GITXSAN STORYTELLING:
THE BREATH OF OUR GRANDFATHERS

By Jane Smith Mowatt
B.Ed., The University of Victoria, 1986
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION
lll

CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
© Jane Smith Mowatt

THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
January, 2000

All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or
other means, without the permission of the author.

1

Abstract
This project examines the role of education !n the attempt to include Gitxsan
Storytelling in the Language Arts Program at the elementary level. This project
recognizes the importance of including the Gitxsan Elders in outlining the path the
project must take. Much attention over the years has focused on the reasons for
First Nations children under-achieving in the present school system. The Elders
and the literature review stressed the importance of First Nations children learning
from their own culture. The project recognizes the support of First Nations groups,
public schools and the Ministry of Education as they continue to stress the
importance of providing language and culture to the First Nations students. At the
same time, there is a lack of funding to provide the required resources. Providing a
qualitative content analysis, as well as the practical application of a Gitxsan
Storytelling unit and how it can be incorporated into the classroom, this project uses
the voice and the perspective of the Gitxsans.

2

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to the Gitxsan Elders who took the time
to tell me stories.
I would like to thank the Gitanmaax Band Council for their financial
support.
I would like to extend my appreciation to those who helped me in the actual
writing of this project, especially my committee members. Judith Lapadat, Anne
Lindsay and Margaret Anderson.
A special thanks to my friend Velma Sutherland for her words of
encouragement and many hours of proofreading.
A special thank-you to my family and friends for their faith and confidence
in me. A special thank-you to those who call me a Gitxsan 'Storyteller' .

3

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................. 1
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................... 2
LIST OF APPENDICES & FIGURES ................................................... S
CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION .................................................... 6

1.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ........... . ............. . ... . ... . ................ .. . . . . ..... . ..... .. ....................... 6
1.2 PROJECT RESEARCH INTENT ...................................................................................... 7
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM ........................ .. ... . . ... ...... . ...... . .. . . . ... .. ...... .. . . . .. .... . . .. . 7
1.4 DEFINITION OF TERMS . . ...... .... .... . ...... .. .. ... . ..... ....... .. ... .. ........ . .............. . ............ .. ... . .. 8
1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER TWO:

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..................................... 11

2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 11
2.2 DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF STORY ...... .. ...... . ...................................................... . .. 13
2.3 THE POTENTIAL OF STORYTELLING .......................................................................... 14
2.4 THE POWER OF STORYTELLING ............................................................................... 16
2.5 SUPPORT FOR FIRST NATIONS CURRICULUM ............................................................... 18
2.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRST NATIONS STORIES ................................. .. ............ ............ 19
2.7 GITXSAN HISTORICAL VIEW OF STORYTELLING . ................................ .. .... . . ..... . ........ ... 20
2.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LITERATUR E . ... ... . ... . .. . . .... . ... .......... .... . . . . . . ...... . . . ..... . .. . ....... . .... 23
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ...................... ... .... ..... ........... ... ..................... 25

3.1 INTRODUCTION ... . ........ . ...... . ... .. .. . . . .................... . ....................................... . ... .. .. . .. 25
3.2 PROCEDURES ........................... .. . ................ ..... .................... ........ . . ....... .......... ... ... . 26
3.3 RESEARCHER AS INSTRUMENT .. ...................................................... ............. ...... ..... .. 27
3.4 FIELD NOTES ............ .... ... . ....... . ... . ... . ...... ..... ........... .. .. . ...... . . .... . . . ...... .......... ... ...... 29
3.5 LIMITATIONS ..... . ...... ... ........ . . ..... . . .......... .. ........... . ........ ... .......... .... .. ... ..... ............ 30
3.6 SETTING ............................................................................................................. 31
3.7 DATA ON GITXSAN STORYTELLING ................................................ . ......................... 34

Legend of the Little Porcupine .... ... ... ............................................ .... ....... ....... .......... 34
Legend ofWii'axgats'agat (Origin of Mosquitoes) ......................................................... 38
Legend of K'alidakhl (Blue Jay) .................................................................................. 46
3.8 ANALYSIS OF DATA ............................................................................................... 55

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CHAPTER FOUR:

FINDINGS ......................................................... 57

4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . ....... . ........................... .. .... .. .................... . ... .... ................ . . .. .. 57
4.2 DATA ...... ... . . . . .. . . . . .. ...................... . ............... . ........................... .................. . . . . .. . . 57
4.3 STORYTELLING OBJ ECTIVES . . . .. .. . .... . . . ... . .. ... . .. ................ .. ..... .. .... . ... .. ............. . ......... 58
4.4 TRAININ G ..... . ............... .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . . ... .......................... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. ... . ......... 58

4.5 EVALUATION .................... . ..... . ......... . . . . . . . ..... . . .. ... . . . .... . ... .. . . . .... . ....... . ...... .............. 59

CHAPTER FIVE:

CONCLUSION ..................................................... 6 0

5.1 SUMMARY . . . . . . ... . ..................... . ... . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... . ... ...... . . .. . .... . . . .. . ... . .. ... .. .. . . ... . . . .... 61
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ... . .. .. . .. . ............................................................... . ... . . . . . ......... 61
5.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER R ESEARCH ..................................... . ........ . ... ... .. . ... . ... ... .. 62

REFERENCES ............................................................................. 63

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List of Figures & Appendices
FIGURE 1

Gitanmaax Education Logo ............................................................... 12

FIGURE 2

Gitxsan Storyteller Print. .. ..................... .. .......... ......... .. ......... .......... .22

FIGURE 3

Xsiwis (Spirit of the Rain) ................... .. ... .. ................................... ... 29

FIGURE 4

Map of the Gitxsan ........ ..................................................... ............ 3 2

FIGURE 5

People who Harvest Salmon Using Torches ......................................... 33

APPENDIX 1

Certificate of Ethics Approval... ......................................... ............... 65

APPENDIX 2

Elder Interview Questions ................................................................ 65

APPENDIX 3

School District #82 Consent... ........................................................• 69

APPENDIX 4

Consent from Teacher Volunteers ..................................................... 72

APPENDIX 5

Parental Consent. ..... .... .... .... .................... ..... ...... ...... ....... .. .......... .. 7 4

APPENDIX 6

Curriculum Organizer
Storytelling Objectives ....... ................................... ... .................. ..... 7 6

APPENDIX 7

Gitxsan Knowledge Pretest
for Elementary Students ................................................................. 7 8

APPENDIX 8

Student Checklist. .................................. .. ................................ .... .. 80

APPENDIX 9

Teacher Guide
Considerations for Language Arts Instruction .......... ......... ... ................. 83

APPENDIX 10

Training for Storytellers ... ....... .... ................................................ .... 8 7

6

Chapter One:

Introduction

1 .1 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this project is grounded in the researcher's belief that
classroom teachers should recognize storytelling as a valid means of communication
in addition to reading and writing, and that storytelling can be made more valuable
when the school incorporates the personal stories of their First Nations students to
enhance the students' imagination and creativity. This particular study involved the
use of Gitxsan storytelling, permitting the First Nations students to gain cultural
knowledge, story composition skills, and storytelling performance techniques. The
underlying assumption is that values learned through the use of stories serve to
strengthen the identity and self-respect of the students.
The study of Gitxsan Storytelling is presented in five chapters. Chapter
Two examines the public education systems in the Gitxsan Territories through the
literature which incorporates the knowledge of the Elders. Chapter Three discusses
the research methodology utilized and the manner in which the data was collected.
Chapter Four presents the findings and assesses the potential as to how storytelling
can provide a more effective service to First Nations children in the Language Arts
Program. Chapter Five concludes the study, focusing on the significant factors
relating to effective utilization of the Storytelling Unit. A summary of the findings
is provided and recommendations are made.

7

1.2 Project Research Intent
The intent of this project is to develop curriculum materials out of the First
Nations children's culture, specifically from the rich legacy of oral storytelling, and
to assist teachers of First Nations students to be more effective in implementing the
mandated curriculum by using a strategy that is culturally relevant and more
sensitive to the learning styles of their students.
Specifically, the purposes of this study are as follows:
1. To create three booklets of three Gitxsan illustrated stories for teachers to use in
Grades One to Four classrooms.
2. To promote and provide Gitxsan storytelling to First Nations and non-First
Nations students in the Grades One to Four classrooms to stir their imaginations
and allow the students to create their own images in their minds.
3. To provide teachers and First Nations students with a means for direct
interaction by creating a teacher's guide for the Gitxsan illustrated stories. The
teacher will use non-verbal feedback as outlined in the teacher' s guidelines to
meet the needs of the students and allow then to relate their experiences and
beliefs.
4. To provide teachers with an opportunity to study the art of Gitxsan storytelling.
5. To track students ' learning about the art of Gitxsan storytelling by gathering
data on their knowledge of culture, story composition and storytelling
performance.

