of
Canadian life, past and present, and features some First Nations content. Of this, the first is a
short, two line poem by Chief Dan George. The other works are a poem about identity titled
"The Ballad of Alice Moonchild" by Aleata Blythe and a short memoir called "Two Different
Ways of Life" by Dene author, George Blondin.
Borovilos, John. Breaking Through: A Canadian Literary Mosaic. Scarborough, Ont.: PrenticeHall Canada Inc., 1990.
FNC
This is an anthology of Canadian literature featuring short stories, poetry, and essays that
provide a view of the Canadian mosaic "through the eyes of ilrunigrants" (IRP). Included in this
text are three essays by First Nations authors, though they are defined as ilnmigrants rather than
original inhabitants. Nonetheless, these essays offer a good introduction to Aboriginal concerns
regarding colonialism, cultural differences, and identity.
---. Breaking Free: A Cross-Cultural Anthology. Scarborough, Ont.: Prentice-Hall Canada

151

Inc., 1995.

FNC

This is a cross-cultural anthology of short stories and poems representing Canadian and
international authors. Included in this collection is a table of contents indicating the roots and
current residence of each author represented. Of the 43 works included, only three are by
Aboriginal writers: Jeanette Armstrong, "History Lesson" (poetry); Thomas King, "Borders"
(fiction); and George Kenny, "On the Shooting of a Beaver" (fiction).
Vanstone, Kay. Develop Your English Skills. Second Edition. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman
Ltd., 1993.
NFNC
This text is an English skills workbook aimed at developing grammar and writing skills in
students for business world. A very exhaustive study of the elements of writing, this book also
contains a number of practical exercises and tests. As was expected, there is no Aboriginal
content.

BOX#H57
All resources annotated below are intended for a grade 11 and 12 audience.
"Just Talking About Ourselves ": Voic es of Our Youth. Penticton: Theytus Books, 1994.
FNC
Although previously discussed in Chapter Five, this book is a depiction in stories, poetry,
and visual art of the reality of many of B.C.'s Native youths. The second half of the book is "an
overview of the many projects that commenced in 1988" (69) to combat the use of drugs by many
Native adolescents. Intended to be a resource for future endeavors, this section also contains a
resource list of treatment centres, counseling services, and friendship centres across the province.
This anthology is one of the best texts currently available for the presentation of Aboriginal postcolonial concerns as it is not :impeded by any of the barriers discussed in Chapter Five.
Lieb, Anthony. Speaking for Success: Th e Canadian Guide. Toronto: Harcourt Brace &
Company, Canada, 1993.
NFNC
This text is a communications guide intended to teach students how to speak and write for
the world beyond school. Meant for language arts in the business world, this work is essentially a
how-to manual on proper speaking, business etiquette, the use of visual aids in public speaking,
proper dress, speech anxiety, and so forth.
Searchlights: Selected Essays. Toronto: Irwin Publishing, 1982.

FNC

This text is a collection of essays on a broad range of topics. Each article is followed by a
number of questions for discussion. Only one of the 25 essays presented is representative of First
Nations concerns, though it offers a good examination of Aboriginal attitudes concerning

152

colonialism to students. Strongly personal, Wilfred Pelletier's "For Every North American Indian
Who Begins To Disappear, I Also Begin To Disappear" illustrates cultural differences and the
subjugation of Native cultures and peoples as a result of imperialism.

BOX #H56 - Teacher's Resources
Brownlie, Faye, and Susan Close. Beyond Chalk & Talk: Collaborative Strategies for the
Middle and High School Years. Markham, Ont.: Pembroke Publishers Limited, 1992.
Grades 6-12. NFNC
This text is designed to be a learning guide for teachers on implementing strategies and
other educational mechanisms for students making the transition from elementary to secondary
school. Much of the book is devoted to writing and writing exercises.
Calkins, Lucy McCormick. The Art of Teaching Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1994.
Grades: K-12. NFNC
A book on writing and the process of writing for students at all grades and levels.
Fletcher, Ralph. What A Writer Needs. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1993. Grades: 4-12.
NFNC
This text provides a number of educational strategies for helping students to become
better writers.

153

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