Wild Epiphany: Turning Youth Care Inside Out Christopher M. Gee B.S.W., University of Northern British Columbia, 2002 Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements for The Degree Of Master Of Social Work The University Of Northern British Columbia April 2009 © Christopher M. Gee, 2009 1*1 Library and Archives Canada Bibliotheque et Archives Canada Published Heritage Branch Direction du Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Your file Votre r6f6rence ISBN: 978-0-494-60819-7 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-60819-7 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a nonexclusive license allowing Library and Archives Canada to reproduce, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, communicate to the public by telecommunication or on the Internet, loan, distribute and sell theses worldwide, for commercial or noncommercial purposes, in microform, paper, electronic and/or any other formats. L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Canada de reproduce, publier, archiver, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public par telecommunication ou par Nnternet, preter, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou autres formats. The author retains copyright ownership and moral rights in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's permission. L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation. In compliance with the Canadian Privacy Act some supporting forms may have been removed from this thesis. Conformement a la lot canadienne sur la protection de la vie privee, quelques formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included in the document page count, their removal does not represent any loss of content from the thesis. Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. 1*1 Canada Wild Epiphany 2 Abstract Using phenomenology as a framework for analysis, and drawing on Abraham Maslow's concept of peak experience, this thesis reveals the unique power of a moment in the wilderness. Within this paper are emotionally charged recollections of epiphany as experienced by individuals who, as youth, were mandated to attend a wilderness based residential attendance program. These recollected experiences are compared and contrasted to observations, of similar moments, made by counsellors who have facilitated extended excursions into the wilderness. This qualitative study has been conducted in collaboration with graduates of Caribou Action Training Society's Camp Trapping and past and present wilderness counsellors. The commentaries of the participants resonate with implications for therapeutic intervention. Characterizations of wilderness, conceptualizations of dependency and masculinity, and suggestions of improved mental well-being figure prominently in the recollections of the participants. Wild Epiphany 3 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 Acknowledgements 6 Dedication 7 Chapter 1: Wild Epiphany 8 Rationale 9 The Research Question 11 Personal Statement 12 Definition of Terms 14 Chapter 2: Literature Review 17 A Review of the Literature Related to Epiphany 17 A Review of the Literature Related to Therapeutic Wilderness Activities 27 Literature Review Conclusion 34 Chapter 3: Methodology and Methods 35 Preamble 35 Methodology 35 Research Methods and Design 45 Participants 45 Sampling 46 The Interview 47 Transcription 48 Wild Epiphany Triangulation 50 Member Checking 51 Peer Debriefing 51 Reflexivity 52 Audit Trail 54 Circularity 54 Study Limitations 56 Chapter 4: Social Work and the Environment 57 Chapter 5: Research Findings 62 The Wild Epiphany 63 A Tangible Moment 68 A Moment of Vulnerability 70 Breaking Down Barriers 75 Anger Released 79 Common Ground 81 Keeping it Simple 86 Counselling and the Challenge of the Wild Epiphany 89 Research Findings Conclusion 91 Chapter 6: Discussion 93 Study Limitations 93 A Characterization of Wilderness 94 Dependency 98 Masculinity 100 4 Wild Epiphany Chapter 7: Conclusion 105 References 107 Appendix A: participant information sheet 115 Appendix B: Research Participant Consent Form 116 Appendix C: Interview Protocol 117 Appendix D: Request for Member Checking 119 Appendix E: Counsellors and Graduates 120 5 Wild Epiphany 6 Acknowledgements My freedom to be creative, both academically and professionally, has been engendered through my interactions with Dr. Si Transken. It is through risk that growth occurs; Dr. Transken, your encouragement that I take risks has been liberating. Thank you. I would like to also thank my committee, Dr Judy Hughes and Dr Rob Budde, for their participation in my academic development. In addition, the First Friday Research Group has been an indispensable vehicle for my journey towards the completion of my thesis, and, more importantly, my understanding of true social justice advocacy. I would like to thank the participants of this study who took risks and shared with me their passion for wild spaces. Thank you to the Cariboo Action Training Society and Camp Trapping. You are the best for a reason, the perfect balance of structure and relationship. Most importantly, thank you to my family. Your encouragement has allowed this project to find fruition. Wild Epiphany 7 Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my sister, Stephanie. Your unwavering commitment to travel to the most dangerous places in the world, and provide aid to the most vulnerable people, confirms in my heart that one person can make a difference. I know, from you, that one life, no matter to what degree they have become marginalized, is valuable enough to risk everything. Wild Epiphany 8 Chapter 1: Wild Epiphany The sounds of the birds and the whistling of the wind and the scenery. You are standing at the rock wall and down there is the valley with that green water and the lush grass and the rock gardens. Animals and eagles are sitting there, fuck it's powerful. You become everything. Everything seems to fall away from you. (David) Imagine such a moment, worries of money, family and work dissipate. Air as sweet as candy fills your lungs and perhaps the sun gently warms your back. Where your worries once rested lies an indescribable euphoria. A connection is made and you are now part of something larger than yourself. Perhaps this moment is so intensely powerful that you are brought to tears. This is the wild epiphany. Experiences such as the one recounted by David are the heart of this thesis. In the following pages I will present recollections of moments powerfully retold by those, who as youth, saw those sights and felt those connections. Adding to their stories, I will present the observations of counsellors who have facilitated trips into the wilderness and observed youth enraptured by such moments. Through the retelling of the participants' experiences I hope to present a compelling impetus to increase the access to wilderness for youth and, in a broader sense, increase the viability of wilderness utilization in the social work profession. Within this document a literature review and a methodological framework will be presented. The overriding topics of the literature review are: a presentation of the phenomenon of peak experience and, the more concrete, therapeutic utilization of nature and wilderness. The methodological approach presented in this paper is, predominantly, one of phenomenology. Attention has been paid to ensuring the information presented in this thesis is trustworthy and of sufficient quality; the manner in which this is accomplished is outlined within the chapter on Wild Epiphany 9 methods. Also, within this document, the current state of environmental ism in social work will be discussed. Following the research findings, the concepts of dependency and masculinity, and the manner in which these issues relate to the experiences of the participants, will be briefly touched on. Finding a balance between the processes insisted upon by academia and the boundless concepts spoken of by the study participants has been a challenge for me. Perhaps only each individual reader can judge if I have achieved that balance. The predominant struggle for me, in writing this thesis, has been in arriving at a term for the phenomenon evident in the interviews. I have ascribed the moniker of epiphany to the moment; however, two of the study participants refer to it as "euphoria." The term "rapture" has been suggested to me by one of the participants as a term that adequately describes the moment but, the bulk of the psychological literature on similar moments utilizes the term "peak experience." I believe all of the terms fit the phenomenon, yet the power of the moment defies them all. Rationale Much of the literature on youth care in wilderness settings adequately delineates the benefits of wilderness therapy but appears unable to clearly identify the mechanism of the change. Unger et al. (2005) depict this paucity in the following: "In fact, when discussed, the positive aspects of these [wilderness based] programs are often assumed though little considered debate has occurred on how.. . these programs improve mental health outcome" (p.320). This thesis aims to present one possible answer to the question of how a wilderness based program facilitates change in the lives of young men. The broader aims of this thesis are in regards to encouraging a resurgence of programs that facilitate connection between young people and the natural world. Wild Epiphany 10 A challenge to our well-being. A challenge to human well-being is rapidly developing; the era of significant, human induced, environmental degradation is upon us. Within the burgeoning field of eco-social work they have taken notice of this calamity. Theorists within the field claim that the damage we do to ourselves, and our surroundings, is a result of our separation from nature (Coates, 2003; Unger, 2002). One challenge, from the point of view of eco-social work, is to bring forth an expanded awareness of self. A self that includes the natural world in its definition would readily see that the destruction of nature is, in fact, self destruction. The concepts of eco-social work, combined with those of psychologists Hoffman and Muramoto (2007), who suggest that youth are likely to undergo peak experiences, insinuates the possibility of a new paradigm for youth care work. Finally, it now seems vital to initiate research on the value of childhood peak-experiences for applied fields including child psychotherapy, education and career counselling. Results are suggestive that recollections of such peak-experiences are therapeutic and life enhancing for individuals and also may be particularly useful in offering direction for vocational planning....[and] that childhood peak-experiences in response to nature are especially universal. (Hoffman and Muramato, 2007, p.507) Given Hoffman and Muramoto's statement that investigation into childhood peak experiences is vital and, Coates' (2003) assertion that an interconnection exists between human well-being and contact with the natural world, the expectation might be that the social work establishment would be striving towards incorporating these ideals into practice. Unfortunately this is far from the reality in contemporary social work. Wild Epiphany 11 Social work caught lacking. Unger et al. (2005) explain that there is little in the social work literature that has considered the justification for using nature as a context for treatment; they also explain that there has not been adequate discussion, by the social work establishment, around the possible benefits for participants who undertake such endeavors. It is this dearth in the social work literature and, the outright reluctance of social work practice (Coates, 2005) to capitalize on the power of wilderness, that has spurred my interest in this fascinating and under-examined topic. The Research Question According to several academics (Creswell, 1998; Mauch & Park, 2003; Patron, 2002) the most pertinent endeavor within the creation of a thesis is the presentation of a clear, concise and operational research question. Patton (2002) suggests that qualitative research questions typically examine how people attach meaning to particular events. Within this context the following question is leveled: What are the recounted characteristics associated with epiphany, or peak experiences, amongst male youth mandated to participate in a wilderness based residential attendance program? The theoretical orientation of this question is phenomenological in nature and will be predominantly examined using this framework. The above question presupposes a shared experience amongst particular youth mandated to attend a wilderness based residential program and seeks to elucidate an essence within particular experiences of program attendees. Patton (2002) explains that essences are core meanings mutually understood through a phenomena commonly experienced: "The assumption of essence... becomes the defining characteristic of a purely phenomenological study." (p. 106) The responses to the analyzed data, gathered from the Wild Epiphany 12 study participants, clearly indicates that the characteristics of their experiences, although highly unique, all possess an essential quality that may be recognizable by a large swathe of our population. Ensuring a process of respectfully and accurately reiterating the experiences of the participants is a guiding precept of this thesis. Delineating my own biases and privileges is the first crucial step in this process. Personal Statement According to qualitative methods theorists (Morrow, 2007, Ponterotto & Grieger, 2007) it is accepted and, perhaps even desirable, for qualitative researchers to divulge their worldviews, assumptions, and biases. This disclosure is performed in a bid to assist the reader in understanding my position in relation to the research. Morrow (2007) clarifies this with: Understanding the social location of the researcher in relation to the research project is essential to providing sufficient information on which to base a full understanding of the context of the study, thus enabling the reader to make decisions about how transferable the information may be to another context (or in practical terms how relevant the results are to her or his own specific context), (p. 215) Given this, I will, in a cursory fashion, introduce myself to you. First, allow me to position myself, socially, and acknowledge my abundance of privileges. I am a Caucasian, English speaking male, born into the Canadian middle class. My parents are university educated and any marginalization I have experienced has been self-imposed. For example, I am a high school drop out who as a teenager dabbled in delinquency. Also, like too many in our society, I have spent my adult life living below the poverty line, but unlike most, I do so contentedly, by choice, preferring the acquisition of experience over the acquisition of material goods. Wild Epiphany 13 I currently reside in New Hazelton, B.C. and am a committed Northerner. I am also a committed environmentalist, currently employed by the Skeena Watershed Conservation Coalition and I have worked to establish youth focused community programs in Smithers, Prince George, and Hazelton. I am whole heartedly committed to working for high risk and marginalized youth in my community who, for a myriad of reasons, might not have access to the opportunities afforded mainstream youth. This commitment has manifested itself through my creation and facilitation of unique youth-focused programs. My commitment to working for healthier Northern communities has spurred my educational direction and led me to the profession of social work. The inherent commitment, within social work, to value the individual, and their story, matches my own commitment, and has lead me to qualitative methods of inquiry. I am strongly committed to grassroots social justice activism, particularly those causes that address the degrading environment and the impact of that degradation on vulnerable populations. I believe in the values delineated by the British Columbia Social Workers code of ethics. My commitment to my practice has informed my stance and opinions during my research engagement and my primary concern, in all my professional activities, rests unwaveringly on my commitment to the well-being of the clients I serve. More closely related to my thesis topic, the epiphany, or peak experience phenomena I write of is one that I have experienced. The experience was so profound and moving for me that it has become the dominant motivating factor in my life. My intimate experience with the power of nature directs all of my activities and I spend as much time in the wilderness as I possibly can. During my time as an employee at Camp Trapping I had the good fortune to observe the peak experience phenomenon occur amongst several young men mandated to attend Camp. The Wild Epiphany 14 phenomena fascinated me and within each experience I recognized an untapped and, as I discovered, a relatively unexplored therapeutic opportunity. Definition of Terms Camp Trapping: Wilderness Based Residential Attendance Program The wilderness based residential attendance program in this thesis specifically refers to Camp Trapping run by the Cariboo Action Training Society. Camp Trapping is a residential attendance program for male juvenile offenders. Referrals are made through Youth and Probation Services and youth are required to attend the four month program as a condition of their probation order. The program facilitates probationers between the ages of thirteen and eighteen. Students are accepted from various areas throughout the province of British Columbia. The program has been successfully facilitating outdoor and wilderness experiences for young men for over 30 years. Counsellor The term program counsellor denotes an employee of Camp Trapping, woman or man, directly responsible for the safety and well-being of youth attendees of the program. Counsellors facilitate day to day activities as well as out trips. Epiphany A usually sudden manifestation or perception of the essential nature or meaning of something; an intuitive grasp of reality through something (as an event) usually simple and striking; an illuminating discovery, realization, or disclosure; a revealing scene or moment. (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, retrieved January, 2009) Wild Epiphany 15 Euphoria A feeling of well-being or elation. The term euphoria, being a term presented by respondents in the interviews, will be used, in this thesis, interchangeably with term peak experience. (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, retrieved January, 2009) Graduate The term graduate refers to a youth who has successfully completed the four month term of attendance at Camp Trapping. Out Trip An out trip is an extended trip away from the wilderness based camp. Out trips typically include hiking trips into mountainous areas and canoeing trips into wilderness lake systems. Out trips are undertaken throughout the year, winter and summer. The Camp Trapping out trip format has changed over the years and now consists of 5 to 7 day long trips. In Camp Trapping's past, trips of 10 days or longer were not unusual. Rapture An expression or manifestation of ecstasy or passion, or; a state or experience of being carried away by overwhelming emotion or; a mystical experience in which the spirit is exalted to a knowledge of divine things (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, retrieved Jan. 2009). This term was suggested by one of the respondents as an apt definition of the wilderness epiphany. Youth The term youth, for the purpose of this project, denotes male individuals between the ages of 13 and 18. Youth At-Risk The term "at-risk" has been applied to youth experiencing an array of difficulties, ranging Wild Epiphany 16 from poverty, abuse, substance use and abuse and juvenile delinquency. There does not appear to be, in relevant literature, a consensus around the definition of the term. (Schonert-Reichl, 2000). For the purposes of this study the term at-risk will predominantly refer to a youth involved with the justice system. Wild Epiphany 17 Chapter 2: Literature Review Not surprisingly, no literature could be found directly relating to the examination of epiphany among youth in wilderness settings. Given the lack of research on this subject, the most relevant research examining therapeutic wilderness settings will be presented, in this review, along side research on epiphany-like phenomena. This review will begin with an examination of literature regarding epiphany then move into an examination of literature related to therapeutic wilderness experiences with youth. A Review of the Literature Related to Epiphany Very little academic literature exists around the concept of epiphany when it is termed as such. Seeking terminology to define the characteristics of what I am calling epiphany brought my attention to the phenomenon of peak experience. Examination of the literature relating to the concept of epiphany, or peak experience, as it is known in humanistic psychology, reveals a complex phenomenon. The term epiphany, as utilized for my thesis, appears to share characteristics with, not only the occurrence known as peak experience, but also quantum change, or transformational change (Maslow, 1968; Miller, 2004; White, 2004). This first portion of my literature review will examine the most salient aspects of the phenomena; a definition of the peak phenomenon will be presented and this definition will contain both intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of the experience. In addition to the definition, an account of the effects and benefits for individuals experiencing the phenomena will be reviewed. A Broad Definition of Peak Experience The phenomenon this literature review is attempting to describe is not new. The phenomena has been witnessed and documented across cultures and through time. I am choosing Wild Epiphany 18 to use the term epiphany to describe the phenomena; however, Abraham Maslow (1959) uses the term peak experience to describe the phenomena. Due to his prestige Maslow's coined phrase has become the preferred term. " 'Peak experience' is a recently contrived word, but it is parallel to words that have been used for thousands of years, by various peoples, under various headings: mystic experiences in the West; satori, Samadhi, nirvana, and the like in the East." (Maslow, 1970, p. 24) Recently, the term peak experience has been supplanted by other terms to describe similar phenomena. The following theorists have, however, all acknowledged the seminal definition posited by Maslow in their work. A number of the more recently accepted terms are: authentic experience (Rahilly, 1993), vital moments (Goud, 1995), quantum change, (Miller, 2004), and transformational change (White, 2004). Temporal movement away from the work of Maslow has, it seems, demanded revised terminology in order to facilitate a maintained interest in the study of the phenomena. The Characteristics of a Peak Experience Maslow's (1962, 1970) premier point, in regards to peak experiences, is that they are natural, rather than supernatural, in origin. Maslow (1970) suggests that peak