1.3 Significance of the Problem
The National Indian Brotherhood (1976) strongly advocates that the right to
control First Nations education be based on the two principles of "parental
responsibility and local control." Their document, Indian Control of Indian
Education, insists that quality education be provided for First Nations learners, but

8
not at the expense of their self-worth and identity. They argue that positive changes
in education of First Nations children can only come about through full participation
and partnership with First Nations parents, local communities and educational
institutions.
Jeffrey (1999) finds that as a result of the public school system' s inability to
meet the needs of First Nations children, many of the First Nations children suffer
from a lack of belonging, low self-esteem and the inability to conform to the
standards of the public school system. She concludes that for many generations,
the First Nations leaders have been consistent and strong in demanding educational
change, but many of the public educational institutions to date have not responded
to the call for change. According to Jeffrey (1999) to continue with this inaction
will do injustice to a great majority of First Nations students, who have historically
been denied an opportunity to develop to their full potential.

1.4 Definition of Terms
Anlo: Isolated reserve lands situated on the banks of the Skeena River, four
miles north of Hazelton. Anlo means where the salmon swims.
Ansbahyaxw: The traditional name for the Gitxsan Village of Kispiox. The
word Ansbahyaxw means people of the hiding place. The village is located on the
north bank of the Skeena at the mouth of the Kispiox River.
First Nations: The current term used by aboriginal peoples in Canada to
describe themselves. It replaces the words Indian and Native that are commonly
used in literature about the First Nations people.
Gitanmaaxs: A Gitxsan Village located near the confluence of the Skeena
and Bulkley Rivers. The name Gitanmaaxs means people who fish by torchlight.

9

Gitanyaw or Kitwancool: A Gitxsan Village located on the Kitwancool
River about fourteen miles above its mouth on the Skeena. Kitwancool means
people of the narrow place.
Gitxsan: Is the name of the First Nations people who live mainly in a
number of communities that are situated in the valley of the Skeena River in central
western British Columbia. Gitxsan is their name for themselves and means people
of the river of mist.
Gitxsanimx: The language spoken by the Gitxsan. The term Sim'algax is
also used by some Gitxsan to describe their language.
Gitwangax: means people of the place of rabbits. It is located on the north
bank of the Skeena River near the mouth of the Kitwancool River.
Integrated Resource Packages (IRP): curriculum guides which define the
parameters for the implementation of curricula in all programs from Kindergarten to
Grade 12.
K ' alidakhl: Is the Sim' algax..word for blue jay. K'alidakhl means hair tied
back.
Kitsegukla: A Gitxsan Village located on the south bank of the Skeena
River at the mouth of Kitsegukla Creek.
Sabax: Is the Sim ' algax word for the end.
School District #82 (Terrace): a public school district with its main office
located in Terrace, which is 145 km. west of Hazelton. There are 5400 students in
the District attending 20 different schools. Approximately 550 elementary students
attend public school in the Gitxsan territory.
Sigit' ox: Gitxsan Village located on the north bank of the Skeena River a
few miles below the mouth of the Kispiox River. Sigit'ox is the name of a nearby
hill.

10
Sdikyoodenax: The Sim'algax word used for the largest mountain in the
Hazelton range.
Wii'axgats' agat: The Sim'algax used to describe mosquitoes.
Wii 'axgats' agat means long noses.
Wii K'aax: The name of a House Group and Chief of the Wolf Clan. The
researcher is a House Member.
Xsiwis: The Gitxsan name of the researcher which means, Spirit of the

1.5 Conceptual Framework
Documents produced by First Nations people indicate the importance of
community involvement in the development of cultural programs. The Indian
Control of Indian Education documents, National Indian Brotherhood, 1976, state
that the First Nations people are the best judges of the type of education to be
delivered to First Nations children.
Gitxsan Wet'suwit'en Education Society GWES Proposal (1990) gives
evidence that the Gitxsan place great importance on the local control of education.
It is evident that First Nations people regard community involvement as an essential

component of any education program.
For a researcher to develop guidelines for an effective curriculum for First
Nations students, it is necessary to work and be familiar with the culture and
community. The research method used for this project was the qualitative method,
the main concern of which is practical application, integrating theory and practice.

11

Chapter Two:

Review of Literature

2.1 Introduction
The responses of the Elders in the interviews have given the direction to the
review of literature. Gitxsanimx is basically an unwritten language. Although an
alphabet has been established (Sim'algax_Working Group) and some writing has
occurred recently, most of the history and cultural heritage of the Gitxsan resides
with the Elders. So the researcher interviewed four Gitxsan Elders to supplement
traditional print sources in the literature review. According to the Elders the children
need to learn from their past in order to be prepared for the future.
They state that youth must take the 'talking stick' from the hands of the oral culture
and incorporate it into the hands of their book learning (See Figure 1).
First Nations leaders, for many years have been actively seeking ways in
which to make the education system of Canada relevant to the needs of the First
Nations children.

l According to GWES (1990), the connections among language, culture and
identity are required for academic success with First Nations students. An
education system which does not positively reflect the culture of its students in
effect denies the core of their being. It was declared by a Gitxsan Elder that if we
allow the language and culture to die, we die along with it; the language and culture
define who we are. ;,

.

.. -.. ... .

..

~ ~

r.~.":""":

·~;

•

,;

Figure L The logo for the Gitanmaaxs Education Society.
The logo portrays the oral culture (circle ) representing the Elders placing the · talkin~ slick
into the hands or the Git'\san youth representing book lcarnmg.

13

2.2 Definition and Purpose of Story
Champagne (1994) believes that at its core, storytelling is the art of using
language, vocalization, physical movement and gesture to reveal the elements and
images of a story to a specific, live audience. Sutherland (1996) explains that
through the sharing of experiences, the Gitxsans used stories to pass on
accumulated wisdom, beliefs, and values. Through stories the Gitxsans explain
how things are, why they are, and their role and purpose. Stories are the building
blocks of knowledge, the foundation of memory and learning. For the Gitxsans,
stories link them with the past and connect them to the present and future by
teaching the listeners to anticipate the possible consequences of their actions.
According to Rubright (1996), storytelling develops a positive attitude on
the part of the child for books and reading. In addition, storytelling contributes to
social and cognitive development through shared experiences. It teaches the child
to feel joy for another's happiness or sadness at their misfortunes.
Bettelheim (1989) finds that storytelling contributes to the child's mental
health. Stories help the child cope with his or her own conscious self by giving
structure for the child ' s daydreams and fantasies.
Brody, Goldspinner, Green, Leventhal, and Porcino (1992) believe that
the stories of the First Nations people give an account of the origin of their world
and creation and provide a philosophy that governs their lives and develops their
culture.

14

2.3 The Potential of Storytelling
If education has any value at all, it is in that it assists and promotes the

unfolding of human potential. The Elders recognize the essential capacity of First
Nations children to develop their self-identity: to individually and collectively recreate themselves in a new image of their own creation. Bopp (1983) agrees with
the Elders that the key to assisting First Nations people is to allow them the
responsibility of their own development and allow them to articulate their own
vision of human possibilityl He reports that in First Nations groups where lifeenhancing, life-preserving cultural values are strong and active, social decay and
substance abuse tend to be relatively low1
Jobe (1993) explains that before going on to learn about other cultures, it is
important to be aware that each student comes to school with his/her own culture.
Students, according to Jobe (1993), must get their initial sense of culture by
looking at their own lives. He shows how storytelling can be used to enhance the
students' understanding of themselves and others. The underlying beliefs affect
how they behave. Jobe (1993) defines attitudes as those beliefs rising to the
surface. If students are aware of this, they can change their behavior accordingly.
In addition, Jobe (1993) believes that through stories and literature, students
can walk in the shoes of the characters from other cultures{from this, students
learn tolerance and understanding. Jobe (1993) also declares that "Elders are the
guardians of the culture. The Elders bring out the wisdom in the young and the
young bring out the spirit in the old" (p. 44). Growing out of the need for security
is the need of every human being to belong, to be an accepted member of a group.
The child 's education should reflect this expanding sense of the group.

