HOW SIBLINGS, RAISED IN ABUSIVE OR NEGLECTFUL HOMES, ARE
TREATED SIMILARLY OR DIFFERENTLY: AN EXPLORATION BY NORTHERN
SOCIAL WORKERS

by

Cathy Lipke
BSW, University of British Columbia, 2005

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK

THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
January 2010

©Cathy Lipke, 2010

1*1

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ii
ABSTRACT
In situations of child abuse or neglect, it is beneficial to know how and why siblings may be
treated differently. The thesis question was investigated using transcendental
phenomenology. The participants were social workers in northern British Columbia, who
worked for a minimum of two years in a position assessing risk to families. In this study,
siblings who were treated differently by their abusive parents were male children who were
physical and emotionally abused by a step-father. Two reasons given were because of the
parent's upbringing, and the child's behavioural diagnoses. Further, siblings who are treated
similarly in abusive homes were neglected by their mother. Neglect occurs because of mental
health diagnoses and alcohol and substance misuse by the parent. The childhood experiences
of the parent, including sibling relationships, and keeping Aboriginal children connected to
their communities are also themes from this research. Solution-focused therapy was
suggested as one treatment to be used by clinicians working with siblings who have been
abused. Social workers working with families assessing risk may examine these results when
working with abusive or neglectful families where children appear to be treated similarly or
differently.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract

11

Table of Contents

in

Acknowledgement

vi

Chapter One

Introduction
Research Purpose
Literature Review
Self-Location in Literature
Characteristics of North
Self-Location in the Research
Definition of Terms
Overview of Chapters

1
1
2
2
5
6
7

Chapter Two

Literature Review
Child Abuse
Scapegoating
Differential Parental Treatment
Historical Overview of the Literature
Treatment Options
Current Research Directions
Adoption and Foster Placement
Attachment
Service Standards
Sibling Abuse
Areas of Related Research
Labelling Theory
Critique of Literature
Gaps in the Literature
Summary of Literature
Contribution to the Literature

12
12
14
16
18
19
21
21
22
22
24
27
28
28
30
32
33

Chapter Three

Research Methodology
Qualitative Research
Phenomenology
Interviewing
Sample
Description of Participants
Data Collection

35
35
36
41
45
46
46

IV

Ethical Considerations
Limitations

48
49

Chapter Four

Data Analysis
Bracketing
Process of Analysis
Findings: Question Three
Themes and Descriptions
Findings: Question Four
Themes and Descriptions
Findings: Question Five
Themes and Descriptions
Findings Question Six

53
53
55
57
60
62
64
65
68
69

Chapter Five

Implications for Social Workers
Evaluative Criteria
Areas for Further Research
Treatment Option: Solution-Focused Therapy

71
71
76
78

Chapter Six

Conclusion
Final Thoughts

85
86
91

References
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6

Recruitment Poster
Interview Questions
Ethics Form
Approved Ethics Letter
Research Participant Information Letter
Consent Form

97
98
99
105
106
108

V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank all of the people who helped, supported and encouraged me during my
entire schooling and most particularly during the writing of this thesis. My amazing husband
Kelly, and my encouraging mother Julie are two of these people. I would like to thank my
thesis supervisor Dr. Si Transken, and Assistant Professor Joanna Pierce and Dr. Colin
Chasteauneuf and Dr. Linda O'Neil for your guidance and for putting up with my harassing
e-mails and phone calls. I would also like to thank my colleagues at QGK for whom I would
be lost without their support.

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Different and similar treatment of siblings by their parents in abusive or neglectful
homes as experienced by northern social workers is the phenomena that will be examined
in this thesis. This topic is of interest to me as I am a northern social worker who has
worked in the north for the last four and a half years. As a social worker, I have
encountered the unique challenges of working in the northern region. A few of the
challenges I have experienced are lack of resources, sometimes irrelevant policies,
professional isolation, and high professional turnover. I am personally interested in the
topic of siblings, as I am the oldest of four siblings. In my practice as a Child Protection
Social Worker, I have worked with many families struggling with abuse and/or neglect
issues with their children. In my practice, I have been involved in situations where
parents in abusive or neglectful homes treat their children similarly, and I have been
involved in situations where parents in abusive or neglectful homes treat their children
differently. I have observed the impact this has on the children as individuals, the sibling
relationships, and the family dynamics. The questions I ask myself when working with
abusive or neglectful families are: how are the children treated differently? How are the
children treated the same? This thesis will explore these questions.
Research Purpose
The purpose of this research is to gain insight into the differential treatment of
siblings by their parents in abusive and neglectful homes as seen from the perspective of
northern social workers. The term northern and social worker will be defined in the
definition of terms section later in this chapter. The phenomena of differential parental

2
treatment is explored through questions designed to encourage conversation. By
interviewing social workers, I have gained practical knowledge about how social workers
in the north can work more effectively with families where abuse and/or neglect of the
children have been confirmed. I have also learned how social workers in the north view
and assess situations in abusive and/or neglectful homes where parents treat their children
both similarly and differently. Through the response of the participants, themes and
descriptions of phenomena were derived and examined from a social work lens (these
themes and goals are described in detail in chapter four). The knowledge gained by this
research will assist social workers in recognizing abusive differential treatment situations.
The knowledge gained through this research will also assist social workers with how to
work with sibling who have been abused and/or neglected.
Literature Review
The literature contains a large volume of research on siblings. When reviewing
the literature on this topic area, it is essential to examine historical theories as well as
current ideas to get the full picture of what previous researchers have discovered on the
topic. The literature review will emphasize the gaps in research on the topic of sibling
differential treatment in abusive and/or neglectful homes, and illustrate areas for further
research consideration.
The sibling relationship needs to be studied as it has many long lasting effects that
stretch into adulthood. The sibling relationship has a direct impact on child development
(Dunn, 1983). Not only does the sibling relationship effect development, it is a subject of
controversy in the nature versus nurture debate. The literature on siblings clearly outlines
the importance of this topic for development and for helping professionals; however in

3

my undergraduate education, the sibling relationship was a little examined topic. The
sibling relationship is important when looking at child development, and family
dynamics. Social workers can benefit from understanding the sibling relationship and
how it affects different areas in family life.
The first portion of the literature review discusses the historical research
completed on the topic of siblings. Research into this subject started in the 1970s with a
closer look into birth order, sibling rivalry, and the sibling bond (Freeman, 1993).
Another area of early research is the area of nature versus nurture in sibling relationships
and in sibling personalities. The study of genetic and environmental influences on
personality is a widely researched area with many studies using adopted and twin siblings
as subjects. In addition, early interest in the treatment options for siblings was also
explored. The use of counselling as treatment for siblings, dealing with issues such as
abuse or neglect, has been explored and includes the counselling techniques shown to be
useful. The review of the literature has shown the importance of sibling research in the
areas of personality development and counselling, more about this in Chapter 2.
Research on the topic of siblings has important historical roots. Current literature
appears to focus more on siblings and abuse/neglect issues. In terms of placement
together, siblings in adoption and foster care situations is an area of controversy as some
literature challenges the previously held belief that siblings should always be placed
together (Whelan, 2003). Sibling abuse is an area of growing interest. It is now thought
sibling abuse is more prevalent than it is reported. Sibling abuse has been linked to
situations where the perpetrating sibling has witnessed violence between his or her
parents and is enacting the witnessed abuse toward a sibling, often a scapegoated child.

4
Another situation sibling abuse has been linked to is a lack of parental supervision
creating a higher degree of responsibility for siblings. These situations, although not
mutually exclusive, contribute toward sibling abuse.
Role theory is seen to be a focal point of the research completed on siblings and
treatment. Role theory is relevant to siblings in the process of how parents assign roles to
their children based on their own family backgrounds. In the same fashion as role theory,
labelling theory is often used when discussing siblings and family dynamics. Labelling
theory is documented in parental abuse cases where the child and siblings act out the
roles they have been labelled with. More on labelling and role theory is described in the
related research section of the literature review.
Child abuse is another area of research closely related to the topic of siblings. In
this section, the prevalence of child abuse in Canada, and the effects of child abuse
specific to siblings is examined. Sibling abuse has implications for the sibling
relationship, and the role of the child in the family. Children are particularly vulnerable to
abuse from their caregivers as they are dependent upon them for basic needs. There are
agencies that specialize in protecting children from abuse and neglect. The agency in
British Columbia is the Ministry of Children and Family Development. Child abuse and
neglect is a persistent problem in Canada and therefore it is an issue that would benefit
from more funding into research, assessment, and intervention. More discussion on the
child abuse research will be discussed in Chapter 2.
The Ministry of Children and Family Development, MCFD, is the organization
that is charged with assessing and ensuring children are protected in British Columbia.
However, in British Columbia there are several Aboriginal agencies across the province

5
which have been, or are in the process of being, delegated to assess risk to children and
families. The mandate of MCFD is to live in a province,
where vulnerable children and youth are healthy and safe in their families and
communities; where children and youth, including those with special needs, are
supported to achieve their full potential; and children, youth, and their families are
served by accountable and responsive community-based service delivery systems
(British Columbia Ministry of Children and Family Development).
The Ministry of Children and Family Development has the position of assessing risk to
children and families and decision making authority in regards to placing children outside
of the home. There are several documents used to guide practice and assist social workers
in making these important decisions. These practice standards and how they fit with the
literature will be discussed more later.
Characteristics of North
Because this research has a northern focus, it is important to discuss the
characteristics and the term 'north' at this point. A definition of the term north is located
in the definition of terms section further in this chapter. When talking about north, it is
necessary to discuss location as well as economic and political factors of northern living.
The majority of the Canadian population reside in cities close to the United States
boarder leaving a minority of Canadians residing in 80% of the land mass of Canada
(Zapf, 1993). This presents its own unique challenges in determining provincial policy.
Policies that affect life in the north are often created by government located in urban
settings who do not have an understanding of the north and its unique challenges. The
power to create and change polices that dictate the lives of northern residents are often
out of reach (Delaney, Brownlee, Sellick & Tranter, 1997). Some of the challenges
northern social workers face are minimal clinical supervision and lack of resources. Two

6
other structural challenges to being a northern social worker can be the perception of
residents that you are an outsider and maintaining confidentiality. The north can be
defined by location, but also can be looked at by its unique characteristics. This thesis
used northern social workers as participants as a way of capturing what the phenomena of
differential parental treatment in abusive and neglectful homes may look like in northern
British Columbia. The geographical boundaries for northern British Columbia were taken
from the Northern Health boundaries for service, which is described in more detail in the
definition section of this chapter (Northern Health, 2008).
Four social workers currently working in the north were invited to participate in
this study. Each of the social workers had at least a four-year degree in social work and
has worked, or currently works, assessing risk to families. The participants were asked
questions in a one-hour semi-structured interview. The questions were created to
facilitate conversation about the social workers' experience working with siblings who
are treated differently and similarly by abusive or neglectful parents. The data obtained
was analyzed using a transcendental phenomenological approach outlined in Creswell
(2007) and Patton (2002).
Self-Location in the Research
To place myself in the research, I need to point out I am a northern social worker
who assesses risk to children and families. I have worked in a position assessing risk to
children and families since I graduated with my bachelor of social work degree in 2005.
I have three younger siblings with whom I feel I have a close bond. For the reasons stated
above, I was interested to find out more about how the factors of abuse affect siblings and
family dynamics. I learned a great deal about the phenomena of different and similar

7
treatment toward siblings in abusive and neglectful families from the research
participants.
Definition of Terms
The purpose of this section is to ensure common definitions are understood. The
key concepts defined are: abuse (including the specific types of abuse), attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, feminist perspective, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, gender
issues, labelling theory, neglect, northern, phenomenology, role theory, scapegoat,
siblings, social worker, and solution-focused therapy. These concepts are interconnected
when examining how siblings are treated similarly or differently in abusive or neglectful
homes.
Abuse: physical harm (including harm caused by neglect), sexual abuse (including sexual
exploitation, touching, molestation, fondling, and exhibitionism), emotional harm
(including humiliation, degrading, and rejecting), deprivation of necessary health
care (including refusal to treat or provide consent for treatment), inability or
unwillingness to care for a child without adequate provisions for care (Turner,
2005) (Child, Family and Community Services Act, 1996).
Attention deficit hyper activity disorder: is a diagnosis, with a usual onset during
childhood, characterized with poor concentration, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.
Treatment is oftentimes medication and/or a focus on environmental factors,
particularly child/parent interactions (Turner, 2005).
Feminist perspective: this perspective attempts to end the patriarchal, oppressive
influence built into societal roles, and institutions. Feminists sometimes use
consciousness raising to help marginalized peoples gain equality (Turner, 2005).
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a continuum of permanent birth defects caused by
maternal alcohol consumption while the baby is in-vitro. Fetal alcohol spectrum
disorder can be characterized by facial features, deficiencies in height and weight,
and behaviour problems (Wikimedia, 2009).
Gender issues: are difficulties arising from a person acting different from the socially
constructed gender norms seen as traditional to their biological gender. Gender
issues can be complex and affect every area of a person's life (Turner, 2005).
Labelling theory: states that identity and behaviour are influenced by the perceptions and

8
things people say and think about us. This theory is often used when speaking of
deviant behaviour (Wikimedia, 2009).
Neglect: the failure to provide basic essentials to live. Also includes abandonment (Child,
Family and Community Services Act, 1996) (Turner, 2005).
Northern: latitude, temperature, population, and accessibility are a few of the
measurements that have been used to characterize the north. The north cannot be
defined by one measurement (Graham, 1990). The majority of Canadians live
close to the United States boarder, leaving 1% of the population residing in 80%
of the land mass (Zapf, 1993). In British Columbia, Northern Health identifies the
north as 600,000sqkm affecting 300,000 people. The north is recognized to be
almost two-thirds of British Columbia and span from Northwest Territories to the
Alberta boarder to the Pacific Ocean (Northern Health, 2008).
Phenomenology: a qualitative approach that attempts to understand a human experience
through investigative processes. The purpose of phenomenological research is to
create a description for the lived experience (Creswell, 2007).
Role theory: is the understanding of relationships through the roles projected by
others. Role theory is most widely wrote about by Herbert Strean and Helen
Perlman. This theory examines the interactions between people as a way of
demonstrating how norms shape behaviour and cause stress or benefit in people.
(Turner, 2005).
Scapegoat: One who is blamed for the actions and problems of others. The one who is
blamed is often the subject of unreasonable resentment (Scapegoat, 2009).
Sibling: can include biological siblings (sharing two biological parents), half siblings
(sharing one biological parent), step-siblings (related through marriage of
parents), adoptive siblings (related through legal process), foster siblings (related
through shared home), or other circumstances (not biologically related but live
together and are considered siblings) (Kiselica & Morrill-Richards, 2007).
Social worker: A professional that is characterized by services such as treatment, aid, or
investigation of the physically, mentally, economically or socially disadvantaged
(Social work, 2009).
Solution-focused therapy: One theoretical approach, used by clinicians, to improve
functioning in a family and individuals. The premise is clients should focus on
problem solving and solution focused exercises as opposed to focusing on the
issue (Nichols & Schwartz, 2005). The clinician centers the attention on the
strengths of the family and uses examples of family cohesion as learning
instruments (Berg, 1994).
Overview of Chapters

9
This thesis is composed of six chapters outlining the research study. Chapter one
is the introduction, Chapter two is the literature review, Chapter three is the research
methodology section, Chapter four is the data analysis, Chapter five is the chapter
discussing implications for social workers, and Chapter six is the conclusion.
Chapter one, provides an introduction of the research study and explains and
defines the key concepts. The introduction is meant to launch a general understanding of
what will occur during the research study including a breakdown of each chapter, which
highlighting the important aspects. The definition of the key concepts will be given so
readers and author alike have the same understanding of the concepts used throughout the
research and what is meant by these terms.
Chapter two of this thesis is the literature review. The literature review looks at
the historical roots within the research on the topic of siblings. The focus of historical
research on siblings, and the nature versus nurture debate in terms of sibling and
childhood development is discussed. The treatment options for siblings who have been
abused or neglected and possible counselling techniques are also examined. Next, the
current areas of research are explored. The considerations for siblings placed in foster
care and adoption situations and the controversy that surrounds is an area of current
research interest. This chapter also looks at areas of research related to the topic of
siblings. Child abuse and neglect, sibling abuse, and role and labelling theory are some of
the areas where research, related to siblings, is occurring. The next section is a critique of
the literature. There are several areas identified in the literature reviewed for this thesis
where gaps have been identified. The literature review, chapter two, provides a

10
foundation for what is known about siblings, and how this research will add to the
literature.
Chapter three is research methodology. This chapter discusses the research
methodology and how and why the research was conducted the way it was. This research
was completed from the qualitative approach. The research method chosen is
transcendental phenomenology. The research methodology chapter discusses the sample
size and its rationale, and the data collection process. Also discussed in this chapter are
ethical considerations. This is an important section as it discusses the provisions set in
place to ensure participant confidentiality is protected to the best of the researcher and
institution's ability. Finally, the limitation section examines the borders of the research
project.
Chapter four focuses on data analysis. This section discusses the results of the
interviews with participants and describes in detail the themes and descriptions of the
phenomena. This chapter starts with the research specifics, such as how the participants
came to be involved in the study. The next section gives an in depth look at how the data
is analyzed based on a qualitative, phenomenological approach. Each question asked to
the participants during the interview is analyzed in the same fashion and the responses
recorded. After, the themes for each question were analyzed from the transcriptions.
Finally, the themes were sorted and descriptions of the phenomena were given. This
chapter is a significant portion of this thesis as it explains the results of the research. The
themes were insightful and provided a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena.
The results inform social work practice and assist new practitioners with knowledge in
this area.

