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“A LITTLE BIT OF WEIGHT IS TAKEN OFF”:
A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF CELTIC FOLK DANCE AS A
STRESS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR WOMEN IN MIDLIFE
by
Carol Usher
B.P.E., The University of Alberta, 1967
B.S.W., The University of Northern British Columbia, 1997

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in
COUNSELLING

© Carol Usher, 2000
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
November 2000
All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without the permission o f die author.

1 ^ 1

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0-612-62503-6

CanadS

APPROVAL

Name:

Carol E. Usher

Degree:

M aster of Education

Thesis Title:

A LITTLE BIT O F W EIGHT IS TA K EN OFF: A
PHENOM ENOLOGICAL STUDY O F CELTIC FOLK
DANCE AS A STRESS M ANAGEM ENT STRATEGY
FOR W OM EN IN M IDLIFE

Examining Committee

Chair: Dr. Gordon Martel
Pro[e^g6f, History Program
ic

Supervisor: Dr. Barbara H ettinger
Adjunct Professor, Social ) ^ r k Pro
UNBC

Com m ittee Member: DrXTmfi Strong
Assistant Professor, Education Program

niûêHuj

Com m ittee Member: Dr. Paul R. M adak
Professor, Education Program
UNBC

External Examiner: Dr. C i n d ^ a r d y
Assistant Professor, Psychpkigy Program
UNBC

Date Approved:

ABSTRACT
This investigation sought to study the phenomenological experience o f participation in a
Celtic folk dance class and to determine the relationship between participation in an exercise
program based on Celtic folk dances and stress reduction. This research was conducted as part of
the Northern Interior Health Region Women’s Mid-Life project which is part o f the B.C Women’s
Health in Mid-Life Project (WHIM). A dual methodological approach - descriptive
phenomenology and quantitative testing - was used to investigate the indepth experience o f midlife
women participating in a beginner level Celtic folk dance class.
Women (n=2S) ages 33 to 65 participated in seven introductory level classes based on
Scottish Country Dances and Irish Set Dances. Participants completed a demographic
questionnaire during the first class. The 40 item Speilberger’s State Trait Anxiety Inventory-Form
Y (STAI), a commonly used instrument in research on exercise and stress, was completed pre- and
post- class during the first and sixth weeks. Feedback firom the participants (n =17) on the STA^
results was obtained during a group activity conducted at the beginning of the seventh class. All
participants also filled in a brief guided journal after each class. Five women who fit predetermined
criteria — 1) age 45 to 65,2) present for at least 6 o f the 7 classes, and 3) indicated above average
stress levels on the preliminary questionnaires - participated in audiotaped interviews designed to
explore their phenomenological experience of the dance classes.
Phenomenological analysis of the interviews, guided journals and group activity yielded a
thematic structure around the two core themes “Increase in Stress” (“Social Stress”, “Stress
from the Dancing”,“Extemal Stress”, “Challenge”) and “Decrease in Stress’’! "The Group o f
Women”, “Movement and Music”, “Change o f Focus”,“Fun and Laughter”). The core
phenomenon that emerged was described, in the voice o f one o f the women as, “A Little Bit of
Weight is Taken O ff’. Two other themes emerged as keys to balancing and managing the stress
implicit in the dance class, “New Learning and Mastery” and “Leadership”.
The researcher proposes that participation in a physical activity program, based on Celtic
folk dances, is a potentially effective method for managing stress.

lU

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract

ii

Table o f Contents

iii

List o f Tables

vi

List o f Figures

vii

Acknowledgements

viii

Chapter One

Introduction and Clarification o f Terms
Introduction
Objective
Clarification o f Terms

1
1
2
4

Chapter Two

Framework for the Study
Introduction
Mid-Life and Stress
Stress, Coping and Stress Management
Stress
Stress Research Traditions
Coping with Stress
Stress Management.
Music, Exercise. Dance and Stress Management
Research on Music and Stress Reduction
Research on Exercise and Stress Reduction
Research on Dance and Stress Reduction
Eustress
Summary
Why Celtic Folk Dance for Mid-life Women?
Is Dancing a Feminist Issue?

8
8
8
11

Chapter Three Research Methodology and Method - A Dual Approach
Introduction
Philosophical Basis - Feminism & Phenomenology
Descriptive Phenomenology and Quantitative Testing
Descriptive Phenomenology
Quantitative Component - STAI
Method Used in This Study
Context
Participant Recruitment
Information Meeting
Ethical Considerations
Participants/Dancers
Procedure
Class Format
Speilberger”s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
Group Activity

13

23
25
26
28
34
34
35
38
42

48

Interview’s
Treatment o f the Data

51

IV

Phenomenological Analysis
Achieving Quality - Reliability & Validity
STAI - Reliability and Validity
External Validity
Internal Validity
Chapter Four

The Phenomenological Results
Introduction to the Results
The Dancers Who Were Interviewed.
How Everyday Stress Affects the Dancers
How the Dancers Cope
What Happened During the Dancing?
Introduction to the Themes
Social Stress - The Group of Women
Increase in Stress • Social Stress
Decrease in Stress - The Group o f Women
Joint Effort
Women only
Social
Menopause
External Stress - Change o f Focus
Increase in Stress - External Stressors
Decrease in Stress - Change of Focus
Stress from the Dancing - Movement and Music
Increase in Stress - Stress from the Dancing
Decrease in Stress • Movement and Music
Movement - Exercise and Dance
Music
Challenge • Fun and Laughter
Increase in Stress - Challenge
Decrease in Stress - Fun and Laughter
New Learning and Mastery
Leadership
Change in Emotional State

60
60
62
63
64
67
68
69

Chapter Five

Quantitative Results
Introduction
Speilberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
How the Dancers Viewed the Results

92
92
92
101

Chapter Six

Discussion
Implications for Researchers
Recommendations for Future Research
Implications and Recommendationsfor Counsellors

106
108
112
113

74
78

82
84
87
88

REFERENCES

119

APPENDICES:

125

Appendix A Basic Advertisement

126

Appendix B Informed Consent Document

130

Appendix C Questionnaires

133

Appendix D Guided Journals

137

Appendix E Inten/iew Guide

139

Appendix F Schedule

141

Appendix G Handouts

143

Appendix H Celtic Dance Research Results • Sample

152

VI

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Foikman & Lazarus Multidimensional Coping Process

13

Table 2: Summary o f Stressors Identified by the Participants

47

Table 3: Number o f Dancers Who Scored Below the Fiftieth
Percentile Pre and Post Class

97

Table 4: Results o f Paired t-Tests

99

Table 5: Reduction in Pre-Class 1 to Pre-Class 6 Trait Anxiety

100

Table 6: Reduction in Post-Class 1 to Post-Class 6 Trait Anxiety

100

Table 7; Group Feedback to the Question “What Would You Identify as
the Major Factor Contributing to Reduced Stress?

102

vu

LISTOFnCURES
Figure l : Thematic Analysis

61

Figure 2: Comparison of How the Dancers Feel When They are Stressed
and How They Feel After Dancing

90

Figure 3: State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class I - Entire Class

93

Figure 4: State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class I - Ages 45-65

93

Figure 5: Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class I - Entire Class

94

Figure 6: Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class I - Ages 45-65

94

Figure 7: State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 - Entire Class

95

Figure 8: State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 - Ages 45-65

95

Figure 9: Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 - Entire Class

96

Figure 10: Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 -Ages 45-65

96

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken Off viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are a number o f people to whom I would like to direct my acknowledgement.
Without their input, guidance and support this thesis could not have come into existence.
Thanks first and foremost to all the dancers who donated many hours from their busy lives
to participate in this research. My gratitude goes especially to those five women who gave
selflessly o f their time to be interviewed and to provide feedback on the transcripts and thematic
structure. Without the involvement o f all of these women this research could not have been
undertaken. It is my hope that the participants in this study have derived as much from the
experience as I have.
1 would like to express my sincere appreciation to my thesis committee ~ Dr. Barbara
Herringer, my thesis advisor, and Dr. Paul Madak and Dr. Tom Strong, my committee members -for your expertise, guidance and support. This document is as much a testament to your time,
assistance and valuable input as it is to my own efforts. Thankyou especially for having the
confidence in me to allow me to undertake a unique research design.
I would be remiss if I did not also acknowledge the important part played by Dr. Colleen
Haney, both for inspiring this research and for her assistance during its preliminary stages.
Last, but not least, 1 would also like to thank my husband, Peter, and my daughters, Julia and
Janette, for their patience and understanding as I travelled this academic journey.

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken O ff

I

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND CLARIFICATION OF TERMS
Introduction
“Mature women dancing” sneers Kate Mundy as her sisters enthusiastically chatter about
plans to join the dancing at the Lughnasa festivities. The sarcastic tone of her voice and her
disapproving demeanour make it clear that this is not something that “mature” women do; so,
despite their wild enthusiasm and love o f dancing, the five single sisters do not go. This scene from
the movie “Dancing at Lughnasa” (O’Conner, 1998) is set in pre-World War II Ireland, but the
attitude circumscribing the choice o f activities deemed acceptable for mature women, combined with
the social and cultural realities of women’s lives, continues to limit the possibilities for a potentially
more healthful lifestyle for women as they enter mid-life. In spite o f the acknowledged physical
and psychological benefits that accrue through regular participation in physical activity, “few
women are active enough to benefit their health” (Vertinsky, 1998, p. 81). According to Vertinsky,
it is important to critically evaluate the challenges inherent in achieving social equity
in opportunities for healdiy physical activity for all women. As we gain new
understandings about how health gains can be achieved by reducing social inequity
rather than providing more medicd care, we can see how involvement in healthy
exercise is closely entwined with the social and economic status of women,
disempowering stereotypes o f the female body and the issue o f control over
women’s bodies, (p. 82).
Wells (in Vertinsky, 1998) asserts that inadequate exercise is a major health issue for
women today. In spite o f the disintegrating barriers to female participation in athletic activities and
extensive government campaigns to encourage participation, women in every age group are less
active than men. Vertinsky reports that “in Canada, only 15% o f women over the age o f 10 report
an activity level sufficiently frequent and intense to develop fitness” (p. 84) and participation rates
decrease as age increases. Not only are women less active than men, they are also more stressed. A
recent report from Roper Starch Worldwide (Stress Affects Women, 1999) informs us that women
all over the world, across economic and social categories, suffer more stress in their lives than men.
The report adds, “the world needs to develop stress-busters to ease the lives o f these women”(p.
16).
This research project is motivated by my love o f dance and firm belief in the psychological

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken Off

2

benefits to be derived from physical exercise. I am a woman in mid-life who is currently involved
in promoting and teaching Celtic folk dances and who also participates in dancing for the “sanity
break” it provides. I am also well acquainted with stress as my life includes combining full-time
employment as a social worker with university studies, family responsibilities and teaching dance
classes. I am a person who seeks out stress as a motivation for action and change and who
manages my responses to stress through physical activity.
This research has special meaning for me as it combines facets o f all my post-secondary
education. In 1967,1 graduated from a Physical Education degree program which 1 undertook
because o f my abiding conviction in the important role physical activity plays in a holistic, healthy
lifestyle. I struggled to teach physical education from a cooperative, egalitarian philosophy in an
athletic milieu that valued competition and distributed a disproportionate amount o f resources to
boys and athletic teams. I attempted to impart basic skills and enjoyment of physical activity to all
children, talented or otherwise, in order that they could pursue a physically active lifestyle
throughout their lives. 1 also demanded equal gym time and resources for girls and recreational
sports. Thirty years later, in 1997,1 received my BSW. In this degree program my egalitarian
values were affirmed. 1 also developed a greater imderstanding o f structures that maintain the
society in which we live, where a disproportionate portion of the resources and rewards (including
leisure time) are controlled by the few. My current interest in stress management along with
promotion o f physical activity (through dance) as a key component of psychological health arises
from my third degree program. Education (Counselling).

Objective
This research focuses on lifestyle change as an intervention for managing stress. The
investigation sought to study the experience o f participation in a Celtic folk dance class and to
determine the relationship between participation in an exercise program based on Celtic folk dances
and stress reduction. In order to undergo this study I conducted 7 dance classes at an introductory
level. My thesis presents participation in a physical activity program, based on Celtic folk dances.

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken Off

3

as a potentially effective method of stress management that is well suited to women at this stage of
life. Until recently midlife women have been paid little attention by the research community
(Walker, 1993). What research has been done in the areas o f mid-life women and stress
management has not included the voices o f the women participants. Vertinsky ( 1998) suggests that
“it is essential to listen more carefully to what wom en... say about their own experiences in their
lived bodies and how they see them as providing a location for health and healthful practices” (p.
99). As the baby-boomers approach their fifties, the population of women in midlife is rapidly
growing and along with these burgeoning numbers, interest is increasing in the health concerns of
women in this group. Lifestyle interventions, directed toward preventative health care during
midlife, could conceivably ameliorate or postpone many geriatric problems. However, changes in
lifestyle must be accompanied by challenging systemic cultural barriers that shape and limit female
participation in physical activity.
Through this research 1 investigated a specific strategy o f stress management - exercise in
the form o f Celtic folk dance - as a therapeutic alternative for managing stress for women in mid­
life. As well as providing an introduction to this study. Chapter One provides Clarification for the
terms “mid-life”, “stress’, “Celtic” and “Celtic folk dance”. Chapter Two provides a review of
the literature from several areas - women in mid-life; stress, coping and stress management;
music, exercise and dance, women and leisure ~ as a backdrop for this study. In this second
chapter, 1 also present a rationale for Celtic folk dance as a particularly suitable activity for women
in mid-life as well as a justification for considering dance as a feminist issue. Chapter Three
provides the philosophical basis for my study and delineates the methodology and the method 1
adopted. A dual methodological approach - descriptive phenomenology and quantitative testing was used to investigate the in depth experience o f mid-life women participating in a beginner level
Celtic folk dance class and to give recognition to and build on, the body of quantitative research that
has already been done in the area o f exercise and stress. Data &om interviews, guided journals and
a group activity were examined using a phenomenological method of analysis suggested by Giorgi
(1985). Particular attention was given to experience that suggested a cotmection with the concepts

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken Off

4

o f stress and stress management. Along with the phenomenological component, analysis of
Speilberger’s (1983) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) (Form Y) using paired t-tests was used
to document changes in anxiety, a commonly accepted measure of stress, over the course o f two
classes. The results of this testing were given to the participants for their feedback. Chapters Four
and Five present the results from this investigation. Chapter Four documents the outcome o f the
phenomenological analysis and offers a thematic structure based on the lived experience o f the
women while and immediately after they danced. The voices of the women are used to illustrate and
support this thematic structure. The results from STAI testing were analyzed using SPSS. The
results o f this analysis along with the feedback from the dancers on these results can be found in
Chapter Five. A discussion and recommendations based on the findings from this research are
offered in the concluding chapter.
1 hope that my research will 1) broaden our understanding of mid-life women’s experience
o f dancing; 2) add to the existing body o f knowledge in the fields of dance, exercise and stress; 3)
expand the choices of exercise activities for stress management; and 4) encourage a health
promotion program based on wellness
Vertinsky ( 1998) identifies a number o f issues that preclude women’s participation in
physical activity as a health promotion strategy. These include both misconceptions about the
physical abilities o f women and cultural assumptions about roles and appropriate activities for
women. 1 am hoping that through this research, I may bring attention to the need for community
programs and facilities that will address the needs and interests of women in mid-life and broaden
the choices of physical activities for women.

Clarification of Terms
Midlife
This study took place within the context o f the “Women’s Health in Midlife Years
Project” (WHIM)(Pilot materials, 1999) - “an initiative designed to assist women in B.C. to make
informed choices about managing key mid-life health issues”. The definition o f mid-life begins

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken Off

5

with the age range identified by this project - 45 to 65 years.
Mid-life is commonly equated with menopause, however, midlife is more than just a
reproductive stage o f life. For many women it can be a time for personal development and pursuit
of personal goals. A woman’s attitude toward this period of her life is determined by a number o f
factors including societal and personal beliefs. Within North American culture menopause has
been a taboo topic and the worth o f older women has been denied. Older women become invisible
or are encouraged to remain forever young. Within other cultures and times this is not always the
case. Northrup (1995) informs us that in Celtic culture the maid is seen as the flower, the mother as
the fruit and the older woman, or crone, as the seed. “The seed is the part that contains the
knowledge and the potential of all the other parts within it” (p. 431 ). The older woman is given the
role of reseeding the community with her truth and wisdom.

Stress
Since the term “stress” was coined by Hans Selye in 1936 to refer to “the reaction o f the
organism to some sort o f outside threat” (Singer & Davidson, 1991, p. 37), the concept o f stress
has evolved to encompass a lai^e variety of phenomena. Roskies (1991) informs us that there is no
precise definition o f the term stress or stress problems and there is lack o f agreement as to what
exactly stress means. Lazarus (Monat & Lazarus, 1991) suggests that the term “stress” be used
as a collective term to describe a field of study. This is the manner in which the term “stress” is
used for the purposes o f this study.

Celtic
In the present day, the term “Celtic” has become synonymous with Ireland although the
influence o f Celtic culture can be found throughout Britain, Ireland, Man, Wales, Cornwall, Britany
in France, and Nova Scotia in Canada. For over five hundred years the Celts were a major cultural
presence throughout Europe (Spangenberg, 1999; Wallace, 1996; Wangsbickler, 1997). Celtic
domination was terminated by Roman conquest, however, evidence suggests that Ireland remained

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken O ff

6

untouched by the Romans and retained a Celtic identity well into the fifth century AD (Pierce, 1989;
Wallace, 1996; Wangsbickler, 1997) when Christianity spread into Ireland. According to Pierce
much o f this Celtic identity remains in Ireland to this day. The term Celtic also refers to a language
group in the Indo-European family. The Celtic family o f languages is divided into two branches Insular Celtic languages and Continental Celtic languages (Pierce, 1989). Celtic Insular languages
are spoken throughout Britain, Ireland, Isle o f Man and Britany. There are many native speakers o f
both Irish and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland, Scotland and Nova Scotia and Breton is spoken in
Britany. The term Celtic refers to both a cultural and linguistic heritage. For the purposes o f this
project, it refers to the Celtic cultural influence on folk dance forms as they were developed in
Ireland and Scotland and have been disseminated to other countries.

Celtic Folk Dance
According to Silver ( 1981), the function o f a dance identifies it as folk dance. Folk dance
differs from theatre or art dance in that the “participants o f folk dance [are] physically involved in a
communal activity” (p. 4). Active physical involvement as a part of a group is the key aspect o f
folk dance but not the only aspect. There is also a suggestion o f ethnicity, or linkage to the socio­
cultural tradition of a group with a sense o f identity based on origin (Silver, 1981 ; Hanna, 1988a).
Typically, folk dances are executed in various formations, such as open circles, closed circles,
squares, lines, trios and pairs. Participants hold hands, have arms around each others waists, link
shoulders, or link elbows. Dancers learn to hold their actions together with the rest o f the group to
create a unified whole. There are many opportunities for social interaction and dances frequently
included changing parmers (Silver, 1981). The term, Celtic folk dance, includes but is not limited
to, the ceili, country and set dances o f the Irish and Scottish people. Ceili (ceilidh) dances are simple
popular dances commonly danced at parties and may be couple dances, round dances, line dances
and progressive line dances (Harrison, 1998). Scottish Country Dancing and Irish Set Dancing
are derived from forms of dancing that were at one time popular throughout Euope. These forms of
dancing were imported by dance masters and adapted to the music and styles o f the local people.

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken O ff

7

These three types of dancing will form the basis for the proposed program.
Chapter One has presented an introduction and overview for my thesis research on the
experience o f mid-life women as they engage in the folk dances &om Ireland and Scotland. The
following chapter presents a review of the literature that forms the fiameworic for this study.

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken O ff

8

CHAPTER TWO: FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY
Introduction
Literature for this study spans the fields o f menopause, stress and stress management,
exercise psychology and physiology, music and dance. This review begins with a discussion o f the
connection between women, menopause and stress. Research which suggests that symptoms o f
menopause are due more to life circumstances than hormonal factors is introduced. A brief
overview o f the fields o f stress research and stress management strategies is then presented. Dance
combines elements of both music and exercise, thus research in these two areas can be applied to
dance. Stress theory and research from all three fields will be reviewed. This is followed by a
section on laughter and stress, as laughter is an integral component o f Celtic folk dancing. A
concluding section o f the literature review provides a discussion of the ingredients in Celtic folk
dance that may make it especially appropriate for women in mid-life and an argument that
participation in activities such as dance should be a "feminist issue”.

Mid-Life and Stress
The recently released Heart and Stroke Foundation’s (2000) Annual Report Card on
Canadian’s Health reported that 43% of Canadians over thirty years o f age report being stressed on
a frequent basis. This report ranked workplace stress as the most common source o f stress, with
family and money worries not far behind. Time pressures were reported as the prime contributing
factor. The report suggested that both men and women may be cutting out important aspects o f
their life, such as hobbies and recreation, in an effort to meet the demands o f work and home.
While little difference seems to exist between the genders in feeling pressured for time, “stress
caused by attending to the needs o f family members was higher among women than men” (no
page).
Women of any age are likely to experience certain stressors more than men. In a 1989
study, Lowe enumerated several stressors peculiar to Canadian women. According to Lowe, the
majority' o f women in Canada work a double day and consequently are faced with balancing work.

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken O ff

9

familial and personal demands. Many of the most stressful occupations - those that combine low
status, monotony and low-decision making - fall to women. Women also make up the majority of
employees in caring professions, such as health care, education and social services, where job bumout is common. Additionally, in these leaner economic times, funding cut backs in the public sector
place a burden on those who rely on these services. As services are cut back, women are called
upon to take up the slack by filling caring roles.
Mid-life is a time o f shifting roles, responsibility, and relationships, resulting in stressors
peculiar to this life stage. Several major events are characteristic of the middle period o f the
lifespan. For women with families, this time coincides with children passing through their teen
years or leaving, and sometimes, retuming home. The current generation o f mid-life women have
been dubbed the “sandwich generation” as many are faced not only with caring for adult children
but also aging and ailing parents. Women face their own mortality as their parents die and they
become the older generation. At mid-life, those women who have devoted their lives to raising
children, look back at career, educational and creative pursuits that they may have abandoned
(Kass-Annese, 1999). Some feel too old to take them up again. Others are re-entering educational
institutions whose programs and activities are directed toward the young. Women attempting to re­
enter the labour force may not be marketable. Society does not provide opportunities for these
women in the form o f affordable employment training programs and opportunities such as it does
for its youth.
The youth-oriented society in which we live sends negative messages about aging and
limitations o f older women (Kass-Annese, 1999 ; Page, 1993). According to Page, the cultural
meanings our society attaches to menopause are ample cause for stress. Some women feel their
usefulness is over when they can no longer fulfill the function o f bearers and caregivers of
children. The conventional medical mindset views menopause as a deficiency disease and this
natural process is medicalized and pathologized (Northrup, 1995). Women are viewed as no longer
able to produce or as declining in function. In our ageist culture women face a media barrage o f
negative messages about aging. Northrup points to the oestrogen companies and the medical

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken O ff

10

community who plant seeds of fear in women that as soon as they go through menopause their
bodies will rapidly decline and they will lose their attractiveness. We do decline, but not totally as a
result o f aging. Decline is more a consequence o f our attitudes toward the capabilities o f women at
this time o f life, compounded by unhealthy lifestyle. As Kass-Annese ( 1999) points out, “Some
anthropological studies have shown that, in cultures in which the elderly are revered and supported,
physical and emotional health greatly surpasses that o f the elderly in the Western world and that
women have fewer symptoms associated with menopause”(p. 38).
Juggling home and work, going to school and raising a family, feeling unfulfilled, tending to
aging parents, reparenting adult children, trying to find one’s own niche in life - any o f these can be
stressful. Page (1993) declares, that, given the life circumstances surrounding mid-life women in
North American society, it is not surprising to find signs o f stress appearing in physical and/or
emotional forms.
The period of time preceding and following menopause is referred to as the climacteric.
“Some research has demonstrated that, during the climacteric, women who have more stress in their
lives also have more 'climacteric complaints’ than others” (Kass-Annese, 1999, p. 44). Many
symptoms, such as insomnia, fatigue, shortness of breath, heart palpitations, hot flushes or chills,
irritability, and memory difficulties, are common to both stress reactions and the climacteric (KassAnnese, 1999) and are blamed on hormonal changes rather than life circumstances.
Evidence suggests, however, that psychological symptoms associated with menopause may
be related more to stressful factors such as family, environmental and economic circumstances
rather than endocrine changes. A study o f middle-aged Australian women conducted by
Dennerstein, Smith and Morse (1994) found that menopausal status did not significantly affect
well-being. Well-being was related to current health status and psychosocial and lifestyle variables
rather than endocrine changes. Bromberger and Matthews’ ( 1996) research with American women
also discovered that, while the occurrence o f stressful events and high score on trait anxiety were
predictors o f depressive symptoms, change in menopausal status was not related to occurrence of
depression.

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Stress, Coping and Stress Management
Stress
Stress has been a part o f human existence since earliest recorded history (Hanna, 1988a)
but the name “stress” and the concept o f coping with it are relatively new. The topic o f stress
deals with how people respond to changing and conflicting demands in their lives. Potential
stressors can be found in the fabric of everyday life - lifestyle transitions, workplace, family and
community relations, crises, inadequate resources and disparity between aspirations and ability or
opportunity. The vast majority of adults who complain about suffering from stress complain about
jobs, family stresses, and a multitude o f minor challenges and threats that occur repeatedly and
frequently (Roskies, 1991). Roskies reports that a number o f empirical studies suggest that these
“daily hassles” may be more important for adaptation and health than catastrophic events especially if frequent. This, says Roskies, helps explain why seemingly “normal” persons living
in “normal” circumstances complain about stress and develop stress related health problems.
“Although a correlation between stress and health (mind and body) has been discussed for
centuries by philosophers and scientists, it is only in the past few years that stress has been
considered a definite risk factor for ill health” (Kass-Annese, 1999, p. 38). Kass-Annese and
Lowe ( 1989) estimate that stress can be linked directly or indirectly to 50-80 % o f all illness.
Research has determined that stress plays a major factor in a multitude of human health problems
including hypertension, cardiovascular disease, depression, gastrointestinal disorders, headaches,
low-back pain, suppression o f the immune system and susceptibility to disease (Hanna, 1988a;
Kass-Annese, 1999; Pelletier & Lutz, 1991). Stress is not the cause o f ill health but, in the body’s
attempt to adapt to stress, physiological conditions arise that pre-dispose the body to disease.
Stress also plays a role in health related behaviours, such as drinking alcohol, smoking, pressured
lifestyle and lack of sleep - all ways o f coping that can be damaging to health (Monat & Lazarus,
1991; Pelletier & Lutz, 1991).

Stress Research Traditions
Generally research on stress falls into two broad categories - physiological and

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transactional. The physiological notion o f stress is exemplified by the research o f Selye (Singer &
Davidson, 1991). Although the focus o f my research is on the psychological aspects o f stress, the
connection between the psychological and the physiological is fundamental. “The two systems are
really aspects o f the same unitary process” (Singer & Davidson, 1991, p. 46). It is important to
have a basic understanding of the individual’s physiological response to stress as negative health
effects o f stress, such as high blood pressure, hardening of the arteries, heart disease, ulcers and
nervous disturbances, can be due to the body’s physiological response to stressors. Hans Selye,
considered to be the father of modem stress theory, gave the field its name and provided one of first
systematic descriptions o f the sequence o f hormonal and tissue change dubbed the “stress
response” in a model o f stress he called General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). This model
consists o f three phases. During the alarm phase the body prepares itself for action by releasing
hormones into the blood stream that facilitate the release o f energy in the form o f glycogen and free
fatty acids, speed up the heart rate and increase blood flow to the muscles and brain and, at the same
time, decrease the blood flow to the stomach and intestine. This reaction cannot be maintained
continuously (Selye, 1991) and is followed by a further release o f hormones designed to return the
body to normal. Blood pressure and heart rate decrease, digestive processes resume and energy is
conserved during the stage o f resistance or adaptation. With continued stress resistance declines
and the body reaches the stage o f exhaustion. According to Selye, the body’s response to
stressors is “non-specific” to a variety of dissimilar situations, including “emotional arousal,
effort, fatigue, pain, fear, concentration, humiliation, loss o f blood, and even great and unexpected
success” (Selye, 1991, p. 22). This concept of non-specificity (reaction occurs in response to
every stressor) has implications in that the “effects o f stress are cumulative, such that each episode
leaves behind a residue that may add up across stressful exposures” (Singer & Davidson, p.38).
The wisdom o f Selye’s work “lies in the recognition that ultimately the effects o f the struggle
against the invader might be more harmfiil than the direct effects of the noxious agent itself’
(Roskies, 1991, p. 413).
The transactional tradition o f stress research defines stress as “the outcome o f interactions

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between the organism and the environment.... In the transactional model, an event in the
environment is considered to be a stressor only if the organism’s appraisals o f it, and o f its own
resources, suggests that it is threatening or disturbing” (Singer & Davidson, 1991, p. 37). The
individual’s appraisal o f the situation will be influenced, among other things, by the situation, by
past experiences, and by the person’s resources. The transactional model allows researchers to
understand and explain situations that are difficult to comprehend in the reactionary physiological
model, such as the ability of individuals to withstand seemingly very difficult circumstances or the
escalation o f apparently minor problems into stress.