15
McGrath (1988) writes that twenty years ago, Canadian teachers rarely used
First Nations stories in the classroom because they were judged to be simplistic,
pointless, bawdy, repetitive and boring. In recent years, however, reworked
stories suitably edited have been accepted by Canadian schools. For example, the
two books: The Native Stories from Keepers of the Animals, Caduto and Bruchac
(1992) and Potlatch: A Tsimshian Celebration, by Hoyt-Goldsmith (1997) are
suitable resources to use in the elementary classrooms. The Native Stories from
Keepers of the Animals offers a rich collection of First Nations stories. Potlatch: A
Tsimshian Celebration provides accurate information on the cultures of First
Nations people of the Northwest.
Archibald, Friesen and Smith (1993) explain that storytelling is not just for
entertainment. The stories reflect the most intimate perceptions and attitudes of
First Nations people. Stories about First Nations people show how the culture
thinks. Storytelling for First Nations students is far from being repetitive and
simplistic. The stories involve the mind (thinking), spirituality (beliefs), emotions
(feelings), and the physical (behaviors) senses of the listeners.
According to Beck, Walters and Franciso (1995), the story is an intrinsic
and basic form of communication. More than with any other form of
communication, the telling of stories is an essential part of the human experience.
Stories are the prime vehicle for assessing and interpreting events and experience.
McCabe (1995) explains that stories are the primary means by which children make
sense of their experiences.
The potential value of storytelling in children's learning seems to depend on
the active role of the listener. Egan (1986) stresses that children are readily and
powerfully engaged by stories and that stories stir their imaginations. Furthermore,
Egan (1986) believes that imaginations iue the most powerful and energetic tools
for learning. Both telling a story and listening to a story encourage students to use

16
their imagination. Developing the imagination can empower students to consider
new innovative ideas. A well-developed imagination can contribute to selfconfidence and motivate the students to envision themselves competent and able to
accomplish their hopes and dreams. Storytelling has the potential to guide young
First Nations students toward a constructive personal value system by presenting
imaginative situations in which the outcomes of wise and unwise actions and
decisions can be recognized.
Archibald, Friesen and Smith (1993) affirm that aboriginal heroes are
everywhere. Thinking about heroes invokes special images. Everyone has
someone who exemplifies courage, strength or other powerful characteristics.
Children, according to Archibald, Friesen & Smith (1993), need heroes for their
personal striving for excellence. They need to know that not only do the fine
attributes exist in heroes, but also that these qualities lie within everyone. In the
story titled Legend of Wii' axgats 'agat (Origin of Mosquitoes), students hear about
the young man who went to conquer a monster, even though he was told it could
not be done (See Chapter 3). Through hearing stories, the children can access the
hero within themselves.

2.4 The Power of Storytelling
The power of storytelling emerges from the interaction and cooperative,
coordinated efforts of teller and audience. According to Champagne (1994),
storytelling audiences do not passively receive a story from the teller. The teller
does not provide visual images related to the story characters or historic period.
Listeners create these images based on the storyteller's telling and on the listeners'
own experiences and beliefs. In the story titled The Legend of the Little Porcupine,

17
the illustrations are not detailed, so as to leave the reader or listener the task of
filling in their own creative images (See Chapter 3). Fantastic creatures conjured up
by the storyteller dance and sing in the child's imagination. In the dream world
where stories are born, everything is truly related. Stories then remind the listener
that in reality we are all related to everyone and everything.
McCabe (1995) explains that it is important for educators to be aware that
each student comes to school with his/her culture, their values and especially their
own stories. Children comprehend and remember stories that conform to the
structure of the stories they have heard at home. However, in most cases
historically and continuing today, non-First Nations stories play the most
significant role in the education system of all First Nations students. According to
McGrath (1988), many First Nations students' experiences are considerably
mismatched with those portrayed in most stories used in elementary curricula.
There is conflict between their stories and the ones they encounter in school. As a
consequence, school courses often seem irrelevant to many First Nations learners.

It is widely believed that irrelevant curricula have contributed in high numbers to the
failure syndrome so common with First Nations students.
Dawson (1988) believes that it is important that First Nations students
receive instruction through First Nations stories in order to enhance their selfimages and provide accurate knowledge about themselves. He summarizes the
feelings of many First Nations parents, "If our children are proud, if our children
have identity, if our children know who they are they will be able to encounter
anything in life" (p. 22). Champagne (1994) explains that oral literature exists
everywhere in First Nations communities.
Storytelling plays an important part in restoring and preserving the culture.
This has been the experience of the researcher who grew up in a tight-knit Gitxsan
family and community where storytelling was a well established tradition. In

18
addition, Persky (1998) reported that the Delgamuukx Court Case resulted in the
landmark Supreme Court decision confirming that Gitxsan oral history is credible
evidence.
First Nations stories are brought to life, and the gaps are filled in by First
Nations audiences together with their shared knowledge of the traditions and
culture. Stories that teach values to First Nations students in culturally appropriate
ways can be used in the classroom to draw First Nations children closer to a way of
life that promotes the development of human potential. From this point the students
equipped with the knowledge of who they are can reach beyond their cultural
development and connect. to other cultures and other lands.
For the non-First Nations students, the benefits include a deeper cultural
understanding of the First Nations culture. In addition, they learn openmindedness which they can apply to other cultures.

2.5 Support for First Nations Curriculum
According to Archibald, Friesen and Smith (1993) the significance of a
culture can best be understood in terms of the cultural practice from which it
springs. Non-First Nations writers produce fine literature, but it is not from the
First Nations peoples ' point of view. The stories told by First Nations people
reveal the depth and status of the culture. The First Nations values, beliefs,
customs and traditions are recorded in First Nations thought patterns. First Nations
peoples since time immemorial have had experiences. Out of their experiences may
come general guides for behavior. The stories about these experiences tend to give
direction to the lives of children.

19
The Ministry of Education's Language Arts Integrated Resource Package
(IRP) (1996) encourages teachers to find resources which are most relevant to and
useful for their students, and to supplement these with locally approved materials
and resources to meet the specific local needs. The IRP supports and encourages
all students to understand and respect cultural, racial and linguistic diversity.
Classroom activities should also help students link classroom learning with the
languages and cultures in their homes.
Wilson (1993) affirms the School District 's support in the study Education
of First Nations Students in School District #88 (Terrace). She concludes that the
School District #88 was eager to develop shared educational goals with First
Nations communities in the areas of language, culture and heritage.

2.6 Characteristics of First Nations Stories
McGrath (1988) cautions the storytellers to beware of becoming like
modern western literature that tones down stories so that children will not be
frightened. The stories should not be devoid of the dangers that the characters face.
"If the obstacles are not awesome, the final victory is less meaningful." (p.51).

In this study, the Gitxsan story titled Legend of K'alidakhl (Blue Jay), tells of the
old lady killing her daughter and the hunter beating the old lady with a club; if this
is left out of the story, many lessons could not be learned (See Chapter 3).
Garnett (1988) believes in a curriculum that encourages student ownership,
discovery learning and creative approaches. First Nations students need to be
challenged in the higher order cognitive abilities (analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation) in order to provide opportunities for imagination, creativity and social
interaction, and to require students to take responsibility for their own learning.

20
Jobe (1993) cautions against literature that is not authentic to the culture,
whether it be First Nations or any other culture in the world. The literature should
record a culture 's achievements of the past and the tools for achieving its aspirations
for the future. On the other hand, for outsiders, First Nations stories provide a new
experience in reading because new points of view are expressed. First Nations
literature offers new myths, new metaphors, and new language to the existing
world view. The First Nations literature can inspire the readers as well as alter their
perspectives about First Nations people.

2.7 Gitxsan Historical View of Storytelling
In the thesis The Evolution of Education in Kispiox, Sutherland (1996)
provides historical research of how education for First Nations people has gone
from Church control to Department of Indian Affairs control to local control. The
curriculum, facilities, policies, teachers and students during each phase are
examined. It was found that during the Church and Department of Indian Affairs
periods of control, there were many similarities. Sutherland (1996) discovered that
the curriculum during the period of the Church and Department of Indian Affairs
control was not at all sensitive to the cultural needs of the students. For example,
while at school the First Nations children were punished if they spoke their
language, told their stories or played their traditional games.
In addition, Jaine (1993) discusses the devastating effects the residential
schools had on Canada ' s First Nations people. Numerous losses of culture,
traditions, language and identity have been documented, and the effects are still
being felt today. The First Nations students attending residential school did not
have the opportunity to sit with an Elder and listen to the stories so that there would

21
be no questions in their minds as to who they were and where they belonged. For
many Gitxsans, the lost stories produced generations with a sense of a loss of
identity. The Elders believe that Gitxsan storytelling passes on the essence of who
the Gitxsan are. The print 'The Storyteller' gives a glimpse of how the teachings of
the Elders were transmitted in the past (See Figure 2).
Sutherland (1996) concludes that First Nations control of First Nations
Education does make a difference and that the more provincial curricula are
encouraged to use First Nations content, to achieve the learning outcomes of the
IRPs, the more success First Nations learners will experience. Also, this will allow
the whole community from the Elders to infants to become a part of First Nations
education, something which a few decades ago would have been virtually
impossible.