11
The fifth chapter discusses the implications of the research for social workers.
This section considers how the research results can benefit helping professionals and how
this research will add to the current literature on the subject of siblings. Completing this
research opens several possibilities for further research, which is also discussed in this
section of the implications chapter. Transferability of the results for the greater
population is the next section of chapter five. Transferability speaks to the population to
whom the results are relevant and on whom the results will have an impact. While this is
a small study, chapter five will show that pieces of the framework may be relevant and
inform the broader population based on Guba and Lincon's criteria for transferability
(1982). Next a potential treatment option for siblings who have been abused or neglected
will be discussed. Solution-focused therapy is a counselling treatment for siblings, which
is outlined in this chapter. The implications chapter discusses how the results of this
research are relevant for social workers.
Finally, chapter six is the conclusion. Areas for further research are formalized so
that those researching the subject of siblings are given suggestions on where the research
could go from here. The research results are organized into themes and descriptions of
the phenomena are given. Finally the chapter ends with concluding thoughts and
reflections from the research.

12
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review will begin by looking at the historical research completed
on the topic of siblings, and on abusive parental differential treatment, followed by an
examination of current literature.
The sibling relationship is an important relationship to understand. The
relationship between siblings is often complex with changing dynamics (Sanders, 2004).
Sometimes siblings need to compete for parental attention and/or resources; sometimes
siblings have a complimentary relationship where experiences and emotions are shared. It
is theorized siblings will spend more time together than with anyone else, including their
parents. Siblings are likely the longest standing relationship many people will ever have
(Sanders, 2004). The relationship between siblings is multifaceted and has benefits to
being studied.
Child Abuse
Child abuse can include physical, emotional, sexual abuse or neglect by a parent
or caregiver toward a child {Child, Family and Community Services Act, 1996). Parental
abuse can have different affects on siblings. In abusive or neglectful homes, some
siblings may turn toward each other to provide the needs unmet by their parents, such as
love and kindness (Bank & Kahn, 1997). In abusive or neglectful homes, children can
sometimes become the caregivers for their siblings. A care-taking sibling is the term
coined by Bank and Kahn to describe siblings who take over the role of raising their
siblings (1997). Also described are super-kids who, in addition to having the role of
caring for their siblings, take on the role of caring for their parents. These children feed,

13
discipline, and attempt to keep their younger siblings in line to avoid further abuse for
them or their siblings. Not all older children should have the role of care giving for
younger siblings as many older siblings have been researched to be harsher in discipline
and aggressive toward younger siblings (Bank & Kahn, 1997). Children's abusive
behaviour toward each other is sometimes a reflection of the relationship they see
between their parents (Kiselica & Morrill-Richards, 2007).
Any amount of child abuse or neglect is too much, but in Canada, the number is
alarmingly high. In Canada it is estimated, 33% of males and 27% of females reported
experiences of physical or sexual abuse as children (Government of Canada, 2006). The
high prevalence of child abuse and neglect may be further exacerbated by high rates of
child poverty in Canada. Both ways, children in Canada are suffering and more should to
be done to mediate the risk.
The effects of child abuse and neglect can stretch into adulthood for many
survivors. Issues such as low self-esteem, depression, substance misuse, criminal activity,
and sexual deviance may be the result of childhood trauma (Government of Canada,
2006). There are social factors that have been linked to child abuse and neglect. Social
factors such as low socio-economic status, large family size, life stressors, and substance
misuse can all play a part in negative family dynamics (Government of Canada, 2006).
The importance of studying family, sibling, and individual therapy is apparent in the risk
factors and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect.
The prevalence of child abuse and neglect in Canada is high. Maltreatment in
childhood is further aggravated by social factors. The effects of such maltreatment can be

14
long lasting and life changing. One reason it is important to study child abuse and neglect
is to develop new insights into prevention and interventions for families.
Scapegoating.
Another example of child abuse is scapegoating. Scapegoating is an extreme form
of parental differential treatment. Scapegoating is where one child is treated differently
from his or her siblings in a negative way (Sanders, 2004). The concept of scapegoating
has biblical roots. The Old Testament teaches that the sins of the people were confessed
to a goat that was later expelled from the community. Similarly, in the story of Jonah, he
could not escape God's anger in the middle of the ocean and all of the men on the boat
were in danger because of Jonah. However, the storm calmed once Jonah left the boat
and was swallowed by a fish (Sanders, 2004). These concepts of scapegoating are not
always how it occurs within the family, as the scapegoated child may be victimized over
and over and not leave the family home. The other family members may not want the
scapegoated members to leave. It is not always known why one child is viewed as less
than and becomes a scapegoat (Dunn & Plomin, 1990). Some theorize the reason may be
related to the parent's relationships with their own siblings, or how the child's birth order
affects the marital relationship (Bank & Kahn, 1997). If one child in the family is the
scapegoat, the research shows, the dynamics between siblings is altered. Familial abuse
and scapegoating may be different in each family.
Research on sibling and parent interactions have shown older children are often
shown less attention by their parents when compared to their younger siblings. This has
been documented by several researchers (Brody & Stoneman, 1994; Dunn & Plomin,
1990; Heilbrunn, 1986). Some of the research on scapegoating shows that if one sibling is

15
scapegoated by the parent, the other sibling(s) may act as mediator between the parents
and sibling, or may work to detract attention away from the sibling (Heilbrunn, 1986). Or
the other siblings, in a scapegoating situation, will learn from their parents and model the
behaviour by also acting aggressively toward the child (Kiselica & Morrill-Richards,
2007). The decision to ally with the parents may be made to avoid being abused
themselves. On the other hand, differential treatment could lead to resentment and further
alienation between the siblings by the scapegoated child (Bank & Kahn, 1997). The
reasons why some children are scapegoated and others are not, is not widely researched,
although some believe that the parent's childhood relationships with their own siblings
are related to the way the parent views and treats their children (Bank & Kahn, 1997).
Scapegoating is a family problem that has an impact on each member of the
family unit. The sibling relationship, in abusive homes, can be affected negatively
through the development of relationships and in child development. The non-abused
sibling may blame the abused sibling for receiving more attention: this may be
particularly true in cases of parental sexual abuse against a child. The non-abused sibling
may also blame the abused sibling if the situation causes a Child Protection Social
Worker to become involved.
The scapegoated child may exhibit personality characteristics that contribute to
the scapegoating. If the child has a disability or a difficult temperament the parents may
single the child out because of the child's personal issues (Sanders, 2004).
As discussed earlier, sibling abuse may also be relevant in scapegoating. Sibling
abuse can further alienate the child who is labelled the scapegoat. Each family member
has a role, and once a child has gotten into the scapegoat role, siblings may model parent

16
behaviour toward the child (Kiselica, 2007). Risk factors for sibling abuse include: lack
of parental supervision, rigid family dynamics, spousal assault, and child assault
(Kiselica, 2007). Differential treatment can, in extreme cases, be a slippery slope to
sibling abuse. The sibling relationship and family unit are affected negatively by
scapegoating.
Some researchers view a negative sibling relationship and the existence of
scapegoating as being the influence of the mother (Dunn, 1983). Stark and Flitcraft argue
that the male partner abuses the female partner and she in turns abuses her child as a way
to feel like she has control (as cited in Sanders, 2004). Other research shows men as the
initiators of child abuse and scapegoating and urges social workers to take a close look at
families where there are siblings who have different biological fathers and assess the risk
individually (Jaudes & Diamond, as cited in Sanders, 2004).
Differential parental treatment.
Differential treatment, positive and negative, has been highlighted in many
studies. Dunn and Plomin (1990) looked at research conducted with Colorado parents:
approximately one third said they felt the same intensity of affection for both of their
children, and only one third admitted they gave both their children the same amount of
attention. Another study that interviewed siblings concluded that 50% of siblings believe
their sibling is treated worse than they are (Dunn & McGuire, 1994). On the other hand,
differential treatment is not always considered abusive. For example, a parent cannot treat
their eight-year-old child in the exact same way as their five-year-old child: different ages
call for different discipline and privilege. Rowe (1981) argues that it is not parental
differential treatment that harms the child, but a perceived difference in treatment by the

17
child that causes the emotional harm. Children react to their perceived treatment and the
perceived intention behind the parental action. When the child interprets the act as
aggressive or unfair, the child may experience distress (Rowe, 1983).
The way a child perceives parental treatment determines reaction. Children are
especially sensitive to differences in parental treatment. Perceptions of parental support
correlate with deviant teenage behaviour (Rowe 1981). Studies have shown children react
to their parent's perceived behaviour, regardless of actual intent. This explains how
children can be psychologically harmed by a parent's actions even when the parent
intention was honourable (Dunn, 1983). If children perceive they are being treated
differently, it changes their reactions toward their parents, which in turn changes the
relationship. As shown in the next section, differential treatment by parents can also
strain sibling relationship with each other.
In one study about sibling differential treatment, researchers monitored parent's
interaction with their children together and then observed siblings afterward. The study
found, mother's differential controlling behaviours caused negative behaviours from the
younger child toward their older sibling. On the other hand, the mother's differential
positive behaviours toward her child caused more negative behaviours from the oldest
child toward their youngest sibling (Brody & Stoneman, 1994). Thus, parents have
tremendous influence on the relationship their children have with each other (Dunn,
1983). Parental abuse also has the potential to normalize, or encourage, siblings treating
of one another negatively as they observe their parents doing. "Adolescent perceptions of
parenting did significantly mediate a composite measure of parental conflict-negativity
and adolescent antisocial behaviour and depressive symptoms" (Neiderhiser,

18
Hetherington, Pike & Reiss, 1998, p. 1459). Anxiety, depression, and withdrawing are
characteristics used to describe children who experience abuse by their parents (Dunn &
Plomin, 1990).
Historical Overview of the Literature
The topic of siblings is a widely researched one. Research of siblings is a new
practice according to Freeman (1993). This literature review follows Freeman's method
of organizing the literature on siblings into decades. According to Freeman, early
research on siblings commences in the beginning of the 1970s. This research focused on
birth order, sibling rivalry, and the sibling bond. Birth order is the study of how the order
and spacing of each child affects their personality and family role (Kluger, 2007). Sibling
rivalry centers on why and how siblings are competitive with each other and usually
gives suggestions for how parents can cope with this (Bank & Kahn, 1997). The sibling
bond is an area of interest as it looks at the unique connection most siblings seem to have
with one another (Bank & Kahn, 1997). The roots of research into the topic of siblings set
the stage for further studies.
A second area of early theoretical interest of researchers into the topic of siblings
focuses on nature versus nurture (aspects of people's personalities compared to that of
their siblings). This research, according to Freeman (1993), started in the 1980s. Dunn
and Plomin are at the heart of the nature versus nurture debate, and the shared versus
non-shared environmental influences debate (eg., Dunn, 1983; Dunn & McGuire, 1994;
Dunn & Plomin, 1990; Plomin, Chipuer & Neiderhiser, 1994; Plomin, McClearn,
Pedersen, Nesselroade & Bergman, 1998; Plomin, Reiss, Hetherington & Howe, 1994).
The research agrees neither genetic nor environmental influences are enough of a single

19
contributing factor to explain the personality and behavioural differences between
siblings raised in the same home and sharing two biological parents.
There is still much researchers do not know about the sibling relationship and
how it affects their relationships with parents and peers, and in personality and
development (Dunn, 1983). There are several factors, according to Dunn and McGuire
(1994), which influence child development: the parent's childhood experiences, parent's
relationship, child's education, child's location, and parent's approach to education and
discipline. Research also suggests these differences may contribute to differential
treatment by parents, which in turn contributes to the development of the child. Siblings
are sensitive to the differences in treatment between themselves and their siblings by their
parents. This sensitivity may not be far off as some parents readily admit differences in
strength of feelings toward each of their children (Dunn & Plomin, 1990). Children's
interpretation of differential treatment can have the same negative affect as actual
parental differential treatment (Plomin, Reiss, Hetherington & Howe, 1994).
Treatment options.
A third historical area covered in the literature is treatment options for siblings
and families. Although research on sibling therapy is minimal, there are theories to use
when working clinically with siblings (Freeman, 1993). Theories used in sibling therapy,
historically and presently, are: bridging, mediation, problem solving, structural, and role
theories (Freeman, 1993). Bridging is the therapeutic tool used to bring siblings closer
together. Mediation is the process of speaking about problems and coming to an
agreement (Freeman, 1993). Problem solving is a clinical approach where the therapist
focuses on what the clients identify as the issues and tries to solve them (Lefton,

20
Brannon, Boyes & Ogden, 2005). Structural theory in sibling therapy is the process of
identifying and challenging the structure of the family. Role theories state siblings can
sometimes get stuck in rigid roles that are tied to their self-esteem and self worth.
Therapists who subscribe to role theory help siblings realize their role in the family and
how it affects their behaviours and actions (Nichols & Schwartz, 2005).
Activities that therapists may use when engaging in sibling therapy are:
genograms, a map of the family which may include labelling and roles in the family;
social network analysis, a map of significant people involved in the client's life which
plots the relationships (negative or positive) with each person; and ecomaps, a systems
theory look at family and friends and how their relationships affect the client (Nichols &
Schwartz, 2005). Although treatment for siblings is a minimally researched topic,
theories used by clinicians are useful in identifying family roles, recognizing
relationships with friends and family, and bringing siblings together. Theory in sibling
treatment has evolved over time and seems to focus on changing the relationship by
challenging roles, and by problem solving. A closer look at problem solving theory, or
solution-focused therapy in sibling treatment will occur later in this thesis.
Looking at the literature, the importance of researching siblings and sibling
relationships quickly became apparent. Siblings play an essential role in child
development (Dunn, 1983; Edwards, Hadfield & Mauthner, 2006; Erich & Leung, 2002).
The literature suggests a question to be answered: if sibling relationships are so important
to personality and development, why is the topic not studied more extensively? Sibling
relationships and development was not an area extensively explored during my
undergraduate social work education, nor was it an important part of my training as a

21
Child Protection Social Worker. It became clear, while reviewing the literature that social
work students could benefit from further education on siblings and sibling family
dynamics.
The historical overview of the literature suggests a focus on sibling rivalry, the
nature versus nature debate, and treatment options for families. Researchers began to take
a closer look into the sibling relationship in the mid 1970s. Researchers soon realized the
importance of the sibling bond and how greatly it affects child development.
To summarize, a review of the literature shows that academics have focused on
the areas of birth order, sibling rivalry, and the sibling bond (Freeman, 1993).
Researchers have also focused on the nature versus nurture debate in regards to
personality development. Another area of interest in early research is treatment
considerations for siblings. After reviewing the historical research directions it makes
sense to next examine the current directions.
Current Research Directions
Current research (within the last ten years) discusses a variety of sibling issues.
There are a growing number of research studies examining sibling considerations in
adoption and foster care. When children are placed in adoption and foster care the policy
surrounding best interest of the children assists in planning and placement decisions. The
current research builds on earlier research, and will be discussed next.
Adoption and foster placement.
Sibling issues in adoption and foster care has been an area of discussion and
controversy in current literature. It is a previously held belief that siblings adjust and
function better when placed together in adoption or foster placements; this belief is now