Coping with Stress
Monat and Lazarus (1991) describe coping as “an individual’s efforts to master demands
that are appraised as exceeding or taxing his or her resources” (p. S). Foikman and Lazarus
(1991) suggest a taxonomy o f coping composed of two categories • problem focused and emotion
focused. Problem focused strategies are directed at altering the person-environment relationship.

Table 1
Foikman & Lazarus Multidimensional Cooing Process (Monat & lazarus, 1991)
Problem-Focused

Emotion-focused

1) confiontive and interpersonal

1) distancing

2) planful problem-solving

2) escape avoidance
3) accepting responsibility or blame
4) exercising self control over
expression o f feelings
5) seeking social support
6) positive reappraisal

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Emotion-focused strategies refer "to thoughts or actions whose goal is to relieve the emotional
impact o f stress” (Monat & Lazarus, 1991, p. 6). Table I displays various types o f coping as sub­
categories under problem- and emotion-focused coping. People rely on both problem-focused and
emotion-focused forms o f coping in managing the demands o f stressful encounters. Which coping
style is used will be influenced by the condition being faced, the options available, and the
individual's personality. In most situations individuals use both styles o f coping at different times.
Neither style is inherently superior to the other, although, traditionally, emotion focused coping
(particularly defense mechanisms such as denial) have been looked on by some researchers as
pathological or maladaptive (Folkman & Lazarus, 1991). The key factor, as identified by Folkman
and Lazarus, in determining the coping effectiveness is whether or not the choice o f coping strategy
fits the possibilities for coping in the encounter.

Stress Management
Stress management involves a wide variety o f techniques employed to reduce stress or to
alleviate its harmful effects. It can be a form o f therapy aimed at reducing problematic emotional
states and behaviour for a wide variety o f clients. It can also be used to prevent pathology in
individuals who are currently at risk, such as individuals in the midst of life transitions, victims of
trauma, and people employed in stressful occupations. For these individuals the aim o f stress
management would be to reduce emotional distress and head off deteriorating functioning. The
wide array o f situations and clientele to which stress management is appropriate leads Roskie
(1991) to comment that “the most instinctive characteristic o f stress management as a treatment is
its universality; there is no one for whom treatment is unneeded or inappropriate” (p. 412).
Because o f its widespread popularity it is tempting to dismiss stress management as a fad. Roskie,
however, points out that research has shown it to be a “huitful” way to treat human distress.
Monat and Lazarus (1991) categorize stress management interventions into the three basic
categories - Environment/Lifestyle, Personality/Perceptions, and Biological Response. Within the
Environment/Lifestyle category, they include strategies such as time management, proper nutrition.

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exercise, and cessation of harmful coping strategies such as smoking and drinking. Assertiveness
training, thought stopping and stress inoculation are contained in the Personality/Perception
category. The Biological Response category involves strategies such as progressive muscle
relaxation, meditation and biofeedbcak exercises. The effectiveness o f some o f these methods have
not been thoroughly tested and ongoing research is necessary to determine the effectiveness of the
various techniques and to determine under which situations and for whom they are useful (Monat
& Lazarus).

Music, Exercise, Dance and Stress Management
The use o f music, physical exercise, and dance as stress management strategies falls within
the environmental/lifestyle category. Only a limited amount of research has been conducted on the
music-stress relationship but results indicate music is effective for stress management particularly
in medical situations (Maranto, 1993a; 1993b). That exercise is a useful intervention for stress
management is part of commonly accepted wisdom. There is little empirical research in the area of
dance although dance/movement therapy and other forms o f therapeutic dance are used in a
diversity o f settings and with a variety o f populations. The following section presents an overview
of the stress research in the areas o f music, exercise and dance.

Research on Music and Stress Reduction
The use o f music to treat various physiological and psychological problems extends
throughout history, but, as Thaut wrote in 1989, there is still “very little quantified data about the
efficacy and mode o f action o f music-based treatment techniques” (p. 155). Music can be used
either as the primary form o f intervention to reduce anxiety, or it can be used in a supportive role
with some other stress management technique such as imagery or one o f the abbreviated
progressive relaxation techniques.
The limited literahire dealing with affective responses to music has been predominantly
concerned with the power o f music to influence mood. The findings to date (Maranto,

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1993a; 1993b) suggest that : 1) music has the ability to influence mood and affective responses, 2)
music training appears to influence mood intensity and mood response to music,
3) findings on the influence of gender on mood responses to music are contradictory, 4) the
existing mood o f the listener affects subsequent reactions to music and preference for the music
may interact with the mood in terms o f music's potential to alter mood, S) music has been shown to
alter mood significantly both in positive and negative ways, 6) psychological and cognitive
responses to music are unique for each individual, and, 7) music may have an enhancing or
diminishing effect when combined with other methods o f treatment.
Most studies using music to treat anxiety have been conducted either on college students or
on patients in connection with medical procedures. That the results o f these studies are inconsistent
may be due to lack o f standardized methodologies or may be due to lack of universal definition of
“relaxing” music. Research suggests that the type o f music used for relaxation and the music
preference o f the subjects may influence the potential for anxiety reduction (Maranto, 1993a).
While results have generally been contradictory, the vast majority of studies report music has
significant positive effects as a treatment for anxiety prior to surgery, in general hospital or intensive
care units and labour and delivery rooms (Maranto, 1993a; 1993b). Consistent positive results have
also been found in the application o f music in relief o f anxiety during dental procedures and in pain
relief (Maranto, 1993a). Studies combining or contrasting music with other relaxation strategies
have shown that music appears to enhance techniques involving progressive relaxation, autogenic
methods, imagery and suggestion. Music’s effectiveness compared to other modes o f relaxation
training varies (Maranto, 1993a).
Four research studies demonstrate the contradictory results of research in the use o f music
for stress management. Rohner and Miller ( 1980) found that music (sedative or stimulating) had
no effect on anxiety. Russel ( 1992) and Thaut (1980), on the other hand, found that music did
decrease anxiety. Research done by Davies and Thaut ( 1989) indicates that the choice o f music by
the individual plays a major role in the effectiveness o f the music for anxiety reduction.
Rohner and Miller (1980) examined the possibility o f using music for relaxation with high

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anxiety university students using four different types of music: familiar sedative, unfamiliar
sedative, familiar stimulating, and unfamiliar stimulating. Results proved to be statistically
insignificant, implying that music has no reducing effect on state anxiety. However there did seem
to be a trend noted for sedative music to have some anxiety reducing effects on high state anxiety
subjects. A confounding factor in this research was that classical music was used. Because the
subjects were university students, this may not have differentiated subjects adequately in terms of
familiarity and unfamiliarity.
Russel ( 1992) compared the effectiveness o f the following listening activities for reducing
anxiety in highly anxious university students - familiar sedative music, guided imagery, guided
imagery augmented by familiar sedative music and a cognitive behaviour intervention tape - using
the experimental design o f pretest-post test with control group. Students who received the music
plus imagery treatment showed significantly lowered state anxiety than did the students o f any other
group, however, all groups (including the control) showed significant decreases in state anxiety
from pretest to post test. Trait anxiety scores also decreased significantly for all groups except the
cognitive behavioral group.
Thaut (1989) measured music-evoked experiences in music therapy through self-reports of
SO male prisoner-patients, ages 18 to 45, in a correctional psychiatric hospital. Interventions
consisted o f music group therapy, instrumental group improvisation and music accompanied by
progressive muscle relaxation. Significant differences were found between pre- and post- test
ratings on a relaxation-rating scale developed by the researcher.
Davis and Thaut (1989) sought to measure the physiological and psychological responses
to preferred, relaxing music. Introductory psychology students and individuals &om the
community listened to relaxing music o f their own choosing. The wide variety o f music chosen classical, soft rock, hard rock, folk, Christian, jazz - defied more traditional classifications o f music
as sedative or stimulative. Listening to preferred music was found to be associated with significant
decreases in state anxiety along with enhanced relaxation.

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Research on Eiercise and Stress Reduction
According to the Canadian Heart and Stroke Foundation ( 1997), “physical activity is one of
the most effective stress remedies around” (p. 29). Research has consistently demonstrated the
potential psychological benefits of exercise. Investigators have found that both acute exercise and
chronic exercise can result in reduction in psychological stress, especially anxiety and depression
(Berger & Owen, 1992; Fiilingim & Blumenthal, 1993; Long & Haney, 1988a; 1988b). Long and
Haney (1988a; 1988b) found that participation in a jogging program appears to be as effective for
stress reduction as participation in a progressive muscle relaxation program. Rudolf and Kim
(1996) demonstrated the potential mood benefits o f aerobic dance and soccer. Berger and Owen’s
(1988) research indicates the effectiveness o f Hatha yoga for stress reduction. In a 1988 study,
Berger, Friedman and Eaton found that jogging and practice of the relaxation response were more
effective in reducing stress than a group discussion, although all were more effective than a control
group. Repeatedly, exercise has been shown to be as effective as other stress-management
techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation or stress inoculation in a variety of populations
(Berger, 1994). An added advantage to the use of exercise for stress management is its highly
substantiated health and fitness side effects.
Exercise, however, does not inevitably lead to stress reduction. While the majority of
research on exercise and stress supports the supposition that exercise reduces stress, there have
been some contradictory results that hint there are other factors in play. For example, Berger and
Owen (1986; 1988; 1992) have obtained non-confirming evidence for participants in swimming,
fencing and body conditioning.
Berger and Owen (1988) suggested that, rather than testing the exercises one-by-one to
determine their effectiveness for reducing stress, a taxonomy should be developed to help
distinguish physical activities that are most stress reducing. They proposed a taxonomy which
consisted o f the following four characteristics that facilitate the psychological benefits o f exercise:
aerobic, non-competitive, predictable (to allow the participant to tune out the environment and focus
on their own thoughts), and rhythmical or repetitive (to allow for introspection). In addition to these

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characteristics, the exercise must be pleasurable, regular, o f moderate intensity and o f at least 20 to
30 minutes in duration. Berger and Owen’s ( 1988) study produced non-confirming evidence for
the proposed taxonomy. The participants o f a hatha yoga class, not an aerobic activity, reported
feeling significantly better after exercise - less tense, depressed, angry and confused. This, along
with Goldwater and Collis’ (in Berger and Owen) finding that low-intensity exercise led to
significant reductions in anxiety, suggests that the aerobic component o f Berger and Owen’s
taxonomy requires further investigation.
The evidence that aerobic exercise is effective in decreasing the harmful effects o f stress is
increasing (Long & Haney, 1988). Yet, although the need for aerobic quality is frequently cited,
there is little research investigating this characteristic (Berger & Owen, 1988). Fiilingim and
Blumenthal (1993) describe aerobic activity as repetitive movements o f large muscle groups in
which the energy is derived from aerobic metabolism, such as in jogging, biking, swimming, and
walking. “The main criterion o f aerobic exercise is that it be continuous and of sufficient intensity
to elevate the heart rate to a particular level’ (Fiilingim & Blumenthal, 1993 p. 453). There are
numerous indications that aerobic exercise is not an essential ingredient for stress reduction. In one
study (McPherson et al. in Long & Haney, 1988) both conditioning and a recreational comparison
group showed significant reductions in anxiety. Increasingly, research also supports the use of
low-intensity exercise such a walking, Hatha yoga, and bicycling (Berger, 1994). In general, studies
show that both acute and chronic exercise, mild to moderate in intensity, enhance mood in normal
and clinical populations (Fiilingim & Blumenthal, 1993) but “the aerobic benefits o f exercise
appear not to be entirely responsible for these effects; mood changes have occurred with nonaerobic exercise, and the mood changes following aerobic exercise often occur before any aerobic
adaptation would be expected” (p. 452).
Hughs, Casal, and Leon (in Long & Haney, 1988) found that subjects exercising alone
reported minimal changes in psychological functioning despite achieving improved fimess levels.
This suggests that social aspects, as well as some other unknown psychological mechanism, may be
responsible for the improved mood states that accompany aerobic exercise in groups.

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Landers (1994) conducted an abbreviated review o f the literature on the effects o f exercise
on reduction in anxiety, depression and stress reactivity in order to determine if, in fact, there is an
empirical relationship between exercise and stress reduction. He found 159 studies on anxiety
reduction following acute (one time only) or chronic (regular) exercise. Eighty-two percent of the
reviews on this topic concluded that there is a small to moderate reduction in state/trait anxiety and
physiological indicators o f anxiety. Studies done on the antidepressant effect o f exercise
“concluded that exercise was related to less depression and that it was a better antidepressant than
were relaxation and other activities” (p. 129). The two reviews o f over 34 studies that examined
stress reactivity concluded that exercise/fimess was related to less stress-reactivity. In spite of all
this Landers concluded, “It is tempting to believe that exercise is the root cause o f reductions in
anxiety, depression and stress-reactivity. However, it remains to be seen whether it is exercise per
se or something associated with the exercise program (expectations, self-efficacy, weight loss etc.)
that affects these dependent variables” (p. 132).
A 1996 study by Rostad and Long reviewed the research, published between the years of
1978 and 1993, on exercise as a coping strategy for stress. Overall, the results give support for
exercise as a coping strategy for stress. Based on this review, Rostad and Long made suggestions
for future research. Amongst their recommendations were clear specification and implementation
of programs in order to make them replicable and the use of Speilberger’s State Trait Anxiety
Inventory for psychological assessment in exercise and stress research.
Folkman and Lazarus’ (1991) theoretical approach to stress and coping can provide us with
a useful approach to explore exercise as a coping strategy (Rostad & Long, 1996). Exercise may
be used as a coping strategy in several ways. As a way o f releasing excess tension, it can be looked
at as a strategy for regulating emotions. Some types o f exercise may facilitate problem solving by
providing time to think through a problem. Exercise also has the potential to enhance personal
resources by improving physical fitness and enhancing self-esteem

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Research on Dance and Stress Reduction
“Since early history, dance has been one means to cope with stress.” (Hanna, 1988a, p. xi).
According to Hanna, dance can help ward off the debilitating effects of stress and reduce its impact
through catharsis, tension dissipation, and physical and psychological relaxation. Thus dancing has
become an important part of some health or wellness programs.
Why dance rather than use other forms o f exercise or passive approaches to handle stress?
There is no question that there are alternative methods to alleviate or prevent stress. Passive
methods such as meditation, and progressive muscle relaxation break the train o f everyday thought
along with reducing the activity o f the sympathetic nervous system. Active methods such as
exercise also develop physical fimess, provide an outlet for built up tension, lead to reduced anxiety,
and help develop higher tolerance levels for stress. Like dance, exercise uses up the potentially
harmful biochemicals when it mobilizes against stress. Hanna ( 1988a) suggests that dance is more
than physical exercise for fimess. Dance is a result o f physical and mental processes and a form o f
human communication. It permits emotional and intellectual exploration in addition to aesthetic
involvement and movement satisfaction. Dance is also usually accompanied by music which offers
people gratification and functions in ways similar to dance to reduce stress. Thus one may enhance
the other.
It has been the “fathers o f stress” who have dictated the progress and direction o f research
in this area and have developed the theory and techniques. Techniques, such as progressive muscle
relaxation and stress inoculation have an individual focus. According to Domar and Dreher (1996),
“men tend to gravitate toward directive techniques with clear cut instructions, such as progressive
muscle relaxation” (p. 41). Women have traditionally relied on social support and group
connections for emotional release and problem-solving (Belle, 1991). The stress reduction
properties o f dance and some other exercise formats may be due to their group format and thus,
may have great applicability to groups whose historic modes o f stress relief have been through
connection. It is probably no coincidence that many researchers in the use of exercises in groups
for stress management are women. Dance can offer an alternative mode o f physical exercise in a

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group that might appeal to individuals not attracted to sport-type activities.
There are few statistically-based and analyzed control studies that demonstrate specific
relationships between dance and stress “however, compelling supportive case material exists”
(Hanna, 1988a, p. 7). Kuettel (1982) examined the relationship between participation in a dance
therapy group and the expression o f affect. This study found that subjects receiving dance therapy
experienced less feelings o f anxiety than the control groups. Feelings of depression were also less
frequently reported by the participants in dance therapy groups. Lesté and Rust ( 1990) studied the
effects o f modem dance on anxiety while controlling for physical exercise and music. This study
found that participation in modem dance reduced anxiety, but participation in control groups using
physical exercise and music did not. Mclnman and Berger (1993) concluded their study on aerobic
dance with the suggestion that “aerobic dance appears to be particularly effective in enhancing
mood for female exercisers” (p. 137). Ritter and Low (1996) used meta-analysis to summarize the
existing literature on the physical and psychological effects of dance therapy. Psychological
variables included anxiety, fatigue, self-esteem, trust, depression, sexual differentiation, fnendliness,
and anger. They found that dance/movement therapy (DMT) produces the greatest psychological
changes in the areas o f anxiety and depression.
Silver’s (1981) research provides what appears to be the sole study on the psychological
benefits o f folk dance. She commented, “no empirical research has been found to date regarding
the effect o f folk dance techniques on dance clients of any type” (p. 52). In the ensuing years
nothing seems to have changed. Silver investigated the effects o f participation in folk dance and
exercise classes on self-concept and body-concept. Self-concept and body-concept scores, for
both dance and exercise groups, at the end of the treatment period and four weeks later,
demonstrated a strong improvement compared with the controls. As a part o f this study, Silver did
a qualitative analysis o f participant’s reasons for involvement in the class and benefits they felt they
derived. Folk dancers wanted a group experience that would be socially stimulating and provide
exercise in a form that would not feel like work. O f the 26 folk dance participants, 6 reported
tension release, 14 reported fun and diversion and 16 reported positive social contact—all benefits

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associated with stress reduction. Silver concluded that “Folk dance holds exciting possibilities
with regard to therapy since this is an activity which can be conducted in a large group, allows for
integration of individuals into the larger whole, provided opportunities for mastery and individual
creativity, and has not been stigmatized with the fear-provoking label o f ‘therapy’” (p. 187).

Eustress
Even though the focus of my argument thus far has been on relief from the deleterious
effects o f stress, it would be negligent to ignore the positive benefits that can accrue from stress.
Too much stress greatly detracts from one’s quality o f life but some stress is highly desirable
(Berger, 1994). Selye (1974) identified two types of stress: distress, which has a negative impact
on health, and eustress, which Selye called the “pleasant stress of fulfilment”. Selye emphasized
the importance o f eustress in health promotion. Lazarus also wrote about stress, distress and
eustress. Lazarus (in Wells, 2000) suggested that the mental characteristics o f an individual
combine with environmental circumstances to shape cognitive appraisals. The individual’s
cognitive appraisal classifies the situation as either challenge (eustress) or threat (distress). Positive
stress has the potential to motivate, challenge, excite and energise. Selye (1974) described stress as
the “spice o f life” (p. 85) and Berger (1994) asserts that “some stress is needed to add excitement,
stimulation and color to our lives” (p. 100).
Stress is associated with all types o f activity and could only be avoided by doing nothing.
We suffer from both excess stress and lack o f stress (boredom). Selye (1974) emphasized the
importance of meeting stress effectively and enjoying it through learning more about it and
developing a philosophy o f life that includes effective management o f stress. He advised that each
person needs to identify his/her optimum stress level, that is, the particular stress level at which the
person feels most comfortable, and then to regulate the amount o f stress in one’s daily lives and to
develop the skills necessary to control one’s stress responses. According to Berger ( 1994),
“physical activity is an ideal way to both raise and lower one’s stress level” (p. 100).
In his address to the 1992 American Academy o f Kinesiology and Physical Education,

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Meier (1994) pointed out that to view stress unidimensionally as negative is limiting and excludes
the important positive aspects o f stress. Stress can provide relief from an otherwise boring
existence. Individuals regularly seek out the fun and excitement o f stress in such activities as white
water rafting, fair rides, or playing athletic games. In situations such as these, positive stress creates
challenge and has the potential to stimulate personal growth and development. Meier quotes Frank
“A stressor should be identified as either negative or positive depending on ‘whether the
experience led the person toward higher levels o f mental, social, or physical health”’(p. 141). In his
address, Meier charged professionals from the realm of sport and play to invite students, athletes
and clients into a world o f challenge, “providing intrigue and facilitating exhilaration” (p. 142).
Meier went on in this address to suggest that the positive consequences o f stress induction, rather
than stress reduction, could be used as a promotional device to attract participants into the
“challenging and stimulating world o f physical activity and playful sport” (p. 143).
People seek stressful situations to relieve boredom or for a break from other stressors.
Stress can be enjoyable if it is accompanied by positive feelings o f accomplishment and pleasure.
Selye asserts that “Motivation • preferably an ambition to accomplish something that really
satisfies you and hurts no-one - is essential” (Selye, 1974, p.82) to experience feelings o f eustress.
McGuigan ( 1999) emphasizes the importance o f control over a situation as a key to experiencing
stress as positive. He describes eustress as “the attainment o f an optimal level o f stimulation
characterized by a sense o f accomplishment”(p.81). According to McGuigan, the more often we
are in a state o f eustress, the less often we can be in a state o f distress.
McGuigan (1999) states that, “In particular, stresses related to what we call ‘hope’, ‘love’,
and ‘happiness’ may have beneficial effects on health” (p.81). The classic illustration o f the ability
o f some stresses to have a positive impact on health is the story o f Norman Cousins (1979). In his
book Anatomy o f an Illness, Cousins described how he healed himself from a debilitating illness
through the use o f humour and laughter. McGuigan (1999) suggests that a possible reason for the
healing effect o f laughter lies in the fact that, in the presence o f this happy emotion, the body
releases beta-endorphins that mimic the pain relieving and mood enhancing effects o f drugs such as

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opium. Research undertaken by Lee Berk (Roach, 1997; Wooten, 1996) support the health-giving
properties o f laughter. Berk found that humour and laughter served to significantly increase
various measures of immune function. Bennet (1998) investigated the healing properties of
laughter with healthy adult women. Her findings also indicate that laughter has the potential to
reduce stress and temporarily increase immune system activity.
Wooten (1996) asserts, “Finding humor in a situation and laughing freely with others can
be a powerfW antidote to stress. Our sense o f humor gives us the ability to find delight, experience
joy, and to release tension” (online, no page). Our ability to perceive a potentially stressful
situation as humorous and to laugh at it gives us a sense o f control over the situation. Wooten
recommends laughter as an effective self-care tool for professionals in high stress caring
professions.

Summary
The connection between stressful living and compromised health is abundantly clear. Mid­
life women in our society are at a lifestage with abundant potential for stress due to personal,
occupational, physical, political, social and cultural circumstances. This stress may create increased
risk for health problems. Physical activity has been shown to play an important role in stress
management.
Stress and coping literature supports the use of a variety of strategies —both emotion and
problem focused ~ in managing stress. The usefulness o f the strategy is determined by the
situation and the coping resources o f the individual. Ojeda (1998) counsels the importance o f
developing good coping skills and suggests that exercise may be one o f our best strategies.
It is unclear firom the literature exactly what role or combination o f roles exercise plays in
stress reduction. One suggestion is that the distraction, break, or “time-out” from the stressors o f
everyday life provided by exercise activities is a crucial factor (Hanna, 1988a; Kass-Annese, 1999;
Morgan & EUickson, 1989). Researchers also point to the social aspects o f exercise (Hanna,
1988a; B e^ er & Owen, 1992). Exercise can also be a strategy for regulating emotions (Rostad &

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Long, 1996) or releasing tension (Hanna, 1988a). Repetitive exercise activities provide individuals
with the opportunity to think and problem solve (Berger & Owen, 1988; Rostad & Long, 1996). It
may be that exercise can reduce the physiological effect o f stress by triggering the relaxation
response (Kass-Annese, 1999). It is also possible that exercise may enhance personal resources
for coping by improved physical fimess and enhanced self-esteem (Rostad & Long, 1996). An
active lifestyle can also replace negative coping behaviours that jeopardize health. Whatever the
mechanism or combination o f mechanisms at play, we do know that individuals who engage in
habitual activity report that exercise makes them feel good (Morgan & EUickson, 1989).
The health benefits of exercise are clear and not new. Even though the mental and physical
health benefits o f exercise are well known, many women chose a sedentary lifestyle, often because
of time stress and the inability to make self-care a priority. In addition, for those who do try to
make a commitment to exercise, dropout rates are high (Fillingham & Blumenthal, 1992). “It is
known that approximately 50% o f the sedentary individuals who adopt an exercise program return
to their sedentary lifestyle within several months” (Morgan & EUickson, 1989, p. 170).

Why Celtic Folk Dance for Mid-life Women?
The problem of adherence leads me to the question of “Why is Celtic folk dance a
particularly appropriate activity for mid-life women?” This dance form provides women with an
option for physical activity that they may continue well into tlieir later years. In a study by
Mclnman and Berger (1993), 50% o f the women had been participating in aerobic dance for more
than a year and 43.75% had been involved for one month to a year. This suggests that women may
continue with a dance program. An exercise program must be an activity a person can incorporate
into her or his life and to continue as a regular lifetime program (Ojeda, 1995). Scottish Country
dance groups in large centres typically include women well into their sixties and seventies and
sometimes into their eighties
According to Robertson and Hutera (1990), “The urge to dance in the human psyche [is] a
universal impulse ... but today we watch dance being performed by youthful, svelte and beautiful

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bodies who act as our surrogates. Most o f us no longer feel free enough to express our emotions
in maypole or morris dances” (p.8). Participation in folk dance provides women with the
opportunity to surrender to this natural impulse to move to music. Many women love to dance but
are prevented from the opportunity by social mores that prevent dancing with members o f the same
sex. In most social settings and social dance classes, women require a man to dance and are
precluded from participation by lack of a willing partner. Folk dance participation does not require
a parmer as women customarily fill the positions danced by men.
An important component o f Celtic folk dance is the music. Davis and Thaut (1989)
demonstrated the importance o f preferred music for relaxation. The soaring popularity o f Celtic
music attests to desirability. The lilt o f the harp, the skirl of the pipes or the pulsating o f an
accordion and fiddle will set your feet in motion. As Knight (1996) says, “Scottish music is
wonderfully exhilarating, dancing to it is always a pleasure”(p.8). Wangsbickler ( 1997) describes
his experience listening to a Celtic album in a music store.
Other patrons in the store started to look at me fiinny when 1gave a hollar (sic) and
started tapping my feet. 1 swear that, had 1 not been tethered to the music counter by
my headphones, I would have broken (sic) out in a jig right there and then
(electronic media, no page).
Another key feature of Celtic folk dance is that it provides a pleasurable social activity.
Berger and Owen (1988) stress the importance o f enjoyment for stress reduction. In Silver’s
(1981) study on international folk dance and exercise, individuals who were seeking a social
experience chose dance. As well the people who chose dance wanted exercise that did not feel like
work. Fourteen participants in folk dance (n=26) reported experiencing “fun and diversion” as
compared to four in the exercise class (n=2S).
Celtic folk dance, and particularly Scottish Country dance, has a number o f features that
make it more appropriate for participation by women in mid-life than some other forms o f folk
dance. Dances from many countries are particularly vigorous and include running, bouncing and
leaping steps which require a great deal o f energy and are hard on older feet that are unused to
poimding activity. Dance steps from some countries are quite intricate and complicated, requiring a
great deal o f skill. Both Irish Set and Scottish Country dancing are done at a mild to moderate pace

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that is within the ability o f individuals beginning an activity program. In addition, steps are quite
simple and can be learned quickly so new-comers can have an immediately rewarding experience.