Elders are the libraries .. .their knowledge, their skills, attitudes and their
experiences constitute the record of knowledge and the wisdom of the
people. Their memories serve as collective knowledge and wisdom.
Education is the process of communicating this knowledge and wisdom
through oral language, actions and behaviors. (Ing, 1990, p 33).
Within the Gitxsan community, storytelling is personal, interpretative and
uniquely cultural. Gitxsan storytelling is by design a co:-creative process. Since
time immemorial the Gitxsans have told their stories. When the storyteller speaks,
he or she is the vehicle for the voices of the Gitxsan ancestors. Gitxsan stories
come from the Breath of our Grandfathers. The storyteller and listeners become a
part of many storytellers past, present and future.
GWES (1990) maintains that the culture determines the Gitxsan way of
constructing knowledge, it provides them with their history and identity, and forms
the basis of their relationships with everyone and everything. Culture defines the
Gitxsan values, spirituality and worldview.

22

Figure 2. 'The Storyteller' print. Property of Jane Smith Mowatt.

23

In summary, it is generally understood that storytelling is a powerful
medium for children's learning. Moreover, there is good reason to believe that
stories used in First Nations learning should come from their own First Nations
heritage. The researcher' s personal and professional experience has led her to
believe that relevant stories can be used to enhance First Nations students '
understanding of themselves and others. The underlying beliefs of First Nations
students are directly related to how they behave. With the use of First Nations
stories in the classroom, the education of the First Nations students is balanced and
enriched. Children can be taught to apply the lessons to their lives. The Gitxsan
oral stories offer a rich resource for children ' s learning and can be incorporated into
the Gitxsan students' school experience.

2.8 Significance of the Literature
Interviews with the Elders augmented traditional print literature and were
used to honor and support the importance of oral history. The key elements of
Gitxsan storytelling as described above that emerge from the interviews of the
Elders are: definition and purpose of story, the potential of storytelling, the power
of storytelling, and the characteristics of First Nations stories.
The literature reveals an urgency for developing effective First Nations
cultural curricula to be used in the schools across the country and in the Gitxsan
territories. The literature review reveals the serious consequences that result when
language and culture in particular are not taught. There is also evidence of a lack of
action being taken by any of the supportive groups.

24

The literature review indicates the need for parental and community
involvement, but again there is no evidence in the literature that this is taking place
in the Gitxsan territories.
The literature review reveals support for the inclusion of cultural
storytelling in the elementary school curriculum. It also gives valuable guidelines
that could assist in an effective storytelling unit being incorporated into the
Language Arts Program at the Pilot School.

25

Chapter Three:

Methodology

3.1 Introduction
Sherman and Webb (1988) provide a model for qualitative research in their
book, Research in Education: Focus and Methods. These features have served as a
framework in the development of a Gitxsan Storytelling unit for a Language Arts
program.
Qualitative research has the natural setting as the direct source of data and
the researcher is the key instrument. In this study, the researcher's background and
experience provided the direct source of data for developing the Gitxsan
Storytelling unit. The local education setting, the community, the students and
teachers are all very familiar to the researcher.
Another characteristic of qualitative research is that it is descriptive. The
data collected for this project have been based on prior knowledge, a literature
review, Elder interviews and teachers' and researcher's reports. The study was
written in a descriptive manner after analysis of the data had taken place.
According to Sherman and Webb (1988) qualitative researchers are
concerned with process rather than with consequences. Literature from the
National Indian Brotherhood (1976) and GWES (1990) stresses the importance of
the need to involve the local community in the decision-making process of the
education of First Nations children. Culture and language taught in the schools
should be determined by parents and community. The curriculum should be of
their making. This process of curriculum making provides a focus for this study.
Meaning is of essential concern to the qualitative approach. An attribute of
this approach is the perspective of the participants and the meanings they make of

26
the experience. In this study on Storytelling, the perspective of the Gitxsans is very
important to the development of the programs. The Gitxsans need to be consulted
and their views incorporated into the programs. If any cultural programs are to be
successful the full support and participation of the Gitxsans is required.
Another feature of qualitative research is the idea of judging and assessing.
Anderson (1990) explains that the program evaluation is the best approach for the
project. Evaluation is a good way of assessing whether or not the intended results
were achieved. This type of framework is suitable for planning and clarifying the
research problem and conducting the analysis.
It has been determined that the characteristics of qualitative research, as

described by Sherman & Webb (1988) are: using a natural setting as a source of
data, collecting descriptive data, paying attention to the process and meaning, and
evaluating the final results. The experience of the researcher has provided a
theoretical base for this project on Gitxsan Storytelling: The Breath of our
Grandfathers.

3.2 Procedures
Recognizing the importance of involving local people in the development of
a Gitxsan storytelling unit, the researcher conducted interviews with several
Gitxsan Elders. Open ended interviews were conducted. (Appendix 2).
Discussion focused on the potential and the power of storytelling, the characteristics
of a good story and the training of storytellers.
Permission to do the research study was obtained from School district #82
before the data was collected in the classroom. (Appendix 3).
The storytelling unit was developed after the Gitxsan Storytelling proposal
was accepted.

27
The research was conducted by reviewing the literature and compiling the
data collected from the classroom teachers who consented to test the storytelling
unit. The teachers were contacted in person in order to arrange an interview time
and to set up the storytelling training. Consent forms were obtained from the two
teachers. (Appendix 4). The storytelling training had been developed and used by
the researcher on other occasions and was refined for the purpose of this study.
A letter was sent to the parents explaining the nature of the study and signed
parental consent was obtained. (Appendix 5). The Certificate of Ethics Approval
Form (Appendix 1) was obtained from the University of Northern British
Columbia. All the participants were informed that the individual responses were to
be kept anonymous and the results kept confidential.
Information secured from the interviews, the classroom observations and
the literature search were written in a descriptive manner. The purpose of this
project is to develop a storytelling unit which could be incorporated into the
Elementary Language Arts program at the Pilot School. The information has been
acquired, organized and analyzed with this goal in mind.

3.3 Researcher as Instrument
The researcher is Gitxsan living in Gitanmaaxs Village. The researcher is a
member of the Wolf Clan and the Father Clan is the Fireweed Clan. The
researcher's Gitxsan name is Xsiwis, which translates to Spirit of the Rain. (See
Figure 3). The researcher was already acquainted with all the Elders, teachers and
students involved in the study.
Listening to stories was the beginning of the researcher's education. Early
in her life she was given the sense of belonging through the stories told to her by

28
the Elders. In later years, from the storytellers ' examples, she was able to take on
the role of storyteller.
As an educator, she has been instructing her students through the use of
storytelling. In her professional background of working as a classroom teacher
with Gitxsan students, the researcher has often stressed the importance and the
effectiveness of using the Gitxsan culture as an avenue for instruction. She
believes that it is important that children receive instruction through their own
cultural stories in order to enhance their self-images and provide accurate
knowledge about themselves.

Figure 3. Emblem for the Gitxsan name 'Xsiwis', which translates to Spirit of the Rain._
The wolf head design symbolizes the Wolf Clan. The feather design symbolizes the House
group, Wii K'aax (Large Raven Wing). The rain represents Xsiwis.
Property of Jane Smith Mowatt.

30

3.4 Field Notes
The nature of the study was largely oral, so much of the data was collected
in field notes. According to Anderson (1990), the researcher needs the trust and
respect of those in the study situation. The researcher must also establish a
working relationship with all the participants in the study, and her presence must
not alter the situation. The researcher was familiar to all the participants and moved
in and out of the study situations without disturbance.
Everything that was seen and heard was recorded after the sessions. The
reflections of the researcher were added later. The field notes were supplemented
with the interview transcripts from the Elders and the written reports from the
teachers.

3.5 Limitations
The researcher acknowledges that personal experiences and biases may have
affected the study and must be considered as a limitation.
Another limitation was that the study took place in two classroom settings
where the majority of the students were Gitxsan. The limitations of the small
sample size which may have influenced this study needs to be considered.
Another important limitation is that Gitxsan stories were intended to be told
rather than read, so some of the feeling is lost by putting them into print. A great
limitation was that the children could not understand the stories in the original
language, and much is lost through translation from

i

al a~ to English.

Gitxsan expressions defy translation, and literal translation is impossible.

Many

31

3.6 Setting
The territorial home claimed by the Gitxsan Nation is a vast area in the
upper Skeena Valley in Northwestern Central British Columbia (See Figure 4).
Historical events of non-First Nations commerce and settlement, and
political decisions of the Canadian Government and Christian missionaries, joined
to create the six, geographically limited, "reserve' communities of today. These are
Gitwangax, Kitsegukla, Gitanyaw, Ansbahyaxw, Sigit'ox and Gitanmaaxs.
The setting of this review is in Gitanmaaxs, the name meaning "People Who
Harvest Salmon Using Torches" (See Figure 5). Gitanmaaxs is a reserve at the
confluence of the Skeena and Bulkley Rivers. The municipality of Hazelton is
situated on the lower part of the reserve.
The people of Gitanmaaxs are members of one of the Lax Gibuu (Wolt),
Lax Seel (Frog) or Giskaast (Fireweed) Clans. Each clan is composed of many
House groups, and each of these groups has one head chief and may also have two
wing chiefs. A person is a member of the mother's Clan by virtue of laws of
matrilineal descent.

