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THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIVE STUDIES AT
CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES: FOUR PROGRAMS,
FOUR PROVINCES, FOUR DECADES

SHONA TANER

IN PARTIAL FULFILM ENT OF A M ASTER OF ARTS HISTORY
FROM THE
UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUM BIA

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIVE STUDIES AT CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES;
FOUR PROGRAMS. FOUR PROVINCES, FOUR DECADES
by
Shona Taner
B.A., The University of Ottawa, 1993
THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
in
HISTORY
®Shona Taner, 1997
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
May 1997
All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or
other m eans, without permission of the author.

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0-612-62501-X

Canada

APPROVAL

Name:

Shona Taner

Degree:

Master o f Arts

Thesis Title:

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIVE STUDIES AT CANADIAN
UNIVERSITIES: FOUR PROGRAMS, FOUR PROVINCES, FOUR
DECADES

Examing Committee:

Chair: Bill Morrison
Dean o f Research and Graduate Studies
University o f Northern British Columbia
A

O i

SupervisorTflobin Fisher
Dean o f Arts and Science
University o f Northern British Columbia

Other Member: David del Mar
Professor o f Ifistory
University
university o if Northern
jNortnem iBritish Columbia

Other Member: Mary-EUen Kelm
Professor o f Ifistory
University o f Northern B ri^ h Columbia

External Examiner: Antonia Mills
Professor o f First Nations Studies
University o f Northern British Columbia

Date Approved:

^ Y

A f

(9^ ^

ABSTRACT

This study traces the development of Native Studies at Canadian universities from its
ivory tower origins through its gradual descent to the grass roots by examining four
programs which em erged in four different decades in four different provinces. The
unique characteristics of the programs and the circumstances which led to these
differences, namely, the times in which each program was established, the location of
the program, the program’s structure, and the level of involvement of the First Nations
in each university are explored.
The study dem onstrates that since Native Studies first burst upon the academic scene
in the late sixties, the programs have steadily increased their responsiveness to First
Nations' n eed s by expanding the curriculum, increasing the participation of Native
students and instructors, reaching out to the communities, and involving First Nations
people a s cultural consultants and throughout the universities' governing bodies.
Through a series of interviews with those involved in the programs and an examination
of university records, the differences in the origins of the four programs and the unique
ways in which each program has approached Native Studies are revealed.

III

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract

II

Table of Contents

iii

List of Figures

iv

List of Abbreviations

V

Acknowledgements

vi

INTRODUCTION

1

Chapter One

Trent University
Figure 1

16
25

Chapter Two

The Saskatchewan Indian Federated College
Figure 2

39
54

Chapter Three

The University of Alberta

60

Chapter Four

The University of Northern British Columbia

83

CONCLUSION

104

Endnotes

114

Bibliography

139

IV

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1

Trent University Courses Graph

25

Figure 2

SIFC Administrative Structure Diagram

54

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A.F.N.

Assembly of First Nations

A.I.M.

American Indian Movement

A.S.C.

Aboriginal Student Council

C.S.T.C.

Carrier-Sekani Tribal Council

C.U.T.

Coordinated University Transition

C.U.T.P.

Coordinated University Transition Program

D.I.A.N.D.

Department of Indian and Northem Development

F.S.I.

Federation of Saskatchewan Indians

F.S.I.N.

Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations

G.F.C.

General Faculties' Council

I.N.A.C.

Indian and Northern Affairs C anada

I.P.G.

Implementation Planning Group

N.I.B.

National Indian Brotherhood

N.S.S.A.

Native Studies Student Association

P.A.C.C.R.

President's Advisory Committee on Campus Review

S.I.F.C.

Saskatchewan Indian Federated College

T.Y.P.

Transition Year Program

U.C.L.A.

University of California at Los Angeles

U.E.P.

University Entrance Program

U.N.B.C.

University of Northem British Columbia

W.W.N.