Is Dancing a Feminist Issue?
In spite o f the fact that dancers, such as Isadora Duncan, Martha Graham and Ruth St.
Denis were part o f women’s liberation movement at the turn o f the century (Hanna, 1988b),
feminists generally rank physical activity as low on their list o f priorities (Lensky, 1995).
According to Lensky (1995), they “fail to see the links with key feminist issues such as health,
control over one’s body, and equality o f opportunity” (p.9). She adds, “feminists who are
concerned with issues o f women’s mental and physical health need to recognize that women’s
generally low participation in regular physical activity has negative implications for our overall
health and well-being” (Lensky, p.6). The cultural, social and economic context of women’s lives
serve as determinants for female participation in physical activity in general and dance in particular.
“Although there is nothing about dance which is iiuiately feminine or effeminate, it has,
within American society and through much o f the Western world, become largely so in practice”
(Kraus, 1969, p. 345). Dancing is popularly conceived o f as a female activity and males who dance
are often viewed as effeminate and possibly homosexual (Hanna, 1988b; Kraus, 1969; Thomson,
1995). This belief that dance is effeminate is reinforced by the fact that females are major
participants in dance classes and companies (Thomson, 1995). Thus boys are hesitant to show an
interest in the activity. According to Kraus (1969), another factor restricting male children from
learning dance skills is the lack o f co-educational physical education programs. Implicit in this
statement is the message that boys can not dance with boys. Nevell (1977) describes his experience
with dance while growing up. “I wouldn’t say I grew up hating dancing, but I would say that I
grew up not really knowing what it is to dance because dancing was not something boys did” (p.4).
He adds that boys do not dance for the enjoyment o f dancing, but rather for some ulterior motive,
like holding a girl up close. Lack o f interest and ability on the part o f boys and men, ultimately, has
the curious effect o f restricting recreational dancing for women. North American society is not

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accepting o f same sex couples dancing together and many women are prohibited &om social
dancing by the fact that their male parmer does not dance. “Women dancing with women brings
all the stereotypes to the fore and often causes them to back away from enjoyment they could have”
(P. Vertinsky, personal correspondence, August 25,1999). As women get older, the numbers of
available male dancers decreases. According to P. Vertinslqf, “One of the problems older women
have is that many love ball room dancing but as they are widowed dont [sic] have partners anymore
- our studies show that they are often unwelcome at social dances as men partners are scarce and
their wives don’t like sharing them!!! ” (personal correspondence, August 25,1999).
Societies generally designate occupations according to sex. Males dominate the prestigious,
well-paid jobs while occupations typically performed by women are seen as lower status and thus
are lower paid (Hanna, 1998b; Thomson, 1995). The low prestige career o f dancing (Hanna,
1988b) ranks with other poorly paid, female dominated occupations. While women are the dancers
(workers) men are disproportionately recognized as the leading teachers, choreographers and
managers (Hanna, 1988b; Kraus, 1969).
Ballet has a long and respected tradition (Kraus, 1969) and is considered by many to be
highest form o f dance. The images projected by this dance form, on stage or through the mass
media, send negative social messages. According to Hanna (1988b), ballet contains recurring
messages o f male domination and protection o f women through partnering as well as the ’’strong
man supporting and manipulating the woman on her pedestal o f ( p . x i v ) . She lists other
persistent themes in dance productions as: sexuality (love won or lost, reciprocal dependency, and
tension between parmers), gender scripting and differentiation through movement styles that are
recognizably male or female, and women as objects o f male definition. Repeatedly the female is
defined as a body that belongs to someone.
Women in our society are socialized in ways that promote body-hating attitudes. Females
learn that others value them for their physical attributes rather than intellect or achievement. The
basic standard o f heterosexual attractiveness always includes thinness (Lensky, 1995). The
excessively thin, narrow hipped, elongated, young body, which is the norm for dance companies

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emulates the distorted western view of the ideal female shape (Hanna, 1988b ; Thomson, 1995).
“At the recreational level, too, the media’s preoccupation with dance exercise classes led by
ultrathin instructors does little to encourage women o f average size or larger women, to join a
fitness class” (Lensky, 1995, p. 8). The vast majority o f girls and women do not have perfect
bodies as measured by mainstream fashion standards (Lensky, 1995). Issues o f body image
continue to interfere with girls’ and women’s enjoyment and commitment to physical activity
(Blackwood et al., 1995). Because o f a lack of ease with their physical bodies, many females avoid
activities, such as dance, that expose their bodies to the scrutiny o f others (Lensky, 1995).
Leisure generally refers to fiee-time, recreational activity and/or meaningful experiences
(Henderson, Bialeschki, Shaw & Freysinger, 1999). “Leisure researchers suggest that no aspect of
human behavior holds greater potential for self fulfilment than does leisure” (Henderson et al.,
1999, p. 19); however, studies of women’s leisure inform us that men and women are unequal in
their opportunities to access leisure activities and that the gap women experience in access to leisure
time is due to the inferior status women hold in our society. Women in all segments o f society
have less opportunity for leisure activities and less time and resources for leisure than men (Green
& Hebron, 1988; Henderson et al., 1989; 1999; Woodward & Green, 1988). The feminist
concentration on employment has expanded job opportunities for women (Lensky, 1995), thus
enhancing their financial well-being and capacity to pay for leisure activities. At the same time,
women’s double or triple workday constitutes a primary barrier to participation in leisure time
physical pursuits. According to Henderson et al. ( 1999) the increases in the number o f women
engaged in paid employment in recent years have been accompanied with an increase in time stress
and stress-related disorders and a commensurate decline in time for leisure. While paid
employment has the potential to facilitate women’s participation in leisure activities through
provision o f personal incomes and time away from home, the double responsibility women face due
to paid employment and household/childcare responsibility create a situation where women simply
do not have the time necessary to commit to regular leisure pursuits. To the woman juggling paid
employment with childcare, domestic work and part-time study or volunteer w ork, the idea o f

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entitlement to leisure may seem ludicrous (Lensky, 1995). According to Lensky,
Regular physical activity for physical and mental health falls into the category of
‘self-care’ - a problematic one for many women, and for many feminists. Research
has shown that for many women, the socialized expectation to put others’ needs
before their own overrides their sense of entitlement to leisure. Self sacrifice
combined with low self-esteem may lead women to believe that their personal needs
for recreation are not worth considering, or that self-care is only important insofar as
it enhances the happiness o f their chil&en or male partners” (p.8).
Authors firom the fields o f women and health (Bepko & Krestin, 1990; Domar &
Dreher, 1996) and women and leisure (Henderson et al., 1989; 1999) cite women’s feelings of
lack o f entitlement, combined with an ethic of caring, as major constraining factors in preventing
women fi-om choosing to engage in healthful leisure pursuits. According to Domar and Dreher
(1996), women are often too guilt ridden to take time for themselves for pleasures, health,
growth and development. They comment, “many o f us lack the healthy sense of entitlement
that forms the foundation for self-esteem” (p. 111). Many women feel that taking leisure time
for themselves is selfish and that they must consider others’ leisure needs before their own.
They cannot conceive of a lifestyle focused on self and are unwilling to permit themselves to
spend time or money on themselves (Bepko & Krestin, 1990). Often they support and facilitate
the leisure interests o f other family members and at the same time remain stuck in patterns of
self-neglect in spite o f high levels of awareness (Domar & Dreher, 1996). Women derive
positive feelings o f self-worth and personal rewards fix)m this ethic o f care; nevertheless,
commitment to caring for others and relationships creates a major constraint to personal leisure
and self care.
Literature in the field o f leisure studies documents the impact male partners can have on
the ability of women to take part in leisure activities. According to Henderson et al. ( 1999),
many men feel they have the right to approve or disapprove o f their wives’ leisure activities where they go, if they go, who they go with and what they do. Green and Hebron ( 1988)
maintain that men are also assumed to be more automatically entitled to leisure and the leisure
needs o f male parmers can dominate the leisure o f women. Male leisure often relies on the
female parmer providing the domestic labour and/or childcare necessary to sustain male and

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family leisure activities. This can lead to restraints on the leisure of women. Deem's (1986)
work supports this assertion that women are restricted from leisure pursuits by the men they
live with. Deem found that “even women who are able to challenge or resist some o f the
constraints surrounding the possibilities o f achieving leisure outside the home and inside it, are
limited by the extent to which male dominance permeates society” (p.39). Male parmers
significantly control the extent of women’s leisure by their willingness (or lack thereof) to
assume household and childcare tasks, by their tolerance o f wives going out on their own, by
their approval or disapproval of various activities as appropriate, and by their own working
hours.
Social class is a barrier to self care through physical activity for women (Lensky, 1995).
A positive relationship exists between recreational experiences and income, and lack of
economic resources impacts women more than men (Henderson et al, 1999).

Women who are

disadvantaged economically or dependent on someone else may perceive lack o f fmedom to
take advantage o f opportunities for leisure. Poorer women, with few financial resources, are
unlikely to spend money on themselves. Women’s incomes are generally lower than men’s
and those who are homemakers do not have independent incomes. Often these women, who are
dependent, are reluctant to spend family money on their own leisure. As well, women with
children have to factor childcare costs into their leisure expenses.
Dancing IS a women’s issue, and a group of mid*Iife women getting together to do folk
dances is a profoundly political activity. It challenges our ageist cultural assumptions about the
type o f bodies that are acceptable as dancers and the age of women who are entitled to the
exhilaration o f moving to music. Women dancing together without men flaunts heterosexist
attitudes about same sex people dancing together. It allows women the opportunity to take a
break &om busy lives to make time to care for themselves and have fun. This study documents
the experience of such a group o f women.
This research sought to investigate the phenomenological experience of a group of
women dancers during and immediately following a beginner level Celtic folk dance class.

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Particular attention was given to experiences that appeared to be connected to the concept of
stress. The literature supports my proposition that participation in a folk dance class could be
an appropriate and effective method o f managing stress for mid-life women. Having
established this support, this inquiry moves to the next chapter which outlines my philosophical
position, methodology, research methods, data collection and analysis.

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY - A DUAL APPROACH
Introduction
Review of the exercise-stiess management literature indicates a preponderance of
quantitative studies seeking to demonstrate a causal relationship between exercise and stress
reduction. The difficulty with this approach becomes clear as each study concludes that while a
program o f physical exercise generally leads to reduced levels of stress, we cannot know
whether the reduced stress is due to exercise per se or to other factors such as participation in a
group or a particular environment (Berger & Owen, 1992), time to think through problems
(Owen, 1994; Berger & Owen, 1988), distraction (Berger & Owen, 1988; Long & Haney,
1988a), the attitudes or personal characteristics of the person who leads the program (Berry,
1979) or some other undetermined factor. Folk dance presents even more elements to be
considered - presence o f music, laughter, social interaction and the combined effort to create a
unified, cooperative whole. Berry discussed the difficulty of adapting a causal approach and
suggested that, when dealing with “complex behavioral phenomena, such as dance, dance
education and therapy, it is not always possible to isolate a single or even a few variables”
(p. 480). (Quantitative studies also presuppose an objective, expert stance on the part of the
researcher. Thus, as researchers seek to explain why a particular activity contributed to/ failed
to contribute to reduced levels of stress, they fail to involve, in their discussions, the very
individuals who have experienced the phenomena, and thus have first hand knowledge. Another
problem with the sole use o f quantitative studies is the desirability of using random assignment,
which is not always feasible or practical. Berger (1994) supports the use o f other methods to
investigate the exercise-stress management relationship:
Somehow, present research efforts are incomplete in capturing the stressmanagement benefits o f exercise. Use o f quAtative a p p r o a c h ... may be useful.
We need careful analysis o f the current literature combined with imagimtive,
theoretical approaches as we continue the quest to understand the relationship
between physical activity and stress (p. 111).
The dearth o f research on the psychological benefits o f folk dance has been commented
upon earlier. An extensive literanire search uncovered only one research study with the

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psychological benefits o f folk dance (Silver, 1981) as its focus. This, is in spite o f the fact that
dance, in general, is a popular recreational activity and interest and participation in Scottish Country
dance, in particular, continues to grow. As well as enhancing the field o f knowledge in the area o f
exercise-stress management, my study seeks to broaden the knowledge about the psychological
benefits o f folk dance.

Philosophical Basis - Feminism and Phenomenology
The philosophical basis for my research is located in two traditions - feminism and
phenomenology. As stated earlier, participation in dancing as a leisure pursuit for both mental and
physical health is a feminist issue. Feminists involve themselves with analyses o f gender issues
and strive for social change to bring about equality for women. This research was guided by a
feminist philosophy. As 1 taught the class, I strove to promote values o f mutuality, cooperation and
sociability. The very essence o f the folk dance is its communal nature. All must work together to
create the whole. There are no individual performers. Sociability is promoted through eye contact,
smiling at each other and helpful giving o f hands. The use of semi-structured interviews has
become the principle means by which feminists have sought to achieve the active involvement of
their respondents in the construction o f data about their lives (Reinharz, 1992, p. 18). Open-ended,
semi-structured interviewing maximizes the opportunity to elicit a full range of experiences and
leaves open the possibility for new discovery. Interviewing also “offers researchers access to
people’s ideas, thoughts and memories in their own words rather than the words o f the researcher.
According to Reinharz, this asset is particularly important for the study o f women” (p. 18) who
have for centuries been silenced or had their ideas interpreted for them. Interviewing is also
consistent with a philosophical base that strives to develop connectedness and avoid controlling
others. I hoped that active involvement of the participants in discussion o f the Speilberger’s ( 1983)
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) results would contribute to an empowering experience, a key
aspect o f feminist research. Feminist research is also directed toward social change. This research
is intended to give back to women the joy o f dancing along with the skills for a lifelong healthful

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activity, as well as to encourage women to make self-caie a priority. It is also attempting to
encourage a health promoting program based on prevention and wellness.
Feminist research is driven by its philosophical stance and subject matter rather than
methodology, and feminist researchers will use any method or grouping o f methods necessary to
answer the research question (Reinharz, 1992). According to Reinharz, multiple methods research,
also sometimes referred to as triangulation, is a form o f research used by feminist researchers. She
informs us that “There may be a greater proportion o f triangulated feminist research” (p. 197) and
adds that feminists choose multiple methods for a variety of reasons including their commitment to
thoroughness, the desire to be open-ended and a willingness to take risks. A multimethod approach
increases the likelihood that researchers will have a clear picture o f what they are studying and
persuade others o f the accuracy of their findings. Use of multiple methods can also enhance
understanding by adding layers of information and using one type of data to validate or refine
another. Reinharz also suggests that “By combining methods, feminist researchers are particularly
able to illuminate previously unexamined or misunderstood experiences” (p. 197).
Phenomenology is a twentieth century philosophical movement, dedicated to describing
structures of experience as they present themselves to consciousness, without resorting to theory,
deduction, or assumptions. Phenomenologists “maintain that any effort to understand human
behavior must take into account that human beings are cognitive beings who actively perceive and
make sense o f the world around them, have the capacity to abstract from their experience, ascribe
meaning to their behavior and the world around them, and are affected by those meanings” (Palys,
1997, p. 16). The philosophical term, phenomenology, is used to emphasize a focus on people’s
subjective experiences o f the world (Rubin & Babbie, 1993). Literally the word phenomenology
means the study o f description of phenomena. Phenomenon refers to anything that appears or
presents itself to someone (Hammond, Howarth & Keat, 1995). “Thus phenomenology involves
the description o f things as one experiences them” (Hammond et al., p. 1). Hammond et al.
describe phenomena as those things which we perceive through the senses - seeing, hearing,
touching “ as well other conscious activity such as believing, wishing, deciding, feeling emotions

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and experiencing bodily actions. No actual theory arises firom phenomenology as
“phenomenology is concerned not with theories about phenomena, but with descriptions o f their
existence” (Sheets, 1970, p.34). Research approaches that describe themselves as
phenomenological make understanding hiunan perceptions their focus (Palys, 1997).
Phenomenology developed as a reaction to the empirical tradition derived from the physical
sciences that accrues privilege status to reality that is objectively measured (Hammond, Howarth &
Keat, 1995). The aim of this physical science, or positivistic, approach is to establish functional
relations among explanatory concepts. Ideally these are expressed in mathematical form (Palys,
1997). Phenomenologists believe imposing a quantitative measurement removes researchers firom
truly understanding human experience. They argue that any science of human behavior that does
not take people’s perceptions into account is incomplete (Palys, 1997). Positivists believe the use
o f mathematics make scientific statements more precise. They seek explanation o f which variables
most significantly affect human existence “Being able to identify these factors and to predict their
occurrence and magnimde becomes the acid test o f understanding” (Palys, 1997, p. 18).
Phenomenologists reject the idea that statistical criteria can ever define understanding. An
important phenomenological principle is that understanding comes from what Max Webber
described as verstehen ~ intimate and empathetic understanding o f those who we observe firom
their perspective —their feelings, their views of reality, and the special meanings o f what we observe
to them (Palys, 1997 ; Rubin & Babbie, 1993). Phenomenologists reject the positivistic idea of
narrowing human experience to measurable data that can be perceived by the senses and objectively
measured. An objective o f a phenomenological approach is to enlarge and deepen our
understanding o f a range o f experiences in order to give the phenomenon a “ ‘fuller and fairer
hearing’ than traditional empiricism has accorded them” (Speigelberg, 1994, p.680).
The German philosopher, Edmtmd Husserl, is generally considered to be the father of
phenomenology (Hammond, Howarth & Keat, 1995; Osborne, 1990). Husserl rejected the notion,
expounded by empirical scientists, that the only real measures o f things are those that can be
measured and quantified. He was interested in the way the world is actually experienced during the

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process o f daily living and believed that the only real properties o f things are those that we
experience in everyday life (Hammond et al., 1995). Husserl “reasoned that if consciousness is
our window on the world, then an understanding o f human knowledge would best be based upon an
understanding o f consciousness” (Osbome, 1990, p. 80). “To the things themselves” - the
banner slogan of the phenomenological movement, coined by Husserl, “bids us turn toward the
phenomena which had been blocked from sight by the theoretical patterns in fiont o f them”
(Speigelberg, 1994, p.681). Husserl’s significant contribution is the notion o f intentionality which
he used to refer to the idea that consciousness always has an object. An individual exists coconstitutionally with his or her world, that is, the person and world constitute an interdependent
unity (Osbome, 1990). Osbome describes the implications o f such an attitude for research. The
study o f phenomenological experience is a good starting place for understanding o f what it is to be
human as the focus of such an approach is the comprehension o f human experience rather than the
generation o f explanatory laws. Thus, phenomenological research is descriptive. Exploration and
description o f human experience may lead to later hypothesis testing but should not be seen as an
inferior preliminary step. Phenomenological description is a science in its own right (Osbome,
1990).

Descriptive Phenomenology and Quantitative Testing
This study attempted to combine qualitative research with a quantitative component. I
believed that, by use o f such a design, my research could profit from the positive components of
each. While opting for a phenomenological approach, I also wished to make use of the knowledge
gleaned fiom many years of existing quantitative research in this area. Neuman (1997), Palys
( 1997) and Beck ( 1993) suggest that qualitative and quantitative methods o f research are not
mutually exclusive. They can be looked at as complimentary parts of the same whole. Quantitative
indicators may be incomplete and fail to incorporate certain perspectives, particularly the perspective
o f the participants. Qualitative studies can reveal the subjective experiences o f the participants in a
study and give us what Max Webber described as verstehen - understanding o f the feelings and

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experiences o f those we seek to study from their own point o f view - an important
phenomenological principle. Qualitative research can identify unexplored factors and suggest
which o f several factors are most important. In the case o f this research, I hoped that the use o f a
phenomenological approach would shed some light into the ambiguity created by quantitative
studies which seek to demonstrate a causal relationship between exercise/dance and stress
management. However, fundamental differences do exist between these two philosophically
opposed research methodologies, and it must be made clear that, consistent with phenomenological
philosophy, at no time do I attempt to describe a causal relationship.

Descriptive Phenomenology
Berry ( 1979) suggests the appropriateness of a phenomenological approach to investigate
the relationship between experience (dance) and behaviour (stress reduction). The major thrust of
this research was to discover what the dancers experienced while they were dancing and
immediately afterward. 1 hoped to connect the essence o f this experience with the concept o f stress.
According to van Manen (1997), “Phenomenology aims at gaining a deeper understanding
o f the nature or meaning of our everyday experience”(p 37). A phenomenological approach asks,
“What is this experience like?” By gairting insightful descriptions o f the way individuals
experience the world, we are afforded the possibility o f insight into the world of the experience.
Phenomenology emphasizes a focus on people’s subjective experiences and interpretations o f the
world (Rubin & Babbie, 1993). It seeks to discover the “essence” o f a phenomenon, that is, nature
or core of a phenomenon. 1 wanted to explore how mid-life women experience Celtic folk dance
with all its components and to explore the relationship o f this experience within the context o f the
phenomenon we call “stress”.
According to Osborne (1990), there is no such thing as the phenomenological method;
however, Speigelberg (1982) suggests that all phenomenological perspectives have the same
characteristic core to their method. He identifies the following three steps as common to all
phenomenological perspectives: “ I) Investigating a particular phenomenon, 2) Investigating general

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essences, and 3) Apprehending essential relationships among essences” (p. 682).
Investigating particular phenomena includes three operations which are closely related: the intuitive
grasp o f the phenomena, their analytic examination, and their description. Phenomenological
intuiting requires total concentration on the object being intuited without becoming so absorbed that
one is no longer looking critically. Speigelberg suggests that there is nothing mystical about
intuiting and the beginning phenomenologist can begin by “‘opening his eyes’, keeping them
open’, ‘not getting blinded’, ‘looking and listening’” (p. 682). He recommends that “some help
in the attempt to grasp the uniqueness o f specific phenomena can be obtained by comparing them
with related phenomena, giving special attention to similarities and differences” (p. 682) and by
watching trained practitioners. Phenomenological analysis is the training o f the elements and
structure o f the phenomena obtained by intuiting. It includes discerning the phenomena as well as
exploring relations and connections with adjoining phenomena. Phenomenological describing is
based on a classification o f the phenomena within a framework. “The main function o f a
phenomenological description is to serve as a reliable guide to the listener’s own actual or potential
experience o f the phenomena” (p. 694). Description can never exhaust all the properties of a
phenomenon. To the extent that it must necessarily be selective, it already entails a consideration of
essences.
Investigating general essences is the operation in which we proceed from the particular to
the universal. According to Speigelberg ( 1982), “In order to apprehend the general essence we
have to look at the particulars as examples, i.e., as instances which stand for the general essence”
(p. 697). Intuiting o f particulars provides the basis for grasping the general essences. Speigelberg
advises that one way o f proceeding from particular to general essences is to line up particular
phenomena in a continuous series based on the order o f their similarities. Certain groups of
phenomena that appear to belong together will seem to cluster around cores. When particular
phenomena share such an affinity we can know they share some common underlying pattern or
essence. “The intuitive apprehension o f these general essences is obviously to be followed by the
same operations of analysis and description as those we distinguished from intuiting in the case of

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41

particular phenomena” (p. 699).
A phenomenological study includes more than analysis o f the components o f an entity. It
also includes the discovery o f certain relationships or connections pertaining to these relationships,
that is, apprehending essential relationships among essences. Essential relationships can be either
relationships within a single essence or relationships between several essences. The former is
concerned with determining whether the components of an essence are essential to it. In the latter,
essential relationships between several essences are established.
I followed the four stage process o f analysis, described by Giorgi (1985) in his article
“Sketch o f a Psychological Phenomenological Method”, to conduct the phenomenological
analysis of the data obtained from the interviews, the guided journals and the group activity. The
first step o f this process entailed reading the entire description in order to get a sense o f the whole.
Once a general sense had been grasped, the second step was to read through the text again with the
aim o f discriminating “meaning units” (Giorgi) from within a psychological perspective and with a
focus on the phenomenon being researched. The third step was to express the psychological
insight contained in the meaning units. The final step is was to synthesize all o f the transformed
meaning units into a consistent statement of the participants’ experiences.

Quantitative Component - STAl
The goal o f my research was not to determine if participation in folk dance reduced stress;
however, in view o f my desire to connect the dance experience with the concept o f stress
management, I felt it would be useful to demonstrate that participation in the folk dance class did
result in altered stress levels, over the course o f the evening, as measured by the most commonly
utilized instrument for this purpose, Speilberger’s State Trait Anxiety Inventory (1983). I went a
step farther than other researchers in that I gave the results to the dancers and asked them if the
results were consistent with their experience and how they would explain the results themselves.
Rostad and Long (1996) recommend the use of Speilberger’s State Trait Anxiety Inventory
(STAI) as a good assessment o f an individual’s phenomenological experience o f stress, for

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psychological assessment in exercise and stress research. STAI consists o f 40 items (20
measuring state anxiety and 20 measuring trait anxiety) measured on a 4 point scale from “not at
all” to “very much so” .
For example:
Not at All
1 feel nervous

1

Somewhat

Moderately So Very Much So

2

3

4

Speilberger was probably the first to categorize anxiety as having either state or trait
qualities (Anshell, 1994). State anxiety is transitory and fluctuates over time according to personal
and situational circumstances. Trait anxiety is a “relatively stable and acquired behavioral
disposition, often depicted as a personality trait” (Anshell, 1994, p.66).

Method Used in This Study
Context
This research was conducted as part of the Northern Interior Health Region’s (NIHR)
Community Based Health Education and Promotion Initiative for Mid-Life Health in Women
Living in Northern British Columbia, otherwise known as the Mid-Life Project. This initiative,
which was undertaken between March, 1999 and March, 2000, was part o f the B.C. Women’s
Health in Mid-Life Project (WHIM). The project is designed to assist women living in the North
Central region of British Columbia to make informed decisions on health care issues associated
with mid-life, earlier defined as ages 45 to 65, and to support women in this region to design and
implement programs focusing on healthy choices and lifestyles. Activities were conducted in
several communities throughout the Northern Interior. Those held in Prince George included
weekly drop-in time where women could consult with a nurse, art sessions, journalling workshops,
daily walking, story-telling, an "unfashion" show and Celtic dance lessons. While mid-life is
generally accepted to be between the ages o f 45 and 65, the NIHR health promotion initiative strives
to include women in the age range o f 35 to 65, as it is felt that women need information about mid­
life before they reach it.

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As part of my research, women were given the opportunity to participate in seven
introductory level Celtic folk dance classes. The program was based on ceili dances, Scottish
Country Dances, and Irish Set Dances and emphasized maximum physical activity at a low to
moderate intensity. Dances included a variety o f formations including square sets, lines and circles.
The basic steps as well as the distinctive styles for both types of dance was included to facilitate
continuing participation in local Celtic dance groups. The classes were conducted in St. Giles
Church Hall during eight weeks in October and November 1999 with the financial support o f the
NIHR Mid-Life Project.

Participant Rceniitment
Potential participants for this study were invited, through, advertisements (Appendix A) to
attend an information meeting. These advertisements were placed in the Prince George Citizen, the
St. Giles Newsletter and “The Well”, a Mid-Life Project publication. As well they were posted on
bulletin boards at the Prince George Regional Hospital and Northern Interior Health Unit. An
advertisement was also faxed to public schools in Prince George and to the Hospice House. An
announcement regarding the information session and invitation to attend was made to the Caledonia
Scottish Country dance group and to the Prince George Celtic Folk dance group.

Informatioa Meeting
During the information meeting I introduced myself to the potential participants, discussed
the focus o f the research and described my qualifications to conduct the study. I also explained the
parameters around participation. These included the request that participants attend all dance
classes, complete all forms and make regular brief journal entries after each class. The dance
program was offered free to women who wanted to participate in the research process. Women
who wanted to dance but did not want to participate in the research were asked to pay a nominal fee
for hall rental. All who participated in the program chose to be involved in the research. 1
considered the idea o f having everyone pay a small fee and then refunding it to everyone who

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attended to the end but rejected the idea because then the idea o f freedom to drop out at any time
became meaningless. Also, drop-outs would play a role in ensuring that the class approximated the
experience o f a typical folk dance classes. Those who elected to participate in the study were
requested to fill out a consent form (Appendix B) and a survey (Appendix C). They were given
time to fill these out at the information meeting but were also given the option o f returning them at
the first class. The survey was designed to determine demographic features of the group, sness
levels, type o f stresses individuals were coping with, expectations as to the effectiveness of dance
for managing stress, as well as prior and current exercise, dance, and stress management experience.
The women were shown copies of the guided journal that they would be asked to complete at the
end o f every class. These journal entries (Appendix D) were designed to allow the women to make
brief notes that would assist in describing their dance experience in the class during later interviews.
Participants also were requested to be willing to take part in two interviews following the last dance
class. The information session also included an hour of dancing simple, quick to learn dances so
that the women would have an idea of the type o f dancing they were committing themselves to.
Three women called me before the information session to say they were interested in taking
part in the study but could not attend on the information night. I met with them individually. As
well, three other women heard about the study too late to attend on the information night so they
came early to the first dance class. O f the latter three, one did not return although her results are
included in the STAI results for the first occasion as she had rilled in the Consent document and
her results were part of the group results for the evening.

Ethical Considerations
Approval for this research was given by the University o f Northern British Columbia Ethics
Committee. The Informed Consent Document, which was part o f the proposal submission to the
Ethics Research Board, was distributed and explained at the information meeting. I drew attention
to the fireedom to withdraw riom the research at any time and the measures that would be taken to
ensure confidentiality. The conridentiality o f the participants was protected through use o f a coding

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system that identified dancers by letter and number codes and use o f pseudonyms. Codes
consisted o f the first two letters o f the month of birth, the two digit date o f birth and the first two
letters o f their mother’s name. Thus someone with the birth date October 28, with a mother by the
name o f Dorothy would be OC28DO. The women were asked to print this code name on the
Consent Forms. These became the code key and are stored in a separate locked place from the
other materials. Questionnaires, journal entries and all other written items from the class were
identified only by the code name. These materials are stored in a locked filing case and will remain
there for five years. These will be accessed only by myself and my supervisor. The women who
participated in the interviews were asked to chose their own pseudonym. At the time o f the
information session, the potential participants were also invited to discuss, either at that time, after
the meeting or during the following week over the telephone, any concerns they had about joining
the dance class, particularly in terms o f their own physical limitations or ability to take part.