experiences can be, and are, experienced by large portions of the population. The phenomenon is not limited to a particular age group, education level, or socio economic status. That peak experiences, or epiphanies, can be experienced by a wide range of individuals is fundamental to this author's proposed examination of the experience among youth in wilderness settings. Maslow's (1970) preferred, and most simplistic, definition of peak experiences is "moments of highest happiness and fulfillment" (p.69). This very general definition, explains Panzarella (1980), allows for peak experiences in response to an extremely wide range of stimuli. Wild Epiphany 19 Mathes, Zevon, Roter and Joerger (1982), the developers of the peak scale, conceptualized peak experiences as: "experiences in which the individual transcends ordinary reality and perceives Being or ultimate reality. Peak experiences are typically short in duration and accompanied by positive affect" (p.93). This definition compliments Maslow's (1970) more complete definition, which claims that: Peak experiences teach the individual that the universe is ultimately good or neutral, not evil;.... As a result of having a peak experience the individual is usually changed so that he or she is more psychologically healthy, (p.77) Expanding on what constitutes a peak experience, Davis, Lockwood and Wright (1991) describe peak experiences as: The best, happiest, most wonderful moments of one's life. A peak experience has some (but usually not all) of the following characteristics: an almost overwhelming sense of pleasure, euphoria, or joy, a deep sense of peacefulness or tranquility, feeling in tune, in harmony, or at one with the universe, a sense of wonder or awe, altered perceptions of time and/or space, such as expansion, a feeling of deeper knowing or profound understanding, a deep feeling of love (for yourself, another, or all people), a greater awareness of beauty or appreciation, a sense that it would be difficult or impossible to describe adequately in words, (p.88) This description lacks the condition that the phenomena is typically a special event and is unusual in daily life; however, literature on the occurrence (Mathes et al., 1982) indicates this distinction. Perhaps some of the benefits ascribed to peak experience are a result of the rarity of the experience. Wild Epiphany 20 The Benefits of Peak Experiences Positive affect has been shown to be a key benefit arriving from the occurrence of peak experience. However, expanding and clarifying the other, more subtle, benefits of peak experiences is vital to validating the encouragement of peak experiences in therapeutic practice. Maslow (1962) suggests that peak experiences have extremely important consequences for those who have experienced such phenomena. In general, he argues, that the self actualizing person, as someone who is more at peace with himself or herself than the average person, should be able to rise above many of the petty concerns which are culturally engrained; those who have had peak experience are more likely to pursue values which are more humanly beneficial. More than just bringing about good feelings, the peak experience has been shown to encourage a complete realignment of an individuals life values: Even when these reports [of peak experiences] were subjected to a stricter criterion based on their impact, about 4% were judged to have had a major life changing impact, leading to a reordering of priorities and to new life directions. (Davis et al. 1991, p.92) A number of other researchers have confirmed these benefits of the peak experience phenomena (Noble, 1987; Pressman, 1992; Lanier, Privette, Vodanovich, & Bundrick, 1996). Wuthnow (1978) suggests that associated with the manifestation of peak experiences is a sub average concern for material possessions, a lessened concern for social status, an increase in social concern and an increase in self-confidence. "On the whole, these results suggest that peak experiences are not just events which only affect people's private lives. They are also related to how people orient themselves to the culture and the society in which they live" (p.70). Noble (1987) suggests a positive correlation exists between the experience of psychological peaks and high scores on Heath's perceived self-questionnaire. Such a correlation, Wild Epiphany 21 states Noble (1987), leads to ".. . reported greater feelings of self confidence, self acceptance, self worth, and self regard, a marked increase in autonomy and authenticity, and an increased appreciation and need for solitude" (p.606). Wilson and Spencer (1990), examine the relationship between intense personal experiences (peak experiences), and positive personal growth, in their psychology based work. This study, which looked at perceptual change, personality change, and body awareness, resulting from such experiences found that: "given the indices that were correlated in both experiences, it appears some individuals may have a propensity to undergo a shift in consciousness as well as the capacity to respond to these experiences in positive, life changing ways." (p.569) Another study, designed to verify the benefits of peak experience, was conducted by Christopher, Manaster, Campbell and Weinfeld (2002). Their study attempted to correlate the peak experience, as measured by the peak scale developed by Mathes et al. (1982), with other scales designed to measure social interest and moral reasoning. One of the tools of comparison for this study was the Tavis Measure of Social Interest, a tool with confirmed reliability. This tool measures an individual's tendency towards overt cooperative behaviours, strong social interest, and empathy. The study by Christopher et al. (2002) found the following results: "Peak experiences as measured by the peak scale were positively related to social interest, when social interest was measured by the Tavis Measure of Social Interest..." (p.45). The conclusion drawn by Christopher et al. (2002) is as follows: Given the potential impact of both peak experiences and social interest on human growth and development, we believe that this is an important topic to pursue further.. ..it may be the case that facilitating peak experiences promotes the type of ethical orientations, like Wild Epiphany 22 social interest, that according to many contemporary theorists are sorely needed in contemporary society, (p.49) The call for an increase in the examination of the peak phenomenon is underway. Recent studies have begun ascribing a new moniker to the phenomenon. Using the term quantum change to describe a phenomena similar to peak experience, Miller's (2004) research posits the benefits of such experiences as all encompassing and wholly life changing: "One [change] was sudden release from chronic negative affectivity (e.g., fear, resentment, depression, anger), which was displaced by a pervasive sense of well-being, safety, joy in living, and peacefulness that endured decades later" (p.457). Miller (2004) also claims that individuals having had such experiences reported shifts in their top life priorities. Changes include a lessened concern for material possessions, an increase in self esteem and generosity and an increased desire for more meaningful personal relationships. Miller's (2004) work suggests that an individual, who undergoes the peak like experience of Quantum change, loses their tolerance for superficial relationships. These people wanted fewer and closer friendships and appeared better able, after the experience, to release themselves from enmeshment and appeared able to consciously mitigate the effects of abuse suffered in childhood. White (2004), writing about the power of transformational change, another phenomena similar to the peak experience, suggests that such change represents not merely a change in thoughts and behaviours, but a revolution in character: "The change experiences noted in our case studies reflect more than changes in appearance or habits of living; they involve profound change in the very architecture of personal identity." (p.465) Wild Epiphany 23 Discussion of momentous and sudden change, classified by some to be peak experience (Maslow, 1970), quantum change (Miller, 2004), or transformational change (White, 2004) is often accompanied by clinical implications. In the majority of the literature around such phenomena the consensus is that the experience should be encouraged and if possible facilitated. Public validation of these experiences is obviously lacking as many people who experience such phenomena choose never to reveal their experiences. Why peak experiences are not widely reported. Davis et al. (1991) have shown, through their research, that a significant number of individuals have experienced intense, long lasting effects as a result of the peak experience phenomena but have chosen to not report them. The most common reasons for not discussing a peak experience were that it was a special, intimate, and personal experience which respondents wanted to keep for themselves, that it might be devalued or 'put down,' and that it was too difficult to describe in words, (p.92) Despite the reticence of some individuals to disclose their peak experiences, such experiences have been shown to be a desirable occurrence among the general population. Wuthnow (1978) states, "It is also of interest to note that people who have not had these peak experiences tend more often than not to be desirous of them. More than three-fourths of those not having had a peak experience would like to..." (p.61). Although reticence is found within the population, in regards to reporting peak experiences, many people appear to strive for these moments. Sport and action appears to provide a foray, for some, to peak. Wild Epiphany 24 Peak Experiences in Sport and Action Peak experiences can emerge through engagement in a wide range activities. Theorists have postulated that such experiences may emerge from an intense engagement in physical activity (Lester, 2004; Ravizza, 1977). Ravizza's study (1977) suggests that individuals who engage in intense physical activity may enter into a psychological state in which they experience a phenomenon similar to Maslow's (1968) peak experience. The activities studied by Ravizza (1977) range from swimming to running to various team sports. The commonality between all the respondents' experiences, in Ravizza's (1977) study, was the intensity with which they engaged their pursuit. [Participants] gave their experiences total attention, resulting in temporary ego loss, union with the experiences as a whole, and disorientation in time and space....The experience is reported as being perfect; consequently the athlete is passive in the experience since it is effortless. The usual fears associated with the activity are non existent, (p.39) Ravizza (1977) also suggests that a necessary factor in the eliciting of peak experiences during sport is the wholehearted engagement in the activity. Focused engagement of this sort by individuals has been shown by Ravizza (1977) to produce a sense of awe and wonder in regards to the human condition and capabilities. The terms awe and wonder are also used as descriptors of the experiences reported by mountaineers studied by Lester (2004). Lester (2004) contends that experiences in nature, particularly extreme natural settings such as mountain settings, can provoke experiences similar in character to peak experiences. Lester's (2004) analysis of data on mountaineering led him to suggest that "...in everyday life the soul is compressed and deformed but will expand to its Wild Epiphany 25 natural greatness if exposed to vastness..." (p.90). Such a suggestion indicates a possible relationship between engagement in nature and intense psychological occurrences. Several of the themes identified by Lester (2004), in his examination of mountaineering literature, parallel descriptions of peak experience. Some of the themes are: a sense of freedom; a sense of power, energy and vitality; contact with a better self; contact with a higher power. The recognition by Ravizza (1977) and Lester (2004) that the peak experience phenomena occur during outdoor physical activities lends credence to this author's contention that such activities might occur in wilderness settings. Most of the literature on peak experience galvanizes around the experiences of adults; however, children appear to be affected by these moments, as well. Peak Experiences in Childhood Peak experience phenomena have been predominantly studied within adult populations and researchers (Hoffman, 1998; Hoffman & Muramoto, 2007; Magen, 1983) suggest that children and youth are as capable of experiencing the phenomena, and in a similar manner, as adults. Hoffman (1998) has delineated a typology of nine distinct categories of childhood epiphany, or peak experience. For the sake of brevity, the two categories most relevant to this study are: "[1] the uplifting experiences in places of scenic grandeur; [2] inspiring encounters with nature" (Hoffman, 1998, p. 115). Hoffman also states, "From the reports of many respondents, one major trigger to youthful ecstasy clearly involves exposure to the natural world's splendor; the sun, moon, and stars; oceans and lakes; forests and meadows; and even deserts" (p.l 17). Interaction with nature appears to be a significant factor in bringing about peak experiences amongst youth. Wild Epiphany 26 Hoffman's (1998) supposition that children and youth are as equally capable as adults of having peak experiences supports Magen's (1983) claim that some children and youth purposefully structure their lives in order to experience situations that could be considered epiphanal. Magen (1983) states, "...adolescents with high intensity experiences expressed significantly more than others, a desire for transpersonal commitment. The higher the intensity of the positive experiences, the higher the readiness to be devoted to a purpose beyond self (p. 107). Certainly, the benefits for youth to be in the position to undergo highly intense positive experiences could use closer scrutiny. Recent Literature Furthering the contention that peak experiences during youth can lead to healthy personality development, and discussing the relationship between such experiences and natural encounters, Hoffman and Muramoto (2007), in their recent study, state: The overwhelming majority of respondents in this study, whose average age was in the mid-3 0s, were able to recall a peak experience in their life prior to the age of 14 and also to identify its enduring impact. . . for example, heightened sensitivity to nature as a calming influence or enhanced confidence in attempting new tasks, (p.507) The impact of this research adds credence to the contention that nature is key, for many, in the experiencing of the peak phenomenon: "The evidence suggests, therefore, that childhood peakexperiences in response to nature are especially universal" (Hoffman and Muramoto, 2007, p. 508). The peak experience phenomenon appears to provide a myriad of benefits for young people, particularly those who struggle with well-being. That nature can be utilized in the facilitation of such experiences, although rarely discussed in the literature, holds promise for Wild Epiphany 27 those who are committed to strengthening the relationships between youth and the great outdoors. A Review of the Literature Related to Therapeutic Wilderness Activities This second portion of the literature review will examine programs that utilize nature and wilderness to facilitate therapeutic change within youth populations. A myriad of definitions exist within the literature that describe the parameters of wilderness therapy (Baker, 2005; Marx, 1988; Russell, 2001). Some of the various incarnations of wilderness therapy will be documented within this portion of the literature review. Recognition exists amongst a number of theorists that numerous benefits for youth can be derived from the employment of wilderness therapy programming (Bruyere, 2002; Clark, Marmol, Cooley, & Gathercoal, 2004; Russell, 2003; Unger, Dumond, & McDonald, 2005). Given the increasing concern within society, in regards to environmental issues, specific benefits associated with fostering environmental concern amongst youth has become an increasingly examined topic in literature centered around wilderness programs (Baker, 2005; Beringer, 2004; Yoshino, 2005). Although many of the benefits of wilderness therapy will be presented, this portion of the literature review will show that the recognition of peak experience, or a similar phenomena, is patently absent from the literature as a mechanism of change within these programs. A Broad Definition of Wilderness Therapy Rehabilitative, outdoor based approaches such as adventure therapy and education, wilderness experience therapy, and outdoor skills challenge courses have all been used as interchangeable terminology to describe wilderness therapy (Gillis, 1991; Garst, Schneider, & Baker, 2001; Russell, 2001). Despite the growing number of programs that utilize the outdoor in a therapeutic manner, a consistent and acceptable definition is lacking claims Russell (2001). A Wild Epiphany 28 common misconception about wilderness therapy is that it is synonymous with a youth boot camp. Such misconceptions do not engender positive community support for such programs. The general misconception that wilderness programs and boot camps are synonymous leads to the notion that wilderness programming involves a harsh, highly structured, punitive curriculum. The punitive philosophy of boot camps is typically absent within wilderness programs, and, in fact, such harsh philosophies run counter to the nature and purpose of true therapeutic wilderness programs. Perhaps the most recognizable incarnation of the wilderness therapy model is the Outward Bound system. This system emerged in the late 60's as a derivative of the system developed in the 40's for survival training of young seamen (Fisher & Attah, 2001). One of the most common utilizations of the Outward Bound program, and its derivatives (e.g. wilderness programming, and adventure programming) has been as an alternative form of incarceration or treatment for delinquent adolescents (Russell, 2001). Beyond the Outward Bound model, literature on wilderness programs offers a number of program theories and models. For example, Wichmann (1991) identified seven theoretical components that must be present for wilderness program efficacy: "(a) a wilderness environment, (b) a primary peer group, (c) stress and perceived risk, (d) problem solving, (e) a humanistic style of instruction, (f) challenge, mastery, and reflection, (g) some form of reality therapy" (p.45). Wichmann (1991) also suggests that two distinct levels of the programming be present; the first, focuses on the physical environment and increased self esteem, the second, focuses on the reduction of anti-social behaviours, typically an intended outcome of such intervention programs. Russell (2001) contends that wilderness therapy is typically broken down into two intervention formats: (a) wilderness base camping, which establishes a base camp with minimal Wild Epiphany 29 equipment in an isolated environment, and (b) expeditioning, which consists of small groups moving from place to place in a self sufficient manner using different modes such as back packing, rafting, and canoeing. As practitioners of wilderness therapy strive to validate their field as a viable option for addressing the issues of trouble youth, and seek to gain the respect of the wider mental health community, a more explicit theoretical basis for substantiation of wilderness programming has emerged (Russell, 2001). The Theoretical Basis of Wilderness Therapy A diverse range of programs constitute wilderness therapy; however, there are common theoretical foundations. Fisher and Attah (2001) suggest that a core theoretical element of wilderness therapy is the use of natural consequences as a therapeutic tool: "Natural consequences experienced in wilderness living allow staff to step back from traditional positions of authority to which the client is accustomed" (Russell, 2001, p.74). In wilderness therapy, the primary care staff will adhere to therapeutic relationship that is nurturing, caring and empathic, claims Russell (2003). The notion of caring and empathy, as key elements of programming, is contrary to the general perception of wilderness program as being harsh and militaristic. The wilderness therapy process does not force change on the participants, but rather, allows the environment to influence client response through natural consequences (Russell, 2001). The wilderness therapy process. The utilization of outdoor adventure pursuits and wilderness survival skills such as fire building and shelter construction (among many others) are used to enhance personal growth. The initial goals of wilderness therapy, states Russell (2003), are as follows: To address client 'presenting issues' and chemical dependencies by removing clients from the destructive environments that perpetuate their behavior and addictions. The Wild Epiphany 30 cleaning begins with a minimal but healthy diet, intense physical exercise, and the teaching of basic survival and self-care skills. The client is also removed from intense cultural stimuli, such as dress, music, and food. This cleansing process prepares the client for more in-depth work later in the program, (p. 75) Adequate preparation, both physically and psychologically, in the initial phase of wilderness therapy is key to future success. Observing positive role modeling eases this initial preparation phase of wilderness therapy. Integral to wilderness therapy programs is the modeling of proper ways to manage anger, share emotions, and process interpersonal issues within the group. Modeling, in most programs, is done predominantly by program staff members. The rationale behind the modeling of appropriate behaviors is to facilitate growth and learning. The learning that occurs in wilderness therapy leads to distinct benefits for youth engaged in these programs. Benefits and expected outcomes of wilderness therapy. An examination of impacts on self perception, in youth, by Garst, Sheider, and Baker (2001) found that self perception is positively affected by outdoor adventure experiences. Their studies found that the catalyst for self perception change appeared to be novelty and escape. "Results also suggest that qualities of the outdoor adventure experience may interact in a unique way to promote positive changes in participants" (Garst et al., 2001, p.47). Self perception changes are but one of many benefits. Another study, conducted by Clark, et al. (2004), examined the effects of wilderness therapy on the clinical concerns (on axis I, II, and IV) of troubled adolescents. The researchers hypothesized that wilderness therapy would facilitate change: Wild Epiphany 31 While successful short term interventions are almost unheard of in the personality literature, the authors believe that WT [wilderness therapy] may have more potential for effecting character change than most traditional therapies for two reasons: (a) because it is a physically and emotionally demanding experience