Wilp Wilxo'oskwhl Nisga'a

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to thank my family for their love and support
throughout my many years of study: my grandparents, who have always encouraged
their grandchildren to pursue education; my parents, who have hardly seen me in the
p ast two years, but were always there when I needed them; and my sister Marla, who
kept me san e by providing me with frequent escapes from the cold of the north and the
confines of my desk. Special thanks to Bryn, Cathy, Drew, Ian, John, Maryka, Mel,
Sandy, and Terri for their friendship and support. I would also like to convey my
gratitude to the J. S. Ewart Memorial Fund which financed a sixty day bus pass which
allowed me to travel to the four institutions examined. Finally, I would like to express
my sincere appreciation to all those at Trent University, the Saskatchew an Indian
Federated College and the University of Regina, the University of Alberta, and the
University of Northem British Columbia who assisted me in my research, especially
those who graciously put up with my seemingly endless interview questions and Robin,
who both dem anded the best and supported the Prince George economy by requiring
seemingly endless revisions. This thesis is dedicated to those who endeavour to leam
about the experience, perspective and culture of the First Nations, and to the people
who make such study possible.

INTRODUCTION
T hose anthropologists,
sociologists and
historians who
poke a t our bones,
our social system s
and p ast events
try to tell us
who we are.
W hen we don't read
their books
they think we are
rejecting our heritage.
So, they feel
sorry for us
and write
more books
for them selves.
Untitled, Lenore Tobias, 1980
This poem describes well the perception held by many First Nations people of the type of
education provided by universities. T he education of Natives has received considerable attention
for m any y ears in both the United S tates and C anada, with very little disparity in overall findings.
Low achievem ent and high dropout rates persist a t all levels of education from elem entary school
through university.’ For many of the early years of the century, the limited num ber of Natives
earning a university degree could be explained by C anada's unique policy of enforced
"enfranchisem ent" for a Native seeking higher education, which m eant the loss of Treaty or
Registered status.^ Although this policy was changed, up until the sixties, for m ost Native students.
Native education m eant the education of Natives by non-Natives using non-Native methods.^ It was
in th e sixties that the First Nations began to articulate their disappointment with the types of
educational opportunities afforded them. A representative of the Federation of Saskatchew an
Indians elaborated.
For too m any years, non-Indians, including representatives of m ost universities, have
b ee n speaking for Indians. The days of that are long over. W e will p resen t our own
case, in whatever forum, whenever the need arises. Certainly we appreciate th e efforts
others have m ade on our behalf, and certainly we seek continued co-operation betw een
Indian an d non-Indian societies. However, it m ust be just that - co-operation - not

assimilation.'’
In the past, failure to establish effective communication mechanisms and working relationships with
First Nations resulted in irrelevant program s which had no relationship to the survival and
developm ent n eeds articulated by First Nations leaders. Disenchantment and lack of faith and
credibility on the part of Native people in traditional institutions of higher education w as often the
outcome.^ Fortunately, the academ ic community eventually becam e aw are of its p ast errors and
began to m ake ch an g es to its m ethods of designing and delivering education to and about First
Nations peoples.
It all began in the 1960s, a revolutionary time for the academ ic community. Political unrest led
m any to dem and ch an g es to the traditional university system . Many believed that universities
represented “ivory towers” for educating the wealthy elite, and students and political activists worked
to m ake higher education more accessible to the traditionally under-represented. O ne of the
tangible results of the protest movement in the United S tates and C an ad a was the introduction of
Ethnic Studies Including Black Studies, Chicano Studies, and Native Studies. In C anada, the ethnic
m ake-up of the population m eant that Black Studies and Chicano Studies were of less relevance
than in the United S tates, and thus in response to the protest m ovem ent C anadian universities
chose to pursue the implementation of Native Studies. According to John Price, a Canadian scholar
in the area of Native Studies, the discipline em erged from increasing academ ic specialization, the
shift tow ards social relevance in universities, and political pressure from Native people to have a
place in academ ia for their civilization alongside those of Europeans.^
T he objectives of Native Studies programs have changed a s the field h as grown. Initially,
objectives were dictated by the results of census studies revealing that First Nations’ participation
in post-secondary education w as dismally low. The introduction of Native Studies w as s e e n as a
m ean s of increasing First Nations’ enrolment a t universities by making the institutions friendlier.
This w as first accomplished by offering traditional academ ic courses with a focus on First Nations.
Roger Buffalohead, of Washington State University, described the early Native Studies programs
of the seventies a s having “the general Anthropology courses, general Sociology courses, general