32

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10
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10

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f'IU'MD 1Y: G. onuo<

DENA
I

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HAISLA
Figure 4. Map of the Gitxsan Territories.

s

E

-

...
\ ·.

i

!. ....

·~·

·~

•.

~~~·

·•·

• .... *

\>

'<l'

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ll

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Figure 5. Logo of the Gitanmaaxs Band CounciL
The logo represents, People Who Harvest Salmon Using Torches.
Courtesy of the Gitanmaaxs Band Coundl .

34

3. 7 Data on Gitxsan Storytelling
One of the intentions of the project was to create three booklets for teachers
of three Gitxsan illustrated stories to use in Grades One to Four classrooms. As a
learning tool, storytelling can encourage students to explore their unique
expressiveness and can heighten a student ' s ability to communicate thoughts and
feeling in an articulate manner. The other important design for the project was to
provide teachers with a teacher's guide for the Gitxsan illustrated stories.
(Appendix 9).

Legend of the Little Porcupine
The Gitxsan Storytellers tell this legend to illustrate the importance of
respect for all things.
One beautiful summer day, as the story goes, a young porcupine was up on
Sdikyoodenax. He had been eating all day and was feeling like he should take a
nap. Porcupine found a shady place by the juniper bushes. Porcupine settled down
for what he thought would be a long nap and pleasant dreams.
Then Porcupine woke up. Something or someone was making an irritating
noise. Porcupine looked around and saw that it was Creek dripping and bothering
him. Over Porcupine strutted, very annoyed. Porcupine drank up the creek and
licked all the rocks dry.
After all was quiet, Porcupine went to the shade under the juniper bushes
once agam.

35

illustration

36

Soon Creek started her journey again down the mountainside. Porcupine
was really angry this time. He went and drank up the creek and licked all the rocks
dry.
Porcupine went back to continue his nap, but he did not get back to the
junipers. In the stillness of the afternoon, Porcupine exploded. Creek once again
started her journey down the mountain.
The Gitxsans say that ever since this encounter porcupines are still easily
irritated and they discharge their quills at the slightest disturbance or when they are
having bad dreams.

'

37

Illustration

38

Legend of Wii'axgats'agat (Origin of Mosquitoes)
Mosquitoes were not always here, tells the Gitxsan storyteller. Only one,
Long Nose Monster who walked. The Gitxsans hated this monster because he
killed and ate many people in Gitanmaax.
Many of the young Gitxsan warriors went off to destroy the Long Nose
Monster Who Walked, but they did not return. This is why Youngest Brother
decided to kill the Long Nose Monster Who Walked. His four older brothers and
his only uncle had gone to destroy the monster, but they did not return. Youngest
Brother promised he would avenge their deaths. His mother and aunts begged him
not to go, but the determined Youngest Brother could not be persuaded to remain
safe at home.

39

Illustration

40

Youngest Brother took his fire making kit, and his bow and arrows, and set
off for the lake where the Long Nose Monster Who Walked lived. The Long Nose
Monster Who Walked was not at home. The clever young man climbed a pine tree
that was reflected in the lake. Youngest Brother waited.
Soon the Long Nose Monster Who Walked returned; he was in a foul
mood. It had been a bad day, the weather was dreadful, and there had been no
Gitxsans around on the territories to hunt and kill. Long Nose Monster Who
Walked was very hungry and greatly agitated.

41

Illustration

42

Suddenly, he saw a Gitxsan in the water. Long Nose Monster Who Walked
jumped at the reflection. Youngest Brother swayed back and forth in the tree. The
Long Nose Monster Who Walked jumped back and forth determined to catch the
reflection for his evening meal.
When the Long Nose Monster Who Walked was totally exhausted,
Youngest Brother came over and offered to help him. Youngest Brother spoke
softly to the Long Nose Monster Who Walked saying, "You look cold and wet. I
will build you a huge bonfire so you can be warm." The Long Nose Monster Who
Walked was very flattered by the attention. Youngest Brother collected some dry
wood and built a large fire. "Step a little closer and warm yourself," said Youngest
Brother, enticing the vulnerable creature. The Long Nose Monster Who Walked
stepped closer to the inviting warmth. Youngest Brother pushed Long Nose
Monster Who Walked into the flames.

43

Illustration

44

As the fire died down, Youngest Brother heard a threatening utterance
coming from the flames. "Even though you have destroyed me I will come back
every summer and get my revenge." So, it was as the monster promised, as
swarms of mosquitoes flew out of the ashes.
Today, if the Gitxsans are complaining about mosquitoes, the little long
noses that fly buzz in their ears and remind the Gitxsans of the promise of the
ancestor, the Long Nose Monster Who Walked.

Sabax

45

·I

\,

I:

I. ~ ~

\·

/

/

/
;

.....~. ;. "": -

'"""".":

:

Illustration

/

"

46

Legend of K'alidakhl (Blue Jay)
K'alidakhl is the Gitxsan word for blue jay, meaning hair tied back. It is
said that the Gitxsan woman gave the world the blue jay.
Smoke curled lazily out of the smoke hole of the newly built shelter. The
young couple inside prided themselves in having worked so hard to complete their
first home. Food had been scarce, the winter had been long and cold, but they had
survived. So with the coming of Spring they were refreshed with positive energy
and new hopes. They would work ever so hard this summer, and the following
winter would not be so much of a struggle.

47

Illustration

48

They held each other closely and made wonderful plans. As they talked,
they heard movement and coughing outside. When you visited someone you just
made a noise, and if the people inside wanted to invite you in then someone would
come outside. If no one came out, you went on your way.
The man went out, and there ready to move in was his mother-in-law. She
had her bag of clothes with her. He said, "Come in," although he did not really
mean it. Gone was their privacy. Gone were their hopes of storing as much food
as they could.
Chattering incessantly, the old lady did not seem to sense that her son-inlaw was very annoyed. Winter had been very good to her, and it did not seem as if
she suffered from lack of food. None of her energy had been wasted on work.
"Oh" she said, hoping that they would not take her seriously, "all I need is a corner
for my mat and you can just feed me leftovers"

49

Illustration

50

Now, this man was a great hunter and he cared for his young beautiful
wife. He selected the most tender parts of his kill and cooked it with great care for
her. The old lady watched with bitterness. The meat given to her was tough and it
was dark and cold in her corner. All her joints ached in the morning from the
dampness in the corner, away from the fire. Close to the fire sat her daughter with
all the warmth from the fireplace and fine cuts of meat from the hunt. The pampered
wife wore a blue cloak that was warm and lovely.
"But," old lady, said to herself, "if the young and beautiful wife was not
around maybe the great hunter would look after me." The old lady sat shivering in
the corner chewing on her tough meat and devising an evil plan.
One day when the hunter was out; the old lady killed the young wife. The
old lady started to prepare a youthful self. She found a piece of charred wood from
the fire place and darkened and deepened her eyes. She took some berry juice and
spread some on her cheeks and on her lips. The old lady pulled her hair back very
tightly on the top of her head and tied it with a strip of leather. Delighted with the
results, she placed the lovely warm blue cloak around her shoulders and waited.

51

illustration

52
She heard the arrival of the great hunter outside of the shelter. He came in
and looked over to the corner and he thought, "Oh good, the old lady ' s gone." He
started to prepare the evening meal. Then he walked over to where he thought his
wife was sitting and gazed on the face of a painted old woman. Full of delight, the
old woman explained that the young wife was gone and now she would wear the
blue cloak. The grief-stricken hunter went into a rage; he could not believe his
ears. His beautiful wife was gone.

53

Illustration

54.

He grabbed his club, and chased the old lady around the fireplace,
pounding her with his club. With each blow she became smaller and smaller, and
her screaming and squawking became louder and louder. Then all of a sudden she
lifted herself up with wings and a blue jay flew out of the smoke hole.
For her punishment the old lady was sent out into the forest to scavenge for
food and make a lot of idle chatter. Today, if you talk much and say nothing, the
Gitxsans laugh and call you K'alidaklh.
Sabax

55

lllustration

56

3.8 Analysis of Data
The information collected on storytelling through the interviews is
categorized under the headings of definition and purpose of stories, the potential of
stories, the power of stories, and the characteristics of First Nations stories. Results
are compared with information gathered through the literature review. The Elders
and the literature review stress the importance of First Nations children learning
their stories.
Three Gitxsan stories were used to develop curriculum to be tested in the
classroom by two teachers (See Chapter 3).
Recommendations for program development are based on information
common to the data collected through the fmdings of the interviews, teachers, and
the literature review. Recommendations are written in a descriptive manner.

57

Chapter Four:

Findings

4.1 Introduction
Four Elders were interviewed, they represented many of the experiences
and skills of Gitxsan Storytellers. All Elders interviewed were fully supportive of
the importance and urgency of including Gitxsan storytelling to all the children