Participants/Dancers
Throughout this thesis the women who took part in the research will be referred to as either
participants, in keeping with phenomenological and feminist philosophy (Osborne, 1990; Reinharz,
1992 ) or as dancers, in recognition o f the fact that the role o f the women as dancers was vital to the
research. For a short period o f time each week the women shed their roles as mothers, wives,
grandmothers, employees and became dancers.
Women o f all ages were invited to participate in the dance classes and be involved in all
elements of the study except the interviews. This was consistent with the NIHR Mid-Life Project
philosophy o f including women in the age range o f 35 to 65. It also ensured that the experience
more nearly approximated that o f the local dance groups which include individuals o f all ages. I
planned to restrict participation in the phenomenological interviews to women between the ages of
45 to 65. As well as fulfilling this age criterion to be interviewed, the women bad to be present for
at least six of the seven classes. A third criterion for participation in the interviews was that the
individual must have indicated that stress was a problem on the initial questionnaires where the

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participants rated the impact stress had on their lives on a scale o f 1 to 7. Only women who
recorded a rating o f 4 or higher on this initial questionnaire (Appendix C) were interviewed. Only
four dancers fulfilled these criteria so the age was extended to include one 43 year old. Ultimately
five dancers were included in the phenomenological interview process.
Twenty-five women completed consent documents and demographic questionnaires. Of
these 24 were present during the first class when the initial STAI testing was done. Sixteen women
attended the sixth class, during which STAI was completed for the second time and 17 were present
for class seven when the group feedback activity took place. At the information meeting the women
were asked, if they were not able to continue with the class, to let me know why. O f the women
who gave an explanation for quitting (n=6), one left town, four had health problems and one
suffered too badly from vertigo to continue. The others did not give reasons.
The demographics for the group are based on the results o f the questionnaires completed
during the information session. The dancers who took part in this program represented a wide
spectrum o f women. The variety o f body shapes and range o f ages defied societal stereotypes of
the term “dancer”. O f the 25 women who completed the questionnaire, 15 were between the ages
o f 45 and 65 and 10 were between 33 and 44. Eleven had fiill time paid employment and nine were
unemployed (including three retired). The women, who were employed, represented a broad
selection o f occupations including teacher, social worker, teacher’s aide, receptionist, health records
technician. Supported Child Care consultant, personnel assistant and secretary. These would all be
designated as either “helping” professions or occupations where the women fill a supportive role.
Sixteen o f the women were married, five were separated or divorced, one was widowed, two were
single and one gave no response to marital status. All o f the women, except one, had children and
the ages o f the children ranged fiom six months to 39 years. The dancers varied in the amount of
exercise they regularly participated in fix>m vigorous gym workouts (n=7), through moderate
activity, primarily walking, aquafit and dancing ^ = 1 1 ) to none at all (n=7). More than half o f the
participants (n=14) reported having not had any stress-management training prior to the dance
class. All but 4 had some experience with dance before registering for this program.

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As part o f the questionnaire, the women were asked to list the stressors in their lives. Table
3 summarizes their responses. Contrary to the literature, which suggests coping with multiple roles
and responsibilities is a major issue for women, only a little more than one third o f the participants
in this study identified this issue as a stressor and, o f these, only one said “juggling her timetable”
was a major stress. Three areas generated the most stress for the participants —family, work or
lack o f work and finances. Coping with family members created the most stress for the women.
The wide range o f problems in this area included - husband’s health, husband’s work location,
children’s behaviour and schedules, single parenting, home schooling, divorce and financial
responsibility for adult children. Work related issues - including relationships with colleagues,
workload, meetings and lack o f employment - created the second largest category o f

Table 2
Summary o f Stressors Identified bv the Participants

Major And Minor Stressors
Combined

Major Stressors

Family Members

19

14

Work Related

14

13

Finances

9

5

Personal

7

4

Not Enough Time/Role Conflict

7

1

Other

5

2

Health

4

0

None

6

stressors. Financial problems were the third largest group o f stressors. Paid employment does not
seem to guarantee absence o f money problems as six o f the nine women reporting fiscal problems
were employed. Few o f the women reported coping with health (n=4) or personal issues (n=7 ).

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Personal issues that were reported included weight/body image (n=l), trusting self and having voice
heard with men (n=l), isolation (n=l), decision making (n=l) and lack o f self confidence/low self
esteem (n=l). This, too, is contrary to literature which suggests that the self esteem o f middle aged
women suffers in a society which devalues aging. Other stressors reported were home
organization, having tires slashed, social commitments, building a straw bale house, involvement in
an international community and legal issues.
O f interest is the fact that, within this group o f women, which included 19 women between
the ages o f 40 and 55, none reported stress due to menopause or menopause related problems.
Only one woman, who filled out the questionnaire but did not return, listed menopausal mood
swings as a stressor.

Procedure
Class Format
Following the information session 1 conducted seven dance classes. The first six classes
followed a similar format. The class began with announcements and a 10 minute warm-up followed
by a simple mixer dance. At the beginning of the first class handouts on Healthy Dancing, What
to Wear, and Celtic Folk Dance (See Appendix G) were distributed during the announcements. For
the first three classes the simple mixer dance was followed by teaching one or two simple Scottish
Country dances and reviewing previously learned dances. Classes four through six were devoted to
teaching the figures o f an Irish Set Dance and, again, reviewing previously learned dances. See
Appendix F for the actual program o f dances. Every class ended with a short cool-down focusing
on stretching. At the end o f each class the women spent a few minutes writing in the guided journal
about how they were feeling at that moment, the dance experience that day, and what stood out for
them that day. The latter was meant to elicit responses regarding the class but, as this was not
clearly stated, some women chose to comment on what stood out for them during the day prior to
the class At the end o f the sixth class the dancers also filled out a short second questionnaire
(Appendix C). The class format was altered for the final session. This class began with a group

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activity, the results o f which are included in the data for analysis. Following this group activity,
dances o f the women’s choice were reviewed and danced.

Speilberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
Prior to and following the first and sixth classes the women completed Speilberger’s StateTrait Anxiety Inventory - Form Y (STAI) (Speilberger, 1983). Testing and scoring was completed
according to the guidelines suggested in the manual accompanying the test. While the term
“anxiety” was not used during the testing, as suggested by the manual, it was known that the focus
o f the research was on stress, so women were probably aware that it was a test for stress levels. The
participants were given their own STAI results, along with the group results as part o f the group
activity during the seventh class and their feedback was invited. As discussed previously, these
results were also used during the second part of the individual interviews.

Group Activity
The final class began with a group activity designed to obtain feedback from the group as a
whole. Initially this was conceived of as a group discussion; however, as group discussions can
end up being dominated by the vocal few and their opinions can sway others, I decided to make the
group activity a written activity to ensure that everyone would feel free to give her own honest
comments. I also wanted to ensure that I obtained as much feedback as possible in the designated
one hour time frame. At the beginning o f this activity the participants were given a one page
handout ( See Appendix H for a sample) which contained the following: An introduction to STAI,
state anxiety and trait anxiety, individual results, group results and the norms for adult women. I
elaborated on state and trait anxiety, then explained how to read the information on the charts. The
charts allowed the participants to compare their own results with the class as a whole and with the
norms established by Speilberger (1983). The women were invited to ask questions for clarity.
Each woman was then given a number o f “sticky” papers. The following questions were written
on the top o f flip chart papers in the order given:

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1) How would you explain your state anxiety results pre* and post- class?
2) How would you explain your trait anxiety results pre- and post- class?
3) How would you explain the group results?
4) What would you identify as the major factor contributing to reduced stress?
5) What other factors contributed to reduced stress?
l=Most important; 5=Least important
6)

Any other comments? Women - Stress - Dance

These questions were presented one at a time and the women were given time to answer them on the
“sticky” papers and place their answers on the flip charts. Once they were finished, the women
read everyone’s answers on the charts and were invited to comment.

Interviews
Four dancers who met the previously mentioned criteria - age 45 to 65 years, missed no
more than one class, and indicated stress was a problem on the preliminary questionnaire - plus
one 43 year old were selected to participate in the interviews. The interviews, which ranged from 50
to 70 minutes in length, were conducted at mutually agreed upon locations. Three o f the women
chose to be interviewed in their own homes and two interviews were conducted in my home. The
interviews were recorded by an audio-tape transcribing machine. Prior to beginning the interviews
the women were reminded that (as per the signed agreement) they could discontinue the interview at
any time or request that parts o f the interview not be recorded. They were also told that they could
choose to review the transcripts o f the interview to make additions, deletions or changes. The
women were also told that it was important for my research to learn about the experience o f dance
and stress from their points o f view, since participants’ experiences and interpretations are often
excluded from this area o f research. 1 also explained how the equipment worked and asked how
each person was doing in an attempt to make her comfortable. The interview questions followed the
format o f the interview guide (Appendix E) beginning with the phenomenological question “How
would you describe your dance experience?” All o f the questions were written on file cards so the

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women could read as well as hear the questions. They were asked to indicate when they were
finished with a particular topic by turning over the card. Thus they exercised some control over the
process. Basic interviewing skills, such as empathetic statements, requesting clarification and
elaboration, summarization, probes and rephrasing were used to encouraged the women to explore
their experiences. The guided journals and a list of the dances that had been learned were provided
to assist the women to remember their experience during the classes. After the last question was
asked, the women were asked if they would like to add to their description of the dance experience.
While I attempted to make the interviews as conversational as possible, 1consciously tried to re&ain
from saying too much, or anything, that may direct the conversation.
Using a transcribing machine, I transcribed the recorded interviews verbatim for analysis. I
then listened to each tape in its entirety to verify the accuracy of my transcription. The transcribed
interviews were distributed to the women with an invitation to elaborate or make changes and to
provide further verification of the accuracy of my transcription. I highlighted interesting phrases
for them to comment on and requested that they consider if they had any more to add, particularly
to their experience of the dance. Feedback was received from all five women. Following this I
completed a preliminary analysis (which will be discussed later) and developed a thematic structure
which, along with a brief summary o f the themes, was again distributed to the women for their
feedback as to the congruency between their own experience and the thematic structure. Two o f the
dancers provided feedback on this structure.

Treatment of the Data
Phenomenological Analysis
Van Manen ( 1997) describes three approaches to discovering the thematic aspects from
lived-experience descriptions; 1) the holistic approach, in which we attempt to capture the
fundamental meaning of the text as a whole; 2) the selective or highlighting approach, in which we
highlight statements or phrases that seem essential or revealing or essential about the phenomenon
being described; and 3) the detailed, line by line approach, in which we look at every sentence or

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sentence cluster and ask what it reveals about the phenomenon. I chose the selective approach as 1
was interested in statements or phrases that were revealing about folk dance, stress reduction and
the interplay o f factors that might lead to increases or decreases in stress.
As previously mentioned, the format I used for conducting the phenomenological analytic
process was informed by the procedure suggested by Giorgi (1985). 1 chose to begin with the data
collected from the interviews, before considering data from the guided journals and the group
activity. From this preliminary analysis of the interviews I got an overall sense of the experience
and developed a preliminary thematic structure. Because I had transcribed the interviews myself,
before 1 even began the process o f analysis, 1had a good sense of the whole and 1 was conscious of
key concepts, such as “fun”, “laughter”, “all women” and “respite”. After reading the
transcripts thoroughly twice, I read again with the aim o f identifying meaningftil words and phrases
that might illuminate the focus o f this study. Essential phrases were highlighted and the lines were
coded for ease o f locating them later. I will describe this process using the words of one dancer,
Gwyneth as an example. Highlighted words are italicized.

It was very enjoyable. Okay. I*ve loved dancing since I was very young. 1
basically learned to dance before / learned to walk with my grandpa so its

something Vve always ready really enjoyed. Its an excellent reliever before I
knew that there was stress. I used to do all types o f dancing. I used to teach
dancing. The only thing I have found really interesting is that nobody else in my
famify dances. So / ’m one o f these closet dancers. Like when there’s parties
we don't go or we s it My husband does not dance. Urn my daughter’s trying
to learn and my sons enjoy it a little bit but its never been like in courting days
we never went dancing and that was the one thing that I always wouU have
liked to have done. So when this opportunity came up I though^ why not. I’m
not as young as I used to be. I enjoy dancing and the idea that it was all women
really appehed to me because I felt right now to get out and to go dancing
and to do it with a bunch o f women who were basically in the same age group
going through the same changes that I am that it could end up being something
that was goc^ and it was very good. I ready enjoyed it. I got to lookingforward
to it. That come the [sic]... Well Mondays are Mondays. Coming IVednesday /
would start to feel like, “Oh boy. I ’m glad tomorrow’s thursdtgT, and
thursday ad day would be, no matter how bad the day was, some days they get
stressfulJust with work, not necessarily bad things but you Justfeel dke little
stressed and so then I ’d know that 7:00 Thursday night I was dancing and
then IJustfed great And the dancing itself, yes I really enjoyed that. Its not
something I ’ve ever done.
Each line was numbered: G l, G2, G3, G4, etc. Once meaningful phrases had been identified, I

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went through them and summarized them with a single word or phrase that I felt encapsulated
the substance contained in the highlighted text. An example, &om the above text, is the phrase
"learned to dance before I learned to walk with my grandpa so its something I ’ve always
really really enjoyed.” The essence of this phrase was encapsulated with “brings back positive
memories from childhood”. Another phrase, like in courting days we never went dancing and
that was the one thing that I always would have liked to have done, was summarized as “regret
at lost opportunity”. These essences were numbered G l, 0 2 ,0 3 ,0 4 , etc so the original
phrases could be identified later and included with the results. The next stage for me was to
write the essences with their numbers onto papers and cut them apart. Tentative thematic
headings were written on large sheets of paper and the essences were sorted and clustered and
reclustered into groups that appeared to be related. For example, the phrases “making new
friends”, “regular contact with same people”, “camaraderie”, and “expression o f caring about
each other"' were clustered under the heading “social”. New headings were created and some
clusters were collapsed with others. From the final groupings of clusters, 1attempted to identify
a pattern in the themes and construct a preliminary thematic structure that contained all the
themes from the dancers who were interviewed. The guided journals and results o f the group
activity were then analyzed with a view both to locating phrases that would support the thematic
structure as well as for statements that might add to the thematic structure or be contradictory.
This analysis followed the same process as that o f the interviews. The thematic structure was
revised to include information from these sources. As Osborne (1990) suggests, 1 presented
this structure to the dancers who I had interviewed for feedback as to its validity in describing
their experience. Based on their feedback, 1created the final thematic structure.

Achieving Omlitv - Reliability and Validity
I begin my discussion o f reliability and validity in the context o f phenomenological
research by reiterating that phenomenological methodology is based on different theoretical
assumptions from those o f the natural sciences (Osborne, 1990). Wliereas natural science aims

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at objectivity through explanation, control and prediction, phenomenological research aims at
“the elucidation o f meaning and understanding of human existence 6om an individual’s point
o f view’’ (Osborne, p.86). In contrast to natural science, which concentrates on statistical
generalizability, phenomenological research strives for empathetic generalizability. Interpreted
structure from the research participants should be found in other’s experience if it has
empathetic generalizability. Natural science focuses on objective, measurable reality, whereas,
phenomenology examines the actuality of human experience as the “primordial” reality
(Osborne, 1990). Natural scientific research seeks explanations. Phenomenological research is
descriptive.

Reliability. The phenomenological researcher’s approach to the question o f reliability
is based on the observation that “human perception is perspectival and conceptual” (Osborne,
1990, p. 87). There may be several interpretations or perspectives on the same phenomenon.
Since there are no absolute interpretations o f the data and interpretations can produce
contradictory as well as confirming results, the best a researcher can do is “argue a particular
interpretation as persuasively as possible, supported by references to the data, and leave the final
judgement to the reader”(p. 87).

Validity. Osborne ( 1990) offers four ways to assess the validity o f a
phenomenological researcher’s interpretation. First, by bracketing the researcher’s orientation
to the phenomenon and carefWly describing the procedure and data analysis, the researcher
provides the reader with the opportunity to understand her interpretations o f the data.
Existential phenomenology recognizes the unavoidable presence o f the researcher in the
formulation o f the research question, determination o f what will be chosen as data, and the data
interpretation. Rather than trying to avoid or eradicate the influence o f the researcher, the
researcher attempts to articulate biases and predispositions through a process o f rigorous self­
reflection called bracketing (Osborne, 1990). By doing so the reader will be able to take the

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researcher’s perspective into account when judging the interpretation. My position, as I have
stated before, is one o f a mid-life woman currently engaged in participating in and teaching
dancing. I have a firm conviction about the positive mental and physical benefits that will accrue
from participation in physical activity, in general, and folk dancing, specifically. As well, in the
process o f completing a literature review for my research proposal, 1 familiarized myself with
current stress research in the areas of exercise, dance, music and women. 1 also acquainted
myself with the fields o f stress and stress management. My philosophical stance is feminist.
Johnson ( 1997) suggests two further strategies to avoid allowing one’s personal views
and perspectives to affect how data are interpreted and how research is conducted. He identifies
the key strategy as reflexivity, whereby the researcher actively engages in critical self-reflection
about his or her potential biases and predispositions. Through reflexivity, researchers become
more self-aware so they can monitor and attempt to control their biases. Another strategy,
suggested by Johnson to reduce the effect o f researcher bias is called negative case sampling,
whereby the researcher purposefully watches for samples that disconfirm their expectations.
During the course o f data analysis 1 consistently and consciously sought data that were contrary
to what I expected to find. The weekly guided journals were an important source o f non­
confirming data and were instrumental in forcing the development of a more comprehensive
thematic structure which encompassed both decreases and increases in stress as a result of
participation in dancing.
The second strategy Osbome (1990) suggests to strengthen the validity of the
researcher’s interpretation is to dialogue with the participants during collection and
interpretation o f data. This become a means o f checking on the congruence o f the researcher’s
interpretation with the participants’ account o f the experience. On two occasions, during the
process o f this study, I solicited feedback 6om the women who were interviewed. Full
transcripts o f the interviews were given to them for corrections, additions and changes. The
thematic structure along with a short description was also provided for them and their important
feedback was used in the development of the final thematic stmcture.

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According to Osbome (1990), the most crucial means of validating interpretations of
phenomenological data is the process o f presenting coherent and convincing arguments.
Johnson (1997) suggests that while writing the research report, use of low inference descriptors,
such as verbatim quotes, is a good way to help the reader experience for themselves the
participants perspectives and personal meanings. Verbatim quotations from the interviews,
journals and group activity are included throughout my Results section in order to afford the
reader direct insight into the dancers’ viewpoints, thoughts, feelings and experiences.
A final check on the validity o f the interpreted strucnire, according to Osborn (1990), is
the extent to which it resonates with individuals who have experienced the phenomenon but
were not in the study. The final thematic structure from this research was presented to two
dancers who did not participate in this research for their feedback. Both agreed that the
thematic structure reflected their own experience.
Johnson ( 1997) recommends that a fifrh way to improve the internal validity of
qualitative research is the use of methods triangulation and/or data triangulation. Methods
triangulation can refer to different methods of research as well as different types of data
collection procedures. During this research, I used multiple methods to collect data. Data used
for analysis were not restricted solely to data obtained from the interviews, which were the
primary data source. Data were also obtained from other sources including the guided journals
filled in weekly by the dancers and the responses during the group activity. These
supplementary data sources played the important role o f allowing the voices of all the dancers to
be heard and encouraged free expression through anonymity, thus affording me a more
complete picture o f the phenomenological experience of dance for the women.

Quantitative Analysis
Data obtained fmm Speilberger’s (1983) State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was
subjected to paired t-testing using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)(SPSS
Inc. 1995). Mean anxiety levels for the group pre- and post- class were also obtained from this

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analysis. The results o f the t-testing and the means are displayed on bar graphs and tables in
Chapter Five: Quantitative Results. The graphs and tables demonstrate the changes in anxiety
(the measure o f stress) pre- and post- class for two occasions. As well, changes in trait anxiety
from the first class to the sixth are presented. This information was also compared to norms
established by Speilberger (1983) to demonstrate an increase in the numbers of dancers whose
scores fell below the 50th percentile after dancing. Statistical significance o f STAI results was
determined by comparing t-test results to critical t values with an alpha level o f .05. The intent
o f this study was not to demonstrate a causal link between dancing and reduced stress. Rather,
the intent was to explore the dance experience from the perspective of the dancers. Thus, more
important than the statistical results is the feedback from the dancers as to the consistency o f the
results with their experience and their explanations for the results. This feedback was obtained
during the individual interviews and from the group activity.

STAI - Reliability and Validity.
Speilberger’s ( 1983) State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) provides a measure o f
anxiety levels. As was previously mentioned, Rostad and Long (1996) recommend use o f this
instrument as it provides a good assessment o f an individual’s experience o f stress. Thus, even
though my research was on stress, 1 am discussing anxiety here. Anxiety can be measured by
observations o f overt behaviour, physiological indicators and self report. According to Raglin
and Hanin ( 2000), anxiety in sport settings is most commonly assessed through self-report.
Assessment o f behaviours can be time consuming and even misleading. Commonly used
physiological assessments, for example heart rate, are sometimes unrelated to anxiety and can
be invasive. Self-report measures o f anxiety, such as STAI provide advantages over most
physiological assessments; however they also have limitations. The validity and reliability of
self-report measures can be affected by verbal ability as well as level of self awareness o f the
respondents. Responses may be invalidated by social desirability and expectations. Repeated
assessments over a short time span can result in habituation, or stereotypical responses.

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“Despite these problems most researchers agree that appropriately used, validated self-report
measures provide accurate assessments o f anxiety” (Raglin & Hanin, 2000, p. 94). Reliability
is a measure o f whether a particular technique applied repeatedly to the same individuals would
yield the same results. One way o f assuring reliability is to use measures that have proven their
reliability in previous research.

According to Rostad and Long ( 1996), “ The STAI is widely

accepted in research and practice” (p. 213), and these researchers recommend the use o f this
instrument in exercise and stress research. Validity is the extent to which a measure adequately
reflects the real meaning o f the concept under consideration. STAI is a well-validated measure
o f anxiety and as has been mentioned, STAI is the most common psychological instrument
used to measure stress in experiments using exercise. Revision o f the scale was undertaken in
1979 to develop a purer measure o f anxiety. During the course o f this research the participants
were asked for feedback as to how well the STAI results reflected their stress levels.

External Validity. The generalizability o f the results of this study must be tempered
by a number o f limitations regarding the sample utilized and research design. Participants were
volunteers and one might guess that only those women who would experience stress reduction
from participation in dancing would offer to take part. It is important not to overestimate the
generalizability of subjects who are self-motivated, interested and choose to participate in a
study. This, however, is an unavoidable limitation of virtually all research investigating the
relationship between stress and exercise or dance. Most research subjects for these studies
have been students who had registered in a chosen activity. Even in studies such as that of
Haney and Long (1988a), which involved random selection, the participants were volunteers
who knew they could be assigned to a jogging group. As this study is limited to women
between the ages of 35 and 65, the quantitative results are only generalizable to similar
populations. There was also no control group for comparison. However, the qualitative results
do support the quantitative findings.

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59

Internal Validity. Internal validity refers to the extent to which the differences in
anxiety levels can be attributed to the experimental treatment which, in this case, is participation
in the dance class. Since my research does not attempt to demonstrate a causal relationship,
internal validity is irrelevant to this study. As has been discussed already, it is meaningless to
attribute reductions in stress to dance itself as there are too many alternative factors that might
account for the observed results. One outcome o f the study was identification o f the factors that
the dancers identified as contributing to stress reduction in the dance class situation and how
much weight was attributed to these factors by the participants.
Contact with my research group over an extended period of time provided me with an
extraordinary opportunity to collect data in a variety o f formats -interview transcripts, guided
journals, group activity charts, STAI results-and at several different times.

The results o f the

phenomenological analysis of this data are presented in the following chapter.

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60

CHAPTER FOUR: THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESULTS
Introduction to the Results
The results o f my research are presented in this chapter as well as in Chapter Five,
which contains the results from the Speilberger’s (1983) State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
testing along with feedback from the dancers on this testing. Chapter Four is divided into two
sections. The first section introduces the five dancers who gave generously of their time to be
interviewed and who provided feedback on the transcripts of the interviews and on the thematic
analysis. These women are revealed through their weighty responsibilities, the effect that stress
has on them and the coping strategies they typically employ to manage this stress. A key
feature o f this first section is the description o f how the women feel when they are stressed.
The second section o f this chapter presents the thematic analysis o f the experience of
the women as they danced and the effect participating in the dance activity had on their
emotional state over the course of a class. This analysis is based on the interviews with the five
dancers, supplemented by the guided journals and the responses from the group activity. The
journals, originally conceived o f as a memory tool for the dancers who would participate in the
interviews, turned out to be a valuable tool to give voice to the dancers who were not interviewed.
They supported and fleshed out the themes identified in the interviews. The anonymity o f the
journals allowed for free expression o f negativity and I was able to obtain a clearer picture of
the stress that was created during the class. The women who were interviewed, eager to be
helpful and please, focused on the positive aspects o f the dance experience. As is suggested in
the interviews, the norm for this group was not to “show o ff’ or accentuate individual ability.
Thus, the dancers who were interviewed preferred to focus on group achievement, whereas, in
the journals the women seemed more &ee to talk about feelings o f self-achievement.
Analysis o f the five interviews, guided journals and responses to the group activity
identified two major themes: ‘Increase in Stress’ and ‘Decrease in Stress’. Two subthemes —
“Movement and Music” and “The Group o f Women” —are located under each o f these
major themes. The sublliemes, “Change o f Focus” and “Fun and Laughter”, which lead to

A Little Bit ofW eight is Taken Off

Theme I
Increase in
Stress

Social Stress

External Stressors

Stress from the
Dance Music and
Exercise

(

Challenge

Theme n
Decrease in
Stress

The
Group of
Women

Change of Focus

Movement & Music

Fun & Laughter

CORE PHENOMENON

A Little Bit ofWeight is
Taken off

Figtire 1. Thematic Analysis

61

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62

reduced stress are balanced by two themes that increase stress -- “External Stress” and
“Challenge”. “New Learning and Mastery” and “Leadership” are two subthemes that are
the keys to balancing and managing the stress present in the dance class. Figure 1 diagrams
this thematic structure. The core phenomenological essence of the dance experience is
encapsulated by the phrase “A Little Bit ofW eight is Taken O ff', a phrase used by one o f the
dancers to describe her experience o f the dance class. This chapter concludes with a
comparison o f how the women feel when they are stressed and how they felt at the end o f the
dancing.

The Dancers Who Were Interviewed
To preserve their anonymity, I will identify the dancers who took part in the interviews
by their pseudonyms only. To give any further demographic information would reveal their
identities to any of the members o f the dance group who chose to read this study. Following
the final dance class Amanda, Ruth, Aleisha, Gwyneth and Della selflessly gave about one hour
o f their busy time to be interviewed. These interviews, along with the questionnaires, journals
and responses to the group activity, combined to produce more than a mere snapshot o f what
happened for the women during the dance class. I was given a glimpse into the lived experience
o f these women. The picture that developed was one o f women weighted down by the sheer
burden o f responsibility. When presented with the question, “Could you describe your dance
experience”, the women who were interviewed talked about the dancing but they also took pains
to situate it within the context of their lives, thus giving more meaning to the experience. They
shared previous and current experience with dancing along with stressors they were struggling
with. They welcomed the dance class as a respite from an otherwise busy and often stressful
life.
The responsibility^ shouldered by my five interviewees was impressive indeed. Among
the five women, they were responsible for
1) the daytime care o f a grandchild
2) raising a child as a single parent

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3) caring for a foreign student whose expectations o f “service” far exceeded what we
would consider the norm.
4) financial responsibility for an adult child with a family
5) administrative management of a large professional office
6) a disabled spouse
7) a spouse with health problems
8) organizing a religious group
9) financial support for her family, which required holding two jobs
10) managing a household on income assistance.
These women were not unique in their responsibility, but were a fair representation o f the women
who gathered for this dance group. Twenty-two o f the twenty-five women, who completed the
questionnaire, reported major stress in their lives, the bulk of this centring on family, work and
finances. For a brief period o f time, once a week, the women were offered an interval of mutual
support, minimal responsibilities, enjoyable exercise and uninhibited fim. They emerged
invigorated and revitalized, ready to face the world again. Dance offered a brief lifting o f the
weight, with little pressure, freedom to be themselves, a break from regular daily life, feeling of
satisfaction from accomplishment along with group connection and support.
During the interviews the dancers were asked “What is feeling stressed like for you?” and
“How do you usually manage stress in your life?” A siunmary o f their responses is presented in
the following section. This chapter concludes with a comparison of how the dancers feel when they
are stressed and how they felt after dancing.