22
being questioned. There is a growing volume of research urging practitioners to look at
best interest for siblings' placement on a case-by-case basis (Erich & Leung, 2002;
Massinga & Pecora, 2004; Whelan, 2003). Additional discussion on current policy and
practice in regards to siblings being placed together will occur further on in this section.
Attachment.
The topic of attachment is of critical importance in any discussion of abused and
neglected children in adoption and foster care. Attachment is a long-standing emotional
connection between a child and caregiver (Child Trauma Academy, 2005). There are
short time periods where attachment needs to occur or else the child may have difficulty
forming healthy relationships throughout life. Children who are abused or neglected are
particularly at risk for poor attachment (Child Trauma Academy, 2005). Parents who
have experienced trauma may have trouble attaching to their children. Children who have
poor attachment may exhibit development delays, emotional issues, or aggression.
However, current literature suggests children who miss the critical attachment period may
still be able to replace their missed experiences. This may be a long and difficult process
for both child and caregiver (Child Trauma Academy, 2005). Attachment is an area of
vast research and interest in the mental health field. The long lasting effects of attachment
in child development make this a subject related to siblings.
Service standards.
The Ministry of Children and Family Development supports a publication titled
Child and Family Development Service Standards (2003). This publication speaks to best
practices and guidelines for social workers working with children and families. Standard
20 speaks about the importance of placing children who are in care of the Ministry with

23
extended family members to promote lifelong relationships and stability. Standard 20
also addresses placing aboriginal children within their community, or if this is not
possible, within another aboriginal home. Standard 20 argues that it is important to
make every effort to place the child in a location: where he or she can maintain
contact with relatives and friends, in the same family unit as the child's brothers
and sister, that will allow the child to continue in the same school, and that will
allow continued contact with his or her cultural community" {Child and Family
Service Standards, 2003, p. 70).
The intent behind these standards is to reduce the trauma to the child, give emotional
stability, create a sense of belonging, increase the opportunity for family reunification,
and preserve family values {Child and Family Service Standards, 2003). These standards
encourage placing siblings together in the same family unit. It does not address the
considerations for how to decide if and when siblings should not be placed together. The
standards do not give consideration or guidelines to children who are abused by their
siblings and where it may not be in their best interest to be placed with a particular
sibling. A standard which acknowledges the abusive relationship which can sometimes
occur between siblings, and offers suggestions for placement would be beneficial to
Child Protection Social Workers. A tool for Child Protection Social Workers in assessing
the relationship between siblings would be beneficial. The standards, which offer
guidelines for placement of children in care, offers recommendations for placement to
promote stability and family ties in children. However, these standards do not
acknowledge specifically, or address the abusive sibling relationship which sometimes
occurs.
A second Ministry of Children and Family Development supported publication
Child in Care Standards (2004) speaks about the sibling relationship when a child is in

24
care of the Ministry. Standard 10 encourages making it a priority to promote lifelong
stability and continuity of relationships. Standard 10 says,
Make it a priority to promote the stability and continuity of lifelong relationships
for the child, by: actively supporting the child in maintaining positive attachments
with parents, siblings, extended family, friends, caregivers and others; making
every effort to prevent unnecessary delays in decision making by using
collaborative planning and alternative dispute resolution processes to reach
agreements on developing and implementing the plan of care; reunifying the child
with family or extended family, or if that is not possible, developing an alternative
out-of-care living arrangement that will provide the opportunity to maintain and
develop lifelong relationships, and explore on an ongoing, regular basis whether
reunification with family or extended family is possible" {Children in Care
Service Standards, 2004, p. 112).
This standard specifies that Child Protection Social Workers should promote positive
relationships between children and their siblings and family and community. This
standard has a similar intention to Standard 20; however neither speaks about the
considerations for siblings for whom regular contact may be negative and not in the best
interests of the child. On the other hand, Standard 10 does specify promoting positive
contact between the siblings.
Sibling abuse.
The relationship between siblings is altered if the children are growing up in an
abusive or neglectful home. Heilbrunn (1986) wrote on the topic of sibling relationships
in abusive homes. Heilbrunn's observations were, in general, siblings raised in abusive
homes had more positive interactions between each other. These interactions are based on
birth order and spacing with middle born children having more negative behaviours
toward siblings, and closer spaced children having more positive behaviours toward each
other. Disturbingly, people who identify as being gay, bisexual, or lesbian reported higher
levels of abuse as children than their heterosexual siblings; the causality relationship is

25
not known (Balsam, Rothblum & Beauchaine, 2005). The dynamics between siblings and
parents is changed in abusive or neglectful homes.
Sibling violence is a common form of violence and may often be viewed as
normal sibling interaction (Simonelli, Mullis & Rohde, 2005). Straus and Gelles estimate
that as many as 80% of children between the ages of 13 and 17 commit what they define
as a violent act against a sibling (1990). Siblings can abuse each other in the same way
caregivers can abuse children: sexually, physically, or emotionally. It is estimated that a
high number of acts of violence between siblings may go unreported and may be viewed
as normal sibling play. Research has shown siblings often treat each other the way they
see their parents acting toward each other (Kiselica & Morrill-Richards, 2007). There are
often common characteristics in situations where one sibling is abused by another sibling.
A lack of parental supervision, dependence of one sibling upon another (as in care giving
situations), and a history of abuse of the sibling by another member of the family, are all
characteristics common in sibling abuse (Kiselika & Morrill-Richards, 2007).
One case of sibling abuse in Saskatchewan received national attention when the
show The Fifth Estate highlighted a set of three siblings (one brother and two sisters)
who made wild accusations of extreme abuse by their foster parents and relatives. In the
summer of 1991, these siblings made accusations which sparked a ten month
investigation, and led to the arrest of sixteen people including two teenagers. The
accusations included tales of babies being killed, sexual sadism, and people being cut up.
The investigators involved (RCMP and social workers) believed the children could not
possibly have made this up. Eleven years later, when the siblings had reached the age of
majority, two of the children have changed their stories. The brother disclosed how he

26
forced his sisters to participate in extravagant lies about their foster parents and relatives,
through threat of death, for the purpose of having access to his sisters (by living in the
same foster home) so he could continue to sexually abuse them. One sister states she was
so afraid she made up elaborate stories about her foster parents to avoid the wrath of her
brother. The sister speaks of how she endured sexual abuse from her brother for years.
Even after the social workers and RCMP were aware of the sibling abuse, the children
were still kept in the same foster homes. This is one example of an extreme Canadian
case of sibling abuse which had implications for foster parents and the social welfare
system (Cashore, 2002). While child protection policies have change in the last 19 years,
we need to acknowledge the seriousness of sibling abuse, recognize the signs of abuse,
and take immediate action.
Sibling abuse is not a specific type of abuse as provided in the Child, Family and
Community Services Act (1996). Sibling abuse is not a specific risk factor that is assessed
in the immediate safety assessment that Child Protection Social Workers complete when
conducting investigations. Likely, a report of sibling abuse would be coded as parent not
protecting their child from abuse. This is potentially an interesting dilemma for a single
working mother. If the mother is told one of her children is abusing her other child and it
is her job to protect her abused child, how is she to do this when she is working? A
working parent may be forced to make a decision between work and her children, or one
child versus the other child. Sibling abuse can potentially lead to some difficult decisions
for the parent of the siblings.
Sibling abuse has been studied and common characteristics identified. Within the
home, there seems to be little distinction between male and female perpetrators; however,

27
outside the home males appear more likely the aggressor (Sanders, 2004). Green (as cited
on Sanders, 2004), studied sibling abuse and found distinguishing characteristics
common in situations of sibling abuse. Some of the characteristics commonly found in
situations of sibling abuse are: the abuser had been physically abused themselves,
experienced parental withdrawal, were given large amounts of responsibility for care
taking of siblings, and perceived favoritism of the abused sibling. In some cases, abuse,
perpetrated by siblings, may be acted out for purposes of revenge or venting misdirected
anger toward a parent.
The research on siblings and foster and adoption care is sometimes controversial,
as shown in this section, as some researchers have made findings which contradict the
previously held belief, that it is not always best for siblings to be placed together. There
has been an abundance of research in the last few years about sibling abuse and the
widely held belief that it is severely unreported.
Areas of Related Research
Research related to siblings and abuse has been completed in the area of role
theory. Role theory is the psychoanalytical idea that people play roles that regulate social
situations (Nichols & Schwartz, 2005). Role theory is often used when examining
families and sibling relationships. According to role theory, an individual's relationships
with others are observed as complementary or reciprocal (Nichols & Schwartz, 2005). In
terms of siblings, some researchers argue that siblings get caught in rigid roles within the
family (Freeman, 1993). The "smart one" and the "bad one" are terms used to
differentiate between siblings, and often times between twins. Parents early on instill the
roles each child will play within a family based on birth order, gender, hierarchy, and

28
their relationship with their own siblings. The role directed toward children by their
parents can be a self-fulfilling prophecy as theorized in labelling theory (Edwards,
Hadfield, Lucey & Mauthner, 2006).
Labelling theory.
Closely related to role theory is labelling theory. Labelling is the social control
theory that individuals seen as having a certain characteristic will act the way they
perceive people see them (Abercrombie, Hill & Turner, 2000). In terms of families, if a
parent has labeled a child a troublemaker, labelling theory says the child will act out the
role as troublemaker. Bank and Kahn (1997) point out that parents may create these roles
for their children based on their own experiences with siblings. Children act out the roles
given by their parents, which enforce the roles they hold in the family (Edwards,
Hadfield, Lucey & Mauthner, 2006). As described earlier, the study looking at the selfreported childhood abuse rates of people who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, and
heterosexual and how sexuality may or may not have influenced childhood abuse fits in
this category (Balsam, Rothblum & Beauchaine, 2005). The research questioned the
reaction or labelling of the abuse based on the parent's perception of the child. Labelling
can be a powerful influence in the personality of a child.
Critique of the Literature
The following critique of the literature acknowledges limitations and looks for
areas where further research is needed. In this section, three limitations of the literature
will be discussed. One limitation is that, for the most part, the research related to siblings
and abuse is self-reported. A second limitation is the majority of the research on the topic
of siblings is quantitative in design. A third limitation is the lack of Canadian research

29
completed on this topic. Through critiquing the literature, areas for further research can
be discovered.

The first critique is the fact that much of the research reviewed on siblings is done
from the sibling's point of view and self-reporting. The drawback to having much of the
research conducted from the standpoint of the sibling is that the research is only as
reliable as one can recall; therefore, the research is only as accurate as one's memory
(Creswell, 2003). This can also mean that the data is biased by the person recalling the
events, or even biased by the researcher interpreting the data. While completing
interviews and questionnaires from the sibling's point of view is useful, validity is
stronger when other sources or third parties can corroborate the information (Creswell,
2003).
A second limitation is that much of the literature reviewed that was completed on
siblings and abuse is quantitative research. Quantitative research does not make as many
allowances for personal experience from the researcher or the participant as a qualitative
study may. Patton (2002, p. 14) states, "Quantitative methods, on the other hand, require
the use of standardized measures so that the varying perspectives and experiences of
people can be fit into a limited number of predetermined response categories to which
numbers are assigned". The sibling relationship can be deeply emotional and
multifaceted; to appreciate it involves listening to personal experiences (Sanders, 2004).
The phenomena of siblings needs to be looked at from many angles to get a handle on the
complexity.
There is a lack of Canadian literature on the issue of siblings and abuse. Much of
the research comes from the United States. Canada is uniquely different from the United

30
States and therefore research from Canada will more accurately reflect life in Canada.
Equally, I was not able to find research on siblings in northern or rural communities.
How rural or northern life affects- positively or negatively- the sibling relationship has
not been widely explored. This thesis seeks to shed light on sibling relationships in
abusive or neglectful homes, from the viewpoint of social workers, in northern British
Columbia. A shortfall of Canadian literature on the topic of siblings is one limitation of
the research on the subject of siblings.
The literature on siblings and abuse has some limitations that prevent the issue
from being seen from different points of view, such as from a qualitative and Canadian
perspective. To conclude, one limitation of the literature is that much of the literature is
done from a sibling's point of view, this research could be strengthened if the data was
corroborated from siblings and other third parties. A second limitation is that the research
on siblings that has been produced is mainly quantitative. A third limitation is the lack of
Canadian literature on siblings. One goal of this research thesis is to further the
knowledge about siblings, in a northern British Columbian context, who are abused or
neglected similarly and differently by their parents.
Gaps in the Literature
There is a wealth of information about siblings in academia, but there are also
gaps in the literature. One gap is that research into sibling relationship is theory, and
because it is theory there is room for growth and new ideas. Another gap in the literature
is the personal experiences of scapegoated children completed from a qualitative research
perspective. There is little research on why children are treated differently in some
families. Researchers have discovered different contributors to personality development

31
in siblings (Plomin, Reiss, Hetherington & Howe, 1994), and how siblings play a large
role in early development (Newman, 1994). Siblings and family dynamics, as observed
by social workers, is an area that needs further consideration. Questions about the
phenomena and experience of being a sibling and how social workers view family
dynamics in abusive or neglectful homes are not widely researched. Social workers can
provide unique insight into the family system, which is one reason social workers were
utilized in this research.
Research into the sibling relationship is widely based on role and labelling theory.
These theories are two of the foundations that shape our understanding of siblings
(Sanders, 2004). In Kubiliene's (2009) study on resilience in childhood, she quoted
Wegscheider's role theory. This facet of role theory discusses four types of children:
family hero, scapegoat, mascot, and lost child; these roles are consistent with the
literature on siblings. The theories used in research on sibling relationships are just thattheories; because they are theories, there is room for new ideas and new research to
explore the complexities of the sibling relationship.
Qualitative research into the personal experiences of scapegoated children is an
area not extensively studied. In-depth interviews with scapegoated children, including
analyzed themes, would open up a world of insight. Interviews with parents who
scapegoat their children could potentially change the way child protection work is done.
There could be benefits for fresh research into the areas related to children and social
work. Qualitative research is beneficial, particularly in areas of social work where new
idea and theories are generated that change the way people, relationships, and families
are viewed (Marlow, 2005). The research completed for this thesis will hopefully shed a

32
little light on the reasons children are treated differently or similarly in abusive and/or
neglectful homes.
The research outlined in this thesis will contribute to the literature on what is
known about siblings. The research will provide a distinct view of how parents treat
siblings similarly and differently in abusive and neglectful homes. This thesis offers a
social work perspective of siblings and family framed in a qualitative research study. The
results will add to the current literature about why abusive and neglectful parents treat
their children similarly and differently and how this affects family dynamics and sibling
relationships. Identifying reasons for scapegoating children is a hypothesized outcome of
the study.
The potential knowledge generated from this study could give social workers the
tools to examine how differential sibling treatment may be detrimental to the child. Social
workers could use these tools to point out observations to parents and families, and
empower them to change. Social work clinicians may use the knowledge gained for
treatment purposes in family, or sibling therapies. The lack of qualitative studies on
siblings and abusive families suggests there is room for this knowledge. Social workers
and other helping professionals can benefit from as much knowledge as possible on
siblings and families.
Summary of the Literature
To summarize the literature, there are a few key areas of interest. Sibling rivalry,
birth order, and the sibling bond are three more commonly researched areas (Freeman,
1993). These areas provide insight into how personality is developed, but on a whole,
they do not offer all of the knowledge needed for professionals working with siblings and

33

families assessing risk. In this literature review, research from books, journals,
dissertations, textbooks, and newsletters were examined. Academics do not agree on all
of the aspects of the literature: there are some interesting debates in the world of sibling
research. One example of an interesting debate is: how much a child's development is
based on genetics and how much is based on environment. Another controversial
question is: should siblings always be placed together when brought into a foster care or
adoption situations? Researchers theorize sibling abuse may be generally underreported
and therefore not always recognized and addressed (Kiselica & Morrill-Richards, 2007).
Sibling abuse can be considered child abuse: anytime a child is abused (physically,
sexually, or emotionally) and a parent knows but does not protect it is considered child
abuse. One form of child abuse could be differential treatment or, in its extreme form,
scapegoating. Scapegoating is not a largely researched topic; it is hoped that
professionals, who work with children and families, will find insight in this thesis that
can inform practice about parental differential treatment in abusive or neglectful homes.
Contribution to the Literature
This research contributes to the literature that is known about siblings. This
research gives a distinct view of how parents treat siblings differently or similarly in
abusive and neglectful homes. This thesis offers a social work perspective of siblings and
family framed into a qualitative research approach. The results will add to current
literature about why abusive and neglectful parents treat their children similarly and
differently and how this affects family dynamics and sibling relationships. Identifying
reasons for scapegoating children can be useful for helping professionals who work with
children and families. The potential knowledge generated from this study will offer social

34
workers more tools to identify when differential sibling treatment is occurring. Social
workers may use these tools to point out observations to parents and families, and
empower change. Social workers may also use the knowledge gained for treatment
purposes in family or sibling therapies. The lack of qualitative studies on siblings and
abuse in families means there is room for this type of research. Recognizing how
important sibling and family relationships are to the development of children, social
workers and other helping professionals can benefit from as much knowledge as possible
on this topic.