3
Education courses, in which Indians them selves are supposed to receive an airing, and an
intellectual discussion."^ O ver time, a s the needs of First Nations people and the role of First
Nations people within m odem society changed, so too did the objectives of Native Studies
programs. With the rights of indigenous people rising to the forefront globally, interest in maintaining
and disseminating knowledge of the cultures of Aboriginal people also grew. Native leaders pointed
out that preservation of language and culture is one of the embodim ents of the philosophy of First
Nations education.^

Universities, a s purveyors of knowledge, realized that they were ideal

candidates for participation in this process.
In Canada, universities began to respond to intemal and extemal p ressu res to m eet the needs
of First Nations people by introducing more Native Studies programs and altering established
program s to give more attention to language, identity, and the arts. Thus, a s the seventies
p rogressed, Native Studies becam e “more than an academ ic chronicler of Native cultures", but
"actively involved in their preservation and development."^ Assisting in the m aintenance and
dissemination of First Nations culture becam e the objective of these new Native Studies programs.
Yet, throughout the seventies, the traditional courses in the humanities and social sciences
continued to dominate the curriculum and the First Nations began to dem and further changes to
course offerings. For the average Canadian competing in an environment in which employers
dem and skills and experience, a degree in Native Studies seem ed like a w aste of time. Many in the
Native community felt that "The humanities or liberal arts, such as history, literature and philosophy,
in particular, are regarded a s superfluous and impractical...Indian professional scholars. are not
essential for Indian developm ent, and all effort should be m ade to produce professional Indian
educators, businessm en and technocrats."^"
At a Symposium on American Indian Studies in 1977, Clara Sue Kidwell, a faculty m em ber in
the Native American Studies program a t the University of California in Berkeley, said, "Native
American Studies programs m ust maintain a careful balance between the purely academ ic concerns
of the University and the purely pragmatic concerns of the community."" Therefore, in response
to the criticism of government, industry, interest groups, and society a s a whole, the academ ic

4
community learned that It could no longer concern itself merely with scholarship and gradually began
working towards making university education more practical. In Native Studies, th e se pressures,
combined with the dem ands of First Nations people for self-government, translated into another shift
in the objectives of the programs from maintaining culture to helping to prepare First Nations people
for the responsibilities associated with governing themselves. As Native Studies entered its second
decade, applied courses, practicums and community-based research were becoming a vital part of
the program. According to Russell Thornton, a faculty mem ber in the Native American Studies
Program a t the University of Minnesota,
American Indian studies has developed along three basic lines since its inception. One,
it h as developed along the line of Indian culture; that is, it h as introduced Indian
languages, music, art, literature, and ways of looking at the world into academ ia. Two,
it h as developed along social science lines; that is, it has attem pted to consolidate
existing bodies of knowledge pertaining to American Indians in social sciences, m ost
notably anthropology and history, and also evaluate and reinterpret this knowledge.
Three, Indian studies h as developed along applied lines. It h a s exam ined Indian
education, Indian social work, Indian health care and has attempted to make th ese a re a s
more relevant to problems and conditions of Indian peoples.^^
This h a s certainly b een the ca se with Native Studies programs in C anada which have had to
balance th e se three areas.
The First Nations have expressed concern with curriculum beyond desiring a balance in course
offerings betw een traditional academ ic courses, culture courses and applied courses. Many issues
regarding curriculum content continue to be debated, and the place of culture in the classroom w as
chief am ong them. Vine Deloria Jr. asks the question, "Are th ese program s designed to teach the
culture of the group a s a direct mission, in effect substituting them selves in the role of elder of the
community?"

Answering the question himself, Deloria replies "University officials have never

remotely considered their job to be the perpetuation of culture for racial minorities who have already
experienced considerable acculturation."" T he First Nations wanted only som e of their culture
conveyed in a traditional academ ic manner, and Native Studies programs soon recognized the value
of involving Elders from First Nations communities in the provision of cultural information to their
students. In 1981, Arthur Blue of the Native Studies Department a t Brandon University, indicated
that he saw Native Studies moving in the direction of involving Native Elders and spiritual leaders

5
and recognizing them a s having equivalence in term s of degree of qualifications n ecessary to teach
in a university/"* This led John Price to conclude that Native Studies had begun "to expand in
response to social and political pressure on the academ ic institutions and the changing interests of
students (particularly Native students), rather than arising out of isolated, ivory tower developm ents
of academ ic disciplines."’^
The program s have also frequently been criticized for hiring non-Native professors to teach what
First Nations people like Harold Cardinal, the Alberta C ree politician, view a s “White Studies of
Indians”.’^ Yet, Native Studies programs have experienced difficulty in finding Native scholars with
traditional academ ic requirements. In many c a s e s, th e se programs have adjusted their hiring
requirem ents to allow Natives without a PhD to teach.