in which one's safety and personal comfort depend on adaptive functioning within a group led by quasi-parental treatment providers, and (b) because the psyche has evolved to function optimally in small social groups in a wilderness environment. (Clark et al., 2004, p.214) The results of Clark et al.'s (2004) study reveals data that strongly supports their hypothesis. "WT resulted in statistically significant improvement on immature defense and maladaptive behavior scores, and dysfunctional personality patterns..." (p.225). It is this sort of change that Camp Trapping is able to capitalize on with their extended out trips. Some contradictory evidence. Seeking to confirm the work of Clark et al. (2004), Sheard and Golby (2006) examined six different aspects of personality using a similar number of measurement tools. Sheard and Golby (2006) examined mental toughness, using the Psychological Performance Inventory, hardiness, using the Personal Views Survey, dispositional optimism, using the Life Orientation Test, self esteem, using the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale, self efficacy, using the Generalized Self Efficacy Scale, and positive and negative affectivity, using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Unfortunately, the results of their study did not reveal statistically significant changes in the above personality traits. Despite the findings of Sheard and Golby (2006), the majority of literature suggests measurable positive change as an observable outcome of participation in a wilderness programs. Wild Epiphany 32 The proliferation of programs that seek to utilize wilderness as a therapeutic modality within the youth justice sphere attests to the success of the modality. The benefits of wilderness therapy for youth in the justice system. Clark et al.'s (2004) claims of measurable benefits from the utilization of wilderness as a therapeutic modality are seen within the earlier work undertaken by Cross (2002). In his examination of the benefits of adventure education for at risk youth Cross substantiated the claims that such program and activities do indeed facilitate change in the personal characteristics of some youth. Cross (2002) suggests that the outdoor activities engaged in by his study participants had a direct, positive effect on their feelings of alienation and personal control. "The overall conclusion, therefore, was that following an intensive rock climbing experience, participants are considerably more likely to express less feelings of alienation and a stronger sense of personal control than before the experience." (Cross, 2002, p.250) Perhaps the most common utilization of outdoor, wilderness therapy programs, takes place in the field of youth criminal justice. Bruyere (2001) explains that crime prevention through diversion and offender rehabilitation are areas uniquely suited to the use of wilderness based programming. Bruyere (2001) suggests that the needs of young males, particularly those involved in the justice system, for self esteem bolstering, is salient and most achievable through wilderness programs. Adolescence represents a critical period in terms of self esteem. The self esteem acquired during this time generally remains stable throughout ones life....Self esteem, related constructs such as self concept and self efficacy, has been one of the most frequently measured outcomes in outdoor programs. Research has positively affirmed that outdoor programs can create positive changes in self esteem. (Bruyere, 2001, p. 210) Wild Epiphany 33 Integral to the building of self esteem is successful risk taking, physical activity and healthy competition, each of which are found in all credible outdoor wilderness programs. The results of facilitating an increase of traits like self esteem, self efficacy, verbal interaction and emotional expression have the effect of building resiliency in youth (Unger et al., 2005). Resilience Building through Wilderness Therapy Unger et al. (2005) depict resilience as resulting from a group of characteristics and capacities, or resulting from individual processes that act against the impact of biological, psychological and social factors that threaten a youth's health. In regards to the mechanisms within outdoor, wilderness therapies, that promote resilience Unger et al. (2005) state, "As outcomes from these experiences resemble those from interventions that promote resilience, such programs may be a viable intervention with populations experiencing varying amounts of risk" (p. 321). Unger et al. (2005) go on to explain that there are many positive outcomes associated with outdoor programming similar to those under investigation in the field of resilience research. In the examination of a particular program that utilized the wilderness as an adjunct to their therapeutic process in addressing youth addiction, Unger et al. (2005) found eight distinct categories in which the program's objectives were congruent with interventions that enhanced resilience: 1) Demonstrate lifestyle choices that are an alternative to substance use, abuse; 2) Promote responsible thinking towards self and others; 3) Increase self-awareness and confidence; 4) Increased awareness of our connection to the natural world; 5) Teach and practice teamwork; 6) Challenge clients' excuse-making and promote accountability; Wild Epiphany 34 7) Enhance decision-making and problem solving capacity; 8) Create positive, supportive community for clients of Choices (P.329). Unger et al. (2005) claim that new opportunities, like those provided by wilderness based programs, can be an important turning point in a child's life. It is these turning points that suggest the vital importance of such experiences to the praxis of social work with youth. Literature Review Conclusion The preceding review of literature has been presented as an attempted synthesis of the relevant data on the phenomena of peak experience and wilderness therapy. The apparent lack of research on my chosen topic of interest, peak experiences among youth in wilderness settings, suggests this topic is eminently suitable for inquiry. The recollected experiences of the participants in this study echo closely the data presented in this literature review. Should the manner in which the data was collected, compiled and recounted, be found to contain adequate rigor then the stories might add to the contemporary understanding of peak experiences amongst youth in wilderness settings. Wild Epiphany 35 Chapter 3: Methodology and Methods Preamble Despite the declaration by Patton (2002) that the war between the qualitative and quantitative paradigms has ended, remnants of the conflict remain in graduate level qualitative research. That a section such as this has been included within my thesis is a clear indication that the qualitative paradigm still suffers from a tangible obsequiousness towards the established quantitative paradigm. This section has been written as a preamble to both my methods and methodology section. The reason for this preamble is that from my observations of social work thesis defenses, and from my understanding of the literature around the qualitative paradigm, I have noticed that some of the most stumbled over challenges, during defenses, are in regards to methods and methodology. The aim of questioning the qualitative paradigm's rigor is to elicit an answer to how qualitative methodology and methods mesh to produce high quality results that can be trusted. Although the field of qualitative inquiry appears to be constructing a paradigm in which constant justification for choosing it as a method is diminished, that paradigm remains, thus, the following chapters present my justification. Methodology Given that the intent of my research is to examine a specific experience, the methodological approach of interpretive phenomenology seems apropos. The following methodological examination will attempt to present an acceptable rationale for choosing to utilize interpretive phenomenology. This examination will, in order to justify my choice of approach, provide a basic definition of phenomenology, examine the history and key thinkers behind the methodology, and outline the nature of the methodology's evolution. The value of recounting the evolution of phenomenology, claims Moules, (2002) lies in the opportunity such Wild Epiphany 36 an examination allows to establish oneself in the methodology's nuances and subtleties. Delving into phenomenology, to slightly more than a superficial depth, has refined the manner in which I approached the recounted moments provided to me by my study participants. Establishment in phenomenological thinking has allowed me to immerse myself in the recollections of epiphanal moments in the wilderness. Iterating the evolutionary path of phenomenology will be done in order to show how the methodology has moved from a highly esoteric and nebulous conceptual philosophy to its, currently, more accessible manifestation. The slightly more accessible concepts of existential phenomenology, and heuristics, will be presented as being relevant to the interpretive stance being adopted by my inquiry. Without the theoretical base from which to launch my study I would, no doubt, flounder in a nebulous netherworld of baseless assumptions and suppositions. Contemporary Characterizations of Phenomenology Phenomenology is characterized by contemporary authors (MacDonald, 2001; Moran, 2000; Patton, 2002; Schwandt, 2001), as a multi-faceted, complex philosophy that claims, first and foremost, to be a radical way of doing philosophy. Phenomenology as a philosophy, rather than a clearly delineated system of methods, does not easily lend itself to straightforward implementation by graduate level social work students. Regardless, many of the characteristics of phenomenological thought are highly relevant to social work investigation and to the understanding of the experience of epiphany amongst youth in wilderness settings. The highly ephemeral nature of peak experiences demands that, to do justice to the recollections, my conceptualization of the moments have behind them the weight of an established philosophy. Wild Epiphany 37 Conceptualizing Phenomenological Inquiry MacDonald (2001) explains that phenomenology allows us to understand, in depth, appearances and experiences and the influence of these conceptualizations on the human condition. Moran (2000) suggests that phenomenological inquiry attempts to get to the truth of matters, to describe phenomena, in the manner in which it manifest itself in the consciousness of the individual experiencing the phenomena. Along similar lines, Schwandt (2001) explains that legitimate knowledge can only be had through a careful description of ordinary conscious experience of everyday life, a description of things (phenomena) as one experiences them. Creswell, Hanson, Clark, & Morales (2007) state that through phenomenology a description of similarities between experiences of research participants can be presented to readers: Phenomenologists work much more from the participant's specific statements and experiences rather than abstracting from their statements to construct a model from the researcher's interpretations. . . .The basic purpose of phenomenology is to reduce the experiences of a person with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence. (Creswell et al., 2007, p. 253) Finally, and most succinctly, capturing the essence of capturing essence, Patton (2002) describes contemporary phenomenological inquiry as focusing on how humans make sense of experiences and how we transform experience into consciousness. The end goal of this phenomenological study is to encourage the reader to claim that, after contemplating the analysis, they better understand what it is like for someone to have an epiphany in the wilderness. So, in this thesis one of my goals is that you, the reader, understands more clearly, Wild Epiphany 38 what it might feel like to stand atop a sharp peak, look across a verdant valley and see it as a mirror, reflecting back to you your precious nature. Despite the philosophical roots of phenomenology, Schwandt (2001) suggests that the contemporary use of the term phenomenology reflects an existential, subjectivist, and noncritical emphasis not present in the work of early phenomenological theorists. Apparently, the modern day understanding of phenomenology aims to identify and describe the subjective experiences of respondents. (This modern conception of phenomenology is at odds with the original premise behind phenomenology and will be discussed later.) Contrary to contemporary phenomenology, early phenomenology proposed a premise which sought to get beyond the subjective experience to reveal the genuine, objective nature of things. Early Phenomenology Reaching an objective observational state was a fundamental tenet in the phenomenology conceptualized by Husserl (1948/1973) and before him, Hegel (1805/1983). Hegel (1805/1929) claims, "The objective mind is the absolute idea [idea indicating a complex interaction of mental processes]."(p. 125). Reaching an objective state of mind was integral and essential to Hegel's study of phenomena. Husserl (1948/1973), in a similar tone to Hegel, discusses the manner in which phenomenological investigators might aspire towards true, or real, observations: "It is only the act of apprehension in the form of generality which makes possible the detachment from the here and now of the experiential situation, implicit in the concept of the objectivity of thought" (p. 319). Husserl (1948/1973) expands on the concepts of apprehension, detachment, and objectivity of thought, to a dizzying degree. These concepts of apprehension and detachment are crucial to two key elements of Husserl's early phenomenological approach to inquiry, epoche and bracketing. Wild Epiphany 39 Objectivity, epoche and bracketing. Epoche, and bracketing, will be briefly described in order to elucidate the evolution of the phenomenological approach and to clarify the approach of my study. This cursory description of epoche, and bracketing, will suggest how current incarnations of phenomenology, particularly existential phenomenology, and heuristics, suit the methodological inquiry that will be undertaken in the examination of epiphany. This cursory discussion will also show how the current incarnations of phenomenology fit with post-modern conceptions of objectivity. Epoche, and the ensuing technique of bracketing, purposefully emerge from a state of mind (or, perhaps, mindlessness) that allows insight into phenomena that could not be achieved with out a systematic disposal of presuppositions (Patton, 2002). "In the Epoche, the everyday understandings, judgments, and knowings are set aside, and the phenomena are revisited, visually, natively, in a wide open sense, from the vantage point of a pure or transcendental ego." (Moustakas, 1994, p. 33). The possibility of reaching a state of transcendental ego is, no doubt, possible for some well versed in such practices; however, reaching a state of transcendental ego is unlikely in an undisciplined mind such as the one in possession of this aspiring researcher. In regards to bracketing, Denzin (1989) explains that the researcher, following the process of epoche, takes the phenomena of interest out of the context in which the phenomena was observed and holds it up for serious inspection. In so doing the researcher must put aside, or isolate, preconceptions about the phenomena then inspect the emerging meanings of the phenomena in the hopes of revealing the essential, recurring features of the phenomena being studied. A difficult task, and like epoche, well beyond my capabilities. Wild Epiphany 40 The post-modern evolution. Both bracketing and epoche suggest the possibility of objectivity in observation (Smith, 2004). Post-modern critique of the possibility of objectivity has, according to some, rendered the conception of objectivity mute (Laughlin & Throop, 2006; Ryan, 1999). Laughlin and Throop (2006) explain that culture and experience are products of the human nervous system, subject to misinterpretation in the same manner that any information gathering system with multiple filters might acquire information in a skewed fashion. The conclusion that culture and experience are products of the human nervous system demands, claim the authors, that objectivity be viewed as merely an ethereal concept without substantive relevance in our present society. "There is no knowledge without interpretation and there is no such thing as an observation amenable to one and only one interpretation" (Laughlin & Throop, 2006, p. 312). Ryan (1999) asserts that objectivity is obsolete in our postmodern era and that there is no single, necessary final truth to be established about any phenomena. The post-modern assertion of the impossibility of objectivity is congruent with the increasing acceptance of the finding of hard science theories like quantum mechanics. The impossibility of objectivity is solidified. Quantum theory suggests that all observations, be they in the social realm or in the realm of atomic particles, are always influenced by the presence of observation (Norris, 1998). The unavoidable influence of observation and the impossibility of objectivity is the key departure point of Heidegger's (1935/1962) phenomenology from that of Husserl. In regards to the movement away from positivistic ontology Heidegger (1935/1962) states: The very relationship between positively investigative inquiry and those things themselves that are under interrogation comes to a point where it begins to totter. Among Wild Epiphany 41 the various disciplines everywhere today there are freshly awakened tendencies to put research on new foundations, (p. 29) Garrick (1999) reinforces Heidegger's critique of positivism by stating, "methods of positivism have not adequately addressed the problems and issues of lived experience" (p. 148). Garrick (1999) further explains that interpretive researchers' attempts to make sense of lived experience has led the field away from the assumptions of positivistic/ empiricist research. Heidegger's deep understanding of the nature of subjectivity has allowed phenomenology to remain relevant in the postmodern world. Although Heidegger's work remains planted in the core postulation of Husserl's phenomenology, that the philosophy entails a search for the essential nature of human experience, Heidegger (1935/1962) argues: "the meaning of phenomenological description as a method lies in interpretation" (p.37). Ascription to post modernism insists that interpretation and subjectivity are linked. Heidegger's contribution to the philosophy of phenomenology cannot be overstated for from his work the value of embracing subjectivity emerged. Also emerging from Heidegger's work is the existentialist stream of phenomenology promoted by Sartre and Merleau-Ponty. The existential evolution. Sartre (1945/1947) explains that phenomenology and existentialism are closely linked philosophies, both seeking to expose the nature of human existence. Regarding the relationship between the two philosophies, while also speaking on the nature of subjectivity, Sartre (1945/1947) states, "What they have in common is that they think that existence precedes essence, or if you prefer, that subjectivity must be the starting point.. ..it is impossible for man to Wild Epiphany 42 transcend human subjectivity." (p. 15) Extending his explanation of existentialism Sartre (1945/1947) claims: Not only is man what he conceives himself to be, but he is also only what he wills himself to be after this thrust towards existence. Man is nothing else but what he makes himself. Thus existentialism's first move is to make every man aware of what he is and to make the full responsibility of his existence rest on him. (p. 19) In addition to attempting to illuminate the essence of existence, existentialism is concerned with the enigmatic concept of freedom, specifically, the battle between freedom and the self imposed oppression of the human spirit (Sartre, 1965). How an individual understands the concepts of freedom, or epiphany, is based on how they perceive such phenomena. Building on Heidegger's phenomenology, and furthering the idea of subjectivism, is Maurice Merleau-Ponty's existential work on perception. Merleau-Ponty (1962/1964) explains that vital aspects of the examination of essential and integral aspects of experience can only be arrived at through some form of perception; "We never cease living in the world of perception.. ..we find in perception a mode of access to investigate experience, (p. 34). MerleauPonty (1960/1964) suggests that phenomena transform from essence to experience the moment they are conceived in the mind. In addition, the experience takes on social meaning the moment it is transmitted through some form of communication to another individual. Perception, and the psychological filters that are inherent to each individual, must be accounted for in any examination, or communication of phenomena. Heuristics. Communication of experience, and the manner in which we understand the experiences of others is, as conveyed by Merleau-Ponty (1960/1964), and Sartre (1945/1947), deeply rooted Wild Epiphany 43 in subjectivity. Embracing this subjectivity, as key to phenomenological inquiry into truth in experience, exists as a tenet of heuristic inquiry: "Heuristic research is a search for the discovery of meaning and essence in significant human experience. It requires a subjective process of reflecting, exploring, shifting, and elucidating the nature of the phenomenon under investigation" (Douglass & Moustakas, 1985, p.40). Several distinct differences exist between pure phenomenological inquiry and heuristics. Two of the most relevant differences, in regards to my inquiry into epiphany are: first, the manner in which the research participant is portrayed. "Whereas phenomenology loses the persons in the process of descriptive analysis, in heuristics the research participants remain visible in the examination of the data and continue to be portrayed as whole persons.. .heuristics retains the essence of the person in the experience" (Douglass & Moustakas, 1985, p.43); second, the demand of heuristics on the researcher to be exceedingly passionate about the subject of study: Heuristic inquiry focuses on intense human experiences, intense from the point of view of the investigator. . . . It is the combination of personal experience and intensity that yields an understanding of the essence of phenomenon. The uniqueness of heuristic inquiry is the extent to which it legitimizes and places at the fore these personal experiences, reflections, and insights of the researcher. (Patton, 2002, p. 108). As explained by Douglass and Moustakas, (1985) heuristic inquiry allows for the examination of phenomena while always maintaining the notion that without the individual being, or as Heidegger (1935/1962) calls it, Dasein, the experience lacks a reference point. Wild Epiphany 44 The Application of the Approaches This presentation of a methodological approach has briefly touched on various proponents, and key points, of phenomenology, existentialism and heuristics but has not clearly defined how the different