attending schools in the Gitxsan territories.
Two classrooms were used for the study. The two teachers were very
enthusiastic to have the opportunity to use Gitxsan stories in their classrooms. All
the aspects of storytelling were based in Gitxsan territory with the focus on Gitxsan
legends.

4.2 Data
The purpose of the data collection was to assist in the development of an
effective Storytelling Unit to be tested in the Language Arts Program at the Pilot
School.
Data has been reported under the following categories: Storytelling
objectives, training and evaluation. Categories were determined through
discussions with the Elders and through the use of the guidelines of the Integrated
Resources Package for Language Arts (1996). Preliminary discussions were also
held with the teachers involved. All data collected through field notes, interviews
and teacher reports have been written in a descriptive manner.

58

4.3 Storytelling Objectives
The objectives of the Gitxsan Storytelling Unit are to increase the students '
personal awareness, to communicate their creative ideas and to become storytellers.
(Appendix 6). The students will gain knowledge about the Gitxsans and recognize
the contribution made by the Gitxsans to the nation. The students will become
storytellers and learn to communicate their topics and ideas with clarity. The
students will challenge their creativity and imagination abilities as they rewrite and
illustrate the stories.

4.4 Training
The objective of the storytelling training program was to help the teachers
understand Gitxsan Storytelling and how it was traditionally used to educate.
It was suggested by the Elders that to become effective storytellers, the storytelling

trainees must go out on the land. The participants were taken out to Anlo, situated
four miles north of Hazelton. It is a beautiful setting with wide open fields
surrounded by forests and mountains. It is a quiet place that nourishes the spirit.
The storytelling training took place around a campfire. (Appendix 10). It was
reported that further training was needed for all the teachers in First Nations
schools, and that more Gitxsan legends needed to be made available for the
classrooms.

59
4.5 Evaluation
The evaluation section focused on the storytelling objectives. The
participating teachers were given tools to measure how well the students had met
the storytelling objectives. The tools used for measurement were the pretest
(Appendix 7) and a student checklist. (Appendix 8).
In addition, discussions as to the adequacy of curriculum were conducted.
The participants indicated that there was a undeniable need for Gitxsan Storytelling
to be a part of the Language Arts Program. The participants were also very aware
of the lack of funding to develop Gitxsan Storytelling curriculum.
The participants felt that their storytelling program had met the listed
objectives. (Appendix 6). The increased knowledge of Gitxsan culture and the
interest in storytelling were seen as indicating success in the program. The teachers
found that the students were motivated and inspired to work with the use of the
stories from their culture. Both participating teachers reported receiving positive
comments from the First Nations and non-First Nations parents in regards to their
storytelling unit. Student participation and enthusiasm was seen as very strong by
the teachers.
There was unanimous agreement on the topics of curriculum and funding
inadequacy. The participants considered the lack of curriculum resources to be a
problem. Funding was not adequate, and the participants believed more funds were
needed to purchase books on the topic of storytelling. Funds were also required to
pay for guest teachers such as Gitxsan Elders and other effective Gitxsan
storytellers. One participant stated that if someone developed Gitxsan Storytelling
curricula, all the teachers would use it and make it relevant for the different grade
levels.

60

Chapter Five:

Conclusion

This project has been primarily written for the elementary teachers of First
Nations students and First Nations leaders who can effectively bring about the
necessary changes in the classrooms. Stories were an essential part of the lives of
First Nations people long before the written word. Stories were passed down from
generation to generation. Stories served to share our Gitxsan values, to question
our assumptions, and to see our individual and collective futures.
In the researcher's life, the stories have been her true source of education.

-

Through their stories, the Elders have taught her gratitude, compassion, courage
and humor. ·Gitxsan oral stories are all the Gitxsans have to explain and defend
themselves; the children need to know this. The researcher believes that the
existing school system can be used to incorporate the teachings of the Elders.
It is to be hoped that the information, the data collected as a result of this

study and the conclusions drawn from the data will be of use to the teachers of First
Nations students and First Nations Leaders who are able to make the changes in the
existing curriculum.
It is desired by the researcher that the educational systems dealing with First

Nations students see the importance of taking action to incorporate the culture of the
First Nations children into the classrooms. It is the dream of the researcher that the
First Nations children apply the stories of their ancestors to their young lives and
walk and talk on the Breath of their Grandfathers and become strong independent
learners. The researcher believes that education is the great equalizer. She looks
forward to the future with great anticipation, for the time has come for the Gitxsans
to tell their story in their way and on their terms.

61

5.1 Summary
The evidence presented here represents the reports of the two teachers
involved with the delivery of the Storytelling Program. Their skills, experiences
and reports were extremely valuable. The two teachers were eager to contribute to
the project and gave willingly of their time and expertise. The knowledge and
findings of the participating teachers have contributed to formulating
recommendations for the development and the inclusion of a Gitxsan Storytelling
Program at the Pilot School.

5.2 Recommendations
There is a need for parental involvement to voice the need for Gitxsan
Storytelling as part of the Language Arts Program.
Long range goals that meet the needs and aspirations of the parents and the
local community need to be evaluated and implemented at the local level.
The inadequacies of financial resources in First Nations education has
contributed to the lack of quality education offered to First Nations students and
must be resolved.
Teachers of First Nations students need to improve their knowledge and
understanding of First Nations cultures.
Curriculum units which positively portray First Nations people and their
culture need to be communicated to all learners.
Elders should play an active role in education and be compensated as
professionals.

62
Public institutions need to change their values to meet the needs of the First
Nations students rather than expecting the First Nations children to fit into the
values of the school system.
The stories from the Elders should be recorded so the stories are not lost.
There is significant knowledge and wisdom to be gained from the Elders.
Universities need to incorporate the teaching of storytelling into their teacher
training programs.

5.3 Suggestions for Further Research
The research process and the analysis of the results of this study raise a
number of other research questions related to storytelling. Some suggested
research questions for further study are listed here.
1. Do First Nations people who were brought up listening to stories perform better

in formal educational settings than those who were not?
2. Could Gitxsan Storytelling be used to teach students about appreciating
differences? Would the use of storytelling be a way to eliminate prejudice?
3. Are there differences in cognitive processes between First Nations children and
non-First Nations children?
4. Could storytelling be used in the discipline of the students who are considered
behavior problems?
5. Could storytelling be an effective method for teaching the learning disabled
child?

63

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Silliman,E.R. & Wilkinson, L.C. (1991). Examining student's
communication: Categorical tools. Communicating for learning: Classroom
observation and collaboration. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen, 138-179.
Sim'algaK...Working Group. (1998). Gitsenimx- Gitxsanimax to English
dictionary: Learner's edition. Victoria: BC: Aboriginal Education Branch: British
Columbia Ministry of Education:
Sutherland, V. (1996). First Nations control of First Nations education:
The evolution of education in Kispiox: Quebec: Unpublished master's thesis,
Bishop 's University.
Wilson, E. (1993) Education of First Nations students in School
District 88 (Terrace). Terrace: B.C: School district 88.

65

APPENDIX 1
CERTIFICATE OF ETHICS APPROVAL

66
08 / 19:99

THll 11 : 21 FAX 250 960 5746

FAC . RSCH & GRAD

~

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA

3333 University Way, Prince George, BC, Canada V2N 4Z9
Dr. Alex Michalos
Chair, UNBC Ethics Review Committee
Tel: (250) 960-6697 or 960-5820
Fax:(250)960-5746
E-mail: michalos@unbc.ca

UNBC Ethics Committee

July 20, 1999
Jane Smith Mowatt
Box 106
Hazelton, BC

VOJ 1YO

Proposal: 19990708.79
Dear Ms. Mowatt:
The UNBC Ethics Committee met on July 16, 1999 to review your proposal
entitled. "Gitxsan Storytelling: Breath of Our Grandfathers".
The Committee has approved your proposal and you may proceed with your
research .
If you have any questions , please feel free to contact me .

Sincerely,

ft.;_

Alex Michalos
Chair, UNBC Ethics Review Committee

67

APPENDIX2
GITXSAN ELDERS ' INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

68

Elder Interview Questions
GITXSAN STORYTELLING
THE BREATH OF OUR GRANDFATHERS
1.

Why are Gitxsan stories important?

2.

Who can become a storyteller?

3.

Why were the stories not lost over the years?