Aside from the universities making

adjustm ents to their policies, govemments have also been encouraged to make changes. In 1972,
the Indian Control of Indian Education policy p ap er stated, “The government m ust adjust its policy
and practices to m ake possible the full participation and partnership of Indian people in all decisions
and activities connected with the education of Indian people."’^ According to Eber Hampton of the
SIFC, "..local control is a defining characteristic of Indian education, not just a philosophical or
political good. There can be no true Indian education without Indian control. Anything e lse is white
education applied to Indians."’^ For the First Nations, Indian control meant, at the minimum. Native
instructors and Native representation on governing bodies of the universities. A report prepared for
a British Columbian institution stated,
Traditionally, institutes of higher leaming have acted from the assum ption that it is the
institution who (sic.) defines the n eed s and resources needed for its clientele. This
approach h a s invariably led to failure in any attem pts to deliver post-secondary
programming to Native Leam ers and communities. For Native communities, long
sensitive to this rather patemal, even imperialist attitude towards the n e e d s of their
peoples, such an approach is today an ath em a to their ultimate struggle for selfdetermination. While this vigorous struggle continues today betw een Natives and the
various institutions who still labour under su ch paternalistic models and assum ptions —
such a s D.I.A.N.D., health agencies and the like - universities in C anada are in a unique
position to take a lead in developing new ap p ro ach es towards partnerships with the
Native leam er and communities alike b ased upon an assum ption of equals in dialogue
and expectations.’®
In order to maintain credibility with the First Nations community, universities have had to m ake every

6
effort to ensure adequate representation of Natives within their faculties and governing structures,
and Native Studies programs have been both the prime beneficiary and prime benefactor of these
Native academ ics and representatives.
T he im portance of education has always been recognized by Native people, both in terms of
ensuring th e survival and spread of their language and culture, and in preparing to m eet the
challenges of the changing society of which they are a part. Native Studies program s a t Canadian
universities represent the recognition by the dominant society of the value of educating both Natives
and non-Natives about First Nations' experience, perspective, culture and language. Yet, the role
of an academ ic institution in fulfilling the needs of both Native and non-Native communities through
the provision of a Native Studies program is complicated. In many cases, the goal of recruiting.
Native students cannot be achieved merely by providing Native Studies. According to Charlotte
Heth and S usan Guyette of the American Indian Studies Centre a t UCLA, "Without true commitment
to the spirit of affirmative action...no institution can mount a good program."^" Thus, admission
procedures m ust be altered and bridging courses provided to better prepare som e Native students
for university-level studies. In addition, recruiting Native students does not guarantee that the
stu d en ts will graduate. High attrition rates have led to the development of services for Native
students to help them to adjust to the urban, academ ic environment and to overcome the culture
shock that many experience. The introduction of Native Studies has proven to be the catalyst for
many of th ese changes.
O ther m eans of improving the participation rates of Native students have been adopted by
Native Studies programs in particular and universities in general. The most common is the provision
of university courses in Native communities, or distance education. According to the Smith Report,
produced for the Association of Universities and Colleges of C anada in 1991, the m ost obvious
purpose of distance education, is to m ake university education accessible to individuals who, for
reasons of geography, economics or scheduling, cannot attend a t the cam pus of the university.
In many cases, Native students fall into all of those categories. Unfortunately, in the seventies the
Department of Indian Affairs indicated that “Universities perceive that a degree obtained in a totally