aspects of these theories will be incorporated into my study of epiphanal moments among youth in wilderness settings. From the work of Husserl I have been able to conceptualize that epiphany, or peak experience, is in fact, a phenomena that can be studied and that investigation into such phenomena has value. From Heidegger I have been provided the opportunity to conceptualize epiphanal experience as an integral aspect of living in the world and that such experiences are, in fact, an essential aspect of what constitutes Being. From Sartre's existential postulations I have recognized that the youth who have experienced moments of epiphany, in wilderness setting, have likely incorporated these experiences into the core definitions of their personalities and, from this incorporation, have found a unique sense of meaning in their lives. The work of Merleau-Ponty has afforded me the understanding that the perception of the epiphanal moment is influenced by a myriad of psychological filters. These filters create a uniqueness to experience that must be acknowledged when the recounting of epiphanal moments occurs. Heidegger, Sartre, and Merleau-Ponty, have all encouraged me, through their philosophies, to recognize that subjectivity must be embraced in my study of the essence of epiphany. This embrace of subjectivity is highly agreeable to my study as I am suggesting that context is integral to the understanding and interpretation of epiphany in wilderness settings. Further, from Moustakas, I have recognized that when engaged in the process of studying epiphany I must include my own passion for wilderness and my own frame of reference of epiphany in such settings. Wild Epiphany 45 The synthesis of the philosophies of the above thinkers into a coherent methodological framework has been one of the major challenges facing me in this thesis process. The elusive nature of epiphany demands concerted effort to reveal the value of such experiences for youth and, in turn, the wider society. My aim in attempting to grasp the concepts of phenomenology, existentialism, and heuristics is to adequately and accurately reveal the stories of wild epiphany that were so graciously shared with me. Research Methods and Design If the methodology stated above informs my philosophical conceptualizations of peak experience amongst youth in wilderness settings then this section exists as a description of the practical steps I took to gather, and present, the data on the experiences of the participants. Within this section I will discuss those involved in the study, the sampling procedures I employed, and the data gathering processes I undertook. Participants Two distinct groups of individuals were sampled for this study and all of the participants have been ascribed pseudonyms. The first group of 7 individuals interviewed are, or have been at one time, counsellors with Caribou Action Training Society. All have led youth on extended wilderness excursions. The group consisted of six men and one woman, which closely approximates the staff ratio found in the typical Camp Trapping staff environment. The individuals range in age from 30 to 60. The second group of five individuals interviewed have all graduated from the Camp Trapping program. The age range of these individuals is 23 to 40, all are men and all attended Camp while they were between the ages of 14 and 17. As a result of an unfortunate interaction Wild Epiphany 46 with the justice system, one participant requested the removal of most of his interview from the study. Both groups were recruited through the use of purposive sampling (purposive sampling will be discussed in more detail in the following section). Several participants, from each group, responded to posters and flyers distributed throughout the city of Prince George. From the initial connection with several respondents, further respondents were provided with my contact information. Within the Ethics Review Board application I stated that I would place newspaper advertisements in order to recruit participants; however, the success of the flyers and posters, and subsequent snowball effect, precluded the need for the newspaper ads. Sampling The sampling method employed in my thesis was purposive in nature. According to Patton (2002), "purposive sampling is one of the core distinguishing elements of qualitative inquiry" (p.272). The sampling procedure I used has allowed those with first hand knowledge to speak on the topic of epiphany amongst youth. Suzuki, et al. (2007) explain: "qualitative researchers invest in attracting participants who possess the most relevant characteristics to the study" (p.297). The use of purposive sampling has allowed me to focus my attention, in depth, on presenting the recollections of the peak phenomena from the point of view of experts. Knowledgeable participants. In my sampling I sought out those I considered likely to be cognizant of the epiphany or peak experience phenomena. Suzuki et al. (2007) state, "...qualitative samples are often purposive rather than random. That is, the selected sample is the one from which the most can be learned" (p. 299). I observed the occurrence of the phenomena of epiphany in the wilderness in numerous instances and I was confident that the phenomena emerged relatively frequently and Wild Epiphany 47 thus, I was confident that most of the selected respondents would have first hand knowledge of the phenomena. As it turned out, all respondents were able to recollect first hand experience with the topic. Approaching the sampling in this manner would be considered bias in statistical sampling (Patton, 2002); however, ensuring the selected respondents had intimate knowledge of the peak experience, even if they did not have the language to define the occurrence as such, exists as one of the major strengths of this thesis. The ease of which the respondents spoke of their experiences suggested that the phenomena may be wide spread. My personal bias, of course enters into this process as, clearly, the manner in which I was able to inquire about the participants' experiences, using my personal experiences with the phenomenon determined, to some degree, the content of the responses. The Interview I utilized a semi-structured interview for this thesis and all of the interviews contain similar elements. This being stated, no two interviews were carried out in the same sequence nor were all the questions asked to all the participants. Each interview was recorded digitally. Unlike a conversation, the interview was not a reciprocal interaction between equal partners. During the interview I guided the topics of conversation and directed the interviewee towards the successive subjects, for example, as John spoke at length on his experience away from wilderness settings I asked him to recall aspects of his experience that, seemed to me at the time, more closely reflected the intentions of my inquiry. According to Suzuki et al. (2007), interviewing is, perhaps, the most important qualitative data collection strategy and is indispensable in the gathering of information for phenomenological studies. "The interview produces data that emphasizes the interviewee's lived Wild Epiphany 48 experiences from their points of view and that help glean an understanding of the meaning behind their experiences" (p.308). In order to facilitate an ease of information sharing and to allow the process to be as comfortable for the interviewees as possible, the locations for the interviews were decided on by the participants. Interview locations. The interview locations ranged from interviewee's homes, to empty college classrooms, to participants' work places. Each of the interviews lasted at least an hour, several being longer. The interviews with the counsellor group were conducted first, save for one interview, then the Camp Trapping graduates were interviewed. In an attempt to hone my questions and improve my interviewing style I transcribed the interviews as I went along. Conducting the study in this manner allowed me to see the study evolve; the process became fluid as the comments of the participants served to guide questions asked to subsequent interviewees. Transcription Whereas I found the interviews invigorating, certainly, the most physically draining aspect of this thesis process has been that of transcription. That being stated, the transcription of the interviews may have been one of the most valuable aspects of the thesis process. Doing my own transcription revealed subtleties of the participant's experience that I would have missed had the transcription been carried out by someone other than myself. For example, when David states, "I'm, uh, sitting there like I 'm sitting, you know, like I am a Voyageur like Woooo just screaming and every body was screaming with excitement. That was my favorite canoe trip." The intensity of David's yell of Woooo, used to depict his recollection of excitement, does not carry the weight of intensity on paper that it has when it is heard in person or on a recording. Had I not transcribed my interviews the value and power behind David's yell may have been lost, Wild Epiphany 49 slipping past me in the text. Rather, knowing that David's Woooo contained a startling degree of intensity I was able to give his textual recollection the added scrutiny the power of the exclamation demanded. Nuances in transcription. Recognizing early that, as Suzuki et al. (2007) explain, to a degree, it is unavoidable that some nuance is lost during transcription I chose to transcribe the interviews verbatim, attempting to maintain pauses, intonation, and linguistic stumbles such as "uh...uh..uhm" for example. I felt that transcribing verbatim would allow me to stay as true to the respondent's speech as possible. Verbatim transcription may have reduced the likelihood of misinterpretation when it later came time to analyze the responses transformed to text. Despite my attempts to maintain accuracy I believe it is unavoidable that some information may have been lost through the transcription process. For example, the thoughtful pauses, which are so valuable in counselling, have been difficult to represent in written form. The form in which the quotes appear, in this thesis, is not verbatim; data has been omitted. The intentional elimination of data was undertaken for the sake of readability. After multiple readings of the direct quotes it became clear to me that some of the linguistic tendencies, such as: uhm, uh, you know, and so on, were, in some quotes, so pronounced that they proved detrimental to readability. Changes to the original quotes may be, by some, considered cosmetic in nature. I have worked to maintain the essential structure of the response but cleaned up the quotes for the sake of a more smoothly flowing document. An example of change in quotes to ease readability is as follows: Original quote: Uh, uhm, uh away from civilization uh - a good distance away. -1 wouldn't you know, I wouldn't be able to see civilization if I tried, uh, - probably, uh I wouldn't Wild Epiphany 50 be able to recognize the direction of a major city you know, by light pollution and I wouldn't be able to see roads or highways. (Gabriel) Revised quote: Away from civilization, a good distance away. I wouldn't be able to see civilization if I tried. I wouldn't be able to recognize the direction of a major city by light pollution and I wouldn't be able to see roads or highways. (Gabriel) Despite my data cleaning, I believe the linguistic anomalies within the original quotes hold value and, given the time, the examination of the anomalies would likely reveal nuances otherwise lost. Unfortunately, such analysis is beyond the capabilities of this researcher. With the removal of uhms and pauses, the opinions of the participants are, to some degree, distorted. I have attempted to balance readability with authentic representation of opinion. Triangulation In an attempt to bolster rigor I have followed a number of Rubin's (2000) suggested strategies to manage threats to trustworthiness. The manner in which I have integrated triangulation within this thesis is an example of my attempt at creating a trustworthy piece of research. Rubin (2000) states that triangulation involves "attempts to corroborate observations via multiple observational strategies, multiple sources of observation..." (p. 175). Multiple observational strategies is an aspect of the design of this study. The recounted peak experiences spoken of by the graduates of Camp Trapping are compared with the observations of the counsellors who observed young men at camp experiencing what could be considered peak experiences. Although the recollections of the counsellors are not of the experiences recounted by the graduates I feel the recollections do speak to a phenomenon with multiple shared characteristics. Wild Epiphany 51 Member Checking Individual respondents involved in this study had a copy of the mid level analysis returned to them with a request to examine the statements. The goal of inquiring into whether or not the respondents agreed with my interpretations of their information met with a poor rate of return; only five of the eleven participants responded to the returned data. I suspect the manner in which I returned the data, as raw quotes arranged to form an outline, could be considered exceedingly tedious to examine. Had the data been returned to the participants in a highly readable format the response rate may have been higher and to more depth. Those that did respond suggested the analysis was satisfactory but, given the manner in which the data was returned to the participants the only disagreement that could arise would be around my subjective arrangement of the raw quotes. From my request for response to the data the word "rapture" was suggested to me as a word that might encapsulate the participant's reaction to his moment in the wilderness. Checking with peers revealed that in addition to rapture, other words could encapsulate the phenomenon. Peer Debriefing Many aspects of the support provided by my supervisor, Dr. Si Transken, have been immanently helpful, not the least of which being her establishment of the First Friday Research Group. From participation with this group of graduate students I was able to discuss my findings and seek peer debriefing. It has been through this debriefing process that my biases and assumptions found the light of day and thus my biases became a manageable commodity that could be utilized and directed. With gratitude I would like to further again thank Dr. Transken who undertook a complete analysis of my transcripts. A myriad of observations emerged from Si's exhaustive analysis. Wild Epiphany 52 Reflexivity Although I would hope that the concepts of reflexivity are evident throughout this entire thesis, a nod to a contemporary definition of reflexivity may assist in: 1) revealing my position in regards to this concept, and 2) directing the gaze of those concerned with methodological rigor to my overtly announced subjectivity. Macbeth (2001) suggests there are two generally accepted forms of reflexivity, positional and textual; both of these forms exist within this thesis. This brief section on reflexivity should assist the reader in recognizing the manner in which reflexivity is integral to this thesis and how the idea of reflexivity is woven throughout the text. Yeh & Inman (2007) explain that, as unchecked subjectivity can be a major threat to trustworthiness of results, it is incumbent upon qualitative researchers to address this threat through reflexivity exercises such as explaining biases and positing personal points of view. The initial reflexive exercise of this thesis can be found in the personal statement near the beginning of this document. Yet another reflexive undertaking can be found in the discussion on circularity. Within the research findings section reflexivity should be also be evident; it is through my active understanding of the peak phenomenon that the experiences of the study participants have been arranged. Textual reflexivity. The entire process of data collection and information transmission between myself and the participants and myself and you, the reader, has been an exercise of reflexive interpretation. From the participant's experience of an epiphany to their recollecting the moment with me is interpretation. My listening to the recorded recollections and entry, through a key board, into a computer, again constitutes many steps of interpretation. I arrange the words for you to read Wild Epiphany 53 hoping that you might add to the moment your own interpretation. The trail of interpretation is long and convoluted. I appreciate Gadamer's simplification (1976) of the process; he explains that understanding is a constructive process in which meaning is created through the understanding that is formed between the researcher and the respondent. Understanding is, in many cases, linked to language. Within the exchange of symbols we call language there exists the need for interpretation. From my understanding of both concepts, textual reflexivity appears to be highly reminiscent of hermeneutic phenomenology. In essence, how do we ascribe, and share, the meanings of words representing concepts. An example of paying heed to textual reflexivity emerges, for example, in my analysis of Mark, and Luke's, commentaries around comfort and comfort levels in the wilderness. Finding a satisfactory, contextually appropriate, meaning for the idea of comfort is but one of many conceptual conundrums I came across during my analysis. Of course, Mark and Luke cannot mean exactly the same thing when they speak of comfort, and yet the same word is used. Just as my personal definition of comfort emerges from all my life experiences so too do Mark and Luke's definitions reflect the uniqueness of their personal experiences. It is through reflexivity that I am able to examine my own understanding of comfort and thus bring forward an awareness that my personal experiences colour how I interpret their use of the word comfort. For example: my passion for the wilderness and my desire to spend the majority of my time outside denotes a particular comfort level. I feel at ease when I am in the bush, away from our society. A casual and effortless demeanor emerges as part of my character; I find myself free of concerns. Only the immediacies of fire, water and food need be bothered with. Moments outdoors are precious to me and there is no way that my interpretations of another's idea of comfort in the wilderness is not coloured by my own affinities. My limited Wild Epiphany 54 interactions with Mark and Luke preclude an awareness of their definitions of comfort. I am left to interpret through assumption. From my understanding of the myriad layers of interpretation in data collection, and transmission, I assume that my study cannot but be biased. Delineating bias, Macbeth (2001) states that, "reflexivity is a deconstructive exercise for locating the intersections of author, other, text, and world, and for penetrating the representational exercise itself." (p.35) Paying heed to my biases through reflexivity has, I hope, allowed me to present a modicum of rigor, or trustworthiness, in the results of this thesis. Should an individual wish to follow my findings and delineate for themselves my biases I have left a clearly marked trail. Audit Trail An audit trail has been left should you wish to corroborate my analysis with the raw data. Available are the digitally recorded interviews, the raw transcriptions, two hand written levels of analysis (made in the margins of the raw transcriptions), the categorization of the data as another, and 3 rd and 4th iterations of hand written analysis. Personal notes, written by me as I established myself in the phenomenological methodology, can be made available as can notes I have made around assumptions, suppositions and philosophical musings regarding this thesis. My rationale behind ensuring this audit trail is two fold: 1) I hope to continue investigation into this phenomenon; and, 2) should another researcher wish to attempt to reproduce or challenge my findings, or continue in a similar vein of inquiry, the data can be made available. Circularity The concept of circularity struck me well before I realized the concept had a name. Yeh & Inman (2007) describe circularity as referring to: "...the complexity, depth and comprehensiveness of qualitative research as it emerges from its connectedness across Wild Epiphany 55 researcher, method, analysis, and developing theory" (p.384). The relating of peak experience, by the participants in my thesis, has revealed to me both its highly personal connotations and its universal implications. The nature of participants' experiences of peaks appears to me to be perfectly suited to the methodology of phenomenology and its purported valuing of unique experience. Phenomenology focuses on, and values, the experience of the individual and this closely mirrors the basis of social work where the individual client is situated as the practitioner's primary concern. Within social work a key concept is relationship building and, given my own experiences with the peak experience phenomena, I have found a powerful connection to all my participants as a result of our sharing stories of epiphany. Within the findings, several participants have suggested that the peak phenomenon may have, to some degree facilitated connection between themselves and those around during the moment (James; Paul; Simon). Connection also appears to have been formed between the participant and the wilderness. This level of connection rests at the heart of environmentalism. The links between the concepts found in this thesis appear to be myriad. Recognizing the circular nature of this endeavor has been informative, and formative, in my development as a researcher, a social worker, and an environmentalist. The circularity of this thesis journey has been exactly as Yeh and Inman (2007) describe, fluid, flexible and unending. Long after the completion of this document the circularity of the concepts contained herein will resonate through my life. Grasping the convergence of concepts does not, unfortunately, remove flaws within the design of this thesis. Wild Epiphany 56 Study Limitations Rubin (2000) delineates a number a flaws endemic to qualitative research. The flaws, states Rubin (2000), originate from the misconception that: "authors think that calling their studies qualitative justifies an anything goes mentality" (p. 175). Despite my concerted effort to create a solidly designed study some flaws have emerged and I suspect that design shortcomings may be evident to anyone serious in making a critical examination of this thesis. Rather than pretending that shortcomings do not exist in this thesis, or feigning ignorance to their importance, I have chosen to delineate some of the more obvious shortcomings. The following list is not intended to explicate the limitations inherent to qualitative designs versus quantitative methods, but rather, illuminate those limitations that might diminish the rigor of this study. The design limitations of this study are as follows but not limited to: 1) I did not pursue the study to the depth necessary to find