4.

How have the stories been passed down from generation to generation?

5.

To whom were the stories most often directed?

6.

What are the characteristics of a story and are there different stories?

7.

In what ways were stories used?

8.

How have stories been used to reinforce the Gitxsan culture?

9.

Why is it important to tell Gitxsan stories to children today?

69

APPENDIX3
CONSENT FROM SCHOOL DISTRICT #82

70

Sharon Beedle
District Superintendent
Terrace School District #82
Terrace, B. C.

This letter is to ask for your permission to use two classroom settings at a Pilot
School within School District #82 to conduct a research project in order to
complete my Masters degree in Education, through the University of Northern
British Columbia.
The Gitxsan Elders believe that we are linked with the past and connected to the
present and future by storytelling. Stories are the building blocks of learning and
the foundation of establishing a child's identity.
The question which I will research will show how I use Gitxsan Storytelling to
enhance learning in the classroom. The research will show that storytelling is a
valid means of communication, in addition to reading and writing.
I will be collecting data in the form of student work and teacher journal writing.
This study will be conducted according to the university's guidelines for ethical
conduct of research. A letter will be sent to the parents explaining the nature of the
study and signed parental consent will be obtained. All the students responses will
be kept anonymous and the results will be kept confidential.
If you have any questions or concerns, please contact one of my advisors, Anne C.
Lindsay, Ph.D. at 250-960-6313, or Judith Lapadat, Ph.D. at 250-960-6667.

Sincerely,
Jane Smith Mowatt

71

Audit and Inspection
16. Coast Mountains School District 82 will be pcnnittcd to carry out on-site

vlslts a.nd r.uch other in!pcctiom or invcscig11tlons th<.tt it doomc n

~ .ar

to ens.;ure

C(ltnpli.ancc with the conditions of this agreement. Such measures may incJude, but are
not limited to:

•

on
r

•
•

i~ inspection of premises or computer dat<tbases to con.fi.nn that stated sec11rity

a ti n~ are in effect;

receipt upon request of a copy of any wriucn or published work based on resc.arch
carried out under the tenns of this agreement;
verifk.l\tion fmm the researcher that the destrucrion of all information about
identifiable individuals has been t:lUried out by the date specified in trus agreement .

.,
17. I understand that I am re5ponsible for ensuring complete compliance with thftse
terms and conditions. In the event that I become aware of a breach or any of tbe
condition& of this f'.grt"F.mr.nt. T will immedia.rely notify Coasr Mountains School District
82 in writing. Contravention of the tenns and conditions of this agreement may lead to
the it r~ al uf r : ~.;lt pdvlloge6; Coa..st Mounta.ins School Di$trict 82 m11y n.lso

take·legal action lO prevenr any further disclosure of the personal information

concerned.

on this JS_ day

~· l9tjf/

Name and Position of Witness: :Jei'ln , fu.- SLu • -f-1 .
lea. c. her On Co..i(-

PARTE- Appro\'nl of' Terms wnd CoodltiollS (to be- completed by
Mouotai.n.s School District 82)

n~

The tenns and conditions of this a~ nr. are hereby approved. Coast Mountain&
School District 82 reserves the right to demand the immediate return of all records and
to withdraw access t.o records without prior notioe if this becorn.e4 ~.
"r nnrl~r the
Act.

The expiry for access to the records lisred 1n Pan C is:

~

fsignature

iti n~

~

~ . ktat :

~

~ '?f"

72

APPENDIX4
CONSENT FROM TEACHER VOLUNTEERS

73

Dear Teachers:
This letter is to ask for your participation in a research project that I am conducting
at your School in order to complete my Masters degree in Education, through the
University of Northern British Columbia.
The Gitxsan Elders believe that we are linked with the past and connected to the
present and future by storytelling. Stories are the building blocks of learning and
the foundation of establishing a child's identity.
The question which I will research explores how Gitxsan Storytelling can be used
to enhance learning in the classroom. The research will show that storytelling is a
valuable tool as a means of communication, in addition to reading and writing.
I am requesting your help in field testing three Gitxsan stories with suggested
activities. In addition, you will be testing a checklist of students ' responses and
presenting me with a written feedback about the checklist.
This study will be conducted according to the university's guidelines for ethical
conduct of research. I do not foresee any risks to you. To protect against any risk
of confidentiality, students' names will not be used on the checklist. Teacher's
names will not appear in the working draft or in the final project.
Throughout the entire process you will be kept informed of the progress of the
project. You may ask any question regarding the project, and they will be
answered fully. You may withdraw from the study at any time. Your participation
is voluntary.
If you have any questions or concerns, please contact one of my advisors, Anne C.
Lindsay, Ph.D. at 250-960-6313, or Judith Lapadat, Ph.D. at 250-960-6667.

Jane Smith Mowatt

Respondent's Name

Respondent's Position
Date

74

APPENDIX5
PARENTAL CONSENT

75

Dear Parents:
This letter is to ask for your permission to allow your child to participate in a
research project that I am conducting at your child's school in order to complete my
Masters degree in Education, through the University of Northern British Columbia.
The Gitxsan Elders believe that we are linked with the past and connected to the
present and future by storytelling. Stories are the building blocks of learning and
the foundation of establishing a child ' s identity.
The question which I will research explores how Gitxsan Storytelling is used to
enhance learning in the classroom. The research will show that storytelling is a
valuable tool as a means of communication, in addition to reading and writing.
I will be collecting data in the form of student work and teacher journal writing.
This study will be conducted according to the university's guidelines for ethical
conduct of research. All the students responses will be kept anonymous and the
results will be kept confidential.
If you have any questions or concerns, please contact one of my advisors, Anne C.
Lindsay, Ph.D. at 250-960-6313, or Judith Lapadat, Ph.D. at 250-960-6667.

Sincerely,
Jane Smith Mowatt

I, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , do give my permission for my child,
--:-:-:--,..------------' whose birthdate is, _ _ _ _ _ _ , to

participate

in the Storytelling Project, on how children learn through the use of their stories,
as described in the above letter from Jane Smith Mowatt, classroom teacher.
My signature below indicates my permission that this data may be used for a
research assignment for a graduate education final project as described in the letter.
S i g n a t u r e : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Date: -----------

76

APPENDIX 6
CURRICULUM ORGANIZERS
STORYTELLING OBJECTIVES

77

Curriculum Organizers

•

Personal Awareness
recognize that each clan possesses some stories and they should know which
ones are for general use.

•

acquire a new respect for the Elders as they realize that the Elders are the
keepers of the stories.

•

Communicate Ideas and Information
interpret the stories in his or her own words and tell them to an audience of
younger children.

•

•

recognize the need to work cooperatively as they depend on each other as
listeners and tellers.
Composing and Creating
formulate his or her imagination to a greater extent. He or she will learn to
improvise, to concentrate and have an opportunity to experiment in responding
to different situations.

•

use an expressive non-verbal communication to clarify the meaning of the text.
Comprehend and Respond

•

speak with an appropriate volume for the listeners to hear while he or she is
retelling a story.

• use the story 's sequence of events in a way that is easy for the listeners to
follow .

• present the story's ending so it has a sense of closure .

•

study the structure of the story as literature. They will write and illustrate the
stories.

78

APPENDIX 7
GITXSAN KNOWLEDGE PRETEST
FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS

79

Pre-test (Oral)
1.

Who are the Gitxsan? Where do they live?

2.

What does Gitxsan mean?

3.

Name the three clans of the Gitxsans.

4.

Who usually tells the story?

5.

Who is an Elder?

6.

What does a storyteller do?

7.

What can we learn from Gitxsan stories?

Answers:
1.

The Gitxsans are a group of people who occupy the territories in
Northwestern B.C.
The Gitxsans live in Gitanmaax, Glen Vowel, Kispiox, Kitsegukla,
Kitwanga, and Kitwancool.

2.

Git means people
xsan means the River of Mist (Skeena)
Gitxsans means the People of the Skeena.

3.

Wolf Clan, Frog Clan, and Fireweed Clan.

4.

An Elder usually tells the story.

5.

An Elder is a person who has lived for a long time and has had many
different experiences.

6.

The storyteller tells about the history and culture of the Gitxsans. Without
the storyteller all the history would be lost.

7.

Many lessons on how to behave are learned from stories--don't steal, don't
lie, don't cheat.

80
APPENDIX8
STUDENT CHECKLIST

Rl

Student Checklist
ldentitv of Client:
Date of Interaction: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Type of Setting: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Length of Interaction

I. Cultural Knowledge
Understands that some stories
are a clan's possessions.
Understands that there are
many stories for general use.
Understands that stories would
be lost without the Elders.
Understands that when someone
is holding the talking stick others
do not interrupt.
II. Performance Skills
Understands the need for good
public speaking skills.
Understands the importance of
concentrating and listening to
the storyteller.
Focuses attention on the
speaker.
Responds appropriately to the
story with silence, laughter and
body language.