35

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Chapter 3 will outline the methodology for this research. To begin, qualitative
research and its application in this thesis will be described and the rationale for its use
explained. This study employed a transcendental phenomenological approach. The
parameters of the phenomenological study and its justification will be described. Next a
discussion of the sample population and the reasons this sample was preferred will be
outlined. The data collection methods and procedures is outlined in the next section,
followed by a discussion of ethical considerations and ending with the limitations of the
study.
Qualitative Research
This thesis prescribes to the qualitative approach. Qualitative research is
appropriate for this study as it is "interactive and humanistic", and the themes of the
research emerge based on the responses and perceptions of the participants (Creswell,
2003, p. 181). There are five common qualitative approaches: narrative, phenomenology,
grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. The qualitative approach is consistent
with social work values and, in turn, social work research. Qualitative research argues
that a theorist's intuition, past experience, and observations are ways of learning about
experiences and human behaviour. Some research, like participatory action and narrative,
offers participants empowerment through the telling of their story, listening to opinions,
and peer-generated knowledge (Marlow, 2005). Finally, qualitative research
characteristically has open-ended contacts with participants, interpretive data,
acknowledgement of values and biases, and has a unique role of the researcher (Creswell,

36
2003). The qualitative approach is also a preferred approach to learn about a
phenomenon.
Phenomenology
Phenomenological research is the examination of the "meaning of experiences of
a phenomena (or topic or concert) for several individuals" (Creswell, 2007, p. 236).
Phenomenology is the study of human consciousness or the study of the essence of
experience (Solomon, 1980). Phenomenology is based on philosophical groundwork by
Hursell, labelled the "father of phenomenology", and his associates (Solomon, 1980).
Phenomenology has different meanings, based on the context. Phenomenology has
different meanings in philosophy and research, and has several theories (Patton, 2002).
While transcendental phenomenology is one type of phenomenological research,
there are different approaches. Hermeneutical phenomenology, for example, has the same
basic goal as the transcendental type, which is to explain a phenomena or lived
experience, but calls for more researcher involvement. While transcendental
phenomenology has the researcher bracket their experiences of the phenomenology to
avoid biasing the participant responses, hermeneutical phenomenology has the researcher
participate in developing the description of the phenomena based on their own
interpretations (Creswell, 2007). Each approach has benefits and limitations depending
on the research project. For the purposes of this research, transcendental phenomenology
was chosen for the reasons outlined below.
When examining research methods, I considered the research assumptions,
framework, limitations, and benefits of several approaches but in the end transcendental
phenomenology was chosen as it is an excellent tool for researching certain types of

37
human behaviour and experience. Phenomenology is best used when the researcher is
investigating or trying to discover the essence of life or a lived experience (Ashworth,
1996). When looking at a fit between the research and methodology, Mauch and Park
(2003, p. 126) list a set of guidelines to evaluate. Of this set of criterion, transcendental
phenomenology is a practical, efficient, promising, and readily available way to study the
experience of northern social workers of similar and differential treatment of siblings in
abusive or neglectful homes.
Transcendental phenomenology, according to Creswell (2007), involves a specific
set of research procedures. Bracketing, interviewing until the saturation point is reached,
and data analyzing are all parts of these processes. Data analysis involves pulling
statements from participant interviews that give insight into the phenomena being
studied, and then looks for themes among the responses. The researcher examines what
the participants experienced and then the researcher is able to write a description of the
phenomena based on common themes (Creswell, 2007).
An understanding of the philosophical assumptions is required and needs to be
acknowledged in phenomenological research (Creswell, 2007). In this section, three
philosophical assumptions of phenomenology will be discussed: consciousness is the real
world, common essences experienced, and social interactions and meaning. An
explanation of these assumptions in terms of phenomenological research will follow.
Is the consciousness the real world? This is the first question that needs to be
answered. The reason this is an important assumption is because phenomenology is the
investigation of human consciousness (Solomon, 1980). The transcendental assumption
in phenomenology is that consciousness is the only connection humans have to the world

38
(Ashworth, 1996). The opposing question is: if consciousness is not the only access to the
world and each other, is there a detached consciousness? Consciousness must be
interpreted in this context as the act of research participants making the consciousness
happen (Solomon, 1980). Hurssel (as quoted by Patton, 2002) explained that humans
know and interpret essences based on the meaning we place on them; this occurs within
our consciousness. When doing research under the phenomenological approach, one
needs to accept the assumption that what people experience is their consciousness of the
real world.
The second philosophical assumption is essence as commonly experienced by
people (Ainsworth, 1996). In order to do phenomenological research, one must believe
the phenomena they are studying can be transferred to other people who have shared
similar experiences. Phenomenological researchers understand that people experience
things differently and therefore have a unique worldview based on their race, sex, socioeconomic status, and education. This is the argument for why observation and intensive
interviewing of each participant is sometimes recommended. It is assumed, however,
despite these many differences, that people experience certain essences in similar ways
(Patton, 2002). If the philosophical assumption that people share similar essences is not
held, phenomenological research is not appropriate.
The final point is the philosophical assumption that the world and social
interactions are meaningful (Ashworth, 1996). The purpose of phenomenological
research is to get a better understanding of how people interpret and experience the
world; therefore, the phenomena people experience is important to the essence of life.
Understanding the way people interpret the world and how people create meaning gives

39
insight into the essence of human character (Patton, 2002). Without the philosophical
assumption that shared essences are meaningful, phenomenological research would not
be completed.
The philosophical assumptions of phenomenology need to be examined and
acknowledged before research can take place. The three assumptions discussed were: real
life is within consciousness, essences are commonly experienced, and social interactions
are meaningful. It is important to recognize these assumptions during the
phenomenological research process of bracketing. These assumptions make
phenomenological research important to social sciences' study of human experience and
life (Patton, 2002).
Another important component of transcendental phenomenology is the concept of
bracketing. Bracketing, which occurs throughout this study, is when the researcher
acknowledges and puts aside all preconceived notions of experience and intellect on the
topic. The purpose of bracketing is so the researcher can learn, untainted, as much as
possible about the experiences of the participants (Creswell, 2007). There are criticisms
regarding bracketing, and there is open debate within the scientific community as to the
ability of a researcher to bracket (Ashworth, 1996).
When bracketing, researchers are asked to put aside empiricism, intellectualism,
personal experiences, and any predetermined idea of what will be learned from
participants (Ashworth, 1996). Some researchers even choose not to do literature reviews
of the topic before conducting the research so as not to taint the study. Researchers argue
bracketing must be carried out to make sure presuppositions do not interfere with the

40
findings (Ashworth, 1996). Bracketing is a difficult task, and some scientists argue
phenomenology is not for beginner researchers.
A common critique of bracketing is the statement that it is impossible to bracket
all preconceived notions of experience and past experiences to complete an unbiased
study (Creswell, 2007). Both the interpretive and feminist critiques state that researchers
cannot be separated from their experiences (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2002). The
experience of the researcher (which is influenced by race, sex, socio-economic status, and
education), cannot be put aside. Some researchers argue personal experiences are
ingrained in the person and it is impossible to separate (Creswell, 2007). What makes
transcendental phenomenological research different from other approaches is the fact that
researchers are not supposed to have any ideas or expectations about what they will learn.
Putting aside prejudgements and expectations of what will be said by participants is
challenging, yet is necessary to create new understanding of phenomena and human
essence. Critics of phenomenology argue bracketing is difficult for experienced scientists
(Ashworth, 1996). The purpose of bracketing is for the researcher to learn, unaffected by
personal knowledge, about the participant's experience of the phenomena (Creswell,
2007). Bracketing is an ongoing procedure applied throughout this research thesis. By
bracketing, or acknowledging the biases, the researcher can put their ideas and
preconceived notions aside and focus on the participant's experience (Patton, 2002).
One consideration in phenomenology is researcher error. All qualitative studies
have the risk of researcher error; however, some argue this is especially true for
phenomenology because of the process of bracketing and clustering. Clustering is the act
of putting the data together and looking for themes and meaning (Creswell, 2007). Both

41
clustering and bracketing are important to transcendental phenomenology. Critics state
that researcher error in phenomenological processes of clustering and bracketing is high
due to the nature of the task. The nature of transcendental phenomeno logical study, clear
of bias, leaves room for scrutiny of the process. Some argue it is impossible to bracket all
previously held experiences and beliefs, as stated earlier. Some state further that the
clustering processes can be flawed if researchers are not careful. If a researcher is not
able to bracket all their own preconceived notions while interviewing the participants,
they will certainly not be able to keep their personal ideas out of the clustering process
(Creswell, 2007).
All research carries the risk of researcher error at any stage of the study. Careful
attention must be paid to all processes of the study. Phenomenology is also criticized for
its circular and "self obsessed" nature (Solomon, 1980, p.5). Phenomenology supporters
defend the notion that research needs to be examined and re-examined for missing
meanings. Supporters also argue that while phenomenology may be circular, its nature is
not vicious (Solomon, 1980). The saturation point is one way of knowing when the
researcher has gathered and examined enough information so that any more information
received would not lead to new insight (Creswell, 2007). In this study, the saturation
point was reached; criteria for saturation will be discussed further in this chapter.
Interviewing
Interviews are frequently used for data collection in phenomenological research.
An interview is a time efficient way to gather data from the participants on the topic of
study. Some phenomenological researchers believe that one in-depth interview is good
enough to gather the information from the participant, while other researchers argue

42
multiple interviews are necessary (Creswell, 2007). The interview questions should be
open ended and focus on descriptions of the phenomena. The interview questions, if well
worded and thought out, should offer the researcher an idea of what, in the opinion of the
participant, the phenomena is and/or means to that individual. Once the interviews from
all of the participants have been completed, the data analysis procedure can occur.
Interviewing is a skill learned and refined through social work education and
research. Interviewing is a complex procedure and requires a great deal of thought and
understanding for each research project. There are specific goals when using interviewing
in qualitative research. There are different types of interviews and different challenges to
each approach. There are other considerations when using interviews as a data collection
technique that will be discussed further in this chapter.
The goals of interviewing are straightforward. Interviews done by helping
professionals or in qualitative research have the purpose of assessing, treating, and
gathering information (Turner, 2005). Social workers often use interviewing to assess the
needs of their clients. By assessing client's needs, social workers can better define what
services and referrals clients will benefit from. Helping professionals sometimes use
interviews as a way of treating clients. Turner (2005) reminds practitioners that social
work interviews can be distressing and painful to clients due to the nature of the
questions and topics discussed; this is one reason for the decision to use social workers as
a research participants as opposed to siblings themselves. Another social work use for
interviews is to gather information; this is particularly true for social work researchers. In
this thesis, interviews were used to gather information on the topic being studied.

43

There are various types of interviews to consider when designing a research
study. Structured, semi-structured, and unstructured are three different types of
interviews (Creswell, 2007). The structured interview is an interview arranged by a
researcher, asking a specific number of questions with the goal of gathering data on a
topic. In a structured interview, the questions are designed to open lines of
communication to gain as much knowledge as possible from the interviewee (Creswell,
2007). In a semi-structured interview (the type of interview completed in this study) the
interviewer asks specific questions but leaves room for follow up questions, or questions
raised during the interview (Patton, 2002). Finally, in an unstructured interview the
interviewer can change the questions at will to suit the interviewee (Patton, 2002). The
unstructured interview is not as common as the structured and semi-structured interviews
used for research because the conversation with each participant may be quite different
from participant to participant (Creswell, 2007). The types of interviews used in research
projects needs to be carefully considered by the researcher.
There are challenges to using interviewing as a research data-gathering tool.
Researchers need to be prepared for issues that arise when conducting interviews, such
as, participants not being willing to fully engage in conversation, or speaking too freely
about the issue and potentially speaking off topic (Creswell, 2007). These challenges can
hinder the researcher by not allowing them to gather enough information specific to the
topic. Another challenge is asking difficult questions which may cause the participant to
become emotional (Creswell, 2007). The researcher must be aware that the process may
be traumatic and distressing to clients, which may cause crying or unexpected outbursts
from the interviewees. Another potential challenge to the interview may be the ability to

44
gain enough confidence from the interviewee to obtain the information being sought.
Qualitative research often involves the interviewing of people who are from different
socio-economic, racial, educational, and/or cultural background than the researcher.
Gaining the trust of the participants to provide the needed information may be more
difficult if the interviewee does not trust or feel they can relate to the interviewer
(Creswell, 2007).
There are other practicalities to consider when choosing to interviews participants
for a research study. Using appropriate recording procedures is essential to capture the
intended responses of the participants (Creswell, 2007). Another practicality is deciding a
suitable interview location. When considering a suitable interview location, a researcher
must also consider confidentiality. In the case of a face-to-face interview the location
should be a quiet, private, setting which makes the participant feel comfortable (Creswell,
2007). The third consideration is non-verbal cues. When deciding on location for a faceto-face interview the researcher needs to be conscious of the need to be able to observe
and record the subtle non-verbal cues of the interviewee (Creswell, 2007).
When deciding to use telephone, internet or other non face-to-face interview
methods, the researcher needs to consider how a lack of observations of the non-verbal
cues of the participant will affect the research and the interview. There are many
practicalities to consider when making the decision to interview during a research project.
Location, recording, and non-verbal cues are some of these considerations.
This research used semi-structured interviews. This interview method was chosen
because it encourages participants to give detailed answers describing their experiences,
and also allows for follow up questions for clarification purposes (Patton, 2002). The

45

questions asked in this study were open ended and allowed participants to speak freely
about their experiences. Having the questions pre-arranged and asked to each participant
promoted consistency and confirmability, which will be used to measure the
trustworthiness of the study (Guba & Lincon, 1982). Looking at the different types of
interviews, semi-structured was chosen for this research as it best meets the research
goals: to determine how siblings, in abusive or neglectful homes are treated similarly or
differently.
Sample
The sample is an area of the research that needs careful consideration. There are
many factors to consider in determining the sample for research. Some of these factors
are, the research question, population to transfer the results to, and audience. This thesis
looks at differential and similar parental treatment of abused and/or neglected siblings,
and asked for three to six individuals with a minimum four-year degree in social work,
and a minimum of two years working in a position assessing risk to children and families.
This is called criterion sampling: looking for participant samples based on a specific set
of criteria (Patton, 2002).
The requirements were designed to attract northern social workers who have a
working knowledge of assessing risk, because assessing risk involves knowledge of
abuse and neglect, and family dynamics. This population of people had the experience
needed to answer the questions, and they are capable of providing insight into differential
and similar treatment toward siblings in abusive and neglectful homes in northern British
Columbia. The recruitment posters advertised the research study topic, and invited
interested volunteers who meet the criteria to contact the researcher by e-mail or phone

46
(Appendix 1). Several community offices within the north, where social workers are
employed, were contacted via e-mail asking to put the recruitment posters in the offices'
lunchrooms.
Of the seven e-mails sent out, five positive responses were received. Because the
participant criteria was narrowed to a certain set of skills, and narrowed further by the
recruitment poster locations, it is reasonable to assume the results are most relevant to
northern social workers and helping professionals working in a position assessing risk to
siblings and families. The two requirements ensured that only qualified participants
would be interviewed during the study.
Description of Participants
Five participants responded to the recruitment posters, which were advertised in
multiple northern offices, which employ social workers, in the kitchen/break room. Of
the five participants, four completed interviews and one, after lengthy correspondence
back and forth ceased contact with the researcher after being unable to find a mutual time
to meet for an interview. Of the four participants who completed the interview, all were
women, all met the criteria of having completed a minimum four-year degree in social
work, and all have worked a minimum two years in a position assessing risk to children
and families. All four participants read the information letter, signed the consent form,
and answered all six questions of the interview.
Data Collection
Interviews are beneficial to research in several ways. They can provide a window
into the mind of another: a way to gain an understanding of another's experiences
(Patton, 2002). Interviews as a research method also have limitations. Researcher bias,

47
recall error, and participant emotion (based on how the participant is feeling that
particular day) can all have a negative effect on the research collected (Patton, 2002).
Asking open-ended questions, and observing the reactions and mannerisms of the
participant while answering the questions, may counteract aspects of the limitations. The
way the data is collected and handled can influence the results of the research.
The participants were asked six questions and their answers tape-recorded
(Appendix 2). As per the information and confidentiality letters, the participants were
offered a copy of the transcript of their interview for the purposes of accuracy, to adjust
any misconceptions and as a part of the evaluative criteria.
Treatment of the data is a significant concern to the researcher, participant, and to
university ethics. The data collected contained sensitive information that needed to be
handled, and disposed of carefully. The data (audiotapes) is kept in a locked cabinet at
the researcher's home. The information will be kept until the final report of the research
project is complete and approved. Audiotapes will be destroyed after two years. After the
final report is completed, original documents related to the interviews will be shredded.
Throughout the research project, confidentiality of the participants and the data was kept
locked and secure to the best of the researcher's ability. The data gathered is reflected in
the final research report in the areas of analysis and recommendations for practice:
anonymity was maintained. Confidentiality is a high priority of this research and
therefore strict treatment of the data is in place.
Phenomenological data analysis consists of two main practices: identifying and
highlighting important ideas from each interview, and creating themes (Creswell, 2007).
If done correctly, the ideas and themes will outline and give a description of the

48
phenomena. Identifying and highlighting important sections occurred after each interview
was transcribed. In this thesis, the transcribed interviews were carefully looked over by
the researcher and important points underlined. The underlined sections were examined
and themes pulled from the text. The data analysis was a lengthy process as each
interview was re-read and underlined, and themes were examined.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical issues in every study are of fundamental consideration. In this thesis,
informed consent and appropriate ethics are the responsibility of the institution, thesis
supervisor, and, above all else, the student conducting the research. The University of
Northern British Columbia prides itself on its high ethical standards, and its ethics
approval process attests to this. The research approved ethics package is listed as
Appendix 3; the ethics approval form is listed as Appendix 4.
Research participants maintain certain rights afforded under the ethics guidelines.
For semi-structured qualitative interviews, Patton (2002) states participants should give
"informed consent", which includes the purpose of the research, how the information will
be used, how the information collected will be handled, confidentiality, and benefits and
risks to the participant (p. 407). For the purpose of this thesis, participants were provided
with this information in an information letter (see Appendix 5). Confidentiality is a high
priority in this research study. Participants were asked to provide a pseudonym to protect
their identities. In a further act of protecting confidentiality, consent forms (see Appendix
6), research notes and transcriptions are kept separate from each other. Finally, all notes,
recordings and consent forms are kept in a locked cabinet in the researcher's home.