negative case representation; 2) respondent bias may have been an issue as perhaps several of the respondents may have been wanting to tell me what they thought I wanted to hear; 3) no formal follow up interviews were conducted; 4) fewer than half of the participants responded to the request for data clarification. Other limitations certainly exist, some of the more poignant are put forward by study participants and can be found following the findings chapter of this thesis. Another substantial limitation to this study emerged as a result of lack of literature within the social work canon around therapeutic utilization of nature within the profession. Wild Epiphany 57 Chapter 4: Social Work and the Environment Addressing human induced climate change is, increasingly, being recognized as the preeminent challenge facing humanity today. In order to be a part of the solution to climate change, rather than passive observers in the process, social workers are being urged to consider environmental issues in their practice (Berger & Kelly, 1993; Coates, 2005; 2003; Marlow & Van Rooyen, 2001; Unger, 2002). Principles in place within the environmental movement should resonate with social workers as similarities between the two fields exist: Both ecology and sustainability are based on the systems perspective, not an unfamiliar concept in social work, which has directed social workers in their understanding of the interface between clients and the systems within which they function. A variation of the systems approach, the ecological model, stresses that the 'person and environment are engaged in constant circular exchanges in which each is reciprocally shaping and influencing the other over time' (Germain & Gitterman, 1980 in Marlow & Van Rooyen, 2001, p. 242). Unfortunately, despite the urging of theorists to consider environmental concerns within the field, highly pertinent issues regarding the environment appear patently absent from ground level social work (Unger, 2002). This absence would seem antithetical to the demands imposed on social workers by their Code of Ethics (1984). An Ethical Imperative Within the "British Columbia Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics"(1984) a number of ethical demands are made that should impel social workers to adopt a framework that seriously considers human dependency on ecological systems. Within the preamble of the code of ethics (1984) it states that social workers are committed to the goal of effecting social changes Wild Epiphany 58 in society in ways in which individuals and society can benefit. Certainly the current acquiescence of social work to corporate agendas is contrary to this demand. From an ecologically attuned point of view, much of social work is failing to meet the ethical demands of the code of ethics. Social Work's Acquiescence More damning than the inability of the social work profession to meet its ethical demands is the field's seeming acquiescence to the social engines perpetuating climate change. According to Coates (2005), mainstream social work has failed to question the beliefs and processes that constitute the foundation of unrelenting economic expansion and the exploitation of natural resources. As a result, "the environmental crisis has remained largely outside of social work discourse and the profession has become co-dependent with modern society on the road to ecological disaster" (p.36). Social work, as a professional body, needs to unlock the shackles of dependency on industry, as Coates (2005) suggests, and prepare itself for the injustices that will inevitably arrive with climate change. If the impacts of ecological disaster are to be mitigated for the most disadvantaged populations in our society then social work must begin incorporating environmentally sensitive practices into its paradigm of service provision. Unfortunately, social work's attention appears to be else where: The profession has focused attention on the social environment and, in general, implicitly aligned itself with those who consider nature an unlimited resource to be exploited for human benefit. Mainstream social work, even radical and structural social work, has failed to challenge the connection between the exploitation of nature and the inherent exploitation of people which this entails. (Coates, 2005, p. 3 7) Wild Epiphany 59 The alignment, spoken of by Coates (2005), can be observed in the bound and gagged relationship many social workers find themselves in upon acceptance of employment within particular government ministries. Little concern, on the part of the large social work institutions, appears to be displayed for the role of nature in the lives of clients. Change is needed. The possibilities, in regards to the utilization of nature by social workers, for the benefit of clients, are myriad and clearly depicted in the work underway at Camp Trapping. Marlow & Van Rooyen (2001) suggest that, had they the impetus, then social workers could draw on the concept of reciprocal exchange, between humans and their physical habitat, to develop appropriate interventions. The development of interventions that foster a connection to nature hold a certain therapeutic validity that appears lost to much of social work. Unger et al. (2005) delineate what the profession of social work is missing by not incorporating nature into practice: Contact with nature, and acts of caring for nature, can therefore inform efforts as social workers address the adversity children face. . . . Immersion in nature can make us aware of not only our relationship with our natural environment but also our relationship with each other. (Unger et al., 2005, p.321) Substantial change in social work is an imperative if social work is to remain relevant into the coming years. It appears it is time for social work to shrug off its punitive perspective and reactionary paradigm and once again become a profession that challenges the established order and proactively pursues well-being. Outlining Possibilities for Social Work Challenging the status quo is a tenet of structural social work, claims Mullaly (2002), and is also the guiding principle of eco-social work (Coates, 2005). The inability Wild Epiphany 60 of traditional social work to effectively challenge the relationship between economic growth and the exploitation of people and the environment has clearly posited a need for a new social work paradigm. Coates (2003) suggests that the outcomes of ascription to a new social work paradigm might lead social work in a new direction with new outcomes for practice: • To shift our regard for nature to front and centre rather than leaving it in the background; • To shift our sense of identity and well-being to the whole Earth community, displacing individualism; • To shift concern for community to the forefront of the human search for meaning; • To see our personal development and growth as a contribution to the universe's unfolding; • To shift economic priorities from profit and progress to sustainability; • To consider our actions in the context of future generations, (p.81) Marlow and Van Rooyen (2001), also stress the necessity for a new ethic in social work and an expansion of social work values to include a global ecological perspective: Hall (1996) stressed the need for social workers to move away from 'remedial action' and become more involved in sustainable development and emphasized the role of sustainability not only as central to social work but for the development of world peace and global stability, (p.242) Marlow and Van Rooyen (2001) continue, explaining that these types of proposals suggest it is Wild Epiphany 61 time to seriously, and extensively, consider the connection between social work and the broader environmental movement: The concepts of ecology and sustainability have now come to social work. Environmental issues are the central essence of social work, facilitating a relationship that is of maximum mutual and beneficial benefit for our clients and the environment within which they exist, (p. 243) Certainly, much work exists to create a social work system in British Columbia in which the acknowledgement of the ethical demands on social workers includes a dimension of environmental concern. This is a task of the most urgent kind and time appears to be short. Working in a new paradigm. The fundamental thrust of my professional life lies in incorporating the benefits of wilderness into social work. In my opinion, Camp Trapping has figured out a highly effective formula for facilitating wilderness experiences; the results of their work substantiate this opinion. Camp Trapping has one of the lowest recidivism rates in the Canadian youth justice system. (D. Goll, personal communication, July, 2006) The experiences of those who have attended Camp and those who have worked at Camp spell out the benefits of integrating nature into practice; their stories reveal more clearly, than can any theorist, the benefits associated with utilization of nature as a therapeutic modality. Wild Epiphany 62 Chapter 5: Research Findings I can see it now, it is totally clear to me, the sun poking out of the clouds and there is a mist rising off the lake and you know how sometimes you can see the rays of sunshine coming down from the sky? Well that was going on and we were totally silent and just gliding along and I thought that I was in a different world. . . . I will never forget it. (John) The peak experiences, or epiphanies, recounted by the participants of this study were, undoubtedly, as uniquely experienced as they were retold. Each of the respondents, as a result of the manner of my inquiry, embedded their moments of epiphany within their recollections of wilderness experiences. All but one of the respondents reported having no exposure to the concept of peak experience before their interviews yet, despite this, all of the participants easily recalled moments of epiphany that might qualify as peak experiences. The experiences I collected describe some of the most powerful moments in the respondent's lives. You will read of moments where, for one respondent, all of his worldly concerns "fall away" from him (David) and, for another, the power of nature overwhelms him to the point of euphoria (James). The Camp graduates' moments of epiphany, and the implications of these moments, will be complimented, throughout the text, with the observations of Camp Trapping counsellors. These counsellors provide a different perspective on the experiences and expound on the therapeutic implications of utilizing wilderness as an unconventional counselling setting. Throughout the analysis the concepts of vulnerability, connection, anger dissipation, and euphoria should be apparent. To distinguish Graduates from Counsellors please refer to Appendix E. Wild Epiphany 63 The Wild Epiphany The moment of epiphany appears so closely linked to the setting that during the recollection of the moments, all of the respondents included descriptions of the natural setting in which the moment occurred; wilderness appears integral to the experience. To reiterate, from the literature, peak experiences are moments of highest happiness or fulfillment and often difficult to describe adequately in words (Maslow, 1962). Like Woooo. David, when asked to recall one of his most memorable experiences in the wilderness, presented to me his memory of a trip on a remote lake in Northern British Columbia: When I was in there [Camp Trapping] as a kid we sailed canoes on Chuchi lakes. While we sailed the canoes a big storm picked up and a kid flew out of a canoe and the lead staff was pretty scared. The staff team was a bit split up and anyways once we got the canoes in I realized we were bogged down in my canoe with Jerry and Rick and me then and I was steering and he put his paddle in at the wrong angle and it was just pissing down rain and there were like three foot waves and Bill is just shitting himself. I'm sitting there like, I'm sitting like I am a Voyageur, like Woooo, just screaming, and every body was screaming with excitement. That was my favorite canoe trip. During his recollection David was filled with an obvious passion and energy, smiling exuberantly and gesticulating with grand motions. Everyone starts shining. I inquired of David how this instance was more than just ordinary excitement and asked him to clarify his thoughts and feelings during the moment he was screaming "woooo". David's response floored me for he filled his answer with metaphor and allusion and in it rests a Wild Epiphany 64 spectacular intensity. Whether in canoes or hiking in mountains, David posits this about such moments: It is almost like butterflies in your stomach or a tingly sensation, it's like a high, like an emotional high because everyone starts shining all of a sudden. The thing is that you see it when you have that powerful experience you know because you have a feeling of, it's euphoria, there is no other way of describing it. Everything that was bad or was bothering you ceases to exist. It is not there any more you are just living in the moment. Of course that stuff will come back to you but you have that moment and it is in that moment that you see yourself for what you really are because you have to look at yourself. You feel this energy and you look inwards. David's talk of looking inwards and feeling an energy is compelling in its tone and quality. He speaks of a tingly sensation, of people shining, of euphoria, and speaks about living in the moment. The lively character of the moment is clear in David's language and the power of his recollection suggests a moment out of the ordinary. Returning, briefly, to the literature, Davis, Lockwood and Wright (1991) describe peak experiences as: The best, happiest, most wonderful moments of one's life. A peak experience has some (but usually not all) of the following characteristics: an almost overwhelming sense of pleasure, euphoria, or joy, a deep sense of peacefulness or tranquility, feeling in tune, in harmony, or at one with the universe, a sense of wonder or awe, altered perceptions of time and/or space, such as expansion, a feeling of deeper knowing or profound understanding, a deep feeling of love (for yourself, another, or all people), (p. 88) A number of the characteristics of peak experience are found within David's recollection. Wild Epiphany 65 My body language shows the power of it. Further along in our talk I wondered if, perhaps, I was reading too much into David's recollection. Did he really feel as strongly about that moment as it appeared to me or was I in some way projecting my own enthusiasm onto David? Addressing this with David, he returned with: Well, right now you can see that my tone of voice is different and my energy level is up and my body language shows the power of it. That is the kind of power these moments still have on me. As David claimed, I could tell he was energized; his posture made me think he was about to leap out of his chair. Considering that the experience David is speaking of occurred over 20 years ago, clearly the moment has impacted him. The long lasting power of David's experience appears to share similarities with Davis et al.'s (1991), description of the longevity of peak experiences. Their research suggests that a predominant character of the peak experience phenomenon is a long lasting positive impact on those individuals fortunate to have direct knowledge of such moments. A real natural high. David's description of an experience imbued with power, a power both in the short and long term, is comparable to the descriptions put forward by James in regards to his time in the wilderness. For James, the intensity of being engrossed in such a moment can only be compared to the unnatural high of drug use. Speaking to me about a trip, with Camp, into the mountains, James characterizes a phenomenon that is both moving and, apparently, highly pleasurable: Wild Epiphany 66 Natural highs like that last for hours and hours and I think that is why they are so vivid because they were natural highs like you'll never ever feel this way off any drug or anything out there. There is nothing out there that could make you feel like that. My first mountain that I climbed I don't know, I felt like I could run a marathon after climbing that there was that much adrenaline going through you. The elation, or natural high, James speaks of appears packed with vigor and is described as possessing an incomparable energy. Kind of mind altering. In the next quote, James struggles to find a word that encompasses the mind-frame he found himself in, after some contemplation, he arrives, as did David earlier in the text, at euphoria as a suitable descriptor of his experience: As a 16 year old climbing mountains and going into another state [Washington] it was it was just a - kind of like euphoria - going up there it must have easily been a 6 hour hike up and down, it was and it was steep terrain it was really rocky it was what you would expect out of a mountain climb and you would just you would just have to jump from rock to rock and that in itself was scary but it was still a huge thrill and just to be standing at the top of a mountain that you never thought you would be able to summit and getting your picture taken and just hanging out up there and being able to look around and see your base camp way, way, down there, well gee those are our tents, but they sure look small. Those kinds of things are just, just, kind of mind altering and everything like that. Uh, for me just being able to get up there and everyone was just whooping 'er up and hollering and having a great time, no drugs, no alcohol, nothing like that, just a real Wild Epiphany 67 natural high. And everyone just having that same accomplishment we were just I can't believe we just did that. James appears to have felt surprised by the intensity of the moment, by the occurrence of euphoria. Similar to David's reaction during his interview, I could sense, at this point in James' interview that he was reliving something very powerful. James' demeanor turned, at this point, from casual to earnest. Open to it. James' recollection of his experience being mind altering and difficult to describe echoes the description of such moments by Mathes, et al. (1982), who suggest that typical peak experiences are: ". . . experiences in which the individual transcends ordinary reality. . ." (p.93), and Wrights' (1991) claim that along with peak experiences there is: ". . .a sense that it would be difficult or impossible to describe adequately in words." (p.88) During the recollection of his mind altering experience, James seems compelled to make assurances that the experience had nothing to do with drugs or alcohol, that it was "a real natural high" (James). As I conducted the interview with James I noticed that the recollection of the moment was drawing out a distinct intensity of emotion. They were that powerful. Just as I had been taken aback by David's tale of euphoria I was moved by James and his stories of mountains and spectacular vistas. I probed further into James' experience to elicit his feelings during the interview and challenged James to assure me that the moment of euphoria was really as powerful as he claimed. James responded with the following rebuke of my disbelief: Wild Epiphany 68 I would never ever trade those experiences 1 had. Not for anything, not on anyone's life. They were that powerful for me. Like, I don't know, even just thinking about them right now they make me emotional. . . . I still remember it just like it happened yesterday. The memory sticks with me. At that moment of the interview James' emotions were exposed, resting at the surface, and tears sat, welling, in the corners of his eyes. James' recollection of such a powerful experience, impacted, at that moment, both of us, and the tangible nature of the phenomenon asserted itself. A Tangible Moment The idea that these experiences can be felt and shared, or perhaps, conveyed, without words, has emerged as a fascinating aspect of this study of the wilderness epiphany phenomenon. The notion that the power of the moment may be tangible to others does not seem to exist in the literature examined by me in the preparation of this thesis. Nonetheless sharing the moment seems to be a part of the experience. Isaac, in the next recollection, successfully conveys the idea of tangibility and transmission of the experience. Using the allusion of a yawn, Isaac, illuminates an essential quality of the moment. A perma-grin. Using a number of descriptors to describe to me his observations during an extended wilderness trip, Isaac relates to me his recollection of youth experiencing powerful moments. Isaac suggests that these types of experiences are clearly displayed on the faces, and in the voices, of the youth he had led into the wilderness: They have got this high-pitched voice and they have kind of got this glow and they have got perma-grin, you know? And there is a sparkle in their eyes and it is just you can feel an energy. It is, you know how when somebody yawns and it is really infectious, well Wild Epiphany 69 this energy is just like that. The kids are just like WHOA and the feeling, it just rolls right through you. You are sitting there sharing this moment with them and they feel on top of the world and you know they feel like a million bucks and they are believing in them selves and they feel like they have conquered something they have faced it. And not only that, they did it themselves. They feel.... they are on top of the mountain they are on top of the world, right, and that is what it is. The feeling Isaac speaks about is recollected as one that he and the group shared. Isaac claims to have felt the moment and got the sense that the others felt it, too. Sharing it. Paul's following recollection of the phenomena further echoes those of James and Isaac, and perhaps, further indicates that such moments can shed their ethereal nature and become tangible. While telling me about a night of watching meteors, Paul used his hands and arms in such a way that he conveyed to me a notion of expansion. His hands were positioned as if cupping a bowl, moving outwards and up. At the word powerful he flipped his hands and lay them flat on the table. [After a long hike and a decision to spend a minimalist night out] We watched the Persiad meteor shower and, uh, I remember, you know, as the shower got more intense and it got darker and we could see more that the reaction of the kids, it was unbelievable.... That was really kind of a holistic kind of a moment where the youth clearly felt better about who they were as people and you could just feel it. And they came back down, they hiked down and they were working together, they were working together better, uhm, they had, they had, it was just a whole movement in regards to where those kids were at in regards Wild Epiphany 70 to before and after the experience, I mean it was powerful in the sense t h a t . . . . it was awesome. For Paul the moment was one that he could feel and was clearly visible in the countenance of the young men. Paul characterizes the moment as powerful and suggests that he could feel the impact of the moment. Sharing a moment that entails such strong emotions, while in