~~~~

:

Yes

No

Sometimes

82

Yes
Efficiently presents the story and
keeps the listeners' interest
throughout.
Employs creative use of
language, sound and body
language.

III. Effective Composition
Is able to retell a story to a
group.
Is able to rewrite and illustrate
the story.
Understands the necessity of
providing feedback on any
statements he or she has made.

No

Sometimes

83
APPENDIX 9
TEACHER GUIDE
CONSIDERATIONS FOR LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION
1.

Instructions and Activities
LEGEND OF THE YOUNG PORCUPINE

2.

Instructions and Activities
LEGEND OF WII' AXGATS ' AGAT (ORIGIN OF MOSQUITOES)

3.

Instructions and Activities
LEGEND OF K' ALIDAKHL (BLUE JAY)

84

TEACHER GUIDE
Considerations for Language Arts Instruction

Legend of the Little Porcupine
Explain that this story is a general-use story and not the possession of a clan.
To prevent anyone from interrupting a speaker, use a stick and call it a ' talking
stick' .
Place it in the middle of the discussion group and instruct the students that only the
one who is holding the stick can speak. When the speaker is finished, he or she
can place it in the middle of the group again.
Tell the legend of 'Porcupine', modeling the appropriate expression and body
language.
Have the entire group discuss the lessons learned and practice using the 'talking
stick' .
Using your own grouping technique, divide the students into three groups and have
one group tell the beginning of the story, the second group the middle of the story
and the third group the ending of the story.
Have the same groups draw an individual scene of the beginning of the story, the
middle of the story and the ending of the story. Have each student tell why he or
she chose the particular scene that he or she drew.
Porcupine tampered with the environment, and destroyed himself. Have each
student create a slogan for a bumper sticker on how we can help save the
environment.

85
Legend of the Origin of the Mosquito
Explain that this story is a general-use story and not the possession of a clan.
Please feel free to modify and include other relevant materials.
To prevent anyone from interrupting a speaker, use a stick and call it a 'talking
stick'.
Place it in the middle of the discussion group and instruct the students that only the
one who is holding the stick can speak. When the speaker is finished, he or she
can place it in the middle of the group again.
Tell the legend of 'Mosquito', modeling the appropriate expression and body
language.
Youngest Brother was very clever. What other things did he invent when he came
back to the Village?
Act out the legend of the 'Mosquito'. Brainstorm for characters: The Long Nose
Who Walked, the Youngest Brother, Chief, Elders, Parents, sisters, aunts, uncles,
cousins and mosquitoes. Each character has to make up a sentence to contribute to
the play.

Have each student draw a picture of someone who is a hero in his or her life.

86

Legend of the Blue Jay
Explain that this story is a general-use story and not the possession of a clan.
Please feel free to modify and include other relevant materials.
To prevent anyone from interrupting a speaker, use a stick and call it a 'talking
stick'.
Place it in the middle of the discussion group and instruct the students that only the
one who is holding the stick can speak. When the speaker is finished, he or she
can place it in the middle of the group again.
Tell the legend of 'Blue Jay', modeling the appropriate expression and body
language.
Using the writing process, have the students brainstorm the title, characters,
setting, events and ending and have them rewrite the story.
The 'Old Lady' was very creative, but she did not have nail polish or perfume.
Place the students in three different groups and have them brainstorm materials
which she could have used for nail polish or perfume in the olden days.
Using the sequence sheet, have the students create the scenes that follow. The first
scene has been done.

Have the students take on the character of the First Blue Jay and have her write a
letter of apology to the hunter and his wife.
Cut up the story of the Blue Jay into sentence strips. Have each student reach into a
bag for a sentence strip and have them put the story back together in proper
sequence. Have each student read his or her sentence strip to the class.

87

APPENDIX 10
TRAINING FOR STORYTELLERS
1.

Modeling Storytelling

2.

Bones of the Story

3.

Examination of the Legend of the Little Porcupine

4.

Examination of the Legend of the Origin of the Mosquito

5.

Examination of the Legend K'alidakhl of the Blue Jay

88

Training For Storytellers
Objective: To develop understanding of oral story telling and how it has
traditionally been used to educate.

To provide teachers with an opportunity to study the art of Gitxsan storytelling.
In order to do this effectively I took the participants out on to the land. The
storytelling training took place around a campfire.

Story Bones for Children 's Writing
I used the stand and deliver method to the participants to show how I teach
children Gitxsan stories in the classroom.
I explained how I use the writing process to teach creative writing to
children.
I call it the bones of the story.
I tell the story and the children brainstorm and come up with ideas; while I
record the ideas on the chalkboard. In the early part of children's writing I use the
following bones: Title, characters, setting, nature, events and ending.
I inform the participants that throughout the year I add paragraphs,
personification, similes, quotation marks, time, weather, season, and detailed
description.
I help with the spelling, but I do not interfere with the sentence structure. I
do not want to tell the children that they are writing their stories incorrectly.
I let the students change the characters: girls can write about girls and boys
can write about boys.

89

Modeling Storytelling
To begin, I told the participants three Gitxsan legends Mowatt (1989)
1.

The Legend of the Young Porcupine

2.

Legend of Wii'axgats'agat (Origin of Mosquitoes)

3.

Legend of K'alidakhl (Blue Jay)

After each legend, while sitting around the campfire, the participants were
asked to discuss the lessons learned and how they could be applied to modern
times.
Then I modeled the assignment using the Legend of the Young Porcupine.
The legend was told as if it were gossip.

Then the participants were given written legends they would be using in the
classroom. The participants went off to gossip about the legend. They came back
to the campfire to present their stories.
The next assignment was to present the legend in a creative way. Once
again the researcher modeled the procedure. The teacher volunteers were given
suggestions how they could incorporate song, drama or dance or one could narrate
the story while the other did elaborate gestures or sound effects. The participants
were sent off again to discuss how they could present this back to the group.
The purpose of this plan was to insure that the teachers were familiar with
the stories before presenting them to the children. It was found to be very useful.
The lessons and activities were kept to a minimum for the project, so as not
to overwhelm the students. The participants were given some more detailed
analysis of the three legends they were going to present to their classrooms, and
suggestions of how they could be used throughout the year.

90

Examination of the Legend of the Young Porcupine
The major issue in the Legend of the Young Porcupine is the care needed in
dealing with the environment. Porcupine tampered with the environment and
destroyed himself.
The lesson of controlling one 's anger is evident. The rocks were innocent
victims as Porcupine expressed his anger. Porcupine should have investigated
other ways to deal with his anger.
An important lesson to learn is that everyone has a destiny and purpose on

this earth. Creek' s destiny was to journey down the mountain and feed the rivers.
Porcupine was destroyed and Creek continued her journey.
Problem solving is another important lesson that Porcupine neglected to
learn. Perhaps he should have found another sleeping area, away from Creek.
The frightening lesson to be learned from Porcupine is that the
consequences are sometimes fatal.

91

Examination of the Legend of the Origin of the Mosquito
In the Legend of the Origin of the Mosquito there are many positive lessons.
The legend gives hope that one could be victorious in dealing with the monsters and
demons in one's life. Youngest Brother faces his fear and conquers it.
Youngest Brother shows that there is a solution for any problem that
presents itself.
This story could inspire students to do their own inventions.
An issue that could be discussed is that of justice. Youngest Brother went
to avenge the deaths of his brothers and uncle. There was justice.
The issue of land claims can be discussed with the Legend of the Origin of
the Mosquito. In Youngest Brother's day the monster was keeping the Gitxsans
from their territories. Today, government and big business are the monsters that
the Gitxsans have to face.
This legend can be used to illustrate the issue of residential schools.
Although residential schools no longer exist, from the ashes came the problems that
still haunt those who attended and consequent generations.
Another important lesson is that of 'winning' . Is winning everything? As
swarms of mosquitoes came out of the ashes, did the Gitxsans really win?

92

Examination of the Legend of K'alidakhl (Blue Jay)
Gitxsan legends were told in many cases, so that we would learn from the
mistakes of others. In the story of K' alidakhl there are many lessons. Old lady
was not thoughtful. She moved into a home she had not helped to build. She was
greedy and envious of her daughter.
The young couple could have been kinder to the old lady. After all, they
had allowed her to move in. If they had given her fine cuts of meat occasionally, it
might not have meant so much to her. They could have moved her sleeping mat a
little closer to the fireplace.
Teachers are given permission to change parts of the story if they feel it is
not appropriate for their classes. For example, instead of telling the children that
the old lady killed her daughter they could say that she changed her into an owl. Or
they could tell the children that the woman had to journey to a Gitxsan village that
would take two days.
This legend teaches the values of honesty and kindness. In the story of the
Legend of K' alidakhl (Blue jay) both the young couple and the old lady forgot these
important values.
It is an important lesson to learn that if you cannot get the fine cuts of meat,

you do without, until such a time as you can earn them. The story of the Legend of
K'alidakhl (Blue jay) shows the consequences of unkind deeds. The old lady was
sent out to scavenge for food.
The story, although very violent, inspires the use of creativity and
imagination, as the old lady starts to prepare a youthful self. The Legend of
K'alidakhl (Blue jay) can be used with adults to discuss the issues of aging. The
old lady was envious of youth.