49
Confidentiality is a main priority of the researcher and university before, during, and after
the research project.
There are three main ethical reasons for choosing to interview social workers as a
method of data collection for this research as opposed to interviewing siblings who have
been abused and/or neglected. One reason was the ethics of the University of Northern
British Columbia. Receiving approval to interview a vulnerable population, like an
abused child, would likely involve a lengthy process and this research would be subject
to the inquisition of the research ethics board. Social workers, on the other hand, are
professionals. One reason for using social workers as research participants was the time
considerations in having the University of Northern British Columbia research ethics
board approve this project.
A second and third ethical reason was Ministry of Children and Family
Development ethics. For confidentiality and sensitivity around using vulnerable clients
for research reasons, MCFD has a lengthy approval process when allowing research to be
completed based on ministry involvement. As a Child Protection Social Worker myself, I
recognize the boundaries and dual roles further complicate matters. Parents' may not be
keen on a researcher who is currently a Child Protection Social Worker interviewing their
children about parental abuse. The use of social workers as participants allowed data to
be collected on child protection experiences, while also allowing for confidentiality, and
preservation of vulnerable clients. These professional and personal ethical reasons were
all factors in the decision to use social workers as research participants.
Limitations

50
The limitations of this research project is the next area of discussion in this
chapter. The limitations and delimitations of the research are important points to be
examined. Limitations include things outside of the researcher's control (Mauch & Park,
2003). Despite the knowledge and insight this research has produced on the subject of
similar and differential treatment of siblings who have been abused or neglected, there
are limitations to the research and the population to which the results can be transferred.
Four northern social workers responded to the recruitment posters and spoke about their
experiences in the north working with abused and/or neglected sibling groups.
One limitation of this research is the number of social workers who responded to
the advertisement for the study. Due to time and feasibility, the study aimed for three to
six participants. Five research participants contacted the researcher after seeing the
recruitment poster: however, only four participated. The fifth participant contacted the
researcher through e-mail and was forwarded a copy of the consent and information
letter. The potential participant stated she agreed to the terms, however she was unable to
find a time to meet for the purpose of completing the interview. The potential participant
eventually discontinued contact with the researcher. In the end, while several people who
saw the recruitment posters approached the researcher expressing interest in the research
project, only four social workers pursued arrangements to complete the interview. This
small sample size makes the study manageable, but will limit the ability to transfer the
results. The number of research participants is one of the limitations and delimitations of
this research. While four is an agreeable number for a qualitative research thesis, the
transferability is weaker than a research study with a hundred participants. Therefore, the
focus of this research is not so much to generalize, but to inform practice in similar

51
conditions. Regardless of the size of the study, the participants gave insightful
descriptions of their experiences of similar and differential treatment of siblings.
Using social workers as participants is a limitation of the research but was chosen
based on ethical considerations listed previously. By interviewing only social workers,
the experiences of parents and siblings involved in the abusive differential treatment is
undiscovered. While social workers have a distinct perspective of abuse due to their
specific education, they have biases which affect the way families are viewed and abuse
is assessed. Although data was not collected from family members and children, social
workers offer an insider perspective in abuse and neglect situations.
Social workers have a unique view of families, but are not without bias. Social
work values are based on the strong principles of equality, human rights, selfdetermination, and empowerment for the vulnerable in society. These values were
embedded in my undergraduate social work education and shaped the way my social
work colleagues and I were taught to view and work with clients. Because social workers
have a unique perspective of family, accessing them as research participants will
influence the responses received. In addition, because this research was completed by a
social worker, and will likely be read predominantly by other social workers and helping
professionals, the use of social workers as research participants is appropriate.
A final limitation is the accuracy of the memory of the social work participants to
give examples as answers to the questions. The ability of the social work participants to
recall situations where siblings have been treated similarly or differently is a factor to be
considered by the researcher.

52
The limitations of the research is the final piece of the methodology section. It is
important for the researcher to describe these aspects to make the reader aware of the
parameters of the research study. The limitations of this thesis are the use of social
workers as participants, the number of respondents to the recruitment poster, and the
accuracy of the memory of the participants.
This chapter on research methodology gives a comprehensive description of how
the research has occurred step-by-step. The qualitative approach, specifically
transcendental phenomenology was defined to give context to the research study. The
sample sought and rationale for why it was used was illustrated. The use of interviews as
a data collection method and the benefits and drawbacks for this were discussed. Finally,
the limitations of the study were given.

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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS
Qualitative research uses a variety of ways to examine and understand the
phenomena being researched. The first step was to discuss the researcher's personal
experiences with the phenomena. Next, the specifics of the process used to analyze the
data is discussed. Finally, a section will be provided on the themes that emerged from the
data. Each question will be documented highlighting the themes, and a description of the
phenomena will be given.
Bracketing
The process of discussing the researcher's own experience of the phenomena is
described by some as epoche and by others as bracketing (Creswell, 2007). This process
has the goal of putting the researcher's own thoughts and ideas aside so the researcher
can be unbiased and look at the data objectively (Patton, 2002). I am a Child Protection
Social Worker, and have been practicing for four and a half years. In my work, I have
seen families where parents abuse and neglect all of their children similarly and cases
where parents abuse and neglect all of their children differently. This sparked personal
interest in this topic as I saw the potential for research.
One particular example in which siblings in abusive or neglectful homes seem to
be treated differently stands out for me: where in one family the third of four children
was blamed for all of the problems and rivalry between the siblings. In my opinion, the
reason for this could be because the child was the youngest for a long time (before the
fourth child was born) and the child required more attention than the parents could offer.
After this particular child was neglected and blamed, his/her development slowed and

54
his/her behaviour became more challenging, making it easier and easier for the parents to
isolate and blame the child for the problems of the family.
I have also had experience, as a Child Protection Social Worker working with
siblings in abusive or neglectful families, where siblings seem to be treated similarly.
One example that stands out for me is a single mother of three children. The mother had
an abusive childhood herself, and seemed not to know how to show affection,
appropriately discipline her children, or provide proper supervision. I believe she treated
her children similarly because she loved them equally but did not know how to
appropriately discipline, supervise and parent any of her children. This experience is not
uncommon in many families I have worked with.
In the process of examining and discussing my own experiences I have actively
put my personal experiences aside in order to look at the data received by the research
participants impartially. As the researcher, I was drawn to the topic of similar and
differential parental treatment in abusive or neglectful homes because of my experiences
in my current employment. The process of bracketing my own experiences with the
research topic was partially completed through the writing of these experiences and
partially through the ongoing sketching and webbing of my personal biases and
knowledge of the topic. Webbing was an activity of self-reflection, when I noticed that I
was starting to compare or relate my experiences to that of the participants I webbed. One
example of a web I created was under the heading foster care. Under this heading I
webbed the terms: behaviour problem, favouritism by parents and foster parents and
sibling abuse. Sibling abuse was given a separate web where rejection and rivalry were
two of the terms noted. Siblings and scapegoat are two more of the topics I webbed. One

55
way I was able to demonstrate my success in bracketing was the fact that some of the
findings, particularly the participants theme of keeping siblings together have not been
my experience. The ability to capture this theme in the research findings, despite the
discrepancy in my own experience, is one example of success in bracketing during this
research.
Ongoing webbing on the subject of siblings has been an exercise in bracketing. It
has helped me, as the researcher, to focus on keeping my own biases and experiences out
of the themes and responses from the participants. I found bracketing to be a process that
assisted to keep the data analysis process on track. Bracketing is a process that is not
completed just once during a research project, but is an ongoing process that is done
throughout (Patton, 2002). The controversy of whether or not a researcher can ever be
completely without bias has already been discussed. Now that my personal experiences
have been bracketed, a discussion on the findings of the participants can occur in a
hopefully more objective manner.
Process of Analysis
The process outlined by Creswell (2007) and inspired by Moustakas starts with
bracketing, and then asks the researcher to organize the answers to the questions in
"significant statements" (p. 159). Next, the researcher should categorize the statements
into broader themes. The themes will be detailed and a description of the phenomena is
the end result (Creswell, 2007). This process, when completed fully, captures the essence
of replies and organizes the responses into phenomena. Each of the four interviews were
put through this process to create the final result: a description of the phenomena, based
on the perceptions of the participants.

56
After the transcriptions were typed and printed, I went through each interview,
line by line, underlining significant statements. I wrote these significant statements in a
separate chart next to the significant statements of each of the participants. Next, I looked
at the significant statements for each participant and pulled out common themes, which I
added to the next section of the chart. After this was complete, I wrote a detailed
description of the phenomena based on the themes from each participant and added it to
the next line of the chart. Finally, the descriptions of the phenomena were compared from
each participant. This process was completed for questions three through six. Bracketing,
webbing of my experiences, was completed four times during the analysis process: twice
before the analysis started, once after pulling out significant statements, and once before
writing the description of the phenomena.
After the descriptions of the phenomena was written, participants were contacted
by e-mail, and offered a copy of the data analysis section. This measure was taken to
ensure the participants had a chance to verify their responses and give feedback on the
themes and descriptions. Of the four participants, two responded to the e-mail regarding
the data analysis. One participant declined the section, and one participant asked for the
section to be forwarded to her by e-mail. The second participant did not contact the
researcher again after having been sent the data analysis section.
Saturation point is a consideration in the process of analysis of phenomenological
research. Researchers need to decide when the information required for the study has
been collected and further interviews would fail to provide more insight into the
phenomena being studied (Creswell, 2007). Saturation point in regards to this research is
explored in the next chapter.

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Findings: Question Three
Can you tell me of a few situations that stand out for you where siblings, in
abusive or neglectful homes, seem to be treated differently?
This was the third of the six questions asked of the four participants. The themes
presented by all four participants were very similar. All four participants spoke of one or
two examples of a scapegoated child who was singled out and abused differently when
compared to his or her siblings. Almost all of the examples given by participants
identified that it was a male child who was scapegoated. Out of all the examples, there
was only one participant who identified a caregiver who scapegoated a female child.
Three of the four participants spoke of the increased likelihood that the stepparent
of the scapegoated child was the aggressor. Not only was the stepparent the aggressor in
all but four of the examples, the stepparent who was the aggressor was identified as the
stepfather. The other four examples of the aggressors were the biological father (one), the
grandparents (one), and the mother (two). Participants gave examples of who the
aggressor was, the type of abuse, and the behaviours of the child. The next section will
talk about the type of abuse.
Differential parental treatment was described as involving different abuse types.
All four participants gave examples of how a scapegoated child was abused in the home
by his or her caregivers. Three examples given described emotional abuse and, more
specifically, name calling of a child. Three of the examples talked about the scapegoated
child being physically abused by the caregivers. One participant, Sarah, gave an example
of an extreme case of scapegoating,
" J i m " , when he came home from school had to clean the entire house. And he
wasn't allowed to have friends, um, he-his chores list, he had to clean the

58
bathroom, clean the kitchen, he had to put the-clean up the boot room in the front
room, and then, when he had completed his chores he had to go straight to his
bedroom for the night. Right. Often he had to eat his dinner in his room. There
was times, there were a couple of instances where he was sent to his room and
wasn't able to come out of his room to use the bathroom, and he was using the
corner of his bedroom to go, to urinate and there was feces there as well.
This child was removed from his mother and stepfather's care when he was discovered
with head to toe bruising caused by his stepfather. The type of abuse the child suffered in
the participant examples contributed to the determinant of the themes and description of
the phenomena. The behaviour of the child is the next discussion when talking about
differential parental treatment.
The behaviour of the child who was singled out as a scapegoat was an area of
interest for the researcher. Two participants gave examples of the child being affected by
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD), one participant spoke of a child being affected
by Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and one participant said the
scapegoated child had gender issues.
Sarah commented about the boy in her example of physical abuse, "Um, [the
child] had somewhat of an interesting accent, but had always been raised in the area."
Two of the participants described the scapegoated child in their examples as being
lower functioning. All four participants believed that the child's behaviour, as it differed
from that of their siblings, contributed to the way the parents treated the child. One
participant, Sarah spoke of how the child's functioning, which was seemingly lower
functioning when compared to family standards, seemed to increase once the child was
removed from the home environment. Sarah was the only participant who suggested a
causational relationship between the way the child was treated and how the child

59
behaved. The next section gives the reasons why the participants believe the scapegoated
child was treated differently by his or her caregivers.
The question as to why a particular child was scapegoated within a family was
met with a broader range of responses. Participants perceived a variety of factors
contribute to differential treatment and, in a few examples, the participants stated they did
not know why a child seemed to be treated differently. In the two examples given where
the mother was identified as the aggressor, the participants stated the reason may be
related to her own history of abuse and neglect as a child. One participant, Nicole,
believed the reason her client treated her son differently from her three other female
children may be because she was sexually abused as a child: she may harbour resentment
toward men, or she may have an inability to relate to men. In two examples, the
participants said the parents scapegoated the child because of the parents' own lack of
knowledge about how to deal with the different behaviour caused by diagnoses such as
FASD or ADHD.
Ruthy-Lou believed in her example, "the mother is harbouring ill feelings toward
the dad and taking it out on the child." Many of the participants identified the stepfather
as the aggressor, and they concluded that the reason for this was because he was not the
biological father and therefore had fewer emotional ties to the children. Sarah went so far
as to say that maybe the stepfather was insecure about the fact the mother had an older
son with another man. Sarah said insightfully,

As the Ministry became more involved with this family, the biological father of
this-of "Jim"- became more involved and so there could be some correlation
between the escalation of abuse toward him and the, you know, ex, the father, the
spouse's ex becoming more involved.