How EveryDay Stress Affects the Dancers

**Tense and an ongoingfeeling that... thatyou ’re under pressure”
Where, at some points o f the interviews, the five women were at a loss for words, there was
no hesitation in responding to my query about how stress affected them. They described
psychological and physical symptoms plus altered sleep patterns. Stress had an omnipresent,
oppressive effect. Amanda summed the effect o f stress up by saying, “It’s not fun.” For
Amanda stress is a “tense and an ongoing feeling th a t... that you’re under pressure” without any

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64

relief. She feels agitated and wonders if things will get better. She gets headaches and feels “low
and sort o f tired”. Aleisha, who is normally a very active person, recognizes that she is stressed
because she has a tendency toward unhealthy living patterns which exacerbate the effect o f stress.
When I’m stressed I kind o f roll up into a ball and put my cover, and put my head
under the cover and forget about the world [...] Um, I don’t sleep well. I don’t eat
well. Um, I drink too much coffee to keep awake. And just, Ya that’s when I’m
feeling stressed. I won’t go for my walks. Somehow I won’t be energetic.
Aleisha also suffers from “sleepless nights, thoughts going on and on” and “second guessing
herself’. Ruth described stress for her.
Oh G o d
A feeling in the pit o f my stomach that never goes away..........
And I can get distracted during the day, but at night, that’s the part that bugs me.
I’ll wake up at night and worry fret and stew and try and figure things out.
Gwyneth is troubled by high blood pressure and a “fluttery chest feeling”. She also gets tired. As
well as affecting her physically, stress has a social impact on Gwyneth.
Its sometimes not being able to say exactly what you want to sa y ... I’m not
normally hung up for words. If I’m feeling stressed, I don’t always know how to
express myself and I want to sometimes say something that, I think “Oh Gwyn
you shouldn’t have said that. It makes me sound stupid” . Or I won’t respond at
all.
Della was the only dancer who gave recognition to the concept that stress was not necessarily
negative. But for Della, negative stress dominates her mind and causes sleeplessness.
S ig h ... Feeling stressed is when ... I don’t know, I guess there’s good and bad
stress but u m ... Feeling stressed is being so anxious that that just monopolizes all
your thoughts. That’s what feeling stressed is I think. So if you’re able t o ... u m ...
Sort o f ...uh.... Find methods to sort of... U m ... distract you from that, that’s a
good thing, although some stresses you know never go away. You’ll have to really
just deal with them but u m ,.... feeling stressed is u m ... where you can’t sleep cause
you’re worried about your problems... (Della)

How the Dancers Cope

“To help to ease the stress"
No strangers to stress, all o f the women interviewed were able to share the means they used
for managing it. Four o f the women used physical activity to cope with stress. They described
walking as a way to manage the physical side affects o f stress and a way to provide time to think.
One o f the women also “worked out” in a gym, preferably with music as this enhances the stress-

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65

reducing property o f exercise for her. The women also provide themselves with respite - hot baths
and candlelight - and distract themselves by such activities as reading, doing needlework and being
with other people, all of which are coping strategies that would be identified as emotion focused
(Folkman & Lazarus, 1991).
Ruth and Gwyneth both described coping strategies that would be described as problemfocused (Folkman & Lazarus, 1991).
Trying to figure out solutions, try to get to the bottom o f what is it that’s stressing
me [...] and and even talking about it with other people who are uninvolved, it does
help. ...Um ... But uh ya and often times it helps... helps too to develop some
solutions, to give some another thing to try to help to ease the stress (Ruth).
And, sometimes talking... Like if there’s something that’s really, really, really
bothering you. Like you can only pussy foot around it for so long. Sometimes you
just have to take the bull by the horns and... stir it up and talk about it.. Ya
(Gwyneth).
As mentioned earlier, neither emotion- or problem-focused coping are inherently superior. The use
o f emotion-focused strategies for coping assists these women with “managing emotions and
maintaining self-esteem and a positive outlook, especially in the face o f irremediable situations”
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1991, p.205). Many o f the burdens these women shoulder, for example
single parenthood, a disabled spouse or coping with two jobs in order to support the family, cannot
be alleviated by problem-focused coping. They are situations with which the women must learn to
live.

Limitations for Use of Dancing as A Coping Strategy

“Today, in Prince George where can I just go to dance?”
All o f the dancers expressed satisfaction with their experience o f the dance classes. I was
particularly heartened to hear this from Amanda, who alone among the interviewees said she had
never danced before. This suggests that prior experience with dance is not necessary to experience
the pleasure and stress-relief properties o f dancing. Both Ruth and Gwyneth danced as children.
Two o f the women who were interviewed, Aleisha and Ruth, were regular members in other dance
groups. Della, who stated that she has “always liked music and movement,” pointed out that this
class was an opportunity. Dancing is not an activity that is readily availabie for mature women in

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66

Prince George and they are further limited by the interests of their spouses. Aleisha asked the
question, ‘Today, in Prince George where can I just go - because I’m feeling stressed - to go
dance?” For two o f these dancers the class was another chance to involve themselves in an activity
that they enjoyed as children.

“Hecan't dance”
Women of this age group can particularly be restricted from social dance by being married
to men who do not dance. Two o f the women who were interviewed commented that their husbands
did not dance and one expressed regret at the loss of opportunity for dancing because o f this.
The only thing I that have found really interesting is that nobody else in my family dances.
So I’m one o f these closet dancers. Like ..when there’s parties we don’t go or we s it. My
husband does not dance. U m
like in courting days we never went dancing and that was
the one thing that I always would have liked to have done. (Gwyneth)
She added, “So when this opportunity came up I thought, well why n ot,... I’m not as young as 1
used to be” .

“Dance has ahvays been a happy time”
These same two women shared their memories o f dancing as children. These were
memories of happy, enjoyable times and for these women it was a special opportunity to be able to
participate in this very positive activity finm their youth.
I haven’t been dancing for years and th en ... to come back and do this it was a rea l... really
neat experience. I enjoyed it very much. And to find that I could do it without too much
trouble. That was a p lu s... So I danced as a child but you know I haven’t really done much
since. (Ruth)
For Gwyneth, dancing brought back recollections of dancing with her grandfather. At one time
dancing filled her life.
I’ve loved dancing since I was very young. I basically learned to dance before I learned to
walk with my grandpa... so it’s something I’ve always really, really enjoyed. It was m
excellent reliever before I knew that there was stress.... I used to do all types o f dancing. I
used to teach dancing.
In my upbringing and that, like dance has always been a happy time. When I was quite a bit
younger, we used to, I used to well, I .. danced. If there was dancing I did it.. My
gran^arents put me in tap lessons. I was in square dancing. I was in any kind o f dancing
that there could be that we could afford... I was in. I dancW .. with my grandfather. He

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would cany m e ... and when I was able to stand up I would stand up on his feet and dance.
Like it was just something that I always associated with happy times.
For Ruth, to come back to dancing after many years was a “really neat experience” and she
commented, “I’ve sort o f found something again that I used to enjoy so much a n d ... Um, I haven’t
done it for a long time and I’ve found it again and now I don’t think I’d like to leave it”. This
theme was picked up in the journals by another participant whose enjoyment of a lesson was
enhanced by the familiarity with the flow and step combinations from childhood.
Simply returning to a pleasurable activity from their childhood may have contributed to the
stress reducing properties o f dancing. Guided imagery, used for stress reduction, begins with
phrases such as “Go in your mind to a special place that you love, a place where you have felt
relaxed or know you would feel relaxing” (Domar, 1996, p.67) to transport people to safe, happy
places. Clearly a return to these happy times of dancing would enhance the women’s feelings of
peace.

What Happened During the Dancing?

wonderful experiencejust to kinda lift me up! ”
The overwhelming image produced by the dancers who were interviewed was one of women
burdened by stress. The core phenomenon, or essence, of the dance experience seemed to be
encapsulated by Amanda’s phrase, “A little bit of weight is taken o ff’. The notion o f lightening or
lifting was repeated throughout the data. In presenting the synthesis o f my data information I will
describe the core themes that led to this sensation o f lightening the load. Two complimentary
themes • ‘Increase in Stress’ and ‘Decrease in Stress - provide the core for the thematic analysis of
the data. A series o f sub-themes range under these main themes.
During my analysis o f the data, four sub-themes - The Group o f Women, Change of
Focus, Movement and Music, Fun and Laughter, - seemed to march directly toward reduction of
stress. But 1 could not ignore the handftil o f other themes - Stress Created by the Dancing; Social
Stress; External Stress and Challenge - which also begged for attention. The themes danced in
my head as 1 sought some meaningful order. Like the chord at the beginning o f a dance
commanding attention, my moment o f insight came as I saw the seemingly opposite sub-themes

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken O ff
walk hand in hand onto the floor in the same formation as a Scottish Country Dance Set.

68
Four

pairs o f subthemes positioned themselves adjacent to each other in two parallel lines. Figure 1
diagrams this formation. Like dancers across the set, the seemingly opposites face each other and
reeling together created the total dance experience. In reality they are not opposites but
complementary sides o f the same dance card. The social setting both contributes to increased stress
due to working with unfamiliar people and reduces stress through social support and the group
activity. Likewise, dance, exercise and music lead to both increases and decreased in stress. While
the dance situation allows a brief respite and change o f focus for the dancers, some external
stressors continue to impinge on the experience. The stress of challenge is balanced by fun and
laughter. Two other themes “New Learning and Mastery” and “Leadership provide” the keys for
balancing the stress in the dance situation and contributing to the “lifting o f the weight” from the
shoulders o f the dancers.

Introduction to the Themes

“Sometimes Ifeit more stressed during a dance session and sometimes ! felt quite relaxed”
This section presents the subthemes under the headings o f “Increase in Stress” and
“Decrease in Stress” as the complimentary pairs that they are:
“Increase in Stress” —“Decrease in Stress”
“Social Stress”
“External Stress”
“Stress from the Dancing”
“Challenge”

-- “The Group o f Women”
— “Change o f Focus”
— “Movement and Music”
— “Fun and Laughter.”

Each pair will be presented beginning with the factors that contributed to increased stress. This will
be followed by the factors that contributed to stress reduction. The important role “New Learning
and Mastery” and “Leadership” play in managing the stress is also discussed. All o f the dancers
reported experiencing a change in emotional state during the weekly classes. This chapter
concludes with a comparison o f how the dancers reported feeling after the dance classes with how
they describe feeling when they under stress.

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Social Stress - The Group of Women
Increase in Stress - Social Stress

“Feh a little self-conscious atfirst"
At the beginning o f the dance classes, the dancers were confronted with the uncertainty of
meeting new people and, as Ruth pointed out, “ To learn with people 1 did not know very well, in a
situation where all your mistakes are on view, can be daunting.” Gwyneth sununed up the initial
experience, the uncertainty and the aloneness.
And that was the first week and I think a lot of that was just, not sure what you’re
getting into, what it’s going to be like, maybe not wanting anybody to know that
you’re feeling a little stressed. But actually ju s t, I didn’t know anybody.
(Gwyneth)
As the women got to know each other they could relax and not feel quite so self-conscious;
however, even though most dancers stated that the dancing consumed their attention, they had time
to watch each other and make comparisons. For some, like Aleisha, comparing herself to others led
to a feeling o f self-satisfaction.
You know some o f the dances which 1could master uh, even some of the new
dances that I’ve never done before I kind o f had an idea and when I would see other
people struggling with something which was quite simple in my eyes and yet I could
master it I felt, okay. I, you know. I’m really always hard on myself. Its not that bad,
look at how better you did &om everybody else.
Others struggled with feelings o f inadequacy. In the guided journals the dancers were asked to
record the things that stood out for them that day. For one dancer, the most outstanding thing one
day was, “not berating [her] self so much when [she] goof[ed] up” . She wrote, “I felt 1 was very
clumsy and upset the whole group ” (Journal Entry). Another dancer wrote in her journal about
her struggle with balancing her “insecurities against others”. She described the difficulty of
“building others up w/out degrading myself overly much” and added, “1 find this a struggle in
real life as well. Even when I manage to End the maturity to not compare myself with others, I feel
others are still doing it”.
Many Scottish Country Dances begin with the head couple dancing alone. Gradually all the
other dancers join the dance. Much like a dance, the women came alone then became part o f the
group.

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70

Decrease in Stress - The G roup of W omen

"/found that th ^ were so supportive"
The enjoyment of moving rhythmically in synchrony with others helps to create a sense of
community. An important feature of the dance experience, for all of the dancers who were
interviewed, was the element of being in a group. This theme was also found throughout the
journals. Not just any group, however, but a supportive, non-judgemental group of women working
together for joint accomplishment. Dancers who were experiencing difficulty received assistance
and acceptance from the others. Even though some dancers appeared more experienced and
capable than others, they did not use this fact to try to build themselves up by looking better.
Gwyneth commented,
I really found it was a really good group and the women w ere... you know, very
supportive. Very Mendly. Nobody had any airs o f being any better than anybody
else. Like I know some of the ladies that are there have been doing this for a while
but it didn’t matter. Like we’re all on the same level. There wasn’t anyone who was,
you know, sort o f one upping anybody.
Aleisha too noted that no one was showing off and everyone seemed to be of even ability learning
together. She also commented on the cooperative spirit o f this group.
I felt that we were all on the same level so there was no competition or anything like
that no showing off, or anything, because I find sometimes with a group o f women,
there will be that sort of competition and that little bit showing off that I am better
than you are type of thing or whatever. But there was no showing off or anything.
Everybody was on the same level.
Ruth stated a norm for this group of not trying to make yourself look too good when she
commented on her difficulties learning Montgomeries Rant, a Scottish Country Dance taught in
another class. [It] sort o f set me back on my heels

Um I think maybe I was getting a bit

cocky, thinking u h ... oh boy you’re pretty good here Ruth and then I got taken down a peg or two
and that was good.”
Even though dancers who were less able could create stress, the group was not critical of
others if they could not catch on quickly. There was an acceptance of what individuals were able to
manage. As Della commented.
Well there’s really not much laugh. I was probably one o f those that were making
mistakes. Learning requires practice so we couldn’t do much if the group didn’t

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‘get it’. Just more practice was needed or more clarification was needed.... But uh
it was uh it was just kind o f interesting to see, you know, that you weren’t the only
one perhaps having problems. What was your thing? Right o f left or you know
How many steps back, so, I mean it was it wasn’t a problem for me. I .. you just
sort o f accept that there would be some problems uh you know u h ... catching on.
There was good camaraderie and support. As Ruth commented, “ We didn’t pull each other apart
you know. It was good. Yeah.” Like dancers along the side of a set, the dancers reached out to
support each other. This form of dancing encourages social support in a number of ways. Rules
o f social etiquette encourage good manners, anticipation and awareness o f other dancers, and
courteous use of hands. An important feature o f progressive dances is the egalitarian philosophy
that each couple has a turn at the top.

‘‘Enjoyed the way the group caught on together"
Joint Effort. Another key feature of the group was the fact that the dancers were working
cooperatively toward a joint goal. It was fun for the women to see if they could ‘‘get it all together
and make it work” (Della). Team work is an essential component of both Scottish Country and
Irish Set Dancing. No matter how good the individual technique and knowledge of the dancers
they can fail to create the dance if they do not have a sense of teamwork. Another dancer remarked,
1 liked the idea that everybody worked together and we all sort o f relied on each other..
as opposed to other types o f dancing where you’re your own sole pair and you do your
thing. It was very open and w a s... really good. (G w ^eth)
Numerous journal entries commented on the rewards of joint accomplishment. The following are
excerpts from three.
“The group seemed much more together tonight than they were last week. I’m glad
1 came”
“Sense o f accomplishment when group ‘gets it’ “
“1 liked our foursome today - we worked well together. After todays [sic] session 1
was thinking I’d like to find out more about joining the Celtic dancing group”
The cooperative effort on the part o f the dancers to create a unified movement, rather than
competing with other, contributed to minimizing stress.

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**l realty enjoy this and I almost think it wouU be a shame to ruin it with men! ”
Women only. Gwyneth was attracted to the group because it was for women only.
I enjoy dancing and the idea that it was all women really appealed to me because I
fe lt... right now to get out and to go dancing and to do it with a bunch of women
who were basically in the same age group going through the sam e.. Um changes
that I am that it could end up being somethhig that was good, and it was very good.
Sometimes people aren’t as comfortable in a mixed group.
Later in the interview she commented
I think, um, one o f the things that was mentioned is, if we continue dancing some
people wanted their husbands or spouses or men to come a n d ... I very much enjoy
that type o f dancing too but I think, just my thoughts, that if there were men
involved, a lot o f us wouldn’t have felt as relaxed and as comfortable and as able to
have the fun. You know sometimes I think what happens is u m ... we re all not
shaped the same. Were not a ll... and not everybody feels comfortable with that
always. I think we have to go ... there’s still a lot to be done for women to feel
comfortable with who they are, whether they’ve got an extra roll or an extra tire or
whether they’re, they’re tw ig ^ thin. And I just think that this group was so good
for that, because we had all different shapes and sizes and we were able to just, all
just relax and it just didn’t matter.
The fact that this was a “women only” group freed the dancers, who might otherwise have felt selfconscious, to act in an unreserved and unselfconscious manner. Released for a period from the
constraints o f socially prescribed behaviour, the women felt comfortable to laugh and giggle and be
uninhibited. During the group activity during the final class this idea was voiced and discussed. In
her interview, Aleshia commented on this discussion.
And I think something that some o f the ladies mentioned when we were there was
th a t... as a group o f women together, we have so mucl^ you know we open up,
we’re ourselves we let ourselves be ourselves. We’ll giggle and laugh and be silly,
but yet when we’re with a group o f men we kind o f hold ourselves stiff and we
won’t let ourselves be who we a re .... So that was really interesting. To me that
really sticks out in my m ind... That comment really sticks out in my mind.
This theme was taken up in the journals too with comments such as, “The women in general are
uninhibited as they have no men to make them feel shy or dummy.” The fact that the group was
women only allowed the dancers to feel freer to relax and enjoy themselves. They were less selfconscious o f their bodies and behaviour than they would have been if men were present. The
homogeneity or sameness was an additional factor that appeared to contribute to reduced stress.

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“And the camaraderie with all the other women ”
S o c ia l. The sociability o f dancing comes from meeting new friends as you progress down

a set or around the room. The group became more than just a group o f women getting together to
dance. It became a chance to make new friends who cared about each other and had meaningful
conversations. Regular contact with the same people led to a feeling of group solidarity and the
dancers looked forward to their times together. As Aleisha put it,
meeting with other people, laughing with them, uh, and I think on a weekly basis
when, when I’m coming with a group o f people on a weekly basis you kindaf build
up some sort o f rapport with each other. Say “Gee you seemed a little hurried
today. Are you okay? Or “How is your week?” or “You look stressed” or this or
that. Or the same thwg that i’m interacting with other people, noticing where
they’re coming from, things like th at. It soit of gave me that rapport over the eight
weeks that 1 was going to see this group o f people for eight weeks and we were all
together all sort o f united.
For women in this age group, the ease o f making friends and becoming involved in activities
through joint interest in children has disappeared. In their busy lives o f work and home, it becomes
more difRcult to meet friends. The transient nature of this community also makes developing
friendships challenging. Gwyneth commented on this difficulty.
I need to meet more people. I find that I’ve been here for about 3 1/2 years. I know
my immediate neighbours. I don’t belong to any other clubs, groups or
organizations. And I used to. Uh, Before I moved here I was very involved in many
things. As the kids grew, up o f course, you’re not so involved any more. And 1 was
starting to feel, like I need something... so I was hoping to get some o f that, and it
did.
Journal entries also commented on making “contact with familiar faces” and “conversations that
came from the heart - beyond the how do you do and the weather” This entry added, “this was
very affirming and made me feel positive again”.

“My goodness, there’s certainfy enough o f us out there!”
M e n o p a u se . A feature o f this class was its connection with the Women’s Mid-Life

Project. Information from the project, particularly regarding menopause, was distributed to the
group. The women shared and discussed this information before class and during breaks.
Gwyneth was the only participant who commented about menopause to me. For Gwyneth the

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opportunity to bring menopause into the open and sharing the experience was important. The fact
that these women discussed an intimated topic such as this indicates the level o f the friendships the
established.
It’s the whole idea I think o f um the women going through the different changes.
We don’t understand it. We don’t know a lot about it. It’s been hidden for so long.
Not hidden, as in just, not really brought out in the open. At least not in the open.
You know its been one o f those “hot flashes” snictær,y m know, kind thing. You
know, the memory lapses. Boy do they happen, short term memory lapses laugh
and it’s it’s, it was comforting to go through this to find that there were so many
other wom en... in the same boat. Like I’m really not losing it. So I think even that
in itself was was good. (Gwyneth)
This sharing led to stress reduction as the women found they shared the same experience as others
and were not alone.

External Stress - Change of Focus
Increase in Stress - External Stressors
“Co, go, go alt day"
Many o f the stressors that were affecting the dancers during the classes were due to
influences external to the dance situation. Women reported arriving fatigued and low on energy as
a result o f such factors as an exhausting day or lack o f food. Fatigue and generally feeling low
were also attributed to the lack of light, characteristic o f our winter months. Journal entries
mentioned the lack o f sunlight. “The lack o f sunlight I think is really effecting me feeling
depressed. I realized this tonight. I think I’ll get some lights.” Reduced energy compromised the
dancers ability to learn the patterns, do the steps and enjoy the experience. Journal entries also
commented on fatigue.
“felt a little off the beat as I was tired”
“I wish I weren’t so tired as I would have had more fun and enjoyed m yself’
“somehow I couldn’t get the hornpipe step and didn’t have the mental energy to
really try if ’
Women also arrived with physical problems, such as colds, sore feet and pulled muscles that added
to the stress o f the dance situation. At least one dancer was coping with hot flashes, common to

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menopausal women, as well as other menopausal symptoms. This was exacerbated by the warmth
to the hall we were using. Gwyneth described her struggle with the symptoms that were negatively
impacting her enjoyment o f the dancing.
There was the odd time. There was one night, one or two nights that u m ... I really
felt frustrated but that wasn’t the dancing. That was just bad weeks or bad days.
One o f the things, I don’t know if you need to know, or if it will come up is I’m on
oestrogen replacement and I’ve gone to injections as opposed to a daily dosage so I
get them once a month or whenever I need them, and it was the span where I needed
my injection. My body was telling me you need it and you need it yesterday and 1
couldn’t get in to see my doctor for over a week. S o ... things felt a little bit more
disproportionate than they normally would have. ... I had a harder time
concentrating. 1 felt like 1 was all left feet. I thought, “This is crazy. Why am 1
doing this? Don’t be so stupid. Your enjoying it. Do it.” Um, 1 was so hot that I
was sure that when 1 moved there’d be a little puddle on the floor behind me, like it
was just an incredible feeling, just incredible. But on the whole I just noticed every
day,.. except for the day that I felt a little frustrated, even when 1 was feeling
ftustrated, I enjoyed it. So every one of them there was always something good.
The dancers reported that dancing provided a nice relief from the stressors in their workplaces and
at home but, while the dancing allowed a break from the stresses o f the day, it could not eradicate all
intense feelings. Emotions about people from outside o f the dance class sometimes remained - the
grief over the death of a teenager, concern about a daughter driving out of town on winter roads,
rage over the unfair treatment a child received at school. These things lingered in the backs of the
dancers’ minds.

“The “coming to” the dance event was stressful ! ”
For some of the women who joined the dance group, maintaining the commitment to
coming was challenging. Competing priorities created stress. Dancers struggled with family
discord over their attendance. One woman had to bring her four children in order to fulfill her
commitment to attend. Visiting relatives also provided a conflicting priority. The classes were held
during the season prior to Christmas, typically a busy time. Dancers reported their struggles to
meet this commitment.
I did better and enjoyed myself. I almost went Christmas shopping instead as this is
my night out o f the house a week when most stores are open. I’m glad I didn’t • or
I would have always struggled with a defeated feeling. I feel triumphant - or at least
slightly overcoming rather than overcome (Journal Batry).

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I really enjoyed the group thing that we did at the end And, uh, that was a day that I
was not going to make it and I told myself “No, this was a commitment that I had
made um I need to stick to this”(Aleisha).
Due to school midterms I felt pushed for time but I made the decision to come and
make the most o f the time before and after the class. I also had arranged for
someone to give me a ride - pick me up - 1 was looking forward to this opportunity
to connect and get to know this person. So came. M a ^ g a commitment to myself
and maintaining that is a challenge for me (Journal Entry).
I have eiijoyed the dancing for the last few weeks but felt stressed many times and
almost didn’t come • but I had made a commitment (Journal Entry).
The women also struggled with rushing to get to the class after work or after racing children to their
activities. All reported they were glad they maintained the commitment and some, who could not,
mentioned they were sorry if they had to miss. Absent dancers, who were not as committed, also
created stress in those who were there. One dancer wrote in her journal, “1 find myself feeling a
little fhistrated with those I work with that missed last week, and don’t know what they are doing.”

D e c re a se in S tre s s - C h a n g e o f F ocus

“Get so concentrated here you forget all other concerns"
Successful dancing requires total concentration. Whether dancing or waiting to join the
dance, each dancer must observe all that is happening and anticipate what is about to take place.
While dancing, the dancers require an awareness o f their position in relation to the others and in
relation to the music. In response to the question “Describe how the dance sessions affected your
stress levels” during the group activity, many o f the women responded by referring to the focus
dancing required. Focusing on the dancing provided respite from the stresses o f everyday life. The
following response from one participant is characteristic:
Once we started the class/dancing, I fb ^o t about everything else for the length of
the class. I seemed to come to terms with my external worries and right now, at
least, I feel less anxious about them. (Group Feedback)
All five o f the dancers who participated in the interviews described dancing as offering a break
from everyday life by providing a change o f focus. For Aleisha, “Listening to music helps [her] to

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shut down everything else down”. Della found it fim to spend “a little bit o f time away from uh
so called problems that uh you encounter during the day or what you might have in your mind”.
Ruth commented that she believed dancing contributed to stress reduction because “at the time
when we’re dancing... you don’t have time to think about anything else.” She continued.
I was focused, I was really focused in the dancing where I didn’t think o f anything
else because some of, a lot o f the dances were new and I wanted to get them right
and so I I concentrated on what we were doing. And u m ... and uh I felt that I, you
know, was using my body and feeling that I was getting some exercise and u h ...
that made me feel good and u m
But, as I said I was really concentrating on what
we were doing a n d ... the dance was everything.
Gwyneth also appreciated the break the dancing provided. She commented.
All the days I was feeling really (pause), like I was ready to pull somebody’s hair
o u t.... I thm k... it gives me something else to focus. Like when you’re there and
you’re dancing, it doesn’t matter what type of dance you’re doing. I, to me anyway,
dancing. You feel the music, you’re into the steps, into the mood of it. It just gives
you something to focus on and when you’re there and you’re dancing,... that’s all
there is. It doesn’t matter that so and s o ... ironed something crooked, or it doesn’t
matter that the phones wouldn’t stop ringing all day and it doesn’t matter that
maybe that report you were looking for wasn’t done. It doesn’t. Just, what we have
now is what we have a n d ... that’s good.
This important theme was also found throughout the journals. The following are
representative samples from three dancers:
“Completely present • not thinking about anything else besides being here with
these people”
“There’s no time to feel insecure or worried because I’m focusing on the music
and my body”
“It helped me to focus on the dance and not the turmoil I was feeling today”
For some women, the soothing distraction provided by dancing also helped to change the way they
felt about problems. One group activity response read, “Being exposed to something else, it just
takes away from how I feel, or felt, about an issue earlier”. Della too commented on this
phenomenon.
I guess when you go in to .. U m .. This situation, y o u .. Have recently just left, you
know, whatever you have to deal with during the day and so you might feel anxious
or whatever about the days experience and then, so, after the dance, um I guess, it
really wasn’t that big a deal
Being exposed to something else, it just takes away
from how 1 feel, or felt, about an issue earlier.

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S tre ss fro m th e D a a c ia g - M o v e m e n t a n d M u sic
In c re a s e in S tre s s - S tre s s fro m th e D a n c in g

“One o f the things with the dancing was there was a certain amount ofstress in not
knowing whatyou were doing”
There are many stressors implicit in the dance situation itself, particularly if
individuals are at the introductory level of learning. Participants periodically expressed that
the dancing was confusing but this was not surprising and not necessarily distressing to
them. As Amanda said, “O f course it would be confusing because 1 wasn’t used to the
dancing”. At times the confusion added to the hilarity. At other times the confusion did
create negative feelings but these were eventually overcome.
The dancers were challenged with learning new dances with unfamiliar patterns,
unaccustomed footwork and with unfamiliar people. For one dancer, the hard work and the
concentration at the beginning compromised the enjoyment of the activity. Her journal
entry read, “One has to work very hard & concentrate & at the beginning it takes away the
pleasure” .
A few dancers, periodically, became discouraged and frustrated by their own
inability to dance as well as they would have like to. Their journal entries reported on the
discontentment these women were experiencing.
“I can do the dance step • but not during the dance • Its [sic] so frustrating!”
“I felt bad that I didn’t get the last dance”
“A little sad - 1 find 1 have two left feet, and feel sorry for my partners”
“When I didn’t pick up the dancing steps, my anxiety levels went up”
Some dancers found the challenge of dancing in the lead (man’s) position or switching
back and forth from male to female positions difficult. The following journal entry said it all:
“confused about the gender role not used to dancing as a man • didn’t know what to do, where to
move, what to hold.”
Dancing with partners also contributed to stress. Some individuals found it uncomfortable
to dance in contact with people they did not know and expressed a preference for personal space.