the wilderness has, in my experience, the effect of creating bonds between people. From the construction of such bonds barriers between the counsellors and the youth are rendered askance. The breaking down of barriers emerged as an experience of several of the participants of this study. From the far side of a broken barrier, vulnerability may emerge. A Moment of Vulnerability The power vested in the moments, posited above by David, James, Isaac and Paul, appears to facilitate an opportunity to experience vulnerability. The therapeutic opportunity inherent in moments of epiphany are revealed by Peter's following recollection. Peter recalls his interaction with a youth who found himself overwhelmed by a powerful experience during a wilderness canoe trip. I went with him to Nazko lakes, I will never forget the moment.. .he was in my canoe and he caught a fish. He pulled that fish out and he was so excited. I told him to sit down, sit down. He was trying to stand up saying "I got one, I got one." He wanted to stand up. I said sit down. In the night we were all sitting around the camp fire, it was a session night [group counselling] so we were all there and he had tears in his eyes, he didn't quite cry but he was close, he was gulping and recounted the fishing again. He swallowed back hard and was clearly emotional in front of his peers, and that was a bully, you know, like five minutes later he was back to the old guy again and giving everybody a hard time but Wild Epiphany 71 there was a moment in there where, I think not too often in his life he was open and went to the place where his emotions emerged and tears were in his eyes. He outed himself that he was in pain. (Peter) The intensity of emotion observed by Peter is striking. The young man's emotion was clearly to the degree that he felt in some sense, liberated by the experience; the young man stepped out of his socially constructed role, as a bully, and allowed himself to be vulnerable amongst his peers. Typically, emotions are closely guarded amongst youth in the criminal justice system (Bruyere, 2001) thus displays of vulnerability are, in conventional settings, extremely uncommon. Caught off guard. Later in the interview Peter and I discussed the reason why that particular incident remained so distinct in his memory. Clarifying his impressions of the event, and the observed outcome, Peter reflected the following: . . . the reason it is so memorable for me was because it was so distinct. It caught me off guard. It was extreme the change in that boy. A complete change because of his experience in nature. He outs himself with emotions, it was extreme, and all the other guys could see it. Everybody benefits from the out-trips even the guys that say they don't like the outdoors. (Peter) Peter seems to suggest that an aspect of the experience, for the young man he observed, was a stripping away of self-image and a revealing, to others, of his emotions. The reaction of the young man apparently caught Peter off guard as a result of its intensity. Wild Epiphany 72 Visibly buzzing. Intensity of reaction appears to be characteristic of these moments; the power of the wilderness seems to remove filters society has erected. Like Peter, Simon recalls a moment in which the intensity of reaction of a young man is abundantly clear. In the next recollection Simon describes the impact of the phenomenon's surprise arrival. Spurring uncensored fervor, the youth of Simon's recollection is broadsided by the unexpected moment. We got him up onto that ridge and there was another staff member receiving the kids, I was doing the sketchy part, this kid gets to the top and it is first time we could see over the ridge. There are glaciated peaks and you are way up there. The valley we were in was higher than the valley on the other side so it just drops off. He looks up and he spent about five minutes just going "holy fuck, Jesus, fuck, Jesus, fuck, look at this fuck." We then went to the top of the peak and the kid was visibly buzzing. (Simon) The intensity of the young man's reaction to the grandeur of nature is explicitly represented by Simon's story. I suspect that, although Simon recounted the moment with enthusiasm, the actual occurrence of the moment contained more intensity than can be easily convey with words. The notion that overwhelming moments arrive with immersion in a wilderness setting is presented in the literature on childhood peak experiences. Research by Hoffman (1998), who has delineated a typology of nine distinct categories of childhood peak experience, suggests that in one typology these moment occur as a result of: "the uplifting experiences in places of scenic grandeur [and] inspiring encounters with nature..." (p. 115). In examining Simon's recollection, I have found it difficult to deny a link between the young man's reaction and the sudden appearance of a spectacular natural scene. Wild Epiphany 73 They are just themselves. Presenting another example of the wilderness experience enabling young men to loose the bonds of their tightly wound youth culture Beth explains: "You know they are just themselves at that time without a care of how they look or how they talk or whatever..." Beth knows that the front, or image, that served to meet the youth's needs in society, loses its utility in the wilderness. Just be a kid. The dissolution of another youth's socially constructed image is evident in Simon's next recollection in which he observed a young man dropping the barriers erected against showing vulnerability. Simon's memory is of a "tough kid" stepping beyond the strict social mores of the youth justice system culture: Two of the guys were crying. They were in tears because they were reflecting on their life. One guy in particular had a real nasty upbringing, a totally criminal lifestyle. . . his whole family was that way. Basically, at that moment he didn't want that kind of lifestyle he wanted to be able to go out and just be a kid and not be involved in the crime. That kid, on the way down, was jumping and whooping and hollering. He just had a chance to be a kid for a change. (Simon) To be so moved as to cry in front of peers clearly denotes the degree of impact resulting from the young men's contact with nature. For the one young man the moment seems to have allowed him the opportunity to put aside the baggage of a difficult upbringing and experience the joy of childhood. Simon's notion that the young man's experience allowed him to gain a new perspective on his life and allowed him to just be a kid is similar to Gabriel's following recollection of a young man awash with emotion. To my surprise, during transcription of these Wild Epiphany 74 interviews I discovered that the following recollection, by Gabriel, is of the same situation spoken of by Simon: The next day we hiked up to Grizzly den and then we got up onto the peak up there and had a little session [group counselling] and we put everyone facing out from each other. They were all seated in a spot where they would look out over untouched wilderness and in such a way that they couldn't see each other. We asked them to sit in silence for 10 minutes. I observed on that trip.. .one kid actually broke down and realized that he had a pretty bad situation at home, Mom and Dad both operate chop shops and deal drugs and him and his brothers were set up by his parents in another town selling drugs. He was told that he could have all the drugs he wanted if he sold them for his parents. He seemed to realize at that point the chaos, or the craziness of that life, and understood that he had to make changes. He was sobbing. This was a pretty tough kid and he had a reputation as being pretty hard and was a pretty big risk taker involved in high-speed chases up the wazoo. He spoke a bit about it with the staff up there and he just spent the rest of the trip in obvious contemplation. (Gabriel) When Gabriel mentions that the young man was able to speak about the moment with the staff he meant Simon, who explained to me that: . . . he said that he realized that he didn't want the criminal lifestyle but it would be extremely hard for him to escape that but this was kind of a first time that he was able to see that there might be a way out of it. Other ways of seeing that - something got through to him - it would be just the - his obvious joy of life after the experience, right, his running down the trail and his kicking up big rooster tails of snow, just having fun, and later he told me that it was great to be just a kid to be able to run and play and enjoy Wild Epiphany 75 being out there, right, without other worries without somebody else threatening him without having to worry about having to defend himself or to put up a front. (Simon) The impact on the young man's change in affect, as recounted by both Simon and Gabriel, is one that resonates with therapeutic possibilities. The setting seemed to be key in relieving the burden of the threat of violence. Isaac suggests that such moments might be cathartic in nature, and, assuming by that he means a moment of uncensored emoting, then he has clearly hit on another of the essential aspects of the phenomenon. The reoccurring appearance of emotional release appears to be an integral characteristic of this difficult to define phenomenon. Breaking Down Barriers Observations of outpourings of emotion, on the part of a youth immersed in a wilderness setting, has emerged as a commonality within the experiences recounted to this researcher. Repeatedly, the data revealed the concept of psychic barriers being broken as a result of a special moment in the wilderness. Along those lines, Abraham explains that: going out there doing hikes... we would ask them to go grab a piece of this mountain put it in your pocket and take in whatever you can and they would go in their own separate areas and stare out there.. . some of them you would see break right down and start crying and as far as I was concerned that was great they' re getting in touch with something. . . . something inside of them that they would probably never ever have before. So it was huge in breaking down barriers. Huge. The idea of breaking down barriers is key in the therapeutic process at Camp Trapping and, possibly a significant result of experiencing the wild epiphany. Once the barriers come down, new healthy relationships can emerge. Wild Epiphany 76 A bit of a meltdown. Simon relates one of his earliest observations of a youth becoming overwhelmed as a result of engagement with nature: We had to find a spot in the bush to camp and one kid had a bit of a melt down emotional moment - He runs away from the group and I track him down and I go and sit by him. We are overlooking the lake and it is a beautiful setting. It was one of the spots that you couldn't see the highway and you couldn't see any motor boats. It was a purely natural scene. At this moment he is bawling his eyes out and when we finally got around to it, when we got past the anger, he said he would never have that kind of experience with his Dad. He had never caught a fish before that trip and he had never gone out in a canoe or out in the wilderness. What came out was that he really wanted his Dad to do things like that with him and so, that would be kind of one of the earliest experiences that I remember seeing that kind of an impact. (Simon) Simon's extensive career as a facilitator of wilderness experiences has revealed to him a number of memorable moments. Simon suggests that although the previous moment was significant enough to impact his memory, thus being somewhat uncommon, such moments are not, to him, wholly unexpected. All of the Camp trapping counsellors interviewed for this study related to me that the arrival of the powerful moments, like those recounted in this study, are, to some degree, expected when they head out into the bush. In the wilderness a counsellor expects to observe a young man's personality flourishing and their true character revealed (Daniel). Wild Epiphany 77 Shining light moments. The belief that wilderness can reveal a person's true character is woven throughout the stories told to me. The value of stripping away sub culture (youth justice system) imposed posturing may be of interest to individuals charged with addressing the well-being of youth. In the following quote Isaac speaks about the moment that allowed youth to free themselves from their socially constructed personas: Being extremely happy when you are out there in the bush is a common thing to know about. Those moments. . . that is what I am talking about. . . the one on one moments. To see the kids for who they really are away from all the posturing they have to do, you know, in the world. Away from it all they don't have to worried about outside influences or distractions, they no longer have to put up an image, or you know, to be living up to their image back in their home places. Those are the shining light moments. Helping that kid to understand that you don't have to be afraid to be yourself, to be like this all the time, it makes you a stronger person. (Isaac) I suspect many conventionally based counsellors would recognize the value of bringing about the sort of awareness Isaac speaks of. It seems the "shining light" moments Isaac speaks of, stem directly from being in the bush. In Isaac's opinion just being in the bush is enough to engender positive emotions. Setting the table. For Paul it is the act of moving through wilderness that holds value. Movement and contemplation play an integral role in the therapeutic process. Opportunities for youth to experience quiet simplicity, as is found hiking in the wilderness, are becoming increasingly scarce. Wild Epiphany 78 I think the opportunity to think while you are moving in the woods is often a really selffulfilling kind of a feeling, a satiating feeling. To be able to spend four hours hiking down a trail where you are hearing nothing but the great outdoors provides an opportunity for self reflection and I think that is a really important aspect of what it is that we do, setting the table, allowing the wilderness to almost take over in terms of the management, the counseling, the spiritual aspect of it. Paul's suggestion that he is setting the table and allowing the wilderness to take over reveals his belief in the therapeutic possibilities inherent in getting youth outside. Daniel also suggests that by getting youth outside a new perspective on the world can be provided: "Well, taking kids out into the mountains, it sets up quite an accomplishment. I mean the world looks totally different from up there. It is shocking, so certainly it opens up people's eyes because it is so beautiful." Daniel's comment about eyes opening suggests the acquisition of a new point of view amongst the youth. Open to them. The change in perspective Daniel has suggested played out for James during his time at Camp Trapping; according to James his experiences in the wilderness remain immanently valuable and he suggests that, to some degree those experiences have played a significant role in his well-being later in life. You don't want to stuff those feelings down cause they were just, just, I don't know, they were kind of the best experiences I had in my life so they were like I can't believe that I am doing any of this. They were a huge part of my life. . . . those things are very valuable if you put the right person in it. I think a person like me, I was open to them, to the idea, and I think that made a huge difference in my life. (James) Wild Epiphany 79 Provided, through our interview, further opportunity to rethink and recount his experiences, James expounds on his realization that his time at Camp and his time in the wilderness were immanently valuable. I asked James if he could expand on his previous comment about his mind set changing. I wondered when this happened for him. "Well, I changed my mindset but I think it came after the experiences. It changed when I was reflecting back on everything that happen there." (James) Apparently, for James, time was required for him to see the benefits of his experiences. One of the key points posited by Maslow (1970) was in regards to the power of the peak experience to improve psychological health in the individual long after the experience has occurred. The lessening of negative affectivity, as reported in the literature (Christopher et al., 2002; Wilson and Spencer, 1990) is clearly an aspect of the peak phenomenon; this effect appears evident in the data collected for this study. Anger Released Psychological well-being amongst youth is one of the primary concerns for the counsellors of Camp Trapping and it is their ability to "set the table" as Paul suggests, that facilitates the improved social functioning resulting from a therapeutic use of wilderness.. Reporting on impacts of potent moments Miller (2004) states, "One [change] was sudden release from chronic negative affectivity (e.g., fear, resentment, depression, anger), which was displaced by a pervasive sense of well-being, safety, joy in living, and peacefulness that endured decades later." (p.457) For Luke, successful anger management has been one of the more tangible skills he acquired as a result of his time in the bush. Heading towards a decade away from his experience in Camp, Luke revealed that he recognized a distinct change in his personality, between then and now, and attributed that change to his time in the wilderness. Luke's following Wild Epiphany 80 description of the outcome of his time in the wilderness offers a concrete example of the change Miller speaks of. A very different person. During my interview with Luke I struggled to link the man sitting before me, so concerned with social issues, with the angry young man Luke purported he was during his time in Camp Trapping. I inquired as to who Luke thought he might be today had he not experienced the wilderness in the manner he did. In his response, Luke targets successful anger management as a significant outcome of his experience: The best way I could describe it is that I would probably be in and out of jails.... I would be a very different person. I don't think my anger would be as controlled as well as it is. I'd still be thinking I have to steal that stuff to make money I have to do that so.. .yeah. Luke suggests that his wilderness experience assisted in him being able to control his anger more effectively, something he may not have achieved otherwise. In regards to the idea of anger control, Gabriel recounts an experience of observing youth obtaining a modicum of selfcontrol previously unknown to them. Behaviours seem to mellow. Gabriel's next comment compliments Luke's assertion regarding a diminishment of anger as a result of close quarters engagement with the wilderness. As that powerful experience approaches I have seen a recognition of it appear in the youth. Their behaviours seem to mellow and the intensity of their anger towards the world seems to drop away. (Gabriel) Gabriel suggested, during our interview, that the mellowing he spoke of was one of the characteristics of the phenomenon most easily attributed to a powerful wilderness experience. Wild Epiphany 81 Simon also suggests a direct link between an intense experience and anger dissipating. The moment Simon recounts is one in which a lightning storm fell close to the group: In the discussion afterwards the kids picked all this up their senses were just tingling... and they said they felt that.. .the tingle on the back of their head their hair standing up. When we went to grizzly peak the next day we felt as if there was a group cohesiveness there cause we had survived this exciting experience I then asked Simon "what was the cohesiveness? How did you sense that?" and Simon responded: Well, less anger more cooperation, being able to talk in more depth about feelings and experiences and more comfort with each other. Certainly the feeling that we were more of unit. For myself it would be increased trust, knowing that if I were to ask them to do something that they would be more likely to do it. Simon's recollection of lessening of anger emerges as a significant indicator of the wild epiphany. For young men interested in making changes in their lives any tool that enables them to gain control over their anger is a positive addition to their lives. In addition to anger control, Simon speaks above about the increase in trust that was formed within the group he was leading. Simon also suggested that he perceived an increased willingness to speak about feelings and an increased comfort with each other. An interpersonal connection appears to have been fostered by Simon's sharing of the intense moment with the group. Common Ground From within the recollections of the participants a common experience appears to be one of connection building. I found four of the counsellors spoke specifically about the idea of being able to find common ground, or connection, with the young men they were working with as a Wild Epiphany 82 result of their powerful moments in the wilderness. Above, recollections of barriers being lowered, diminished posturing, and reduced anger, have been presented as aspects of wild epiphany. Perhaps these factors, swirled together with the overwhelming emotional impact of the moment of epiphany, combine to facilitate connection. To really connect. Some aspect, or combining of aspects, of a wilderness experience seems to foster meaningful connection between people. Whether the connection is associated with the epiphany experience is impossible to conclude given this study's design; however, that connection occurs is undeniable. When I requested Beth provide me with her opinions on what she considered unique, in regards to relationships with youth in the wilderness, Beth posits this about the connection building process: I guess their openness to getting into things is up. Maybe it is how comfortable they are with the staff in those situations, comfortable to really tell you how they are doing or to really connect with you while you are out there. I wouldn't say it is common but on the out trip though yeah, especially after you have hit the hard part of the day and you are in a situation where everything is good, like maybe we are eating and when things we are down to a settled spot then you have those kinds of conversations. (Beth) Beth speaks of getting past the intense portion of the day and finding that, in those quiet times of relaxation, a bond has formed. Simon recounted his experience with the hard part of a day and how that too formed a connection between himself and a young man. The next day he really wanted to go to the summit and he totally bought in for that day. There was not a peep out of him and when I asked him to do something he did it. There was one really sketchy spot on the way up, it was muddy and icy. We had to get up this Wild Epiphany 83 slope and so I was doing it one at a time with the guys and I was in a position that if any of them slipped I could grab them. At this point this kid gets up there and he looks at me and he goes " you know I am really freaked out here man," and to have that kid confide that fear to me was amazing because his front was "I am not afraid of this" and "I am tough." (Simon) Working together and