60
The four participants had several different reasons for why caregivers scapegoat
children.
Themes and Descriptions
From the responses given, I derived a description of the phenomena based on
three main themes as to why the children in abusive or neglectful homes are scapegoated
by their caregivers. The first theme is that caregivers are more likely to scapegoat
children if the caregiver themselves was abused or neglected as a child. Ruthy-Lou stated
social workers should "see what experiences that those parents that you are working with
had as children, and as, you know, in sibling groups." The literature has shown that
parents' own experiences as children influence their own parenting style and thoughts
about siblings (Bank & Kahn, 1997; Dunn & McGuire, 1994).
The second theme identified, suggests in blended families, stepparents are more
likely to scapegoat their stepchildren than their own biological children. Sanders (2004)
urges helping professionals to assess risk individually for each child in blended families
as sometimes there are different risk factors. Most participants agreed on this theme, but
had different ideas as to why this was. Literature reviewed showed there is less of an
emotional connection between stepparents and stepchildren (Edwards, Hadfield, Lucey &
Mauthner, 2006).
The third theme related to the individual challenges the child faced and the
caregivers' lack of knowledge as to how to parent these children. Dunn and McGuire
(1994) comment on the different factors that affect the way parents treat their children
including child personality and development. There are three main themes, which were
generally agreed upon by all participants when answering each question, and which lead

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to a description of the phenomena of why siblings appear to be treated differently in
abusive and neglectful homes.
The phenomena of differential parental treatment of siblings in abusive or
neglectful homes, as perceived by northern social workers, could be described as the
stepfather physically abusing one of the children. The child may be a male child. The
aggressor may emotionally abuse the child, including name-calling. The child may be
described as having behavioural issues, or as lower functioning, or may have been
diagnosed as having FASD, or ADHD. The mother of the child may have a history of
sexual abuse or physical abuse in her childhood. The description of the phenomena is
taken from the interviews' transcription.
The third of the six questions asked participants to give examples of children in
abusive or neglectful homes that appear to be treated differently, and the reasons why.
The four participants had several similarities in their examples, perhaps because of the
unique make up of the northern region from which the participants pulled their examples,
or perhaps because the experiences of abusive or neglectful differential treatment is
similar in many circumstances. The participants agreed that the aggressor in the majority
of situations was the stepfather. The participants mostly gave examples of scapegoated
children who experienced physical and emotional abuse. The behaviour of the child who
was scapegoated seemed to play a role in the abuse. FASD, ADHD, and gender issues
were common diagnoses of the scapegoated child.
The reasons why the children were scapegoated was a more broadly answered
question. Emerging from the responses were three main themes about why children seem
to be treated differently in abusive or neglectful homes. The themes were the backbone of

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the description given for the phenomena of differential abusive or neglectful treatment of
siblings.
Findings: Question Four
The fourth of the six questions given to participants was:
Can you tell me of a few situations that stand out for you where siblings, in
abusive or neglectful homes, seem to be treated similarly?
The respondents gave similar examples and reasons why siblings were treated
similarly in these homes. The participants spoke about one caregiver who was abusive or
neglectful and who treated their children similarly. The respondents also discussed the
type of abuse the siblings endured and reasons why, in the participant's experience, the
siblings were treated similarly. This section will discuss the themes, and give a
description of the phenomena of similar sibling treatment in abusive or neglectful homes.
In the majority of the examples given by the participants, the mother was
identified as the abusive or neglectful parent. In the other two examples, one participant
used an example with both parents, and one participant did not give a specific example
for this question. The examples of the mother as the abuser or neglecter were interesting,
particularly when compared to those where the stepparent (stepfather) was described as
the main aggressor in situations where children are treated differently in abusive or
neglectful homes. Although this is not the focus of the research, I cannot help but reflect
on why the participants answered this way. Perhaps the gender roles of male as physical
abuser and female as passive aggressive neglecter are embedded in social work practice
or societal norms. Perhaps the majority of situations in the north reflect the makeup that
mothers who abuse and neglect their children do so similarly for all siblings, whereas

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stepparents (stepfathers) who abuse or neglect their children do so differently for each
child.
The majority of examples given by the participants showed the mother as the
abuser/neglecter who treated her children similarly. This is in sharp contrast to the
previous question where the aggressor in the abusive and neglectful home was the
stepparent (stepfather).
The participants spoke of the type of abuse in abusive or neglectful homes where
siblings are treated similarly. All of the examples given by three of the four participants
stated the children who are treated similarly were neglected. The fourth participant did
not give a specific example. The participants spoke of different types of neglect: hygiene
issues, unsanitary home, educational neglect, and lack of involvement.
Liz stated, "the concerns I see toward both the siblings would be chronic issues
with lice, um, a chronic issue with cleanliness or keeping clean, or being able to toilet
train properly." Some of the examples spoke of the mother having FASD, and some
spoke of the children having ADHD. The participants, for the most part, gave examples
of neglect in the form of hygiene issues in the children, unsanitary home, and lack of
parental involvement in education and other aspects of life.
The respondents were all asked why they believe the siblings in these situations
were treated similarly. The participants spoke about some of the mothers being lower
functioning, suffering from FASD, and having other mental health concerns. The
participants gave four examples of mothers who have substance misuse issues (two
abused prescription medication, one abused cocaine, and one abused alcohol), which may

64
lead to the neglect of their children. Some of the mothers were described as lower
functioning.
Nicole explained, "this mother was sexually abused and she was a kid in care at
different points in her life: basically a young mother and really had no guidance."
Ruthy-Lou gave an example of siblings who were neglected by a mother and
father who went to residential school and were disconnected from their families.
The reasons why the participants thought the parents in these situations abused
and neglected their children similarly was because of substance misuse, residential
school, separation from their own families, and inability to parent due to mental health or
medical condition.
Themes and Descriptions
The themes, which lead to the description of the phenomena, were similar and
interconnected. The first was the background of the abusing/neglectful parent. The
participants described the childhood of these parents as abusive, neglectful, and
dysfunctional. One of the mothers herself was in care, two of the parents attended
residential school, and two of the mothers were sexually abused as children. Many of the
parents were disconnected from their families.
The second description is the parent's mental health. Many of the examples
explained the parent had anxiety, or bipolar disorder, or was lower functioning. The
mental illness was given as a reason why the parents neglected the children. The fact that
three of the four participants used neglect as an example when talking about similar
sibling treatment is significant. Participants were able to give descriptions of their
experience of similar sibling treatment in neglectful homes.

65
How children are treated similarly in abusive and neglectful homes in an
interesting question. The majority of the participants seemed to give closely related
answers to the questions. The aggressor in the majority of these situations was the
mother, and the type of abuse in most of the examples given was neglect. The reasons
identified or provided that indicated why siblings were treated similarly was related to the
parent's own family background, the parent's mental health, substance misuse, and
capacity. The themes identified helped give a description of the phenomena. The
descriptions had the parents coming from abusive families, and having personal
challenges surrounding mental health and addiction issues.
The description of the phenomena of similar parental treatment of siblings in
abusive or neglectful homes, as perceived by northern social workers, is less
straightforward than differential parental treatment. The mother is the parent who may
treat her children similarly. The similar treatment among her children, the sibling group,
may be neglect. Neglect is described, by the participants, as including unsanitary housing,
lack of hygiene in children, lice in children, and little or no educational involvement. The
mother may have addiction issues, such as prescription medication, or alcohol. The
mother may have mental health concerns such as adult onset ADHD, or FASD, or bipolar
disorder, or be lower functioning. The mother may be disconnected from her family
because of historical abuse, or residential school. This is the description of the
phenomena of similar parental treatment of siblings in abusive or neglectful homes based
on the responses of the participants.
Findings: Question Five
The fifth question asked participants:

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If you were going to teach emerging social workers about working with siblings
who have been abused what would you tell them?
This question assisted with understanding what these social work participants believe
other social workers should know about abused or neglected siblings. All four
participants gave comparable thoughts on what they would teach emerging social
workers. There are five main themes to describe the phenomena. The five main themes
will be described next.
The first theme identified by the participants as being important to teach emerging
social workers is that the experiences of parents when they were children is important in
determining how the parent will treat their own children. This is consistent with the tool
used by Ministry of Children and Family Development called the comprehensive risk
assessment. This tool measures the risk to children based on several factors, one of which
is abuse and neglect of the parent when they were a child.
Ruthy-Lou stated social workers should "look at the relationship that the parent
has with their parent and their sibling to, sort of, determine what they are going to be
doing with their own children."
The literature supports this factor as explained by other researchers (Bank &
Kahn, 1997; Dunn & McGuire, 1994; Edwards, Hadfield, Lucey & Mauthner, 2006).
There are five key influences of a child's development, according to Dunn and McGuire
(1994), the parent's childhood background, the parent's marital relationship, education,
location, and parent's beliefs toward school and discipline. A parent's relationship with
their own parents and siblings influence the way the person will behave toward their own
children. This influence extends to the parents preconceived notions about what sibling

67
relationships look like and what role siblings should have in relation to each other and the
family (Edwards, Hadfield, Lucey & Mauthner, 2006). An important theme given by
participants is that emerging social workers should pay attention to the family
relationships of the parent when they were a child.
A second description of the phenomena is keeping aboriginal children connected
to their family, community and culture.
Ruthy-Lou emphasized the importance of aboriginal children and aboriginal
culture and said it is essential to, "keep[ing] aboriginal children with a family member
that, you know, meets the safety matrix criteria."
The literature has long since supported the supposition that services for aboriginal
peoples need to be provided by aboriginal communities, and children need to remain
connected to their culture (Turner, 2005). Keeping children connected with culture and,
when possible, keeping children within their community, is the second theme provided by
participants.
The third theme identified was to look at family functioning and family roles
when determining the best way to work with a particular family. Role theory, as
discussed earlier, is the pinnacle of much of the literature on siblings and family
dynamics. This theme is also consistent with the Ministry of Children and Family
Development's comprehensive risk assessment's measure of the risk factor: family
interaction and identity. Liz stated,
I would tell them to always look for the bigger picture-it is about the bigger
picture-so um, when you are working with siblings in a family situation that have
been in an abusive cycle or pattern in this family, you are looking at the family
functioning, the family structure, the family system, and within that family system
role each child and parent has in that.

68
The fact that many of the participants spoke about looking beyond the presenting
problem to the roles and functioning of each family member may show the need for more
emphasis during education and training of social workers in this area. Looking at family
roles and family functioning is the third theme presented by participants.
A fourth theme identified was to teach emerging social workers to give children a
sense of mastery and accomplishment.
Nicole spoke about building children's confidence and showing them they are
special by facilitating an opportunity to learn a skill and gain accomplishment they can be
proud of. Nicole says this can go a long way in keeping children grounded. Encouraging
the mastery of skills and in turn a sense of accomplishment in all children, particularly
children in care is a fourth theme brought up by participants.
The final theme identified was about the difference in families. As Sarah pointed
out, all families are different in make-up, structure, and roles and there is no "one blanket
treatment" for working with children and families. This is a simple, but important theme.
To look at each family on a case by case basis could help the worker avoid a one size fits
all approach to intervention. This theme is consistent with the solution-focused therapy
approach. Solution-focused therapy encourages neutrality and objectivity in the
assessment, and joining and contracting stages of therapy (Berg, 1994). This theme
speaks about the importance of acknowledging differences in each family, and tailoring
the intervention to suit the needs of the family.
Themes and Descriptions
Five main themes were given by the participants after being asked what they
would like to teach emerging social workers about working with siblings who have been

69
abused and neglected. Importance of looking at the parent's experience as a child,
keeping aboriginal children connected to culture and community, examining family roles
and family functioning, giving children in care a sense of accomplishment, and
acknowledging the differences in each family are the five themes.
These themes represent what the interviewed social workers think needs to be
emphasized to all emerging social workers. It speaks about their individual practice and
social work values. Many of these themes are consistent with the Ministry of Children
and Family Development's current tool which measures risk to children. The themes lead
to the description of the phenomena in this section.
The phenomena described here is what seasoned social workers would teach
emerging social workers about working with siblings who have been abused or neglected.
It is helpful to get to know the family dynamics and roles of each member when working
with a family. It is also beneficial to understand each family is different and needs to be
treated as such. Keeping children, particularly Aboriginal children, connected with their
families, communities, and culture can be of utmost priority. Children in care do well
when they have a sense of accomplishment, so encouraging the mastering of a skill is
beneficial. These are the descriptions of the phenomena of what seasoned workers would
teach emerging social workers about working with siblings who have been abused or
neglected.
Findings: Question Six
The sixth and final question asked participants if they had anything else they
would like to share about what research topic. Only one participant wanted to share
further. Liz wanted to emphasize the importance of understanding the family dynamics

70
when working with a family, and if children need to be removed stating, "siblings should
always be placed together, first and foremost".
Family dynamics has been an important theme, which was repeated throughout the
interviews. The sixth and final question did not encourage a theme or description, but
reiterated an important point.
To conclude, this chapter described the emerging themes and descriptions. The
themes given by the participants for many of the questions were quite similar to each
other. Overall, common themes throughout the interviews surrounding the importance of
looking at the parent's family history, and the unique nature of family dynamics and
relationship were insightful and may be useful for helping professionals working with
families where abuse and neglect occur.

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CHAPTER FIVE
IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORKERS
This chapter will discuss the implications of the research for social workers as
well as the implications on the literature on the topic of siblings and abuse and neglect.
This chapter is separated into sections. The ability to transfer the results to social workers
and to the literature will be discussed. Areas of further research will look at the places
where research still needs to be completed, and areas for further questioning that this
research has encouraged. Solution-focused therapy is a possible treatment for siblings
who have been abused and neglected. This chapter explains why, how, and for whom the
research and results are important.
The purpose of phenomenological research is to gain the meaning and essence of
a phenomena (Patton, 2002). The phenomena studied in this thesis are the different and
similar treatment of siblings in abusive or neglectful homes. This research seeks to
provide clarification and a description of the phenomena, as perceived by northern social
workers, as outlined in the previous chapter. Also shown in the previous chapter, the data
collected and themes analyzed have confirmed what the literature has already shown us
in previous research. Much qualitative, phenomenological research ends with the
description of the phenomena and does not go on to suggest causation relationship.
Likewise, this thesis has given the description of the phenomena but was not designed to
explain causation.
Evaluative Criteria
The participants were all social workers working in northern communities in
British Columbia. The participants gave examples of families they are working with or

72
have worked with in these same northern communities. Because of the location of the
sample and location of the families in the examples, helping professionals in northern
British Columbia may choose to examine these results to see if they fit their own case
examples. This study is reliable, which is discussed further in Guba and Lincoln's (1982)
criteria for transferability, credibility, dependability and confirmability. The majority of
participants had similar experiences and used similar scenarios when answering the
questions: for example, stepfathers as the aggressors of physical abuse in situations where
siblings are treated differently in abusive or neglectful homes. Or another example,
mothers stated as neglecting their children in abusive or neglectful homes where siblings
are treated similarly. These examples appear to be a common experience of the northern
social workers who participated in this research study.
These results may be important for social workers working with families where
similar situations occur. The results may be relevant to social workers who work with
families assessing risk and those who work with families where siblings are treated
similarly or differently by their parents. The reason these results are specific in who they
apply to is because of the small size of the sample. According to Patton, smaller sample
sizes means more details from the participants, but offers a lessened ability to generalize
the results, this is known as the "breadth versus depth" debate (2002, p. 227). Social
workers working with families assessing risk could benefit from the research, as they
may find similar situations where parents are treating their children differently or
similarly. Siblings are an important part of life, family, and child development; any
profession working with families may benefit from the knowledge gained from this
research.

73
How the results are beneficial and relevant for helping professionals is in one way
measured through what Guba and Lincoln (1982) call transferability. Transferability is,
"demonstrated by showing that the data have been collected from a sample that is in
some way (randomized, stratified, etc.) representative of the population to which
generalization is sought." (Guba & Lincoln, 1982, pp. 246-247). Transferability is
strongest when there is an in-depth description of the phenomena being studied, and the
sample used was chosen to maximize data collection (Guba & Lincoln, 1982). While this
research has a small sample size, the consistency of the descriptions given makes it
reasonable to assume that the results may be beneficial for other helping professionals
who are facing similar situations.
Transferability is one of four criteria for trustworthiness. Trustworthiness, coined
by Guba and Lincoln (1982) is a way of examining, and analyzing a research study and
its results. The three criteria are credibility, dependability, and confirmability (Guba &
Lincoln, 1982, pp. 246-247). Credibility is speaking to whether or not the readers of the
research find the results to be believable. Credibility can be tested in a few different
ways. For this research, peer debriefing, and triangulation were used. Peer debriefing was
used in two ways, one of which was after the participants had completed their interview,
they were given the opportunity to read over the transcription of their interview to ensure
the answers and concepts were accurate. The transcriptions and recorded interviews have
also been made available to my thesis supervisor for accuracy and verification purposes.
The next test used was triangulation. Triangulation was used by taking the results and
checking them against the existing literature on the topic of siblings. Throughout the
results section, how the results of this study measured to the existing data was compared.