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As well dancing in contact with another was restrictive for some o f the dancers.
With the Irish dance, when it was the individual dancing it was okay but when I,
when I was dancing in the waltz hold with a partner. I found that a little stressful
because then I had to really... because I was the leader I had to be really aware of
how I w a s.. leading my partner and so I found that a little stressful because even in
the best o f times, even when I’m just doing social dance I prefer, maybe dancing
with a partner, but not hand in hand [...]. So, that type of dancing is always I feel is
restricting for me and so the Irish dance... That to me was a little more stressful.
(Aleisha).
It was not uncommon for dancers to cope with partners who were having difficulty. Ruth described
this experience aptly. “ It’s sort o f like moving a tank around.” This created stress, not only for
the better dancer but also for the person who was having problems. On the day that Ruth grappled
with the challenge of leading a partner who was struggling, her partner wrote in her journal.
My partner was more experienced and our personalities didn’t jive, even at my
attempts to do my best. 1 found that I was uncomfortable for part of the dancing
trying not to fhistrate my partner.
The women who were having difficulty not only affected their parmers, they also provided a
challenge to whole sets.
It wasn’t difficult to know what the step was to be, but it was difficult not to run into
the couple in front of you - especially in our group as they were always two beats
behind on changing position. When we needed to move to that spot • they were
occupying it. -Made us all ball up • tying up the couple behind us. (Journal Entry)
For many o f the women, dancing was a lot more physical exertion than they were used to in
their daily life and they found themselves having difficulty keeping up and feeling hot and
exhausted.
U m .. I found the Irish ones a little b it.. u m .. as you said in the beginning, a little
bit more involved Laugh a little bit more upbeat, more energy was needed in there
laugh. It was nice to go back to the Scottish just to sort of calm down and thinking
“Oh I must be getting old” laugh, laugh, laugh. And you know uh the energy
level was really not there (Della).
getting in step all the time for me was quite difficult as I need to get in shape and
move faster (Journal Entry)
Many dancers reported dizziness from both the Scottish ceilidh dances and the Irish Set Dances.
For some women this was experienced as giddiness and others were challenged by it
The Irish was quite dizzying, laugh Some other people found that too. But I
enjoyed it a il.... Even though it made me dizzy (Amanda)

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challenge to be more grounded - stay on my heels. When I did 1 was less dizzy and
had more control (less likely to collide) (Journal Entry)
But, for the few women who suffered fiom vertigo, this took away fiom the enjoyment o f the
dancing and made the experience more stressful.
Some o f the dancers found the Irish music less enjoyable than the Scottish and this affected
their enjoyment o f the dancing. One journal entry commented “The Irish music was way too fast
and I didn't enjoy dancing to it.” The type o f music also affected how easily the dancers did or did
not learn the dances. Another journal recording read, “The type o f music/beat really makes a
difference as to how I catch on - tonight I didn’t!!”.

D e c re a se in S tre s s - M o v e m e n t a n d M usic

“/ enjoy the rhythm and the exercise involved in dancing"
In spite o f all the stress o f coping with a new experience and unfamiliar people, with the
exception o f the women who suffered ftom vertigo, the dancers reported they had an enjoyable
dance experience and used descriptors such as great, fun, wonderful, exhilarating, positive,
GOOD. As mentioned in the literature review, dance combines three important elements, dance,
music and exercise, all o f which have been shown to have stress-reducing properties. How
movement and music interact has not been studied, but it is possible that the combination of
movement and music is more effective than either one by itself.

**Dance... jitst makes mefeel good”
M o v e m e n t - E x e rc ise a n d D ance. In spite o f feeling hot and exhausted at the conclusion

o f the dance sessions, most dancers reported feeling better, more awake, relaxed and invigorated,
after getting some exercise. The dancers appreciated dancing as a form o f exercise in an enjoyable
mode and within their ability. Journal entries commented “good exercise”, “a good workout”,
“notice legs seem to be a lot stronger”, “my legs seem to be ‘building up’ “. During the group
feedback one dancer, in responding to the question about how dancing affected her stress levels.

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wrote.
The muscles in my legs & feet have become much stronger which has made my
posture better & improved the difficulties I’ve had with my feet. This is physical,
but over all it has made me a happier person, making me feel more confident... So
because o f the physical benefits my stress level has become less. 1 have also had
more energy.
The dancers who were interviewed also commented on the exercise benefits of dancing. Ruth
commented, “I felt that I was using my body and feeling that 1 was getting some exercise and that
made me feel good”. At another point in her interview she said.
And I thought uh 1 thought it would make me fitter and u m ... 1 felt it did and I think
I’ve achieved that. Its sort o f made me want to keep moving so I’ve started walking
more in between and u h
And uh ...like the feeling that my body is responding...
You feel better.
Gwyneth, too, particularly enjoyed dance as an enjoyable form o f exercise.
One o f the top things is 1 need to get out and get exercise
1 really enjoyed the
physical aspà;t o f it. 1 haven’t turned into a body beautiful overnight but I’m getting
out. I’m doing something. It’s an exercise 1 can do. I’m not one for aerobics. 1
don’t like running. But dance has always been a fun sort o f exercise.
The benefits o f dancing extended beyond simply providing a pleasant form o f exercise. One
dancer, in her journal, reflected on her “desire to learn actual dances • not simply exercise”. Dance
was valued as an opportunity for the dancers to express themselves in an artistic manner. Aleisha
described the “freedom o f movement” as a “wonderful experience”. She stated
I’ve been able to express m yself.... I’m not an artist and I’m I’m not creative. To
me I feel I’m not creative as far as handicrafts and cooking and things like that.
Movement, fi^edom o f movement has always been something for me. So after
dance I really feel that I’ve been able to let go o f myself emotionally and its okay.
And I always feel better after any dance.
The dancers enjoyed the “elegance” and “stateliness” o f the Scottish Country Dancing. Many
found it easier, and therefor, more relaxing, than the Irish Set, Sliabh Luachra. But many dancers
also enjoyed the challenge and vigour if the Sliabh Luachra Set. Most enjoyed both forms o f
dance. In her journal, one dancer described the experience o f accomplishing a dance as “magically
beautiful”. Dance was particularly enjoyable if the women had a parmer who “caught on
quickly”. Dancers also commented that they enjoyed the “mental stimulation” o f the dancing and
the “close contact with people” dance offered. Dancing for some also provided an “exciting”

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way for some women to connect with their heritage.

“The music is realty relaxing and makes mefeel happy”
M u s ic . Comments on the music suggested the ability of the music to affect emotion.

Dancers described it as “happy”, “soothing”, “comfy” and “melodic”. One dancer commented
in her journal that “The music is so fast & lively, you can’t help but feel energetic listening to it”.
Another dancer recorded
The second the music started playing my spirits were lifted. I knew they would be &
as 1 walked in to n i^ t a woman ftom the paridng lot asked how I was. 1 replied,
“I’ve seen better nights.” But all the intellectual talk does not go as deep as the
music does when 1 hear it.
Aleisha contributed the notion that she preferred going “to an aerobic class rather than just do
[her} individual workout because music itself is a stress reducer for [her]. She added
So ya. I’ll come home. If I’m very stressed then I’ll take my walkman and put some
reaUy, um. I’ve got some different types of music that I’ll play. If I’m really really
weepy. I’ll play some sort of music that will make me weep Laugh so I’ll weep it
out or I’ll put some music that is really hyper which will kind o f sort o f dance me
out and get me going so that I find reduces my stress.
Music not only contributed to emotional state, as mentioned earlier it also augmented the learning of
the dances. The following journal entries record the ability of the music to enhance the learning:
“I was allowing myself to feel like I was a burden on my partner and then 1 decided
to ‘let go’ o f that and listen to the beat o f the music - get out o f the way o f myself &
enjoy.”
“The strathspey [a step used in Scottish Country dancing] took a long time to come
back to me but once die music started it fell into place.”

C h a lle n g e - F u n a n d L a u g h te r
In c re a se In S tre s s - C h a lle n g e

“I want to beat that one now. id o n ’t want it to beat me"
Participating in a dance class was a stress that the dancers could cope with successfully.
The women expressed determination to master the dances and expressed feelings o f satisfaction
and achievement when they did. Ruth had difGculty with one dance and was detennined to

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conquer it.
Well as I mentioned before to you, I did have trouble [...] when we had that one
dance that I (Laugh) I got completely ...fuddled... with that one. But I would really
like to try that one again to see if, if uh, if I’ve got it through my head now. Iff
would have as much trouble.
Gwyneth was attracted to the Irish dancing because o f the potential for learning more intricate
footwork.
I liked the Irish with the idea o f the more intricate footwork and where you can get
more intricate with it. You can be very plain or we noticed 6om the videos that some
o f the footwork that you can get quite, quite fancier and that’s something that 1 think
I would like to do but I woul&i’t like to do just that.
Dancers expressed their enjoyment o f challenge in the journals too.
• challenging patterns were nice, good to try different partners and change groups
- was quite challenging but entertaining & enjoyable all the same
- Wish we had more time to master some o f these dances and do them a little more
frequently.
The body of research into the effects o f exercise, music and dance has focused solely on the
reduction o f stress. In doing so it has failed to recognize the important role that positive stress, as
Selye coined it - eustress, plays in relief from boredom and in challenging individuals to stretch
their capabilities. For most of the dancers the stress created by challenge encouraged them to strive
for accomplishment. This positive stress led to the satisfaction o f accomplishment and mastery.

Decrease in Stress - Fun and Laughter

“Everyone seemed to havefun "
All o f the women who were interviewed talked about fun. Without a doubt, one o f the most
frequently used words, repeated throughout the interviews and journals was the word “fim”. And
hm was derived from various factors. For some the fim came from making demands on themselves
physically and mentally. For others fim was derived fiom being and doing new things together
with other women. For yet others, fim was derived fiom extending themselves physically. Fun
also came from learning and doing the dances together. For one woman fim was “spending a little
bit o f time away fiom uh so called problems that uh you encounter during the day or what you

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might have in your mind” (Delia).

"Laughed today like I probably haven ’/ laughed in years ”
Along with the fun came laughter. Laughter served an important purpose o f relieving some
o f the stressors created by the new learning situation. The women laughed together as they were
challenged to master the patterns and broke into hysterics when they got tangled up.
So anything that is u m ... As I said, uh causes you to release those endorphins, uh
you know, physical exercise, laughter um that helps to reduce stress.... There were
... times when we could just couldn't get it together. We were just laughing, you
know, everybody was just giggling and laughing and just wondering and uh As 1
say. Just made you stop. You Know, You coul& 't think about anything else except,
you know “How did we get into this thing?” (Della).
Inadvertent body contact too resulted in giggling. The women laughed with enjoyment as they
danced, and clapped enthusiastically with the successful completion o f a dance. Women made such
comments in their journals as:
“It was a great group o f women. We were all able to laugh at our mistakes, and
just have a great time.”
“It was hard not to giggle as we all fumbled through the steps. I feel GOOD!”
“I’m learning to laugh and smile more”
“Last week we went home in hysterics! Thanks.”
We cannot underestimate the rejuvenating power of gaiety and laughter. Della pointed out that
often we do not have fim and laughter in our lives and become run down for this lack.
Ya, to have fim and to laugh. I think that uh today's lives are too serious, you know
with all the problems it brings and, you know, and I uh as I said.... Not that I like
dance to be viewed as a distraction. You know, but there are. It is important that you
find things that you enjoy doing and I think that helps you u m .... your outlook on
how distress is affecting you and other people. .. If y o u .. you know continue to
deal uh with your stresses and there’s no hope of uh, you know, having some fun
out o f it I think you get worn down like.

N ew L e a rn in g a n d M a ste ry

"Once and a while you get used to too many... familiar things and its nice to do something
different"
None of the dancers who were interviewed joined the class for stress reduction or relaxation.

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken Off

85

although Aleisha did say that she knew “innately that dance is a good experience for reducing
stress”. Amanda wanted to dance because she enjoys learning and doing something different.
Aleisha was curious to know how she would score when her stress level was measured. She also
came for the “thrill of movement” she experiences when dancing. Ruth had joined one of the
existing Celtic dance groups earlier out of curiosity. The experience was rewarding enough for her
to decide to join another one. She thought, dancing twice a week would be more exercise and [she
could] help with an educational thesis. Ruth also relished the personal challenge. Gwyneth joined
for fun, exercise and an opportunity to meet new people. Della came for a “little break” from what
she normally did. These women might all be described as “stress seekers”. Stress is a part o f any
new situation and these dancers were seeking novelty, stimulation and exercise.

“/ think we all wanted... to learn something”
All o f the dancers who were interviewed expressed the pleasure and satisfaction which they
derived from learning the new skills. They looked forward each week to learning new steps and
dances. For Aleisha, this learning was crucial.
1 think the biggest thing here w as.. it was women, we were together, we were doing
something. We were not just sitting in a circle with a cup of coffee “lets have a talk
session”. This was not a talk session. If we exchanged a little bit of talk here and
there, it was all right but this was not a talk session. This was something we were
learning together and I think that was where the fim cam e.. was we could put the
other gossip, gossip laugh behind because we were learning something together.
Gwyneth has done a significant amount of dancing throughout her youth and taught dancing as an
adult. She looked forward to the situation where she could be a learner again, instead o f a teacher.
In all my years of dancing. I’ve never done this type... I’ve never done this type of
dancing so it was a chance for me to be somewhere... learning as opposed to
instructing. Lately when I’ve been in any sort o f dance group I’ve been helping or
teaching - so to be an absolute beginner was something that interested me and I
really enjoyed it.
For Della, it was heartening to know that she can still learn.
Dancing was an activity where 1 was learning & processing new info. It was
somethmg new [...] its nice when you know when a group can get together and, you
know leam, something and do it. Laugh so that’s encouraging that, you still can
learn, laugh . You know they say sometimes that old dogs can’ I leam new tricks but
augh Well you know its just your attitude towards lots o f things, you know, 1 think

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86

we all wanted... to leam something, you know, new and uh this was a fun way o f
doing it.
Throughout the journals, the dancers expressed their enjoyment of learning in phrases such as
“enjoyed learning the new dances", “felt good to leam new steps”, “It was great! Leamed a nice
dance using the strathspey” (a Scottish Country dance step).

“Good, nice to come back to earlier dances we leamed - relaxing "
The women relished the challenge o f new learning and thrill of mastery, but they also
appreciated and were relaxed and calmed by the familiar. Aleisha is a very competent Scottish
country dancer already and expressed her enjoyment o f the Scottish dancing because she “ knew
where [she] was coming from”. One dancer expressed, in her joumal, particular enjoyment of a
lesson where “most o f the flow & step combinations are ones [she has] been familiar with since
childhood”. As the classes progressed, what seemed overwhelming at first seemed to become
easy.
At first the Scottish seemed like, “Oh my god we’ll never leam all this!” and then
after we’d done it for a couple o f weeks when we moved into the Irish, Scottish
seemed so much simpler. (Gwyneth)
Della expressed relief at the retum to familiar Scottish dancing after a challenging first class of Irish
Set Dancing.
I found the Irish ones a little b it.. u m .. as you said in the beginning, a little bit more
involved Laugh a little bit more upbeat, more energy was needed in there laugh. It
was nice to go back to the Scottish just to sort of calm down.
Joumal entries too expressed enjoyment o f the familiar.
“Felt more comfortable with steps I am more familiar”
“Its starting to feel more familiar as we get in to more pattems.”
“Dance was more vigorous than previous nights - 1 enjoyed that, but also enjoy
returning to the old familiar, more relaxing dances we’ve leamed - the variety is
nice.”
“I have an easier time to pick up the new steps, I enjoyed especially the last dance.
(The dance we leamed finm before!)”

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87

"/ have accomplished a lot today!”
Ruth summed up the feeling o f satisfaction the dancers derived from mastering the dances.
Oh uh
1 feel I’ve accomplished something. I feel that I’ve U h ... uh 1 enjoy
dancing, I enjoy moving and its, its a really exhilarating experience to have
accomplished this. And usually after we’ve done a dance and we’ve done it w ell...
uh with out too many mistakes its u h ... it feels ... U h ... You get a sense of
accomplishment.
Feelings o f accomplishment also dominated the journals with entries such as the following:
“more challenging but happy I participated proud I got the hang o f the somewhat
difGcult dances”
“worked through some real slow periods and many o f us not getting the jist o f the
dance. Frustrating at times, but stuck with it - was grateful questions were answered
and worked through the group where 1 feel we mastered it - not perfect and not
exactly perfection - but a smooth rhythmic co-operative working together.”
“I was frustrated when 1 didn’t get a step and we went on to the next - 1 thought 1
wouldn’t get it in sequence if 1 missed one - but 1 trusted the process and the teacher
is very good at hearing us all out and repeating the steps over and over until 1 was
very satisfied - actually Joyful!!!”
“What stands out for me today - Accomplishment”
“pleased 1 caught on so well. It felt great to accomplish the steps when at first it felt
overwhelming”
“I am feeling very proud o f myself and very contented & quite at the top o f the
world”
“tired but proud I got the hang o f a difficult dance”
The women experienced the self-satisfaction of achievement as they leamed the dances. As well,
familiarity with the dances and with each other resulted in a reduction of stress.

L e a d e rsh ip

Only a few dancers commented on the role o f the instructor, but those who did indicated a
recognition o f the importance o f the role this individual plays. The leader of the dance class is
charged with “choreographing” the experience - organizing the group process so that the women
have a positive social experience and creating a atmosphere in which people feel &ee to relax and
have fim. It is up to the instructor to monitor the abilities o f the dancers to rise to the challenge of
any particular dance and make adjustments when necessary. The ability o f the dancers to leam

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88

depends on the presence o f an instructor who can teach. That this is a taken for granted role is
evident in Della’s statement, “And, of course, you could clarify uh laugh if you saw us fluffing
along or, you know ... So you would stop and you know advise us”. This is as it should be.
Group confidence in the instructor contributes to a more relaxing atmosphere. Some women did
take time in their journals and during the group activity to comment on the teaching with statements
such as the following:
“Just how very good an instructor you are. You explain so well!”
“Thankyou Carol. You are an excellent teacher - very non-judgmental.”
“The teacher is very good at hearing us all out and repeating the steps over and over until 1
was very satisfied”
“No pressure to “do it right” - it’s just fim”
These comments also allude to the role the instructor plays in creating the non-judgemental, non­
threatening atmosphere. Both the group environment and the movement and music have potential to
contribute to as well as to reduce stress and the instructor plays a key role in creating an atmosphere
where an optimum stress level —one that motivates without discouraging —is present. It is also up
to the instructor to develop a program that challenges and encourages achievement in a setting that
allows the stress created by this challenge to be dissipated by fim and enjoyment.
For a brief time the women were heed from their responsibilities. This also contributed to
reduced stress. Ruth talked about this freedom from responsibility and described it “leaving a trail
o f debris and not having to clean up after yourself’. The women were happy to leave
responsibility - for remembering, for organizing, for caretaking - in the hands o f the leader while
they ftolicked and played like carefree children.

Change in Emotional State

“Youfeel a lot better”
All o f the dancers who participated in the interviews reported a change in feeling state from
the beginning o f the class to the end. Some emerged from the class feeling more relaxed. Others
reported feeling energized. As Amanda put i t . “you feel a lot better..—A little bit o f weight is

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken O ff

89

taken o ff” She also reported “I feel the stress come off o f me”. Aleisha spoke about
particularly stressful life circumstances happening in her life during the same time period as the
dance classes. Dancing helped to relieve the stress.
Especially in those seven or eight weeks that we did our dance that specific set of
dances for those eight weeks I found my stress level was coming up, way, this high
really high then somehow by the end o f the evening my stress had really gone
down even th o u ^ I was reaUy tired some days
I remember that first time we
did the um we did the test [Speilberger’s STAI], there was some really stressful
things that were happening at home and um it was just everything sort of there and it
was quite interesting to see that • wow! - it [stress level] really dropped in that one
hour or that one-and-a-half-hours that we danced and when we took the test again
after the dance it kinda, looking at it thinking -wow- did it ever drop!
Aleisha added, “I always feel better after any dance.”

Ruth found the experience “really

exhilarating”, whereas Della found it “relaxing”. This theme o f change of emotional state was
also found in the journals.
“very sad inside because o f the loss this week o f a nineteen year old friend o f my
son. [Dancing] helped me relax for a few seconds now and then, also I was able to
think about ways to see the loss in a less futile perspective.”
“Sometimes (like last week especially) I was really tired before I came out, but felt
very energised after dancing”
“When I came here I was rather tense - trying day at w ork... After being able to
relax and dance I feel much better. Looking forward to next week.”
“ I came out of the experience more relaxed after a hectic day; with granddaughter
getting tired and cranky”
The overwhelming impression of how the women felt after the dance class was “the Lifting
off o f a Weight”, the core phenomenon. Women used phrases such as “A little bit o f weight is
taken o f f ’, “I feel stress come off o f me”, “ just a wonderful experience just to kind a I don’t
know lift me up”, “I feel like I’m a little lighter”, “Whenever I come here my being is uplifted!”.
The dancers also reported feeling “hot”, “tired” and “sweaty” and “out o f breath”but “good”.
Some also described a “peaceful, iimer calm” using words like “mellow”, “calm”, “internal”,
“peace”, “centred”, “whole” and “contented”. Other dancers reported feeling “exhilarated”,
“energised” and “invigorated”, “ready to move on to something else”. Some felt “happy”,
“sunny”, “cheerful” and “like laughing and talking”. Others were more “relaxed” and
“loose”. Many dancers expressed a desire for more either as wishing dance class was longer.

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken Off

How The
Dancers Feel
When They Are
Stressed

I

How The
Dancers Feel
After Dancing

Underpressure/
Feeling Low

Ufle,dUp

No* Fun
Tired
Headaches
High Blood Pressure
FluUery Feeling In Chest

Tired Anc Sweaty
butC>ood

Sleepless Nights
Thoughts Going On and On
Second Guessing Oneself
A Feeling In the R t of the Stomach
Worrying, Fretting, Stewing

Lack of Energy
Unhealthy Uving Patterns
Put Head Under the Covers and Forgetting Atiout tfie World

90

1

Peacef ul/lnner 1
Ca
"

1

Reiuve nated/ I
Ready to Face the 1
1
W,arid

Agitated
Anxious

Reliixed

Wondering If
Things will Get
Better

Desire for More

Figure 2. Comparison o f How the Dancers Feel When They are Stressed Compared With How
They Feel After Dancing.

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken O ff

91

wanting to learn the next dance or continue with the dance we finished with, wanting the dance
classes to continue beyond the seven week session or wanting to dance in the future. One dancer
wrote in her journal “don’t want to stop, feel I could dance all night”. As mentioned previously
the dancers also expressed feeling of accomplishment and pride. Figure 2 summarizes how the
women reported feeling after dancing and how they reported feeling when they are stressed. As
this figure illustrates demonstrates, the feelings at the end of class are the opposite o f what the
women experience when they are feeling stressed.
The next section o f this paper. Chapter Five, presents the quantitative results obtained from
the completion o f Speilberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. These results are discussed in terms
of the interviews and the final group activity. Also in this chapter, a connection is drawn between
the themes identified from the interviews and key factors in reduced levels of stress, as identified
during the final group activity.

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92

C H A P T E R F IV E : Q U A N T IT A T IV E R E S U L T S
In tro d u c tio n

Analysis o f the data obtained from the administration o f Speilberger’s State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory (STAI) - Form Y (Speilberger, 1983) support the supposition that participation in Celtic
Folk Dance has a relationship with reductions in stress as measured by reductions in state and trait
anxiety. As mentioned previously, anxiety is a common measure of stress in research involving
stress and exercise. State anxiety is transitory and varies with environmental factors. Trait anxiety
is considered to be a stable part o f the personality. This chapter presents a summary (Figures 3 to
10) o f the pre- and post- class STAI scores. These scores demonstrate a trend for reduced anxiety
scores from the beginning o f the dance classes to the end and an increase in the number o f dancers
whose scores fall below the 50th percentile o f the population (as assessed against norms
established by Speilberger) after dancing. Pre- and post-class test results for STAI were subjected
to paired t-tests. The resulting t scores demonstrate a statistically significant link between
participation in dancing and changes in stress levels. As part o f this research, the dancers
participated in a group activity centred around the group results and individual results on STAI.
This chapter will conclude with a discussion o f the findings in light o f the group feedback.

S p e ilb e rg e r S ta te -T ra it A n x iety In v e n to ry

Speilberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) - Form Y (Speilberger,1983) was used to
measure the stress level o f the dancers prior to and after the class on two separate occasions -th e
first class and the sixth, or second last, class. As was mentioned earlier STAI is the most common
instrument used to measure stress levels in research on exercise and stress (Rostad & Long, 1996).
The results o f this testing is reported for two different groupings: the group as a whole (n=25 for
the first testing and n=I6 for the second) and the women who would be identified as mid-life, that is
ages 45-65 (n=I8 for the first testing and n=13 for the second). For STAI, a score o f 20 is the
base score, representing no anxiety. As anxiety increases, the scores increase to a maximum o f 80.
Figures 3 to 10 summarize the state and trait anxiety scores recorded by the dancers for both

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken Off

I
I
I

1
I
o

I

9
□ Pre-Class Scores
I Post-Class Scores

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

0
50 to 54
30 to 34
40 to 44
20 to 24
25 to 29
35 to 39
45 to 49
55 to 59

z

State Anxiety Score Range

Figure 3. State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 1 —Entire Class (N=25)

&

g
«

8-1

Q Pre-Class Scores
■ Post-Class Scores

a 7c

I
Î

5-

I

1
"S

I

z

20 to 24

50 to 54

40 to 44

30 to 34
25 to 29

35 to 39

45 to 49

State Anxiety Score Range

Figure 4. State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 1 —Ages 45 - 65 (n=18)

93

A Little Bit o f Weight is Taken Off

G Pre-Class Scores I
B Post-Class Scores |

"T" 1 - - r
20 to 24 30 to 34 40 to 44 50 to 54 60 to 64 70 to 74
25 to 29 35 to 39 45 to 49 55 to 59 65 to 69
Trait Anxiety Score Range

Figures. Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 1 - Entire Class (N=25)

I
I
I

□ Pre-Class Scores
B Post-Class Scores

20 to 24 30 to 34 40 to 44 50 to 54
25 to 29 35 to 39 45 to 49 55 to 59
Trait Anxiety Score Range

Figure 6. Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class I - Ages 45 - 65 (n=18)

94

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken O ff

I

O)

QC

□ Pre-Class Scores
U Post Class Scores I

7-

ui

%
CO

4-

O

2-

Q
2 0 to 2 4

2 5 to 2 9

3 0 to 34

35 to 3 9

4 0 to 4 4

4 5 to 4 9

State Anxiety Score Range
Figure 7. State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 - Entire Class (n=l6)

□ Pre-Class Scores
B Post Class Scores

I
I

I
a

2-

5

1-

20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 44 45 to 49

State Anxiety Score Range
Figures. State Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 —Ages 45 - 65 (n=l3)

95

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken O ff

□ Pre-Class Scores
B Post Class Scores

20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 44 45 to 49
Trait Anxiety Score Range

Figure 9. Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 —Entire Class (n=16)
7-1

I
I

□ Pre-Class Scores I
Post Class Scores

B

6-

I

54-

|:Lllk
20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 34 35 to 39 40 to 44 45 to 49
Trait Anxiety Score Range

Figure 10. Trait Anxiety Scores Pre/Post - Class 6 —Ages 45 - 65 (n=l3)

96

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken Off

97

testing occasions. The bar graphs indicate a general trend for both state and trait anxiety scores to
be reduced from the beginning o f each class to the end. Speilberger (1983) provides the norms for
state and trait scores for women of this age group. The fiftieth percentile for all age groups falls
within the 30 to 34 range o f scores. Using the top of this range (34) as a cut off point, we can
discern how many dancers scored above and below the 50th percentile before and after class on
each occasion. The trend toward reduced state and trait scores is clearly indicated on Table 4 which
shows the number o f dancers who scored below the 50th percentile pre- and post- class for both
class 1 and class 6.