sharing an intense moment built trust for Simon in the above situation; it is from those moments that connection grows. The dependency on Simon to facilitate the young man's safe passage appears to have played a role in the development of a real bond. A connection that was real. Following up with Simon about the above recollection, I asked that he tell me more about his impression of the significance of the experience. In response Simon stated: I tried to use that experience several times later and it was always a struggle to try and get him back to the place he was on the trip once we got back into the routine of Camp but it did make a connection that was real. Most certainly the connection Simon speaks of was real and, likely the dependency, that is fostered in wilderness settings engenders real connection. The connection Simon speaks of is called team building by Luke. Discussing a trip into the Mt. Robson provincial park Luke said this: "It was quite the trip being up there with a bunch of guys and everything It was really good team building we really got together up there a lot more on stuff." Getting together on stuff while on extended trips is referred to by Paul as interconnectedness. Helping one another. Interconnectedness may also be perceived as dependency on each other for safety and well-being; discussing the interdependency that is formed in the bush Paul states: Wild Epiphany 84 That sort of promotes the interconnectedness of people, going into the bush, you know, helping one another in terms of safety and risk management. You take a group of people into the bush they literally have to rely on each other for safety and security, it promotes good social learning and social growth, like I say, team work. To me that's one of those inherent, almost an unsaid kind of bonuses of going into the bush, the whole promotion of the interconnectedness between people. The interconnectedness that can be spurred, through sharing the wilderness, is revealed by Paul when he describes one of his memorable moments counselling a young man. Sharing that appreciation. Discovering their shared passion for the outdoors, Paul and the young man form a bond based around the setting, a place of moss and trees; the wilderness is revealed as the focal point of their connection. It was really soon that he had arrived in the program that that incident happened. I followed him as he ran into the bush and when I caught up to him we sat down in the moss, and were looking at the trees. His problem, as he saw it, was getting along with other people. Being out there he was able to appreciate the wilderness and me sharing that appreciation with him and us both talking about our love for nature, it made a huge connection. I think our talk about nature made sense to both of us and we established a relationship based on this incident. The wilderness was huge in that it was what he was comfortable in. As it turned out he had lived in the bush for a year when he had run away from home. We explored that and his comfort in the bush and I related my comfort about being in the bush and again it really embellished our relationship and made that huge firm connection. The context was certainly the great outdoors the wilderness. Wild Epiphany 85 Paul made excellent use of his opportunity to connect with the young man. By his own admission it was the wilderness that provided the necessary backdrop, or therapeutic setting, for Paul to connect in a meaningful way. Nothing more was needed than the trees and the moss for the setting of their connection. The link between dependency and connection, fostered in a wilderness setting has, to some degree, to do with the novelty of the wilderness setting for many youth. Paul alludes to this link and suggests a transferability of skills learned in such settings: Taking them into an environment where they are not well versed there becomes an immediate reliance on people and an interconnection between people. This occurs by virtue of the environment. To go out there, to really promote team work, to promote all of those wonderful things, those are really good social skills to have anywhere you go. The sharing of gear, food and chores, as is demanded by wilderness excursions, quickly engenders efficiency in most groups as they learn to work together without modern conveniences. Recalling the quotations earlier in this thesis, the respondents revealed one of the defining characteristics of wilderness as related to a lack of conveniences. Non-motorized excursions into the wild places of our province demand that only the most necessary items be retained. Planning and executing extended trips in the wilderness demands adherence to a certain level of simplicity. When only necessary items can be utilized then there is a certain equalization between individuals that occurs. Perhaps this process of simplification and equalization plays a role in the interconnectivity spoken of above. Wild Epiphany 86 Keeping it Simple Daniel and Simon both discussed, in our interviews, the ways that nature acts as an equalizer of people. Being in the wilderness demands that only the most essential of items be part of an individual's kit. Limited to only the most essential items, many of the items that create divisions between youth are left behind. Items like expensive jeans, jewelry, and electronics, all of which denote, to some degree, social status and privilege, are not practical and thereby can not be brought along. Simplicity is the key claims Daniel: To reiterate, success [in youth counselling] comes from being away from civilization and keeping it simple. That is the key to success. I remember when we would go out on canoe trips we would say 'well, we are taking this barrel along and everything that we need is going in this barrel so make some tough decisions and figure out what you are going to bring'. That simplifies things being out there. I mean, you are constrained when you are under your own power. That is a bit of an equalizer. That really boils things down. You find out what is important. Being tough, not in the way that the media portrays tough, but being able to make do with things as they are presented to you, that is tough, and a lot of the kids get a real sense of satisfaction out of that kind of toughness. The toughness Daniel speaks of, that arrives from making do with what is in your possession, is somewhat antithetical to the common understanding of toughness. This sort of toughness emerges from within ones character and on out-trips, the youth find their preconceived ideas of toughness dissipate as they learn to break down tasks into manageable parts. As James suggests, new ways of thinking about reaching a goal emerge: Just going out on these hikes I mean we are going to do what? Ten days in the bush and we are going to bring all the supplies on our back? No way, no, I can not even imagine it. Wild Epiphany 87 Then you break it down into the day then you break it down, your day, even further then it is about just constantly setting small goals to get to the big goal. The load is shared, small goals are set and through this, challenges are mitigated and dealt with efficiently. Being able to break down challenges, and being part of a team whose members are seen doing the same allows the youth on out-trips to increase their personal capabilities. James suggests that the lessons that he learned in the wilderness, in regards to goal setting, have served him well throughout his life and he claims that he has often returned to his bush lessons when faced with seemingly insurmountable challenges. A real leveler of people. Amongst a team moving through the bush, members rely on each other to each play a role in the successful navigation of ever present challenges. Facilitating efficient movement of a group through the bush or along wilderness paddling routes is always fraught with challenges. The further a group moves into the wilderness the more inter-reliance becomes important. Dependency on each other becomes increasingly evident when the group is a long way from outside support or worldly conveniences. Simon characterizes this effect as a leveling: Well, the natural world is a real leveler of people. You can only take what you can carry on your back. For non mechanized individuals you are pretty much limited to what you've got on your back so what ever you've got with you is what you will have to deal with. Whatever nature throws at you will have to be dealt with based on what you have with you. That takes real resilience and real adaptability True personal resourcefulness is demanded in order to deal with some things that happen out there because you are a ways from human help of any sort, except yourselves, and you need to be able to rely on your group and the choices you made before you left in regards to equipment. As a group Wild Epiphany 88 others might have slightly different equipment but we are all in the same boat. I have to carry everything I have and you have to carry your stuff. We are going in the same direction and doing the same stuff. Nature is a great leveler of status and possessions. (Simon) Save for the few youth with genuine bush experience, the leveling of status, that nature facilitates, is not typically well understood by the youth who head into the wilderness with Camp Trapping. The result can be a shock; a reordering of priorities is demanded by the bush. Bereft of conveniences. Discussing with Mark the idea that wilderness trips demand a certain degree of simplicity, in order to be successful, he suggested that, from hindsight, he recognizes the lack of convenience as uncommon; he claims, however, the rarity of the experience made it useful in bringing him a new perspective on his life: It is not very often that you would find an experience bereft of all the conveniences of urban life, then to have to be put into a physically challenging situation; I think it is incredibly useful. I think that wilderness is fantastic for that. Yeah, I don't think that I would have been able to reach that point if it wasn't, uh, for the characteristics of wilderness, for example, like being remote and lacking the all the conveniences. The lack of conveniences in the wilderness allowed Mark to reach a desirable point in his life, a state of being, he suggests, that would have been unattainable without that the simplification demanded by wilderness. Wild Epiphany 89 Wilderness is related to reducing things. The essence of wilderness is, for Daniel, that boiling off, or reducing, of distractions that clutter up our daily lives. Daniel suggests the experience of eliminating the distractions of modern life can be surprising: I have seen kids surprised, repeatedly surprised out in the bush; I mean we see it all the time. I mean your focus is on the wilderness and I like the idea of reducing life to a simpler form. They do it in a lot of other forms to reshape a person. Reduce life, no phone calls, no television you know doing different things. The idea of wilderness is related to reducing things. (Daniel) Reducing life to a simpler form appears one of the reasons that a program like Camp Trapping, that so successfully utilizes wilderness, consistently finds success in providing young men with alternate perspectives on life. Simplicity appears to be at the heart of the program and at the core of the wilderness experience. Counselling and the Challenge of the Wild Epiphany It is where we all started. The similarities within the recollections of wilderness may suggest the invaluable nature of the setting in creating change in young men. Each of the counsellors interviewed suggested to me that the role and impact of wilderness, in bringing about change in youth, is undeniable: It all boils down to the outdoors as the setting.... You know it doesn't matter where you are if there is a perfect teaching setting then I think it is the outdoors. It is the key, it is where we all started, we can't lose that. It works and I see it everyday. (Peter) The outdoors can be seen as a therapeutic setting, a place to teach and to connect in way unavailable in conventional therapeutic settings. In the next quote Peter explains how Wild Epiphany 90 counsellors, if they can recognize a key moment of a youth's experience, can enhance the value of the moment. I think it plays a big role overcoming that struggle and the fear of the unknown is a huge thing to overcome. When the youth say, "I can't. I've never been in the wilderness" that is when the good counselling comes in. At the right point the counselor can say "you can do it. See, you are able, you are valuable." Right when the moment happens that is when good counselling is important; to connect the parallels of real life and the struggle of the outdoors, the struggle of going to the top. Successfully catching and working with such moments is not easy, for, not only is effective counselling required but the counsellor needs to be open to working in an unconventional setting. Go to real depths. Beth explains that there are aspects inherent to wilderness settings that allow for her to interact with youth in unique ways: On the out-trips it is kind of a whole different level, you go to real depths with the kids I find. And so in a sense when you can go to that depth in those places they have the feeling that they can trust you and that there is no one else listening it is not a traditional counseling setting. It is not contrived. It is as real as it can be. Those who work with youth know that trust is often slow to build in conventional settings. The power of wide open space is under-recognized as a boon to the trust building process. Paul also recognizes the differences between conventional youth counselling and the efficacy of work that occurs in the wilderness. Paul relates to me, during his interview, that the connection he sees between a wilderness setting, relationship building and the positive changes that occur amongst some youth is real. Wild Epiphany 91 I think, again that the relationships that are constructed in the environment are just that much more a real positive sincere, respectable and meaningful, - you know all at once, because of that interconnectedness that wilderness backdrop provides. (Paul) Interconnectedness suggests to me a broad web of connection touching not only the youth and the counsellors but the sun and the scenery. Sounds, colours, and smells are the basis of Isaac's rationale as to why wilderness is so effective. From Isaac's point of view the reason behind Camp Trapping's success rests in facilitating meaningful and powerful connections in, and with, the simplicity of wilderness. There is nothing aggressive about a beautiful scene. Colours affect people, you know that, especially people who have behaviour issues, colour affects them. Well, when you are out in the wilderness it is a baby blue sky, there is a yellow sun. They are all calming tones, greens, blues yellows, all calming tones. Then you've got the sounds of nature rather than the sounds of society, which plays a huge part in people's thinking, so you have all the distractions of society gone. So you just have yourself and this beautiful scene. It is hard to be pissed off when you are looking at such gorgeous beautiful scenery. It is so quiet, that environment, you know, that scenery is very calming I mean think about how well we sleep out there, you know we might be freezing our nuts off but we are calm. That's how that environment is used. Giving the kids a chance to enjoy it. . . . The experience is pleasure. Research Findings Conclusion There is power in a moment; the participants in this study have recounted the potential that rests within the wild epiphany. From my interactions with the individuals who shared their stories of wilderness I have found that the wild epiphany appears to have numerous Wild Epiphany 92 characteristics and possible benefits. The graduate participants spoke of feeling euphoric as a result of a special moment in the wilderness; the moment appears to allow for a sort of transcendence of worldly concerns. Examples of this transcendence arrive in the form of increased emotional control and long lasting positive affect. Specific examples of these benefits are: Luke spoke about his time in the wilderness assisting him in controlling his anger, suggesting that had he not had such experiences he saw his future self in and out of jails; Mark suggested that he found, as a result of time in nature, a level of mental clarity previously unknown to him; James and David both spoke of the intense positive feelings that have stayed with them long after their epiphanies had passed setting them on a path to mental well-being . All of the graduate participants stated that the experiencing of the epiphany has remained an extremely significant and formative moment in their lives. Counsellors who participated in this study, like Peter, Simon and Paul, each spoke about their observations of young men's intense outpourings of emotion while in the bush. Amongst other observations, Gabriel and Simon recollected witnessing a marked improvement in the ability of youth to control negative emotions, like anger. Another example of this, along similar lines, one of Gabriel's more poignant recollections includes an observation of increased control of anger as a result of a young man's recognition of an impending wild epiphany. Recounted as a unique characteristic of the wilderness, Isaac, Beth and Abraham spoke about nature as a place that enabled a meaningful connection between themselves and the young men of Camp Trapping. The depth of the connections, they explain, would be difficult to arrive at from a conventionally based counselling setting. The therapeutic possibilities of this phenomenon appear myriad. The brief foray into the subject, found in the above findings chapter, have but brushed the surface of the phenomenon. Wild Epiphany 93 Chapter 6: Discussion A range of issues for discussion have emerged from the findings of this study. For the sake of brevity I have limited the discussion to several distinct areas. The most pertinent issues, from my point of view are: the characterizations of wilderness as put forward by the respondents, the eco-feminist concept of dependency evident in the recollections and, the revised notions of masculinity that arise as a result of extended immersion in wilderness. To begin this discussion, and to maintain a semblance of balance, I would like to begin this discussion with some of the limitations of this study from the point of view of the participants. Study Limitations Delineating some of the difficulties I would encounter in studying epiphany, Beth metaphorically stepped outside of our interview and posed a valid challenge to my request that she recall specific powerful moments observed amongst the youth with whom she worked: I guess it is always hard to have a clear understanding of those intense experiences because I mean you know when you are having an intense moment but it is tough to define when someone else is because a lot of that is inner reflection and unless someone lets you in on that then you wouldn't know about those moments. As Beth suggests, recognizing an experience like epiphany is tricky and highly subject to interpretation. Certainly, interpretation has played a key role in teasing out moments of epiphany that may be decades old. It is only from my understanding of the power of wilderness that I have been able to arrive such interpretations. Paul suggests that interpretation of epiphany is predicated on the idea of an individual having intimate knowledge of the natural world and of wilderness. Wild Epiphany 94 I mean it is all very experiential right you can't sort of talk about it with any great understanding with any one who hasn't been there. If people haven't experienced the wilderness then people need to go and do it. And it will change them as people forever. (Paul) To be impacted by the wilderness demands, as Paul suggests, that a person have experience with wilderness. During my preparation of this thesis I discussed, with innumerable people, the possibility of epiphany in the wilderness. Two distinct groups of people emerged from these informal inquiries. One group thought of the idea as common sense, almost a given. The second group was skeptical and, to some degree, dismissive of such "airy fairy" (UNBC Research Ethics Board, personal communication, April, 2007) ideas. The commonality amongst the people in the first group was their depth of understanding of nature and their positive relationship to the natural world. It would seem that people with close ties to nature see, more clearly, as Paul suggested, the power within nature to facilitate increased well-being in people. To compliment the understanding of the wilderness concept, for those who feel they know what wilderness is, and to open a window to what wilderness may be, for those who know it not, the following characterizations are offered. A Characterization of Wilderness Several definitions of wilderness, from the point of view of study participants, and a previous Camp staff member, are put forward in this section, in an attempt to define the concept. Their presentation of ideas around nature and wilderness are indispensable, as it is the setting that plays a key role in the recognition and acceptance of the epiphany phenomenon. In the following section not only will characterizations of wilderness be offered but also the manner in which wilderness and humans connect. Although some of the following conceptualizations Wild Epiphany 95 would fit well into the findings section of this thesis they are presented here in order that the relevance of wilderness be further entrenched as integral to the occurrence of the wild epiphany. Wilderness appears to be an entity, in which, when immersed in it, powerful moments can be perceived and received. The importance of wilderness to Camp Trapping, and to the young men who call Camp home for four months, can not be overstated. The power of the relationship is eloquently presented by Northey (2007), when he asserts: Nature helps the residents gain perspective on the human condition. It simultaneously and paradoxically exposes both their frailly and their strength.... The rules for effective living are made more accessible as the chaotic chatter of the modern world is swallowed by the forest environment.... Numerous evaluations have substantiated its [Camp Trapping] claim to the lowest recidivism rate in the Canadian Corrections world. I would argue that it has achieved this due to its sensitivity to nature, nurture and narrative. Nature has provided the context in which messages can be heard most clearly, (p. 8) The importance of the setting, of wilderness, to this study appears immeasurable. It is from immersion in, what we call wilderness, that the phenomenon of the wild epiphany emerges. Interestingly, the conceptualization of wilderness, by both the graduates and counsellors, is strikingly similar. Both groups characterize wilderness as possessing some degree of separation from modern society. This separation is spoken of as being both physical and psychological. Away from society's influence. Succinctly making the distinction between modern society and wilderness, David compares the