74
The next criterion is dependability. Dependability speaks to the ability of the
study to be repeated in a different location and at a different time, and find similar results
(Guba & Lincoln, 1982). One measure for this is a dependability audit. The dependability
audit asks an independent person to view the process of the research and ensure the
research followed the appropriate steps of the methodology (Guba & Lincoln, 1982). The
research methodology for this thesis was outlined in Chapter 4, and is subject to the
criticism of my committee.
Confirmability is another criterion. Confirmability is the capability of the research
results to be verified against the data (Guba & Lincoln, 1982). Confirmability can be
measured by triangulation and a confirmability audit; both were used in this research.
Triangulation, as addressed above, was completed when the results for this study were
compared to the results from similar studies. The findings from this research were similar
in theme to the results of other studies, as demonstrated in the Chapter 4. A
confirmability audit was available for my thesis supervisor by allowing her the
opportunity to read the transcripts and listen to the recordings to verify that the results
analysis followed the appropriate procedure, and was completed accurately.
Another test of validity is saturation point. The saturation point is reached once
the data collection fails to provide any new insight into the phenomena being researched
(Creswell, 2007). The saturation point was reached in this study. The saturation point is
measured through the participant interviews and the fact that the research participants
provided similar answers to the questions, and repeated similar themes throughout.
Because of the similar responses made by the participants, it is reasonable to assume that

75

further interviewing would have found more of the same results. Saturation point is a
measure of validity and was successfully reached in this study.
The contribution of this research to the literature may be beneficial for northern
social workers. This research contributes to what we already know about siblings and
gives a distinct view of how parents treat siblings differently and similarly in abusive and
neglectful homes as perceived by social workers. This thesis offers a social work
perspective of siblings and families framed in a qualitative research study. The
participants gave information about how abusive and neglectful parents treat their
children differently and similarly and why the participants believe this occurs. Identifying
reasons for scapegoating children could help social workers early on identify situations
where the circumstances are right for abuse and/or neglect. The knowledge generated
from this study may give social workers the tools to recognize differential sibling
treatment and may give possible ways of how to work with the family when it is
occurring. Social workers could use this knowledge to make observations when working
with parents and families. Social work clinicians could use the knowledge gained for
treatment purposes in family, or sibling therapies. Social workers and other helping
professionals could benefit from more knowledge on siblings and families.
Phenomenological analysis and its logistics are important in understanding the
data of the research. The participants were all social workers, who assess risk to families
in northern British Columbian communities, which means the results may be relevant to
social workers who assess risk to families who reside in northern, British Columbia. The
contribution this research may make to the literature is beneficial for social workers and
professionals working with families where abuse and/or neglect occur. The ability to

76
transfer the results makes this research relevant to helping professionals who work with
families assessing risk.
The second section will discuss areas for further research. The research has
brought up many questions and piqued my curiosity further about siblings who are
abused and neglected by their parents. The differential and similar treatment of siblings in
abusive or neglectful homes and how it differs based on different factors is one area for
further research. A second area is how northern examples of the phenomena compare
with urban examples of the phenomena. Finally, an area where more research is needed is
from the perspective of siblings and from the perspective of parents.
Areas for Further Research
The first area for further research is how the phenomena occurs based on different
factors. This research looked at different and similar treatment of siblings in abusive
and/or neglectful homes. It would be beneficial to research how culture, socioeconomic
status, and other factors affect the similar or different treatment of siblings. Factors like
culture, education, and socioeconomic status affect the lives we live and have an impact
on parenting. Each factor, separated from other variables in the research, could greatly
increase the insight academia has on the scapegoating of children based on culture,
education, and socioeconomic status. Knowing how these factors affect parenting and
abuse and neglect could impact or enhance the way child protection services are
conducted.
A second area of further research is the phenomena in northern communities
versus urban cities. How does the phenomena and other factors change based on the
location of the families? Does location make a difference in how siblings in abusive or

77
neglectful homes are treated? The literature reviewed on siblings and abuse/neglect for
the purposes of this research did not touch on differences between northern and urban
centers. Because of the disparity between northern and urban life, it would be beneficial
to learn more about how these differences relate to siblings and abuse/neglect. The
phenomena as it relates to location and how it is relevant for social workers outside
northern British Columbia is an area for further study.
A third area for additional research is the phenomena of different and similar
sibling treatment in abusive or neglectful homes from the perspective of the siblings.
Social workers were chosen as the participants for this research as they have a unique,
perspective on individuals and families, and work on the front lines assessing risk.
Children who have been abused and neglected by their parents may have a different view
of the circumstance and why it occurred than social workers that view the situation from
the outside. The literature that was reviewed contained some research completed from the
viewpoint of the children in the abusive/neglectful situation, but none of these studies
were Canadian. The lack of Canadian research on siblings who have been abused or
neglected needs to be further explored.
One idea for a research project would have researchers interview each of the
family members in situations where children are abused or neglected and compare the
differences in experience of each family members. This study could offer insight into the
family dynamics in abusive or neglectful homes. An area for additional research is
different and similar treatment of siblings in abusive or neglectful homes from the
viewpoint of Canadian siblings. This thesis offers insight into the family dynamics in

78
abusive or neglectful homes. A wide range of studies in this area could benefit social
workers and helping professionals.
This research has opened the door to many new and different questions about
siblings and abuse and neglect. How culture, socioeconomic status, and education affect
parental abuse and neglect and how northern experiences of the phenomena may vary
from an urban phenomena experience are all areas for further research. The phenomena
from the viewpoint of siblings could greatly benefit the literature on different and similar
treatment by parents in abusive or neglectful homes as there are still many unanswered
questions on this topic.
Treatment Option: Solution-Focused Therapy
The next section of this chapter will discuss a possible treatment option for
siblings who have been abused or neglected. Siblings raised together in homes where one
sibling may have been scapegoated can affect both children through childhood and into
adulthood. One possible treatment method, as discussed in the literature when working
with siblings in a counseling setting or with a family in the home, is solution-focused
therapy. To begin, a definition of solution-focused therapy is required. Next, an
explanation of solution-focused therapy, and its three step processes as it relates to
siblings will occur. In conclusion, solution-focused therapy is one possible treatment
approach for both clinical and Child Protection Social Workers alike when working with
childhood abuse survivors of abuse and when working with families where abuse and
neglect are occurring.
Solution-focused therapy was chosen to be examined as a potential treatment
option for siblings based on a few different factors. One factor was the nature of child

79
protection social work. While Child Protection Social Workers do not work with siblings
on their own in a clinical setting, they may work with parents who abuse their children,
and/or scapegoat one of their children. As a Child Protection Social Worker, it has been
my experience that the focus is on dealing with the client's symptoms that affect their
parenting, such as alcoholism, or domestic abuse in a short amount of time, without
spending years with the client discussing and analyzing the root causes of behaviours.
When it is assessed the parent will benefit from longer term, in-depth therapy, the social
worker will often refer to another agency. In this regard, solution-focused therapy may be
used by Child Protection Social Workers as a way of finding solutions to problems that
affect parenting.
A second factor in choosing solution-focused therapy as a potential treatment
option for siblings came from the research participants. When asked about what she
would like to teach emerging social workers, Liz encouraged social workers to look at the
bigger picture, and therefore,
when you are working with a sibling in a family situation that has been in an
abusive cycle or pattern in this family, you are looking at the family functioning,
the family structure, the family system and within that family system the role each
child and parent has in that.
When answering the same question, Nicole spoke about fostering positive relationships
between the siblings and keeping them engaged with his or her family. These comments
reminded me of solution-focused therapy as both Child Protection Social Workers and
clinicians attempt to understand the family dynamics and family roles as a way of
assessing the situation. Solution-focused therapy also works with the client's own
strengths to deal with the goals of therapy, which may be to foster a more positive
relationship with ones sibling, or to resolve a family dispute. Solution-focused therapy is

80
one avenue for helping professionals to consider when engaging in service with clients
because it is compatible with the realities of different types of social work practice. Also,
the research participants encourage social workers to use tools, which are often used
during solution-focused therapy.
The definition of solution-focused therapy is the first section. Often, the goal of
social work intervention is to address issues of functioning for clients based on theory
(Turner, 2005). Solution-focused therapy is one such theoretical intervention. The
premise of solution-focused therapy is clients should focus on problem solving and
solution-focused exercises during intervention as opposed to focusing on the issue
(Nichols & Schwartz, 2005). This fits with the realities of some social work practice
being short term and geared toward increasing functioning in the family. The clinician
centers the attention on the strengths of the family and uses examples of family cohesion
as learning instruments (Berg, 1994). This approach can be used with individuals or
families and in cases of abuse toward children (Berg, 1994).
The prevalence of child abuse and neglect needs to be examined in this discussion
of solution-focused therapy. As discussed earlier, child abuse and neglect is a persistent
problem in Canada, and elsewhere. Children are particularly vulnerable to abuse by their
caregivers, as they are dependent upon them for basic needs. There are agencies that
specialize in assessing, and protecting children from abuse and neglect. Child abuse and
neglect is an issue that will benefit from more research funding, assessment, and
intervention.
Families are unique in dynamics and structure and therefore require individual
treatment plans. Solution based family therapy is a strength based approach and looks at

81
each family member as playing a role in changing dynamics. As with all treatment types,
solution-focused family therapy has limitations. Each family system is different, and
needs family specific goals and exercises.
The premise of solution-focused therapy is to focus on the solutions, not the
problems. To figure out what is working and repeat those actions is the premise (Berg,
1994). Building on activities, which elicit the desired response, is part of the intervention
(Nichols & Schwartz, 2005). Solution-focused therapy surmises that it is easier to
promote positive activities the client is already doing than to teach all new skills (Berg,
1994). This approach is based on construct theory, which states that people construct
their lives and the solution to problems is refocusing the attention from the negative to
the positive (Nichols & Schwartz, 2005). This approach is embedded in social work
values.
Social work intervention should always be based on fundamental social work
values. Clients need to feel their social worker has continual compassionate curiosity (S.
Transken, personal communication, January 13, 2009). When clients feel respected,
heard, and supported, the clinician can move the client to a place where the client can
look at alternative approaches to their problems. Social work intervention should focus
on self-determination and empowerment (Turner, 2002). Empowerment can be education,
consciousness raising, and confronting. Clinicians and Child Protection Social Workers
should not do for clients what they can do for themselves: this empowers people (Turner,
2002). In the client/social worker relationship, strengths of the client should be a focus
and this is one reason that not all therapy is compatible with social work values. Problem
solving theory, a contributing founder of solution-focused therapy, is one of the five basic

82
theories that social workers from the generalist practice may be familiar with. The other
four are: developmentally based, cognitively based, crisis-oriented, and systems theory
(Turner, 2002). The helping relationship is a delicate one, based on trust, respect, and
compassion.
Speaking specifically for social work clinicians, clinical sessions for just siblings
can be a powerful turning point in family healing. Solution-focused therapy is a fit with
the discussion of sibling therapy in the literature (Freeman, 1993). Theories used in
therapy in the sibling relationship, in the past and presence, are bridging, mediation,
problem solving, structural, and role theories (Freeman, 1993). Genograms that include
labelling and roles in the family, social network analysis, and an ecomap are activities
used in sibling therapy. There are several techniques and activities social workers can use
with their clients under the solution-focused therapy approach. Theory in sibling
treatment has evolved over time and seems to focus on changing the relationship by
challenging roles and problem solving the issues. Corresponding, Child Protection Social
Workers can also use many of these techniques when working with families. While these
techniques will not be examined in depth with the family or in the same manner as in a
clinical setting, I have personally found genograms to be a useful tool when working with
issues of abuse and neglect in families in my role as a Child Protection Social Worker.
Each approach has limitations that need to be considered. One limitation of
solution-focused therapy is that it discounts the notion that family conflict is more
complex than just problem behaviours. Systems theory speaks of family roles that are
entrenched, and can be changed as easily as one changes their own behaviours (Nichols
& Schwartz, 2005). Berg argues that solution-focused therapy starts with changes in

83

behaviour, which in turn affect the relationship and role of each member (1994). It is also
stated solution-focused therapy is only good when working with relationships or families
where there are one or two issues; it is not a good fit for families who have several
complex problems. Berg counters that the therapist should have the family identify what
problem is the most urgent, and focus on that first (1994). Bombarding the client with
multiple services to address all of the issues at once will overwhelm and confuse the
situation. Another critique is child abuse and incest may be difficult to treat with
solution-focused therapy. Berg (1994) writes, in all families there are times when things
are bad and when things are going better. Figuring out the "triggers" and the exceptions
when times are going well is where the therapist should start. There are limitations to all
therapeutic approaches that need consideration.
A general understanding of solution-focused therapy is necessary when looking at
the benefits of this intervention with siblings and families. Social workers should always
check the therapy premise against the social work profession's values to ensure the
highest standards are kept. The study of siblings and treatment is a relatively new topic in
academia. The literature on intervention seems to focus on roles in the family, labelling,
and problem solving. Limitations in solution-focused therapy are something to be
mindful of when examining this approach.
Intervention in solution-focused therapy for siblings is the same as with all
clients. Working toward completing the goals, using positive reinforcement, and using
unsuccessful attempts as a learning opportunity are activities used in solution-focused
therapy. During therapy, siblings may be given homework in between sessions, for
example, one sibling giving a different reaction than usual in times of conflict. This

84
homework will help the therapist evaluate the progress and tailor the sessions to meet the
goals of the clients.
In conclusion, this chapter discusses how the research results of this study may
have implications for social workers who work with families where siblings are abused
and neglected similarly and differently. Transferability and relevance of the research
results were discussed. Solution-focused therapy was examined as one possible
intervention type for social workers who are clinicians or Child Protection Social
Workers. While the research sample was small, pieces of the framework may be
transferred to the broader population.

85
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION
This thesis examines the similarities and differences of parental treatment of
siblings in abusive and neglectful homes, as experienced by northern social workers. In
this thesis social workers were interviewed as a way of gathering their perceptions and
insight into this phenomena. The data was analyzed, themes realized, and descriptions of
the phenomena given. The relevance of the data for social workers and toward the
literature was discussed. The research looked at differential treatment of siblings in
abusive or neglectful homes; insight into these phenomenons was gained through the
interviews of northern social workers.
During this thesis, the literature on previous research completed on the topic of
siblings and abuse were examined. The research methodology chapter looked at the
logistics of the research method chosen and the benefits of this study. The data analysis
chapter discussed the themes and descriptions of the phenomena.

During the

implications section, the transferability of the results for social workers and whom the
data may benefit was discussed. This final chapter gives concluding thoughts and final
reflections from this research.
This thesis has studied the differences and similarities in treatment of children
who were abused and neglected by their parents. The research found consistent themes
throughout the participants' responses; the researcher put these responses into themes and
descriptions of the phenomena, which may not only enhance the literature, but could help
shape practice of social workers working with families where children are being abused
and neglected.