Table 3
Number o f Dancers Who Scored Below the Fiftieth Percentile Pre and Post Class
Number Who Scored
below the 50th
PercentilePre Class

Number Who Scored
below the 50th
PercentilePost Class

Class 1
All Dancers(N=25)

Dancers 45-65 (n=18)

State

11

20

Trait

7

11

State

11

15

Trait

6

9

State

9

15

Trait

4

8

State

7

12

Trait

3

7

Class 6

All Dancers(n=16)

Dancers 45-65 (n=13)

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98

SPSS program was used to perform paired t-tests to compare the pre- and post-class STAI
means to determine if the apparent trend toward reduced state and trait anxiety scores was
significant. Table 5 summarizes these results for both groups, the class as a whole and dancers in
the 45-65 year age group. Using an alpha level o f .05, the results from all STAI testing - with the
exception of the first state testing for the 45-65 age group - were statistically significant: (t(24) =
4.24,p = 000; t(24) = 4.38,EL=.000;t(17) = 3.91, p=.001; t(17) = 2, p=.062*; t(15) = 2.52,p
= 024; K15)=5.13, p=.000; t( 12) = 2.48, g = 029; t(l2) = 5.05, p = 000). From this I can conclude
that these results reflect a real relationship between participation in the dance classes and decreases
in overall stress, as measured by STAI, and are not due to chance factors. Furthermore, reductions
in trait anxiety for all groupings are significant at least to the .01 level.
The first state anxiety testing for the 45 to 65 year old group did not reach significance
(t(I7) = 2, p_=.062). The fact that six of the eighteen women in this age group had pre-class state
scores of less than 30 could have impacted this result. As one dancer conunented, “I probably
really threw off the results, as my life is so stress free anyway. There wasn’t much room to lower
the stress any further.” Increases in the scores o f women who had very low pre-test scores could
have been due to regression toward the mean. Another factor to be considered is the repeated
administration o f the same instrument on the same day to the same individuals. This could have
resulted in smaller variations in means for this group.
I believe this is a modest statement o f significance for a number o f reasons. High stress
levels were not a criterion for inclusion in the study, so the results include women who
demonstrated low levels o f stress to begin with. Given that the repeat testing was done ninety
minutes after the initial testing, one would not expect significant changes, particularly in trait anxiety
which is supposed to be relatively stable.
As the topic o f this research was known by the participants to be Celtic folk dance and
stress management, there may have been a tendency on the part of the participants to provide
answers that would assist the researcher to find that dancing reduced stress. Reduced stress may
have been seen to be the socially desirable result. However, it is important to note that the women

A Little Bit of Weight is Taken Off

99

who took part in this study knew that they would receive copies o f their results. These results
would be meaningless to them if they were not honest in their answers. Scoring sheets were
identified only by code names to hide the identity o f the respondents from the researcher and thus
encourage them to give accurate responses to the questions.

Table 4
Results o f Paired-1 Tests for Pre- and Post- Class Results

PreClass
Means/
SD

PostClass
Means/
SD

L- value

df

2-Tailed
Significance
(E)

State

34.8/
9.60

27.6/
7.76

4.24

24

.000

Trait

40/
9.22

36.52/
10.06

4.38

24

.000

State

31.33/
8.70

26.50/
7.20

2.00

17

.062

Trait

38.22/
8.03

34.22/
7.95

3.91

17

.001

State

31.38/
8.67

26.25/
5.52

2.52

15

.024

Trait

36.19
9.22

32.38/
10.06

5.13

15

.000

State

31.38.
8.84

25.54/
5.33

2.48

12

.029

Trait

35.84/
6.30

31.69/
7.02

5.05

12

.000

Class 1
All
Dancers
(N=25)

Dancers
ages 45-65
(n=18)

Class 6
All
Dancers
(n=16)

Dancers
ages 45-65
(n=13)

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100

Table 5

PreClass 1
Mean/
SD

PreClass 6
Means/
SD

t.- value

df

2-Tailed
Significance
(E)

AU
Dancers
(n=16)

Trait

37.38
7.56

36.19
6.65

1.16

15

.265

Dancers
ages 45-65
(n=13)

Trait

36.54/
8.70

35.84/
7.20

.59

12

.566

Table 6
Results o f Paired-1 Testing Showing Reduction in Trait Anxiety —Post-Class 1 to Post-Class 6

PostClass 1
Mean/
SD

PostClass 6
Means/
SD

L- value

df

2-Tailed
Significance
(El

AU
Dancers
(n=l5)

Trait

33.67/
7.14

32.27/
7.96

1.09

14

.292

Dancers
ages 45-65
(n=12)

Trait

32.80/
7.38

31.50/
7.29

.98

11

.348

Note. One dancer did not complete the trait-anxiety portion o f STAI after the first testing, thus
there is a discrepancy between pre- and post- class numbers.
Paired t-tests were used to measure the reductions in trait anxiety only over the course of the
program, ftom Class I to Class 6. State anxiety is situation specific, thus this change was not
measured for state anxiety results. The results include women who were present for both testing
occasions (all dancers, n = 16; ages 45 - 65, n = 13). While the results ftom these tests (Tables 6
and 7) show a reduction in trait anxiety for all groups ftom week I to week 6, this reduction is too

A Little Bit ofW eight is Taken O ff

101

small to be considered statistically significant: ÿ 15) = 1.16, g = .265;.^ 12) = .59, g = .566; î(14) =
1.09, g = .292; K11) = .98, g = .348. However, there is a consistent reduction in both groupings
and the direction does suggest that over a longer period o f time or with more frequent opportunity
to dance, there may be potential for reduction in trait anxiety through participation in dance classes
of this sort.
In spite o f the fact that the results point to a relationship between the Celtic folk dancing and
stress reduction we can not assume a causal relationship between dance and stress reduction as
many factors are at play in the dance class situation. Many researchers examining the effects of
exercise and dance on stress have come to the point o f discovering a relationship, then suggest other
factors in the situation might also account for the results. This study took the additional step of
presenting the results to the dancers and asking them how they would account for the reduced levels
o f stress.

How the Dancers Viewed the Results
As part o f a group activity dancers (n=17) were asked to identify what they each thought
was the major factor contributing to reduced stress in the dance class. Table 8 presents the
compilation o f their answers to this question clustered into related groups. Alongside these clusters
of factors are the sub-themes identified during the interviews as the experience o f dance. The sub­
themes identified - “Movement and Music”, “Change o f Focus”, “Fun and Laughter”, “The
Group of Women” - and the factors identified by the women as contributing to stress reduction
coincide. Judging from the number o f responses matched with each sub-theme, the women place
an equal emphasis on all four factors.
When the dancers were also asked to identify all other factors that they believed contributed
to stress reduction, the sub-themes identified horn the interviews and journals were repeated over
and over. The following are a small sampling:
Fun and Laughter -

“the fim and “silliness’ we enjoyed as a group”, “laughing”,
“having fun”, “no pressiure to do it right’ - it’s just fun”, “being
instructed to smile”

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102

Table?
Group Feedback to Question “What Would You Identifia as the Maior Factor Contributing to
Reduced Stress?”
Responses to the Question

Themes Identified During the Interviews

The joy o f dance
Exercise
The physical exertion & resulting
increase flow o f oxygen

•

Movement and Music

•

Change of Focus

•

Fun and Laughter

•

The Group of Women

Physical exercise
Exercise - physical activity
Creative outlet
Diversion
Complete absorption in the class
You can’t worry about the cares of
the day when you are trying to
remember the steps o f the dance.
Change o f focus
Laughter
Doing fim things
Being able to have fim & laugh
at yourself
Laughter
Group participation
We were all equals no one as more
experienced or less experienced no
competition or reprimand
•

Interacting while exercising
ieAccomplishment/fim with others

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Movement and Music-“the pleasure gained from joy o f dancing with others”, “physical
activity that is not work”, ‘Sngorous activity is exhilarating”,
“musical stimulation o f the brain with Happy Music”, “the music is
really nice - makes me feel close to my Irish-Scottish roots!!”
The Group o f Women-“a whole group o f people working together to create one enjoyable
experience”, “friendly atmosphere”, “people continued to return to
class”, “human touch and camaraderie”, “getting help from others”,
“interaction with others”
Change o f Focus-

“focusing on remembering dance steps takes your mind off stressors
bothering you - it gives your worry a break”, “getting out o f the
usual environment ^ t , although wonderful, is still the major source o f
stress in my life”, “focusing on something other than responsibilities &
problems”, “leaving stressfril situations behind”

In the listing o f all factors contributing to stress reduction, more themes from the interviews
were also repeated. These include “learning something new”, “challenge” and “ feeling of
accomplishment”. One person identified “ ‘revisiting” something 1 did a lot o f in earlier years”
as a factor in stress reduction.
The dancers were also asked to give feedback regarding their own STAI results. In
particular, they were asked to comment on how well the results reflected their own experience.
Their responses are informative and insightful and suggest that the anxiety levels measured by
STAI provide a good, but not perfect measure o f stress levels.

For the women whose test results

indicated reductions in state anxiety, the general feeling was that these results were an accurate
reflection o f their state at the time. The women reported feeling more “relaxed”, “satisfied” and
“positive” at the end o f an evening of dancing. They attributed their own results to the same
factors that they identified as the major factors contributing to the overall group results: “mind
[occupied] with fun things like dancing”, “any type o f physical and especially social physical
activity, brings stress down”, “people were friendly so [I] felt better at the end”, and “doing
something new, different and exciting”. One dancer commented, “Even if the lesson was
challenging and 1 didn’t get it’, 1 still felt physically relaxed”. Some surprise was expressed at the
small reductions in state anxiety compared to how much stress reduction they experienced. One
dancers commented, “I am surprised by how small the drop in group mean is between pre- and
post- compared to how I felt before and after.

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Surprise was also expressed by some o f the dancers whose results indicated increases in
state or trait anxiety. The following is a selection o f their comments:
“1 can’t explain the slight increase on the first session as I had a wonderful,
relaxing time.”
“Probably I was somewhat anxious because of lack o f dance experience but 1 did
feel more relaxed at the end of the night.”
“I can not really explain how it is my results went up, if a higher score post test
indicates your stress is up but I felt like my stress was gone!”
The interview with Amanda may give an explanation for this. Although she declared that she
always felt relaxed at the end of classes, on the day o f the first testing she wrote that she felt
somewhat confiised in her journal. Confusion was an item that would increase the score on STAI.
Others, whose scores registered increases, felt the results were consistent as they were feeling more
stressed at the end o f the class for reasons such as “expectations o f self”, “thinking about
problems” and “being tired after a week or so o f peri-menopausal difficulties”.
A few dancers began the class with very low scores. These women’s post-class scores
stayed the same, or registered very small increases or decreases. These women all felt that STAI
did not reflect their state of relaxation after the class. During the discussion after the group activity,
some commented that, for women with very low scores to begin with, there was no provision to
register their more relaxed state.
Trait anxiety is considered to be a personality characteristic, and, as such, would be expected
to remain constant. Yet the STAI results indicated the most significant change for trait anxiety. For
two o f the dancers who were interviewed, their trait anxiety scores decreased even as their state
anxiety scores went up. The women suggested a number o f possible explanations for reductions in
trait anxiety. One dancer suggested that the results may be due to the euphoria o f the moment. A
number suggested that reduced trait anxiety might be due to a more positive and confident outlook
due to better feelings about themselves. Several also thought that there was a possibility that the
trait score achially reflected the person’s state anxiety. It was also posited that having had a break
from problems by participating in a relaxing activity might change the way one views them. One
dancer even commented, insightfully, “People might guess that the study was hoping to show

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decreased anxiety and so might tend to answer in that way as women tend to like to be polite and
helpful” .
The group mean scores for all age groups in this study were higher than the 50th percentile
norm for STAI. One dancer reflected on this and wondered if this might be due to seasonal or
geographical factors. These classes were held during the time o f year when winter is approaching
and the days are shortening. As was noted previously, dancers did comment in their journals about
the effects o f lack o f sunlight. Perhaps a more important factor in the difference between the mean
for this group and the norms established for STAI is the fact that the norms were established in
1983. Because of increasing expectations for women to assume roles as wage earners as well as
homemakers and mothers o f well rounded children, women are under considerably more stress to
cope with an increasing number roles and 1983 norms may no longer reflect women’s actual stress
levels. Gwyneth and Della, both commented on increasing role expectations. Gwyneth believes
that, “If it was changed a n d ... I could be all o f a sudden a retired, at home mom, even though I have
adult children, I think that you would [find] my stress levels would be way down”. Della reflected.
I’m thinking... I know, like it seems like when you think back to days gone by like
even to your mother and grandmother, I m ean... Their lives were busy too,
physically, you know really busy. Not that ours aren’t physically. We seem, you
know, to Iwve a job too. ... And there’s always children and that always keeps us
busy too. So, ya, I know. Its a a lot o f roles that females have to take on now.

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CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION
I undertook this research to explore the experience of women during and immediately after
participation in Celtic folk dance classes and to connect that experience with the concept o f stress.
My thesis was that this type o f dancing is a particularly appropriate activity to provide stress relief
for women in mid-life. In order to conduct the research I taught a series o f seven Celtic folk dance
classes during a period o f seven weeks. Over this time I was afforded the opportunity to employ
different research methods to obtain and analyze a variety o f data:
1) administration o f a quantitative testing instrument • Speilberger’s ( 1983) State Trait
Anxiety Inventory - Form-Y (STAI) - prior to and following two different classes,
2) a group activity designed to obtain feedback on STAI results,
3) phenomenological analysis o f three sources o f data
a) five interviews
b) guided journals completed by all dancers immediately following every class
c) the above mentioned group activity
The results o f STAI testing provide evidence that, over all, participation in the dance class resulted in
significant short term reduction in anxiety levels - a commonly used measure o f stress. As well as
a clear trend toward increased numbers o f women scoring below the 50th percentile (a measure of
decreased anxiety), the results of paired t-tests, with the exception of the first state testing for the
age 45 to 65 group, reached significance at alpha .05. The results o f the first state testing for the
women ages 45 to 65 may be explained by the proportionately significant number o f women in this
group who had low pre-class measures o f stress. The results ftom this study are consistent with
the botfy^ o f literature that indicates participation in most physical activities results in temporary
reduction in stress. However, while one can say that participation in dance leads to stress reduction,
this uitidimensional view tells us nothing about the phenomenon o f stress as it is experienced
during dancing or any physical exercise. The results o f quantitative testing are too simplistic to give
a true understanding o f stress as it exists during the dance experience.
Phenomenological analysis provided a deeper and clearer understanding o f the stress

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experience throughout the dance classes. This analysis suggests that a unidimensional view o f the
interaction between physical activity and stress is inadequate to explain the dance/exercise - stress
relationship as there are many factors implicit in the dance situation that contribute to increases in
stress • both positive and negative. Common sense suggests that this would be true o f other
physical activities, such as swimming and jogging. While the overall effect of exercise and dance
on stress is generally reduction, we are remiss if we do not acknowledge the positive ability o f
stress to motivate individuals, thus contributing to personal growth through achievement. For the
women in this research, feelings o f satisfaction derived from accomplishment and feelings of
rejuvenation from renewed energy were as much a part o f the experience o f stress as were feelings
o f relaxation.
During the interviews, the women were asked to describe how they feel when they are
stressed. They recounted physical symptoms such as “fluttery feeling in chest”, headaches, a
feeling “in the pit o f the stomach”, and lack o f energy. They also described psychological
symptoms such as sleepless nights, worrying, fretting, stewing, feeling anxious, under pressure and
agitated. While under stress they wanted to hide from the world and wondered if things would get
better. These descriptions o f how women feel while stressed are in direct contrast to their
description o f how they feel afrer dancing - lifted up, good, peaceful and relaxed, wanting more.
The dancers described a change over the course o f each dance class; arriving tired, tense and
stressed then emerging rejuvenated and felt ready to face the world again.
With the body o f Uterature supporting the physical activity-stress reduction relationship it
IS tempting to suggest a causal relationship but, as researchers point out time after time, there are
too many coexisting factors implicit in the exercise situations. Throughout my review o f the
literature researchers posited alternative reasons for stress reduction and several gave reasons when
physical activity failed to reduce stress. But none o f the researchers in the studies I located asked
their participants —the people who should know —to what they would attribute their reduced levels
o f stress or lack o f change in their stress levels. I presented the results o f the STAI testing to the
dancers in this study for their feedback as to the factors they would identify as responsible for

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reduction in overall stress levels over the course of the two testing situations. Their feedback
suggests they give equal weight to four variables: Exercise, Diversion, Fun and Laughter and Group
Participation. This group feedback directly links the STAI testing to the phenomenological results
as the factors identified during the group activity cluster around themes that are identical to the
essences earlier identified as contributing to stress reduction: “Movement and Music”, “Change
o f Focus”, “Fun and Laughter” and “The Group o f Women” .

Implications for Researchers
The existing body o f research on the interaction o f dance/exercise with stress focuses on the
stress reduction properties o f physical activity. Positive results are measured only by reduced
stress. As is common with the majority o f studies in the area o f exercise, the measure of
psychological health is restricted to absence o f negative affect (Lox & Rudolph, 1994). This focus
on pathology comes from the clinical disciplines, such as medicine and psychology, and spills
over into recreational activities (Jackson, 20(X)). The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Speilberger,
1983) used in this research is, in fact, not a unidimensional scale. STAI uses a combined score of
anxiety derived from adding anxiety present (negative affect) and anxiety absent (positive affect)
items to yield a combined score. Increase in low scores are not necessarily negative but could be
seen to indicate arousal or movement in the direction o f what Selye (1974) described as an optimum
stress level. Nevertheless, STAI focuses only on absence or presence o f anxiety, a negative
psychological state.
The dancers reported feelings at the end o f dancing - “exhilarated”, “energized”,
“invigorated”, “like talking and laughing”, “cheerful”, “pride” - that are more a reflection of
increase in positive mood than they are o f reduced anxiety. STAI is the most commonly used
instrument for psychological assessment in exercise and stress research and its use is
recommended to facilitate cross-study comparisons (Rostad & Long, 1996); however, two other
testing instruments bear consideration for use as they measure both positive and negative mood
states and may give a more comprehensive picture o f psychological well-being. The Profile of

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Mood States (POMS) (McNair, Lorr & Droppletnan, 1971), which is utilized by, among others,
Berger and associates (Berger &Owen, 1992; Berger &Owen, 1988; Berger & Owen, 1986;
Mclnman & Berger, 1993), contains both positive and negative subscales: tension/anxiety,
depression/dejection, anger/hostility, vigour/activity, fatigue/inertia and confusion/bewilderment.
Use o f this scale would facilitate comparisons with studies done by these researchers. In an effort
to provide a more multidimensional approach to the exercise-well-being relationship, McAuley and
Comeya (in Lox & Rudolph, 1994) have developed the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale
(SEES) which measures positive well being, psychological distress and feelings o f fatigue. Use of
this scale is still limited, however, Lox and Rudolph (1994) suggest that this exercise specific
instrument “appears to provide a more comprehensive measure o f subjective exercise experience
than most employed in the exercise literature in that it takes into account physical (e.g., fatigue),
cognitive (e.g., discouraged), and affective states (e.g., great) generated by physical activity
participation” (p. 838).
The discussion of the multidimensionaiity of stress does not negate the very real potential
that participation in folk dance, or other physical activities, has to counteract and modify the impact
of negative stress from daily life. As an alternative to testing the mood benefits o f an infinite
number o f physical activities, Berger and Owen ( 1988) proposed a typology to predict the stress
reducing benefits of varying physical activities. According to the suggested typology, in addition to
being enjoyable, the physical activity must be 1) aerobic, 2) non-competitive, 3) predictable, and
4) rhythmical. The latter two items would enable participants to tune out the environment, engage in
free association and encourage introspection, allowing the mind to wander. Research does not
support either the aerobic component (Berger & Owen, 1992; Owen & Berger, 1988; Rostad &
Long, 1996) or the non-competitive (Rudolph & Kim, 1996) component o f this typology. My
study suggests that an activity that requires total focus would contribute more to stress reduction
than an activity that allows the mind to wander or to engage in free association.
The results o f this study hint that the context of the physical activity is as important as the
characteristics of the activity itself in determining the capacity o f the activity to reduce stress. I

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suggest that any Seely chosen physical activity that is of an intensity and complexity within the
ability of the individual to enjoy will contribute to reduced levels of stress, assuming moderate to
high levels o f stress exist. The fact that Berger and Owen’s typology has not been supported by
research does not negate the usefulness of a typology to predict the stress reducing properties of
various physical activities. 1 would like to propose an alternative typology, based on the thematic
structure derived from this study, which includes the characteristics and context o f physical
activities that will contribute to stress reduction. The physical activity
1) should take place in a supportive group, preferably one working toward
common goal. The group members should have similar abilities. Same sex or age
groupings may also facilitate stress reduction.
2) will require focus that will distract participants from outside sources of
stress.
3) should include enough challenge to maintain motivation balanced by fun. The
challenge should be within the ability o f the participants to master and lead to new
learning and feelings of achievement.
4) must be engaged in continuously for 20 to 30 minutes.
Prior research supports this proposed typology. Hughs, Casal and Leon (in Long &
Haney, 1988a) found that subjects exercising alone reported minimal changes in psychological
functioning. All research demonstrating decrease in stress with physical activity has been done in
group situations. The stress reducing properties o f recreational soccer (Rudolph & Kim, 1996)
could be attributed to the cooperative group effort necessary in a soccer game or, alternatively, could
be due to fun. Characteristics of the leader, intensity and complexity o f the activity, or challenge not
balanced by fun could explain negative results for activities such as swimming and body
conditioning (Berger & Owen, 1988; Berger & Owen, 1986). The issue o f focus has not been
addressed in prior research. The researcher should ensure that the participants are actually engaged
in the activity being researched for the minimal amount o f 20 to 30 minutes. Disconfirming results
for activities such as fencing (Berger & Owen, 1988) and tennis (Rudolph & Kim, 1996) may be

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more a reflection o f actual participation than of the characteristics o f the activity. One cannot
assume continuous participation in these activities over the duration of a university class session.
As has been demonstrated in this research, physical activities have the potential to increase
as well as decrease stress. Another feature, essential to this typology, is the involvement o f a leader
to manage and balance the above factors along with the stress implicit in a dance/exercise
environment. While the participants in this study made few mentions regarding the role of the
instructor, it is important not to underestimate the effect o f the leadership on any group. The
instructor must be able to create a program that is challenging enough to maintain interest but within
the ability o f the participants to enjoy and master and be able to teach in an organized and sequential
manner. The leader establishes the group atmosphere, whether it be supportive and Am or
competitive and oppressive. Berger and Owen’s (1988) study attests to the effect o f an instructor’s
“rigorous approach to exercise’’ (p. 22156) which resulted in high drop out rates and no positive
mood changes. I believe my own philosophy, which stresses mutuality, cooperation and sociability,
as well as my personal investment in dancing and the research contributed to the positive results of
this study.
The majority o f the research conducted in the area o f exercise-psychological benefits has
involved university students taking part in university physical activity programs. An exception to
this are studies done by Long and Haney (1988a; 1988b) which examined effect o f jogging on
stress with stressed working women. These physical activities that have been investigated are not
necessarily those that would be o f interest or available to women prior to or during mid-life. In the
14 month follow-up done by Long and Haney (1988b), 11 of the 12 women who continued with a
regular exercise regime chose activities other than jogging (walking, swimming and aerobic class).
With increasing interest being paid to the physical and mental wellbeing o f women in mid-life it will
be important to include the voices o f the women in determining activities to be investigated.
The review o f the literature for this thesis revealed the dearth of research on the
psychological benefits o f any form o f dance. Several studies involving Dance/Movement Therapy
were located, however, “much o f what is called dance therapy does not appear to be what we

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usually call dance” (Hanna, 1988, p. 149). One study involving modem dance (Lesté & Rust,
1990) was unearthed. Silver’s ( 1981) study was the only one discovered that involved any form of
social or folk dance. Silver’s research demonstrated the potential for participation in folk dancing
to enhance body concept and self concept. A qualitative component o f her research revealed that
participants in folk dance classes derived the additional benefits o f fim, diversion, tension release
and positive social contact - key themes identified as contributing stress reduction by the women
involved in my research. This present study suggests that along with the benefits identified by
Silver, folk dancing can be part o f a multidimensional strategy for stress management. Folk dance
can provide relief from, and counteract, the damaging effects o f negative stress. Dance can also
provided the additional benefits feelings o f rejuvenation along with self-enhancement and personal
growth through challenge, achievement and mastery. Given the potential o f dance for enhancing
psychological well being, it behooves the research community to pay more attention to this very
neglected but potentially life enhancing activity.

Recommendations for Future Research:
Based on this discussion and the results o f this research I make the following
recommendations for future research:
1) Many forms of dance that would be considered social - folk, line, square, ballroom, swing - are
popular recreational activities with potential for lifelong participation. The psychological benefits of
participating in these many dance forms should be researched and documented. In the efforts to
document the mood etihancing benefits o f physical activity, dance should not be a poor cousin o f
sport and exercise.
2) Phenomenological investigation of the stress experienced during dance has provided insight into
the stress-exercise relationship that has been previously ignored by quantitative researchers.
Further phenomenological study o f other physical activities could be equally finithil.
3) An important feature o f my research design was the use o f mixed methods and a variety o f data
sources. This allowed the development of a more complete picture o f stress during and after

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dancing that use of any single method or data source would have. Data from the guided journals
were particularly useful, because o f their anonymity, for supplementing the data from the interviews
as this data provided disconfirming evidence, thus forcing the development of a more
comprehensive thematic structure.
4) Further research directed toward stress management - physical activity - mid-life women
should ask the women which activities might best fit their interests and the context o f their lives.
5) Use o f multidimensional instruments that include both positive and negative scales, such as
Profile o f Mood States (POMS) and the Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES), in research
on the psychological benefits o f physical activity may afford a more comprehensive picture.
6) Development o f a typology to predict the stress reducing potential o f various physical activities
and contexts could be a worthwhile enterprise. As two items o f the typology proposed by Berger
and Owen (1988) have been refuted by research and I question the usefulness o f the other two, 1
offer a new typology for scrutiny, critique and revision o f future researchers.