impact of modern society to that of wilderness. For David, physical separation from society is associated with lessened stress: You are away from societies influence and you don't have that stress, and Wild Epiphany 96 that is a huge stress. If you lay there and sleep in a tent and you've got a trickle of a stream and an owl hooting or some crickets or something, it is peaceful, it is calming, it is soothing, that is why they have it on tapes. They don't have tapes of trains going by for you to fall asleep to do they? I think that is a good way of giving you an idea of what I am trying to say. It is a calming effect and just having that is an experience in itself. You don't have societies negative touch you don't have the smell of pollution and all these things they are triggering your senses. Your five senses are being triggered by the environment, you've got sweet, clean, pleasant smells and fresh water that you don't have to run through a Britta [water filter]. David speaks about being calmed when in the wilderness, perhaps soothed even by the fresh air and water. Unfortunately, fresh air and clean water are increasingly difficult to find in areas of significant industrial development; it is an area's level of development that plays a role in Simon's definition of wilderness. Somewhat uncomfortable with the term wilderness, Simon posits an alternative term: I used to be comfortable with the term wilderness actually until I took some courses on aboriginal healing so wilderness I guess would be any place that is not developed and wilderness occurs within developed areas as well. I can seek out wilderness. PG [Prince George] is awesome as it is so huge and it has its wilderness areas or natural areas maybe that would be a better term natural areas. I guess untouched by human hands, untouched by humans so no noise. Areas within a city could be included in that there could be still natural settings - like trees and bushes around - even in a city. Maybe it had been logged or otherwise disturbed in the past but it has reverted back to its more natural state. (Simon) Wild Epiphany 97 Wilderness isn't necessarily a physical place, claims James, but rather, for him, it is defined by activities: "yeah, wilderness for me would be just going out into the bush and climbing mountains and canoeing and things like that." Defining outdoor activity as related to wilderness is as apt as any description for a succinct definition of wilderness is difficult to arrive at. Alive with flora and fauna. As implied by the numerous definitions, the idea of wilderness is not one that is easily pinned down. Paul states: What it [wilderness] means to me is the great outdoors, of the true sort, of wild, kind of untouched, natural wilderness, pristine, alive with flora and fauna. More concepts than actual meaning I think. It really is difficult to come up with. Beth concurs with Paul, regarding the difficulty involved in reaching a clear definition of wilderness: Wilderness is uh, well it is not necessarily a place or a thing but it is hard to pinpoint a definition of it but, it's free of mans impact on it. [Wilderness] is where there is natural beauty and natural sequences of the ecosystems and where we haven't, where man hasn't, implemented anything. Despite the elusive nature of the wilderness concept, an idea brought forward by both Gabriel and Luke is one of distance away from society. The idea of wilderness constitutes a departure from the associations of modern society says Gabriel: Uh, away from civilization, a good distance away. I wouldn't be able to see civilization if I tried I wouldn't be able to recognize the direction of a major city by light pollution and I wouldn't be able to see roads or highways. Wild Epiphany 98 Also relating wilderness to distance away from society Luke states, "I guess it [wilderness] means being outdoors being in the bush, really being away from the city and lights and everything else." Being away, as Luke says, allows for new conceptions of self to arrive. Character flaws can not be hidden in the wilderness. The constant presence. There is something about being in the wilderness, explains Daniel, that reveals a person's character: In those wilderness situations you cannot hide, the denial thing doesn't work. I have picked up those who were not grounded. If you are not grounded you cannot hide it. You can put on a happy face sometimes but the constant presence of the wilderness is such that you cannot hide from yourself. Being away from society lends itself to a change in recognition of self and surroundings as Northey (2007) suggests; nature, or wilderness, provides a context in which a message suggesting a more successful way of living can be received. An essential aspect of immersion in the wilderness appears, from the data, to be a recognition of dependency. Dependency Dependency is a nebulous subject that contains within its definition a myriad of implications; however, a recognition of dependency between people and dependency on unquantifiable systems, like the natural world, appears evident in the recollections of the study participants. Those respondents who have spent extended periods in the bush, and have structured their lives to incorporate wilderness, seem to recognize that to ignore dependency is to ignore the gift of wilderness. Suggesting a philosophical attitude towards nature Kittay & Feder, (2002) state: Wild Epiphany 99 I am saying that wonder, not doubt, and certainly not hostility is the appropriate philosophical attitude in relation to our relationship to the Earth. This wonder is called for in and by the very moment to moment sustenance, the moment to moment life giving that is our dependence on the places the Earth provides us. Our irreverence towards the Earth has resulted in nothing less than environmental depravity, (p.365) The wonder referred to above exists in the reiterated experiences of James and David who, recollecting a moment in which they were overcome by Earth's power, give the moment the moniker "euphoria." The bliss, or reverence, found in such moments characterizes wonder. From experiencing, and enthusiastically recounting wonder in such a way James and David may, in turn, be acknowledging their dependency on the Earth. Such acknowledgement is presently of extreme importance given that we are approaching a point of no return in regards to human sustainability on this planet (Boyd, 2004; Denton, 2002; Shiva, 2000; Suzuki & Dressel, 1999; Suzuki & Gordon, 1990). Boyd (2004) suggests that sustainability and dependency are inextricably linked and that addressing such concepts is neither a lofty ideal, nor merely an academic responsibility; it is now an urgent imperative for humanity: Sustainability means living within Earth's limits. In a sustainable future, no Canadian would think twice about drinking a glass of tap water. Food would be free from pesticide residues, antibiotics, and growth hormones. Air, water, and soil would be uncontaminated by toxic substances, (p.l) Our dependency on the processes of nature and our reaction to this dependency is inseparable from all discussions of dependency (Kittay, 2002). Presenting the power inherent in the linkage between Earth, or wilderness, and the human condition is another of the essential thrusts of the inquiry into wild epiphany. Wild Epiphany 100 An understanding of dependency should guide our understanding of our responsibilities as a species to defend nature, in turn, that defense will allow us to live in health and in joy. "We are, by our very nature, both individuals and dependent creatures, and any plausible account of 'the sheer delight of personal achievement' must make reference to that dependence" (Mendus, 1991, in Fine & Glendinning, 2005, p.601). Delight in personal achievement exists at the heart of the Camp Trapping experience. Young men are taught the necessary skills, and provided the opportunities, to recognize and embrace their dependency. Not only does the incorporation of extended wilderness excursions teach new and healthy ways to practice and recognize dependency, through team work, but seems to allow for connections to form between people and the natural processes of wilderness. The value of dependency, as revealed to the young men of Camp Trapping while in the wilderness, appears to engender a willingness to re-order self perceptions and loosen socially constructed attitudes. One of the most striking examples of this re-orientation is a change in perceptions around masculinity. Masculinity Unhealthy characterizations of masculinity continue to hold sway in our society. The image of the rugged individual, quick to resort to his physicality to solve problems is evident throughout our culture. The Marlboro Man caricature is one of the most obvious examples of this pervasive image. The Marlboro Man is depicted as a tough loner, on his own in the wild, relying on only his strength, and strength of will, to find success. This sad stereotype, of the rugged individual, typifies the image of masculinity presented to young men in our society. Katz (1999) suggests that it is from the media that young men learn their lessons on masculinity. Young men are too often taught, through advertising, movies, and music, to aspire towards a masculinity that Wild Epiphany 101 glorifies physical violence and misogyny: "Boys and young men learn early on that being a so called real man means you have to take on this tough guise. In other words, you have to show the world only the certain parts of yourself that the dominant culture has defined as manly" (Katz, 1998). Along similar lines Crooks, Goodall, Hughes, Jaffe, & Baker (2007) state, in their discussion of the relationship between characterizations of male identity and violence against women, that: Children are socialized into expectations of behavior by our broader society at a young age.... Stereotypical notions of gender roles, along with poverty and alcohol use, were the most significant predictors of perpetrating violence against women.... evidence underscore^] the relationship between highly rigid traditional ideas about masculinity and violence against women at the individual level, (p.220) The typical young man mandated to attend Camp Trapping is, as a result of his vulnerable societal position, highly susceptible to these unhealthy messages of what constitutes masculinity. The idea of being a tough guy, or being hard, is particularly evident in the justice system culture that the young men of Camp Trapping find themselves immersed in (Bruyere, 2001). Images of thugs and gangsters, in rap music and popular movies, present a facade that some of the young men of Camp Trapping cleave to protect themselves against victimization. In fact, one of the most degrading insults slung amongst this population is that of "victim." Through the adoption of a tough guy attitude, or hard case persona, young men in the justice system are able to hide their vulnerability, and their pain, thus lessening the possibility that they might be "outed" by their peers and subjected to ridicule or re-victimization. Typical approaches to youth justice issues do not appear to adequately address the destructive self-concepts found in media Wild Epiphany 102 perpetuated notions of masculinity. Unfortunately, the likelihood of adoption of healthy attitudes by young men, where misogyny, and violence in general, are not tolerated, are diminished as a result of conventional youth justice system practices. The image of the Marlboro Man, as a contemporary characterization of manliness, is a particularly apt example, in regards to this thesis, in that this image shows how the masculinity presented in the media and the actualities of masculinity in the wilderness diverge significantly. Contrary to the notion that the rugged individual can survive and thrive in the wilderness, the participants of this study have related first hand accounts of how it is only through interdependency and cooperation that safe and successful wilderness excursions can occur. Images of the Marlboro Man around the campfire silently keeping his dreams and fears to himself are not the realities of wilderness life as conveyed by the participants of this study. In fact, it would appear as though the opposite is true; the counsellors in this study speak of young men who, after interactions with the grandeur of the natural world, relinquish their tough guises and open themselves to their emotions and vulnerabilities. Several of the participants in this study (Gabriel, Peter, Simon) recount moments in which they have observed young men so overwhelmed by the power of nature that they break the bonds of culturally engrained unhealthy masculinity, and reveal their fears and vulnerabilities to their peers. The power of the wilderness, and the interdependency engendered by extended time away from industrialization, appears to have the effect of diminishing the harmful, media perpetrated, notions of modern manhood. It would seem, based on the recollections of this study's participants, that the power of the wild epiphany, and wilderness experiences in general, re-orients young men's perceptions of masculinity. Not only do the moments of epiphany bring forth powerful feelings of euphoria, but allow the young men a rare outlet to relinquish their distorted conceptualizations of what it Wild Epiphany 103 means to be a man. An example of this is seen in Peter's observations of a young man overwhelmed by the wilderness experience: There was a moment in there where, I think not too often in his life, he was open and went to the place where his emotions emerged and tears were in his eyes. He outed himself that he was in pain. This sort of re-orientation is exceedingly important given that disappointingly few opportunities exist for young men (and men in general) to have such experiences. Facilitating such moments, and combining them with exemplary role modeling, (as seen amongst Camp Trapping counsellors), provides a window into a world where masculinity equates not to thuggery and violence, but to supporting and nurturing others. The lessons learned while in the wild undoubtedly lead to healthier world views. While speaking about his experiences in Camp Trapping, David succinctly describes a re-orienting of his concept of masculinity as a result of the wild epiphany: But you know what, no, a real man shows his emotions, I cry because I am so happy. I just feel like I want to cry because that was a hell of moment wasn't it? You can relive that moment with the handshake, the Camp shake, it is amazing, those moments, how much of strength they are throughout your whole life and that is what it remains to be, that's what it is to be manly. David's comment suggests that, with the arrival of epiphany, he came to an enlightened state where masculinity equated to acceptance of emotion. In addition to the change in his understanding of manliness David also purports that his re-orientation of masculinity was one that has remained with him through his life. Given that the specter of violence, and specifically violence against women, remains an unresolved blight on our culture, I would suggest that, Wild Epiphany 104 amongst all the other benefits that arrive as a result of the wild epiphany, this re-ordering of the masculinity concept has emerged as one of the most significant. Wild Epiphany 105 Chapter 7: Conclusion Unfortunately, Camp Trapping is one of the last wilderness camps of its kind in Canada. Political lack of will and an increased worry of litigation has determined that opportunities will diminish, throughout Canada, for young people to connect with nature. In an era of impending climatic catastrophe disconnecting youth from the splendor of nature would seem, to me, imprudent. Through this thesis, I have attempted to provide a glimpse into the value of wilderness for youth and I have intended to express, through the recollections of the participants, the incomparable power of the Earth to heal. I suggest that it is through immersion in nature that true well-being is recognized. The vanguards of a paradigm that keep sacrosanct these concepts are working, right now, amidst some pines, to empower young men with the strength to recognize their dependency on nature. The counsellors and staff of Camp Trapping are people of incredible foresight and their gifts, to the young men with whom they work, have created a legacy with far reaching implications. From the 30 plus years of commitment, on the part of the Camp Trapping staff, young men are heading out into the world with newly recognized concepts of self; a self that understands the importance of wilderness, the significance of dependency and, the value of challenging society's distorted views of masculinity. Paul suggests that taking young men into the bush is like "setting the table" and, in so doing, the wild epiphany can be consumed. This metaphorical "feast" is how Camp Trapping encourages a re-orientation of self-perception amongst young men. "Nature will do the work if we provide the opportunity." (Paul) The occurrence of the wild epiphany is an under-examined phenomenon that holds within it substantial promise for all professions that seek to empower people to achieve improved psychological well-being. Sadly, mainstream social work appears to be unwilling, or unable, to Wild Epiphany 106 encourage practices that embrace ecological principles. Old school social work appears locked in sycophancy, bound to capitalist ideology; an ideology unconcerned by the frightening speed of nature's degradation. As a result of traditional social work's obsequiousness to industrialism, the profession has fractured; from the schism the burgeoning field of eco-social work has emerged, and with it, a new vision for social work. 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Journal of experiential education, 27(3), 314—317. Wild Epiphany 115 Appendix A: participant information sheet Information Sheet Peak Experiences Amongst Youth in Wilderness Settings Christopher M.R. Gee (Researcher) Box 1044 Prince George, V2L 4V1 250 960 2291 or gcccfounbc.ca The purpose of this research is to explore and describe aspects of experiences you might have had, or witnessed, during your time in a wilderness setting. With your help this study may be able to improve services provided to youth. This study will be conducted by talking with you. I will record your expressed thoughts, feelings and experiences in writing and on tape. A code will be placed on all the information you provide so as to attempt to provide some confidentiality. All information you provide me will be kept confidential. If the information you provide is used in the final report your name and distinguishing features relating to your identity will be altered. I will not attach your name to the comments. Only my supervisor, and I, will have access to your information, however only I will know the code attaching your name to your comments. The only limits to the confidentiality I offer in this process are those set by law. Your participation is strictly voluntary. If, at any time you choose to stop your involvement with this study, you may. You will receive 20 dollars for participating. This stipend is not dependent on your completion of the interview. All information will be stored in a locked cabinet for 2 years then will be destroyed. You have been chosen because of your response to the advertisement and because of your unique experiences at Camp. A copy of my thesis will be available at the UNBC library. If you have any questions please contact me, or my supervisor, Si Transken, at 960 5555 Any complaints about this project should be directed to the Office of Research, 960-5820 or by email: reb@unbc.ca Wild Epiphany 116 Appendix B: Research Participant Consent Form Please circle either Yes or No Do you understand that you have been asked to be in a research study? Yes No Have you read and received a copy of the attached information sheet? Yes No Do you understand that the interviews will be recorded? Yes No Do you understand the benefits and risks of being in this study? Yes No Have you been able to ask questions and discuss the study? Yes No Do you understand you can refuse to participate or withdraw from the study? Yes No Has the issue of confidentiality been explained to you? Yes No Do you understand who will have the access to the info you provide? Yes No This study was explained to me by (print name) I agree to take part in this study (signature) (print name) Date I believe that the person signing this form understands what is involved in the study and voluntarily agrees to participate. Signature Date (Christopher M. R. Gee) Wild Epiphany 117 Appendix C: Interview Protocol Guideline Questions for Semi Structured Interview Please tell me your age. Please define what wilderness means to you. Please tell me about your comfort level in a wilderness setting. Wilderness experience as a child? Tell me about specific skills you have learned in regards to wilderness travel or survival and where you learned theses skills. Please tell me how much time you spend in the wilderness per year. Tell me about some specific times you have spent in the wilderness. (Prompt: interviewer's personal recollections) Tell me about the most intense experience you have had in the wilderness. Did you experience anything you might consider difficult to describe? (Prompt: encourage depth in the description of nature of experience) Tell me about your most important accomplishment in the wilderness. Tell me about your most exciting time in the wilderness. Tell me about any changes in your life that you think may be as a result of your experience. Tell me about other individuals who were present at the time of these experiences. Tell me about the importance of friendship in your life. Tell me about the importance of material possessions in your life. Tell me about your work. What would the ideal career be? Wild Epiphany 118 Tell me about the importance of the environment in your life. Tell me about the ways you are making the world better. Please tell me about how, on a day to day basis, your experiences in the wilderness has affected the way you view your interactions with people. In what way have your experiences in the wilderness aided you in surmounting an obstacle? Please tell me anything important that I have missed. Wild Epiphany 119 Appendix D: Request for Member Checking Hello, Thank you for taking the time to look over these excerpts; all come from the interviews I conducted with you and others. I have arranged these excerpts into themes but have removed the theme titles. If you are so inclined I would appreciate your opinion on the text. What themes emerge for you? What do you think about the excerpts? What is missing? Unfortunately I have had to change everybody's names. I hope you like the name I picked for you. Thanks and feel free to respond to me through e-mail, phone, or most preferably, through the mail. Bye for now and expect to se the completed document shortly after I receive your responses. Sincerely, Chris Gee geec@unbc.ca 250 842 6597 box 241 New Hazelton, B.C. VOJ 2J0 Wild Epiphany Appendix E: Counsellors and Graduates Graduates: Luke Mark John David James Counsellors: Daniel Isaac Gabriel Paul Simon Bethany Abraham Peter 120