86
Final Thoughts
The topic of siblings is of interest and relevance to me in both my social work
practice and my personal life. Since exploring this topic in greater depth for this thesis
research, I have began to observe more closely the ever changing dynamics between
siblings in families where abuse and neglect occur, and siblings who are in care of the
Ministry of Children and Family Development. Family dynamics are ever so important in
assessing family functioning, and finding effective ways to work with families to
promote positive change. The research completed in this study has changed my social
work practice and has encouraged me to look deeper into family roles and relationships.
This research has influenced my practice with families and caused me to look
closer at the family dynamics of each situation. Examining sibling relationships in
abusive or neglectful homes during this research project has helped me to be a better
advocate for siblings who come into the care of the Ministry. Recognizing signs of
abusive sibling relationships and scapegoating allows me to provide this information to
other helping professionals, such as counselors, and foster parents for monitoring and
healing purposes. The ability to point out, to a parent, how a partner's actions may be
affecting the behaviours of the children, or one child, is another potential outcome of this
research. Since completing this research, I look more closely when children with mental
health diagnoses are labeled as having behavior problems as there may be abuse or
neglect reasons for this. One final change in my social work practice occurs when
interviewing children for the purposes of investigating child protection concerns. During
these interviews, I have begun to ask children about the experiences of their siblings as

87
well as themselves when asking about physical and emotional abuse and neglect. These
minor changes in my personal practice, I believe, have made me a better social worker.
From a feminist perspective, the research participants have given insight into how
women and men may abuse and neglect children differently, and how male and female
children may be abused and neglected differently. The participants explain how in
abusive situations, in their northern social work experience, the step father is often the
physical abuser of the scapegoated male child. Alternatively, the participants explain in
homes where the children are abused or neglected similarly, it is often the mother who
neglects her children. Although this is not the focus of the research, I cannot help but
reflect on why the participants answered this way. Perhaps the gender roles of male as
physical abuser and female as passive aggressive neglecter are embedded in social work
practice. Perhaps situations in the north reflect the make-up that mothers who abuse and
neglect their children do so similarly for all siblings, whereas stepparents (stepfathers)
who abuse or neglect their step-children do so differently for each child. It is interesting
that the majority of the participants would give similar types of examples involving male
and female roles for parents and children. These findings have possible implications for
intervention, and may speak to traditional societal gender roles within families.
The participants also spoke astutely about what they believe emerging social
workers need to be taught. These lessons may be important for all social workers, senior
and emerging. Looking at the family system, roles, and functioning in each situation
when making assessments; examining parental experiences of abuse and neglect when
they were children; exploring cultural roots and utilizing resources from aboriginal
communities; promoting strong family relationships when children are in care;

88
encouraging a sense of accomplishment in children; and developing personalized
intervention for each family are all findings of this research.
There are still many areas where further research is needed. While there is a lot of
interesting information on the topic of the sibling bond, and sibling contribution to
personality development, it is clear that the literature on different aspects of siblings
could benefit from further research.While this research sheds light on northern British
Columbian social work practice in abusive and neglectful families, related areas would
benefit from additional research. How siblings in abuse and neglect situations are
affected by culture, ethnic background, socioeconomic status, and geography are all areas
for exploration.
In terms of reducing the risk of parental scapegoating and harmful differential
treatment of siblings, social workers can make a difference. Social workers use skills that
are encouraged by social work values, like self determination, and looking at every
person as unique. Helping professionals often recognize the signs of abuse and neglect
and tailor their intervention to meet the unique family situation. Helping professionals
acknowledge the strengths of a family and may use these strengths to help the family.
When helping professionals recognize the different family roles and can help the family
identify them as well, for the purpose of positive change, the helping professional may
make a difference.
Another step in understanding parental scapegoating and child abuse and neglect
is the education of social workers. Educating social workers further in the area of siblings
could go a long way in the understanding of, not only child development but family
dynamics. It has been demonstrated how important siblings are to child development and

89
family functioning, therefore in the education of social workers it may be beneficial to
focus on the topic of siblings and family dynamics. The participants also made insightful
recommendations for what they believed emerging social workers should be taught about
child abuse and neglect. A greater understanding of family functioning, and the
importance of looking at the parent's childhood for indicators of how they will treat their
children are two of the themes which emerged from the participants.
Another area which may be beneficial in understanding parental scapegoating and
child abuse and neglect is creating an assessment tool, or redesigning the current one, to
include a more in-depth assessment of family functioning and family roles. This tool
could be able to more accurately capture the sibling relationship and measure, if any, the
risk it may pose on each sibling and family member. As discussed in the literature earlier,
siblings often learn abuse actions and behaviours from watching their parents' actions
and relationship (Kiselica & Morrill-Richards, 2007). Sibling abuse may be the
mimicking of the home environment. If this is the case, removing the children from their
abusive parents will only stop one aspect of the problem; the abused sibling may be revictimized by their sibling in the new home as well. Social workers may choose to
analyze relationship through tools used in solution-focused therapy, like ecomaps and
genograms. These tools will open the door to dialogue about different family members
and the person's relationship to each member (Nichols & Schwartz, 2005). This could
also be a good tool to help point out to the family member the negative relationships
which are formed and how they can help to change the pattern. Having a tool to measure
the relationships between the siblings and each family member may help identify sibling

90
abuse and help the social worker to stop sibling abuse from continuing on in the family
home, or foster parent's home.
This research could be an important step in a greater understanding of the sibling
relationship. Family dynamics is useful in many areas of social work where assessment is
required. Child Protection Social Workers particularly may benefit from a greater
understanding of the sibling relationship in abusive and neglectful homes. Social work
education and training can play an important role in teaching social workers about sibling
and family dynamics and child development. Social workers could demonstrate an
understanding of parental scapegoating and child abuse and neglect by acknowledging
unique family situations and recognizing the signs. A tool which could be used to
measure family functioning and family roles, in-depth, may go a long way in
understanding child abuse and neglect. Children in northern British Columbia are abused
and neglected by their parents in similar and different ways. Four northern social workers
gave their perceptions and insight into how and why this occurs. Acknowledgement,
recognition, and education were common themes throughout this study about siblings
who have been abused and/or neglected similarly and differently.

91
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97
Appendix 1: RECRUITMENT POSTER

Attention:
Master of Social Work Student is looking
for candidates to participate in a voluntary
research study on social work experiences of
parental abuse of siblings.
Successful candidates must have:
a) A minimum four-year degree in social
work
b) Have spent two years working in a
position assessing risk to children and
families.
Interested persons or for more information
contact Cathy by:
Phone:(250)301-1189
Or by e-mail: ehlers@unbc.ca

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Appendix 2: RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Have you completed a minimum four-year degree in social work?
2. Have you worked for a minimum of two years in a position assessing
risk to children and families?
3. Can you tell me a few situations that stand out for you where siblings,
in abusive or neglectful homes, seem to be treated differently? As you
tell me the stories, can you please protect the confidentiality and
identities of the children and families. Why do you think the siblings
were treated differently?
4. Can you tell me a few situations that stand out for you where siblings,
in abusive or neglectful homes, seem to be treated similarly? Why do
you think that is?
5. If you were going to teach emerging social workers about working
with siblings who have been abused what would you tell them?
6. Is there anything else you would like to tell me about what we
discussed today?

99
Appendix 3: ETHICS APPROVAL FORM

1.

Researchers Name
& Signature

Cathy Ehlers
#104-106 McDermid Drive, Prince George, BC, V2M 4T6
(250)6149125
Email Cathy.ehlers@gov.bc.ca

2.

Complete Address

3.

Phone No.

4.

Supervisor's Name & Signature (if Researcher is a student)

Name & Position (Print)

Si Transken, Associate Professor

Signature
5.

Program

Social Work, graduate studies
6.

Title of Project

How are siblings, raised in abusive and/or neglectful homes, treated differently or
similarly: An exploration by Northern Social Workers.
7.

Type of Project

[

]

Class Project (Class projects are normally reviewed by professors after a
protocol has been reviewed by the Research Ethics Board).

[ X]

Thesis

[

]

Faculty Research

8.

Source of Funding (if any)

9.

Is this project a replication of an earlier project or protocol that received ethics
approval?

100
[

]

Yes
(Attach copy of the Certificate or letter and submit to the REB.
Please clarify (on a separate sheet) if there are any changes being made to the
previously approved proposal or if the proposals are identical).

[ X ] No

(Go to Question 10)

10. Purpose of Research
To examine, based on the opinion of Northern Social Workers, how parents treat their
children similarly or differently in abusive or neglectful homes. The data will be
obtained using a qualitative, semi-structured interview. It is hypothesized that the
participants will give insight into the relationship between parents and siblings who
were raised in abusive environments. It is estimated that the participants will provide
similar themes based on their professional practice. Implications for social work will be
derived from the responses from participants.
11. Project Dates:

Expected Start Date

May 1,2009

Expected Completion Date

November 5, 2009

12. Does this project require any physically invasive procedures (e.g. blood tests),
potentially harmful physical regimes (e.g. special dieting) or potentially harmful
psychological or social experiments (e.g. illusory perception tests)?
[

]

Yes

[X]

No

13. Summary of Methods: In the text box below give us a brief summary. Sufficient
information must be given to assess the degree of risk to participants.

1. Participation in this research thesis is voluntary. The participants will be recruited
through posters placed at several locations frequented by social workers. The poster
will ask interested social workers (who meet the criteria) to contact the researcher
by phone or e-mail (see appendix A). Three to six participants will be chosen based
on interest in the study and ability to meet the criteria. A time will be arranged with
each participant separately for an interview.

101
2. Participants will be given the information sheet (appendix B), and have the
opportunity to sign the consent form (appendix C) if they agree to the process. The
interview will be audiotaped if the participants have consented, as per the consent
form; to ensure confidentiality, participants will be asked to choose a pseudonym
name before the audiotape starts recording. To promote confidentiality further, the
researcher will transcribe the audiotapes. The participants will be asked six
questions (in order one to six) by the researcher (see appendix D). The questions are
designed to elicit a conversation about the participant's experiences as social
workers working with abusive and neglectful parents who have two or more
children. At the completion of the interview, participants will be offered a second
meeting to look over their transcribed interview and ensure accuracy.
3. All participant information will be anonymous with no identifying information
included in the discussion, or on audiotapes or transcripts. Signed consent forms
will be stored separately from transcribed interviews.
4. All interview notes, recordings, and transcriptions will be stored in a locked cabinet
in the researcher's home. The notes, recordings, and transcriptions will be destroyed
no longer than two years after the completion of data collection. Access to the
research will be limited to the researcher, and the research committee.
5. The transcribed data will be analyzed and themes extracted according to the
qualitative phenomenological approach. The themes will be discussed in the data
analysis and findings chapter of the researcher's thesis. The chapter on implications
for social workers will be influenced by the themes extracted from the participant
interviews.

102

14. Please append a complete copy of the research project proposal, including any
interview protocols or questionnaires.
Attachments:
[ X ] Research Project Proposal
[ ] Interview Protocols
[ ]
Questionnaires

15. How will participants be recruited?
summary.

In the text box below give us a brief

Participants will be recruited based on criterion sampling. A poster asking for interested
candidates who have: a minimum four year degree in social work, and have worked with
children and families assessing risk for a minimum of two years can apply to be in a
research study by contacting me by phone or e-mail. See appendix A.

16. Will participants be competent to give consent?
[X]

Yes

[

No
(e.g. Children and cognitively impaired people.) How will the
issue of consent be addressed? In the text box below give us a brief
summary.

]

(Go to Question 17)

17. Will participants be compensated?
[

]

Yes

How?

[X]

No

(Go to Question 18)
In the text box below give us a brief summary.

18. Will consent be obtained from each participant either in writing or recorded?

103

[ X ] Yes
Please attach a copy of the Consent Form or the
questions/statements to be recorded. Each participant must receive one
copy of the signed consent form at the time of signing.
[

]

No
Please attach information which will be provided to participants
and/or participant communities.

Note: Checklist of items to be addressed in your Information Sheet or Consent
Form is provided at the end of this Approval Form.

19. Does the project involve any deception?
[

]

[ X]

Yes
Justify the use of deception and indicate how disclosure finally will
be addressed.
No

(Go to Question 20)

20. What is your plan for feedback to participants?
distribute results to participants?

How do you propose to

Upon request of the participants, the researcher agrees to meet with participants to
discuss the final results.

21. Will the research participants be from an institutional population; e.g.
company, agency, schools, colleges, universities, hospitals, prisons, etc.
[

]

Yes

(Go to Question 22)

[X]

No

(Go to Question 23)

22. If the answer to Question 21 is yes, attach a letter of consent for access from the
institution: e.g. company, agency, schools, colleges, universities, hospitals,
prisons etc.
[

]

Letter(s) of Consent attached

23. Will the research participants be participating as representatives of, or on
behalf of, an Aboriginal group?

104
[

]

[X]

Yes
Attach letter of consent from appropriate authority, e.g. Band
Council, etc.
No

Go to Question 24)

24. Does this project require any other ethical approval, e.g. Northern Health
Authority (Attach Schedule D), other Hospital, First Nations Band, etc.? If so,
please ensure that all guidelines are followed.
[

]

Yes
Please specify the agency
and attach letter of consent/ethical
approval from the appropriate authority.

[

]

[X]

Letter(s) of Consent attached

No

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Appendix 4: APPROVED ETHICS LETTER

UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
RESEARCH ETHICS BOARD

MEMORANDUM
To:
CC:

Cathy Ehlers
Si Transken

From:

Henry Harder, Chair
Research Ethics Board

Date:

June 8, 2009

Re:

E2009.0513.083
How are siblings, raised in abusive and/or neglected homes, treated differently or
similarly: An exploration by Northern Social Workers

Thank you for submitting the above-noted research renewal proposal and requested
amendments to the Research Ethics Board. Your proposal has been approved.
We are pleased to issue approval for the above named study for a period of 12 months
from the date of this letter. Continuation beyond that date will require further review and
renewal of REB approval. Any changes or amendments to the protocol or consent form
must be approved by the Research Ethics Board.
Good luck with your research.
Sincerely,

Henry Harder

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Appendix 5: INFORMATION LETTER
This research project is interested in northern Social Workers' experience of how parents
in abusive and/or neglectful homes treat their children similarly or differently. Before you
make your final decision as a participant, I would like to explain a few aspects of this
collaborative research.
Purpose
The purpose of this research is to gain knowledge about differential treatment, abuse,
neglect and siblings from the point of view of northern social workers. As the researcher,
I will be asking questions intended to elicit conversation about your practice experiences
of siblings who were abused or neglected as children. What I hope to gain during this
research is insight into the above stated phenomena. This knowledge will be used to
develop recommendations for social work practice.
I hope that you will participate by being a part of this interview. This interview will take
approximately 60 minutes. The interview will be audio taped to verify content. A
secondary meeting can be arranged to examine the transcribed interview to ensure
accuracy.
How respondents were chosen
You were chosen on the basis of eligibility criteria. The first criterion is that you have a
minimum four-year degree in social work. The second criterion is that you have worked
in a position assessing risk to children and families for a minimum of two years.
What respondents will be asked to do
Your responsibilities in this research project are to take part in a conversation of
approximately 60 minutes with myself. The research will take place between May 2009
and August 2009. All conversations will be audio taped. You will have the opportunity to
review the transcription of your interview and to provide corrections or further
interpretation as desired.
Who will have access to respondents' responses
All records will be kept in a locked cabinet at Cathy Ehlers' home. The information will
be kept until the final report of the research project is complete. Audiotapes and
accompanying notes will be destroyed after two years. After the final report is completed,
original documents related to your conversations will be shredded. Throughout the
research project, Cathy Ehlers and UNBC will ensure that your identity is not revealed
directly or indirectly. The information that you provide may be reflected in the final
research report, however anonymity will be maintained.

107
Voluntary participation
Your participation in this research project is completely voluntary and you may choose
not to participate. If you chose to participate, you have the right to end your participation
at any time during the conversation. You may choose not to answer any question. If you
decide to withdraw your participation, the information you provided will not be used.
Fictitious names will be used, and your name and identifying characteristics kept strictly
confidential.
Potential risks and benefits
The UNBC board of ethics will assess this research project. I believe this project presents
no risks to respondents. This research project will allow participants to discuss and
provide insight into the experiences of siblings who were abused and/or neglected as
children.
Anonymity and confidentiality
Confidentiality and anonymity will be kept private. Your name, position, employer, and
identifying characteristics will not be used in the research project. You will receive a
copy of your signed consent form. Throughout the research process, Cathy Ehlers and
UNBC will ensure your identity and/or identifying characteristics are not revealed
directly or indirectly.
How information will be stored
Audiotapes and documents relating to our conversation will be kept in a locked cabinet at
Cathy Ehlers' home. The information will be kept until the research project is complete.
Audiotapes will be kept for no longer then two years before being destroyed. After the
completion of the final research project, all original documents will be shredded.
Contact Person and research results
If questions arise at any time during the process, you can contact the researcher by e-mail
at ehlers(a),unbc.ca, or by phone (250) 301-1189. Upon your request, a meeting can be
arranged to discuss the final results of the study.
Complaints
Complaints about this research project may be given to the Office of Research through email at reb@unbc.ca or by phone (250) 960-5650.
Thank you for your time and consideration,

Cathy Ehlers, BSW, MSW Candidate

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Appendix 6: CONSENT FORM
Differences and/or similarities of experience between siblings who were abused or
neglected as children: an exploration by Northern Social Workers
I understand that Cathy Ehlers, who is a graduate student in the Masters of Social Work
Program at the University of Northern British Columbia, is conducting a research project
pertaining to siblings experience of abuse or neglect as children.
I understand the purpose of this research project is to increase knowledge and insight into
the experience of siblings who were abused or neglected as children.
I understand that I was chosen as a participant for this research study because I have a
minimum four-year degree in social work, and I have worker a minimum of two years
with children and families assessing risk.
I understand I will be asked six questions that will be used to elicit a conversation on the
proposed research topic.
1. My consent is given based on the understanding Cathy Ehlers and UNBC will
make their best efforts to maintain confidentiality and anonymity directly and
indirectly.
2. I have read and received a copy of the information sheet.
3. I am aware of the potential risks and benefits to this research project.
4. Confidentiality has been explained to me and I give my consent freely. I
understand I may terminate my participation at any time.
5. I understand and agree that the information given during the conversations will be
audio taped. The audio tapes will be kept in a locked cabinet and destroyed after
two years. The data will only be used for this research project. The data will be
returned to me or shredded at the end of the research project.
6. I hereby waive any claim against Cathy Ehlers, Dr. Si Transken, the University of
Northern British Columbia, its employees, administration, and board of
Governors with respect to the use of said information, provided it is used in
accordance to this agreement.
7. I understand that if I have any concerns, I can contact the researcher Cathy Ehlers,
or the Vice President of Research at UNBC at (250) 960-5820.
8. I understand a copy of this agreement will be obtained and received by all parties
who participate in the research project.

Name (Printed)

Signature

Date

Researcher name (Printed)

Signature

Date