Implications and Recommendations for Counsellors
This thesis was completed within the context o f the requirements for a Masters Degree in
Education (Counselling) and a number of implications for counsellors arise 6om this research.
These centre around three areas: assumptions about women in mid-life and the source(s) o f their
problems, prescription of exercise as a stress management activity, and promotion o f lifestyle
change. As was stated earlier in this paper, tliis research was undertaken from a feminist
philosophical base. Some feminist counsellors seek to effect change for their clients through
education and advocacy in communities (Laidlaw & Malmo, 1991;Lerman & Porter, 1990). The
results o f this study also suggest the necessi^ for social change to ensure equal access to physical
activities for all groups o f society.
The women who took part in this stucfy raise questions about the stereotypical view o f
women in mid-life. A review o f the literature would lead one to believe that women at this stage of
life would be riddled with insecurities as a result o f low self-esteem, poor body image and social

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pressures to remain youthful. In fact, very few women in this study identified any of these issues
as stressful. The medical community would have us believe that mid-life is about menopause and
deteriorating health. An interesting aspect o f this study was the fact that women did not identify
problems due to menopause as stressors. This is consistent with research findings that suggest
anxiety and depression in middle-age have their source in life circumstances rather than hormones
(Bromberger& Matthews, 1996; Dennerstein, Smith & Morse, 1994). Many o f our ideas about
menopausal women are informed by the health and psychology community which tends to focus on
the negative. As Jackson (2000) notes, “Historically the health disciplines have focused on
problems and pathology rather than wellness and prevention’ (p. 136). The sample o f women who
took part in this research may not be representative of all women in mid-life. Women who might
see dancing as a threatening activity would not have volunteered. Additionally, those who
volunteered were clearly individuals who could and would take some time for self-care.
Nevertheless, the picture o f women in mid-life that emerges &om this research is one o f strong,
competent women, weighted down with responsibilities; but, at the same time, vibrant and alive
women seeking new and unique activities and learning.
The existing body o f research on exercise and stress reduction indicates that exercise is as
effective as progressive relaxation and stress inoculation in a variety o f populations (Berger, 1994).
This research suggests that participation in Celtic folk dancing is yet another physical activity that
can be recommended as an important part of a program for stress management and one that is
particularly suitable for women in mid-life. An initial proposition o f this research was that Celtic
folk dance was an activity that would be particularly attractive to women between the ages of 45 and
65. Examination o f retention rates for this class suggest that this may so. While only 64% o f the
total group (n=25) o f dancers continued throughout the course o f the classes, 72% o f the women
who were between the ages o f 45 and 65 (n=18) danced to the end. In spite o f the fact that dance
and other exercise forms provide an effective means o f stress reduction along with other potential
health benefits, counsellors should exercise caution in insisting that middle-aged women should
pursue stress relief through physical activity. Many women, having suffered through physical

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education classes focused on competitive sport, associate sport and exercise with humiliation and
pain (Vertinsky, 1998, p.88). Prescribed participation in activities that have previously caused them
grief may do nothing but cause more psychological distress. Davis and Thaut (1989) found that
preference for music led to stress reduction. Likewise, preference for physical activity is important.
It is important to note that, for some women, dance has the potential to be an alternative healthful
physical activity that does not have the connotation o f sport. An additional consideration for
recommending regular participation in dance as a stress management activity is the lived reality of
women’s lives and the lack o f available opportunity. As Aleisha so succinctly put it, “Today, in
Prince George where can 1just go - because I’m feeling stressed • to go dance?”
Monat and Lazarus (1991) categorized physical activity as an “Environment/ Lifestyle”
form o f stress management intervention. The words o f the women in this research suggest that
counsellors should acknowledge the difficulties faced by women when attempting to undertake a
lifestyle change. The women in this study, echoed the literature in the field o f women and leisure
(Green & Hebron, 1988; Henderson, Bialeschki, Shaw & Freysinger, 1989; 1999; Woodward &
Green, 1988) which suggests that knowledge and provision of opportunities may not be sufficient to
enable women to make pro-active choices to participate in leisure activities that will enhance their
personal well-being. They voiced how difficult it was for them to make “choices” and “lifestyle
changes”. For many o f the dancers commitment to one night of dancing created significant stress
and some were unable to continue this weekly commitment. A multitude of conflicting priorities
and responsibilities - all o f which have claims on women’s time - limit the ability o f women to make
lifestyle changes. Family, home, w o * , traditions, study - all conspire to impact possibilities for
“choice”. The women in this study enumerated numerous constraints including the following;
husbands objecting to time out o f the house, having to arrange for childcare or bring kids dancing,
husbands’ work, visiting relatives, household responsibilities, their own work and business travel
and preparations for Christmas. Prior to this thesis research, a woman, who currently dances with
one o f the local groups, confided that she would love to take part in the study and dance twice a
week but she could not because going out more would cause too much “stress” between herself

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and her husband. Economic considerations impacted on the ability of participants to continue
dancing following the conclusion o f the research. For the women in this study who were on
income assistance, the fact that the dance classes were ftee was an important consideration. The
Celtic folk dance classes resumed in February, after the conclusion of the research, but none o f the
women who were on income assistance returned to the class. One of these woman planned to
continue but elected not to when she discovered there would be a fee involved. Another dancer with
low income obtained employment, thus securing the resources she needed to continue dancing.
After paying the fees to dance, she discovered that, with her increased responsibility, she did not
have time.
Along with giving recognition to the difficulties that women face when making lifestyle
changes, counsellors need to encourage women to make self-care a priority and to ensure that selfcare is a priority for themselves. As well, counsellors can influence other family members to
“allow” women time for self-care. Counsellors also need to beware o f perpetuating limiting social
and cultural assumptions that determine women's activities and that continue to circumscribe and
limit women’s access to and participation in health promoting leisure activities.
The interests identified by the dancers in this research along with the factors constraining
women’s access to leisure activities point to a number o f considerations for planning programs for
women of this age group. These women sought a novel experience that involved new learning,
challenge and a social experience, thus corroborating Meier’s (1991) suggestion that physical
activities be promoted as challenging and stimulating. Innovative programming is needed to provide
a larger variety o f satisfying physical activities for women prior to, during and after mid-life.
Aquacise classes, once such an innovative program that attracts primarily women, are now a regular
part o f the pool landscape. Likewise, jazzercise and aerobic dance appeal mainly to women. A
newcomer to the field o f innovative programming directed toward women is dragon boat racing for
survivors o f breast cancer (McKenzie, 1998). The popularity o f this program, begun in 1996, is
attested to by its rapid spread across Canada (including Prince George), the United States, Australia
and New Zealand. A Celtic folk dance group started S years ago in Prince George with a small

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group o f 10 individuals and has since grown to include two groups o f approximately 24 members
each. If the programs are offered women will come. As the women in this research group suggest,
women specific and age specific activities would be appealing.
Difficulties with long term commitment suggest the appropriateness o f short duration
programs or programs conducive to “drop-ins” to attract women. Considerations to facilitate
ongoing commitment include childcare and location in a neighbourhood centre. Public
transportation is limited in Prince George and women are limited by the availability o f family
vehicles. Start times should be later in the evening allow women to fulfil other commitments ~ such
as meal preparation and clean up, transportation o f children to their activities, completion of
employment related responsibilities - and thus reduce the stress involved around attendance.
The fact that the research dance classes were free was an important factor to enable low
income women to attend. This attests to the importance o f low cost recreational programs for
women. Where possible, if fees must be involved, gradual payment rather than lump sum fees may
encourage more women to participate.
Counsellors who desire involvement in social action might become an active participant in a
group such as the Nil IR Mid-Life Project, thus becoming part of innovative health promotion
activities for women. Alternatively, a counsellor could form or become part of a group that works
toward public policies that provide more equitable access to opportunities for physical activities for
people o f all ages - policies that might include provision o f low cost, accessible facilities along with
resource and training grants.

The results o f my research give positive support for Celtic folk dance as an activity that can
play an important role in a plan designed to help manage the negative effects of stress. More
importantly, the dancers who took part in this study have raised an awareness that stress is not a
unidimensional concept. Increase in stress —both “eustress” and “distress” —is as much a part
o f dancing as is its decrease, even though the overall effect can be a reduction in stress. Increases in
positive stress can provide the motivation for achievement that contribute to feelings o f well-being.

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118

These women have contributed valuable insights into the experience o f stress during and after the
dance situation and into what they identify as the factors responsible for stress reduction. From the
experience, as they describe it, I have identified a number o f implications both for researchers
engaged in the areas o f exercise/dance and stress management in general and dance in particular
and for counsellors dealing with mid-life women and their issues.
It is my hope that through this study I have been able to shed some light into the
complicated relationship between physical activity and stress. It is also my sincere desire that my
efforts will stimulate more interest in the study of a popular recreational activity that shows so much
potential for enhancement of psychological well-being - Dance.

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APPENDICES

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Appendix A
Advertisement

126

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Appendix A: Advertisement
The advertisement (see next pages) were:
- distributed to School District #57 schools. Hospice House, and members o f current Celtic Dance
Groups
• posted on Prince George Regional Hospital and Northern Interior Health Unit Notice Boards.
- included in “The Well” - Midlife Project publication
A shorter version was placed in the Prince George Citizen and the St. Giles Newsletter.

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Try Celtic Dancing

... For free
As part o f the Northern Interior Health Region Women’s Mid-Life project, women o f all
ages will have the opportunity to participate in 7 introductory level Celtic folk dance classes. The
program will be based on Scottish Country Dances and Irish Set Dances and will emphasize
maximum physical activity at a low to moderate intensity. The basic steps for both types o f dance
will be included to facilitate continuing participation in local Celtic dance groups. Class size will be
limited to 24 participants.

An information session will be held Thursday. October?. 1999 at 7:00 in the St.
Giles Church hall. Individuals who are interested in participating in this group must attend this
information session. Come to this meeting prepared to dance. Classes will be held Thursdays,
beginning October 14,1999 in the St. Giles Church hall and will run from 7:00 to 9:00 PM. This
program is offered as part o f a University o f Northem British Columbia Masters o f Education
thesis research study into the use o f this type o f folk dance as part of a stress management
program. Participation will be free for women who volunteer to be an active participant in the
research. Individuals who are not interested in being part of a research study are welcome to join in
the dancing, but will be charged a nominal $20.00 fee to help pay for the hall rental. Classes will be
conducted by Carol Usher, BPE., BSW., M.Ed. (counselling) candidate. Carol currently
coordinates, teaches, and dances with the Prince George Celtic Dancers. For further information
you can contact Carol Usher at 5610501.

#########

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Be Part of the UNBC Research Project: Mid-life Women, Celtic Folk Dance and Stress
Management

Purpose: This investigation seeks to study the experience of participation in a Celtic Folk
Dance Class and to determine the relationship between participation in an exercise
program based on Celtic folk dances and stress reduction.
Investigator: Carol Usher, BPE., BSW., M.Ed. (counselling) student
Procedure:
As a participant you will be asked to attend 7 Celtic folk dance classes.
Participants will be asked to fill out a short questionnaire at the beginning and end of the
study as well as to complete Speilberger’s State Trait Anxiety Inventory during the first
and sixth weeks. Participants must also be wiiiing to be contacted for an interview about
your dance experience within the week after the classes finish pins a foliow-up interview.
You will be contacted by pbone about these interviews.

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Appendix B
Informed Consent Document

130

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Appendix B

Informed Consent Document

Title: Mid-life Women and Celtic Folk Dance and Stress Management, a Phenomenological Study
Purpose: This investigation seeks to study the experience o f participation in a Celtic Folk Dance
Class and to determine the relationship between participation in an exercise program based on
Celtic folk dances and stress reduction.
Investigator: Carol Usher, BPE., BSW., M.Ed. (counselling) student
Procedure:
As a participant you will be asked to attend 7 Celtic folk dance classes. The program will be
based on Scottish Country Dances and Irish Set Dances and will emphasize maximum physical
activity at a low to moderate intensity. The basic steps for both types o f dance will be included.
Participants will be asked to fill out a short questionnaire at the beginning and end o f the study as
well as to complete Speilberger’s State Trait Anxiety Inventory during the first and sixth weeks.
You will also be asked to keep a brief journal to be filled in at the end of each class. Participants
must also be willing to be contacted for an interview about your dance experience within the week
after the classes finish plus a follow-up interview. These interviews will take from 1 to 1 1/2 hours.
You will be contacted by phone about these interviews.
Consent:
This is to certify that 1,

agree to

participate in this study on dance and stress. My participation is voluntary and 1 understand that 1
am fiee to withdraw my consent and terminate my participation at any time. 1 also understand that
as part o f my participation, there will be no charge for this activity.
1 also understand that my opinions and experiences will be solicited during the study but 1
am free to refrain from answering any questions.
I also understand that I may be contacted with a request to be interviewed. The interviewer
has my consent to tape record and take notes during the interview, however, f can stop the interview
at any time and decide not to continue. I can also request that certain parts o f the interview not be

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recorded. I will have the choice o f reviewing the transcripts of the interview and at that time any
relevant information can be added or changed. If I participate in the interviews, I can receive, upon
request, a copy o f the final results.

I have been informed that measures will be taken to ensure confidentiality as to my
statements and personal information that is collected as a result o f this study. Confidentiality will
be ensured by a coding system that identifies participants by letters and number only plus use of
pseudonyms in the final thesis document. All materials will be kept by the researcher in a locked
place and will be accessed only by the researcher and her supervisor. Audiotaped interviews will be
erased after transcription is completed. Written data, including transcribed interviews, will be
secured in a locked container under the control o f the researcher for five years after the study is
completed, then destroyed.
The information gained from this research will be used by Carol Usher for her thesis report,
publications or presentations. 1 understand that every effort will be made to protect my identity but
that particulars of some incidents may appear familiar to individuals who know me.
1 have had the opportunity to ask any questions and clarify any concerns 1 have about this
study, particularly in terms o f any physical limitations 1 may have and/or my ability to participate. 1
understand that 1 may ask questions any time during the study, and may contact the student’s thesis
supervisor. Dr. Barbara Herringer, at UNBC 250 960 6643
1 also acknowledge that participation in any physical activity has inherent risks and 1 am not
aware of any pre-existing physical condition that would preclude me from participation.

Date

Participant’s Signature

Researcher’s Signature

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Appendix C
Questionnaires

133

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Appendix C: Questionnaires
Questionnaire 1
Code nam e:____________________________ Phone Number:_____________________________
Age: (as o f October 1,1999)___________
Occupations: (Please include homemaker if it applies. If you are involved in two or more
occupations, such as teacher and homemaker, please list them all in order o f their stress demands)

Number of hours employed for a wage per week:_________
Marital S tatus:______________________
Do you have children?___________

Pleasegivetheirages:
Number o f children living at hom e:.

Are you caring for anyone outside your nuclear family?.
If so, w h o ? ______________________________

Please mark the point on the following scales where you would rate yourself
Not at All
Stress is a problem
in my life

Very Much

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

I believe that dancing 1
is a beneficial activity
for stress management

2

3

4

5

6

7{

Please identify the stresses that you would identify as playing a role in your life.
Major:

M inor

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Are you concerned with the effect of
stress on your health? ____
menopause on your health? _
Please describe any physical activity you are regularly involved in (include frequency and duration).

Please describe any stress management programs that you participate/have participated in.

Have you danced before? When? What type?

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Questionnaire II
Code name;
Please rate the point on the following scales where you would rate yourself
Not at All
Stress is a problem

Very Much

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

I believe that dancing 1
is a beneficial activity
for stress management

2

3

4

5

6

7

Dancing is an activity 1
I would like to
continue.

2

3

4

5

6

7

Any comments on this exercise program as a stress management activity or on the research

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Appendix D
Guided Journal

137

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Appendix D: Guided Journal

A __ .
How I am feeling
1) right now

2) about the dance experience today

What stands out for me today

138

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Appendix E
Interview Guide

139

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140

Appendix E: Interview Guide
Interview Guide
The purpose o f this research is to study the experience o f Celtic folk dance particularly as it applies
to stress management
Phenomenological question:
How would you describe your dance experience?
(Journal entries will be available for use to assist in remembering)
(Empathetic statements, clarification, summarization, probes will be used to encouraged the
individual to explore her experience)
Other Questions:
What did you hope to achieve by joining a dance class? Were your expectations met?
Could you comment on your STAI resets? Are they consistent with your experience?
What is feeling stressed like for you?
How do you feel after dance?
Do you believe that dance contributes to stress reduction? Can you give me some examples from
your experience?
How do you usually manage stress in your life?
Could you describe your personal supports?
Final questions:
Do you want to review/ comment on your ttanscript before our second meeting?
Can you comment on your experience o f the research process?
Is there anything else you would like to add?
These questions will also be provided in writing on cards to the participants.

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Appendix F
Schedule of Activities

141

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Appendix F: Schedule of Activities

jw e e k

Program

|

Information Session, Survey Questionnaire I

Steps: walk, advance and retire, shuffle,
skip
Dancefs): Strip the Willow, Waves o f
T<»y

|
!
|
1

STAI, guided journal, Scottish Country
Dance

Steps: advance and retire, skip change of |
step, cross, swing, cast
|
Dancefs): Highland Welcome, Barley
j
Bree
I

3

guided journal, Scottish Country Dance

Steps: figure 8, four hands across, setting |
step, reel o f three
|
Dance(s): Dashing White Sergeants, Reel#
ofthe 51 St Division
|

4

guided journal, Scottish Country Dance

Steps: right hands cross, reel o f three in
tandem
Dance(s): Butterscotch and Honey, Gay
Gordons

|
|
|
#

5

guided journal, Irish Set Dance

Steps: House, Body, Ladies Cross
Dance(s): Sliabh Lauchra Set

|
|

6

guided journal, Irish Set Dance

Steps: Square the House, Hornpipe
Dancefs): Sliabh Lauchra Set

|
|

7

STAI, Questionnaire II, survey, guided
journal, Irish Set Dance, Post request sheet
for next weeks dances

Steps:
Dancefs): Sliabh Lauchra Set

1
|

Distribution of Results, Group Activity

Review o f Requested Dances

|

I'

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Appendix G
Handouts:
Healthy Dancing
What to Wear
Celtic Folk Dance

143

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Healthy Dancing
Copyright © 1994 by Michael Hanson.
Scottish Country Dancing is not only great fim; it is also good exercise. It promotes pleasant social
interaction and aerobic activity, both important parts o f good mental and physical health. As with
any exercise, it is important to dance properly to maximize enjoyment and prevent injury. Dancing
includes warming up before dancing and cooling down afterwards; it is also important to stay in
good condition. Most dance injuries come from overuse o f certain muscles, especially when
combined with under-use at other times.
Keep in Shape
Cardiovascular fitness : regular aerobic exercise, for example: brisk walking, aerobics, bicycling,
cross country skiing, swimming, dancing. Your heart rate should be elevated for 15-20 minutes of
continuous exercise (30 minutes including warmup and cool down), 3 times a week. It is better to
exercise on alternate days (e.g., Saturday, Monday, Thursday); this allows the body time between
sessions to strengthen and rebuild. Don't smoke.
Warmup
Before dancing, warm up with light activity and stretching. Warmups increase blood and oxygen
supply to the muscles, raise body temperature, relax muscles, increase coordination and prepare you
to move.
1.Joint rotation facilitates motion by spreading synovial fluid to lubricate joints. Rotate toes, ankles,
knees, legs, trunk/waist, neck, shoulders, elbows, wrists, fingers and knuckles.
2.Walk or move to raise muscle temperature and increase blood circulation before trying to stretch.
If the weather is very cold, or if you are feeling very stiff, take extra care to warmup before you
stretch.
3.Do slow, gentle stretches (no bouncing). Tense and relax muscles, then stretch again. Be sure to
include arches, calves, and thighs in your stretching. Also stretch your torso, arms and hands. Work
the tension out o f your shoulders. Stretch gently and hold for 15-20 seconds; if it hurts, back off a
little. While stretching, take slow, relaxed breaths from the abdomen, this improves circulation and
helps relax your muscles and your mind.
4.End warmups with some gentle skip change and pas-de-basque to get your feet, legs and mind

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into the swing o f dancing. Gently move to the rhythm o f the music, without trying for great
extension or flight.
Dance Properly
Good dancing habits go a long way toward preventing injuries. Make the following suggestions an
automatic part o f your dancing:
Maintain control o f your body. Keep your center o f mass over your feet, especially when turning or
circling. Shoulders over hips, hips over knees, over ankles will help maintain balance, which not
only prevents injuries and falls, but is also less fatiguing and presents a better form to the viewer.
Maintain good posture
Avoid rigid muscles. Use your arches, bent knee and leg muscles to land gently and absorb impact especially for pas-de-basque.
Use good handing. When turning by one hand, point elbow down and maintain firm muscles.
Floppy arms can result in injury to the shoulder/arm. If you lose your balance, good arms can help
keep you 6om falling. Avoid "thumb" injuries by not grasping your partner's hand with your
thumb. Cup your hand and "glue" your thumb to the inside edge o f your hand.
Turn out from the hip, not from the knee, to prevent knee problems.
Don't dance if you know you are tired.
Do not attempt movements beyond your ability. Strive to improve technique, but be aware of your
body's limitations - if it hurts, back off a bit. Dancing involves movements and muscles that you
may not have used much, so work into it gradually. If you can't do a 90° turnout, settle for 80. If
your feet won't take a full pas-de-basque, cut down on the height, while maintaining the rhythm.
Never skip "step practice." This is your chance to develop and maintain the technique that will keep
you going.
Be sure your shoes fit snugly, but not tight. Wear cushioned insoles to help absorb the impact
when landing. If your shoes are too slippery, spray the soles with nonskid, apply rosin, or roughen
the sole by scraping it with a knife or rubbing it against a rough surface, such as cement.
Moistening the sole with a damp towel can also temporarily keep you horn slipping.
Avoid wearing rings when dancing, especially ones with rough stones that can dig into your hand or
scratch people you dance with.
Keep your toe and finger nails trimmed.

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Cool Down
After dancing, cool down. Light exercise reduces tightness, cramping and soreness of fatigued
muscles and may make you feel better. The cool-down is similar to the second part o f the warmup,
but in reverse.

1.Gentle dance-type movements. Like the last part o f the warmups, do gentle skip-change,
or walk for S to 10 minutes after dancing.
2.Relaxed stretching, as in the warmups. Stretch each body part, giving special attention to
ones used in dancing. Assume a position and hold it with another part o f the body for
15-20 seconds.
If you are still sore the next day, doing some light exercise and stretching may help.
Treating Minor Discomfort and Injuries
Even if you stay in shape and dance properly, you may occasionally experience discomfort. For
minor discomfort, the following may help:
Cramps are usually caused by reduced blood flow to a muscle, and build up o f lactic acid. This may
indicate insufficient warmup or cool down. Massage, careful stretching, calcium (e.g., milk, or 2
Rolaids or Turns), or potassium (eat oranges or bananas) may help relieve cramps.
For acute pain, cold often helps. Soak feet/legs in cool water after dancing or rub sore muscles with
ice.
First aid for minor acute injuries, remember the word RICE:
Rest the injured body part.
Immobilize the area by wrapping with an elastic bandage.
Cold or ice for 20 to 30 minutes several times a day for two or three days. Wrap ice in a towel to
protect skin or move ice "popsicle" over injured area.
Elevate the injured part above the level o f the heart as often as possible.
Start immediately, to limit swelling and further damage. For major injuries, consult a physician.

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Exercises
The most common injury dancers sustain is damage to the cartilage in the knee and hip joints.
Ankles are also vulnerable. Damage is less likely if the muscles around these joints are strong.
These exercises can be used to strengthen them:
Knees : Tighten muscles in the 6ont o f the thigh (move kneecap), repeating ten or more times
several times a day.
Hips, knees and abdomen : Sideways leg lifts. Regular leg lifts. Repeat ten times each.
Ankles : Sit on one chair and face another. With heels on the floor, push out with the feet against
the inside o f the legs of the second chair.
Arches and twcks o f legs : Put a catalogue or 2 inch thick phone book on the floor against the sink.
Stand barefoot with your toes and the balls of your feet on the phone book and your heels turned
out, extending over the edge, touching the floor. Lift your heels up as high as possible, coming up
onto tiptoe on the book, and then bring your heels slowly back down to the floor again. Use your
hands for balance only, if you can, or for support if you have to. Move your heels toward each
other a little and repeat.
Retrieved July, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://www.tm.informatik.unifhmkfuTt.de/strathspey/other/healthyJitml

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What to Wear
Clothing:
Wear comfortable and non-binding clothing.
As you will become warmer as the dancing progresses, you may be most comfortable with a
sleeveless or short sleeved shirt under a long sleeved shirt that you can take off.
Many people prefer dancing in jumpers or loose skirts.

Footwear:
It Is essential that you have footwear for safety (no socks or hare feet).
We will be beginning with Scottish Country Dances which are typically danced with a soft-soled
shoe. If you do not have soft-soled shoes, light runners or street shoes will do. If you have foot
problems, please wear something supportive.
During the fifth class, we will begin Irish Set Dancing, which are typically done in hard-soled shoes
or comfortable dance shoes. Again, if your feet require it, wear shoes that are supportive.

Please wear shoes that are non-marking.

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Celtic
In the present day, the term “Celtic” has become synonymous with Ireland although the
influence o f Celtic culture can be found throughout Britain, Ireland, Man, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany
in France, and Nova Scotia in Canada. For over five hundred years, before the spread o f the Roman
Empire, the Celts (known to the Romans as Galli and the Greeks as Keltoi) were a major cultural
presence throughout Europe. The Celts spread from Germany and Eastern Europe southward
through the balkans and Italy, westward into France and Iberia and north through Britain (England
and Scotland) conquering and dominating the local peoples. They even went so far as to sack
Rome in 390 BC and Delphi in 297 BC. Celtic domination was terminated by Roman conquest,
however, evidence suggests that Ireland remained untouched by the Romans and retained a Celtic
identity well into the 5th century AD when Christianity spread into Ireland. In spite o f exposure to
and acceptance of the Christian faith much o f this Celtic identity remains to this day .The Celts
generated some o f the ancient world’s most beautiful pieces o f decorative art with its characteristic
animals, plants and spiral patterns.
The term Celtic also refers to a language group in the Indo-European family. The Celtic
family o f languages is divided into two branches - Insular Celtic languages and Continental Celtic
languages. The latter was spoken throughout continental Europe, however, there are no living native
speakers today. Celtic Insular languages are spoken throughout Britain, Ireland, Isle o f Man and
Brittany. While the last native speakers o f Comish and Manx have died, there are many native
speakers o f both Irish and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland, Scotland and Nova Scotia and Breton is
spoken in Brittany.

Celtic Folk Dance
According to Silver (1981) the function of a dance identifies it as folk dance. Folk dance
differs from theatre or art dance in that the “participants o f folk dance [are] physically involved in a
communal activity” (p.4). Hanna concurs that folk dance includes communal expression. Active
physical involvement as a part o f a group is the key aspect o f folk dance but not the only aspect.
There is also a suggestion of ethnicity, or linkage to the sociocultural tradition o f a group with a
sense o f identity based on origin.
Typically folk dances are done in various formations, such as open circles, closed circles,
squares, lines, trios and pairs. Participants hold hands, have arms around each others waists, link
shoulders, or link elbows. Dancers learn to hold their actions together with the rest o f the group to
create a unified whole. There are many opportunities for social interaction and dances frequently
included changing partners.
The term, Celtic folk dance, includes but is not limited to, the cefli and country dances o f the

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Irish and Scottish people. Ceili (ceilidh) dances are simple popular dances commonly danced at
parties and may be couple dances, round dances, line dances and progressive line dances. They are
simple to learn and thus encourage participation by all.
Country dances include Scottish Country Dancing and Irish Set Dancing. Both share a
common heritage in the country dances that were universally popular throughout Europe during the
18th century. These dances were danced in a characteristic doubie>line formation. In both
countries the dances developed distinctive characteristics adapted to the local music. Scottish
country dancing added reels o f three and four. Reels, said to be o f Celtic origin, are the oldest
surviving Scottish Social dances and can be traced back to the 16th century. After the Napoleonic
wars elements o f French quadrilles and cotillions were incorporated into the country dances. This
influence can be seen in modem day square sets.
Country dancing declined during the 19th century except in Scotland where it continued to
flourish thanks to the tradition of dancing in Scottish regiments and the support o f the nobility and
gentry. In 1923 the Royal Scottish Country Dance Society was established to practice and preserve
country dances as they were danced in Scotland. By the outbreak of world War I there was a 200
year old unbroken history o f Scottish country dancing. Scottish Country Dancing is a living,
growing tradition including both dances recorded in early manuscripts and modem day creations.
Today there are over 7000 different dances catalogued, of which 1000 are o f lasting non-local
importance. Most dances are done in sets o f four couples arranged in parallel lines although there
are some dances that involve square sets and round the room dances. Dances are done to reel, jig
and strathspey steps. Dances are done with poise and erect body carriage. The steps are precise
and toes are pointed at all times. The French influence is seen in the ballet foot positions.
Less than twenty years ago very few Irish country set dances were danced or even heard of
outside their own locality. The present day revival o f interest in Irish Set Dancing is riding on the
wave of renewed interest in Irish music and all things Irish. The Gaelic League, was founded in
1893, with the expressed purpose of creating a separate Irish culture. Their aims were admirable,
but in their attempt to rid the country of all English influences, they banned all old surviving,
traditional dances including round and coimtry dances, quadrilles, and reels that were much like the
Scottish dances o f the time. By 1929, the Gaelic league Dance Commission was established in
attempt to resurrect some o f the dances. Again, in 1935, the Public Dance hall Act attempted to
stamp them out. In spite o f this ban, some o f the set dances survived in parts o f the country that
held strongest to tradition. The unfortunate result of suppression is the fact that, o f nearly 150 cefli
and set dances danced today, only four have a record of being continuously used as a form o f social
dancing for the past century. Irish Set Dances are generally danced by four couples arranged on
the sides o f a square set. The dances are divided into several flgures and performed to jigs, reels
and hompipes. Footwork is flat footed but intricate and exact, avoiding the pointed toes and leaping

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movements o f ceili dancing.
References

Harris, J.A., Pittan, A. & Waller, M.S. (1968). Dance a while (4th ed.). Minneapolis: Burgess
Publishing.
Harrison, B. (1998). A brief overview o f Irish dancing. Retrieved July, 1999 from the World
Wide Web: http://www.inex.net/~mardidom/rdanceJitm.
Hanna, J.L. (1988). Dance and stress: Resistance, reduction and euphoria. New York: AMS
Press Inc.
Pierce, K.L. (1989). Retrieved July, 1999 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.greyhawkes.com/text/celts.txt
Silver, J.A. (1981). Therapeutic aspects o f folk dance: Self concept, body concept, ethnic
distancing and social distancing. Doctoral Thesis. University of Toronto, Department of
Education.
Spangenberg, L.L. (1997-99). Retrieved July, 1999 from the World Wide Web:
http://members.aol.com/Usala/celtfaq.html
Wallace, M. (1996). A short history o f Ireland. New York: Barnes and Noble Books.
Wangbickler, M. (1996-97). Retrieved July, 1999 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.celticcomer.com/

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Appendix H
Celtic Dance Research Results - Sample

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JA16JO - Celtic Dance Research Results
Speilberger’s State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), has been recommended by researchers as
a good assessment o f an individual’s phenomenological experience of stress and is the most
commonly used instrument used for psychological assessment in exercise and stress research.
STAI consists o f 40 items (20 measuring state anxiety and 20 measuring trait anxiety.

State anxiety (S) is transitory and fluctuates over time according to personal and situational
circumstances. Trait anxiety (T) is a “relatively stable and acquired behavioral disposition, often
depicted as a personality trait” (Anshell, 1994, p.66). Research results consistently show a
reduction in state anxiety accompanying exercise, however, there is disagreement as to whether or
not exercise influences trait anxiety.

Results:
State:
Post test I
Group
Mean

Pretest I
Personal

Post test i
Personal

Pretest II
Group
Mean

Post test
II
Group
Mean

Pretest II
Personal

27.6

26

26

31.38

26.25

23

1 Pretest I
1 Group
1 Mean

Post test I
Group
Mean

Pretest I
Personal

Post test I
Personal

Pretest II
Group
Mean

Post test
II
Group
Mean

Pretest II
Personal

40

36.52

34

31

36.19

32.38

27

1 Pretest I
1 Group
1 Mean
1

1

Post test 1
u
1
Personal 1

Trait:
Post test 1
u
1
Personal |

Î .Ü

Percentile Ranks - Normal Adult Women (Spcilberger, 1983)
%

Age 50-69

Age 40-49

Age 19-39
State

Trait

State

Trait

State

Trait

25

27

28

28

26.5

24

24

50

33.5

34

33

33

31

31

75

42

42

43

39.5

38

37

i l O O

67

62

67

63

66