7
off-campus situation is less valuable than one gained on-cam pus; th at it som ehow su g g ests a
'lowering of standards'."^ This opinion h as gradually changed a s more universities develop their
distance education offerings and more students successfully m ake the transition onto university
cam p u ses. Many Canadian universities have implemented off-campus program s and the Smith
Report praises the existing distance education efforts of Canadian universities and encourages
expansion. The Report stresses that govem ments should recognize the enorm ous value inherent
in distance leaming and provide adequate support.^^ Universities continue to respond to this
encouragem ent and in som e c a s e s students can now eam a university degree without having to
leave their hom e community.
For many Native Studies programs in both C anada and the United States, funding is the pivotal
factor in determining the su ccess of a program. Early programs were able to tap into resources from
different govem m ent and private organizations, but the funding w as often soft m oney which could
not be counted on long-term. Universities would also provide short term grants to support Native
Studies programs, butin 1985, Heth and Guyette from the American Indian Studies Centre a t UCLA,
suggested that Native Studies programs could no longer rely on benevolent, liberal administrations
to carry them through programmatically and fiscally.^^ Funding from th e universities' b a se budgets
w as sought by new Native Studies programs, and universities in tum looked to the provincial
governm ents to provide them with additional funding. A DIAND report indicated that "University
administrations find themselves fighting, in their view, a constant uphill battle for fiscal sun/ival, with
little capacity, or provincial encouragement, for expansion in terms of either staff or program

Yet,

th o se Native Studies programs that tum ed to the federal governm ent also faced an uphill battle.
Although the budget within Indian Affairs for Native education from kindergarten through high school
is unlimited b ecau se the departm ent regards that as a statutory obligation; post-secondary support
from the federal government to Status Indians and selected post-secondary education programs
and services is non-statutory and thus the budget is both fixed and limited.^ Nevertheless, in many
cases, the myth of a special pot of Indian m o n e / available som ew here still persists in academ ia,
and program planners and directors have to convince their respective institutions that they deserve

8

regular, hard money support, and that the am ount of money m ust be enough to en su re s u c c e ss
Since Native Studies arrived on the Canadian academ ic scene, universities have m ade m any
adjustm ents in an effort to respond to the n eed s of Native students and the Native community.
Those changes have included shifts in the focus of the curriculum to balance academic, cultural and
applied offerings. Hiring practices have been altered to allow Natives without PhDs to teach Native
Studies courses. Efforts to attract and hold Native students include bridging co u rses and the
introduction of Elders to act a s cultural advisors and counsellors. For those students not prepared
to en ter the university environment, the provision of distance education courses in Native
communities is a growing trend. Limited funding remains the primary deterrent to the evolution and
developm ent of Native Studies.
This study chronologically exam ines these issues and their affects on the developm ent of Native
Studies program s at several universities in western and central Canada: Trent University in
Peterborough, Ontario; the University of Regina (Saskatchew an Indian Federated College) in
Regina, Saskatchew an; the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta; and the University of
Northern British Columbia in Prince George, British Columbia. Although there are several other
universities from which to choose, the four in question were selected because they conform to the
param eters of the study, which exam ines the changes in the developm ent of Native Studies
program s in each of the d e c a d e s commencing with the 1960s and concluding with the 1990s.
Geographically, the universities represent the regions in which the m ost Native Studies program s
are offered. In addition, universities were chosen to represent four different provinces, to reflect the
unique influences of provincial politics, demographics, and historical experiences. Examination of
the Native Studies programs a t th ese four universities will determine the influences, obstacles, and
changes that have occurred in the course of establishing and improving each of th e se program s to
m eet the needs of First Nations students and communities, and to benefit others seeking to learn
more about the history, culture and experiences of C anada's First Nations people. This study will
p resen t the differences am ong the four program s and the circum stances th at led to th e se
differences; namely, the times in which each program w as established, the provinces in which the

9
universities are located, the structure of the program, and the level of involvement of First Nations
people in each university.
This project w as carried out primarily through a series of interviews with the p a st and present
adm inistrators m ost directly involved in the establishment, design, and evolution of the Native
Studies program s a t each of the four universities. Interviews with others involved in the program,
such a s m em bers of the Native community. Native student services administrators, and faculty have
also been included. Given the time constraints for conducting this research, those not interviewed
included First Nations and non-First Nations students who participated in the program s a t each of
the universities. The entire proceedings were tape-recorded and transcribed to en su re accuracy,
an d to store information for recall and validation. For each institution and interview subject, the
questions w ere adapted to reflect the uniqueness of the individual program s and the experiences
of the subject. The choice of personal interviews, a s opposed to mailed questionnaires or surveys,
w as influenced by the experiences of Jo-ann Archibald and S h een a Selkirk Bowman in their study
of th e s u c c e ss factors and barriers to First Nations higher education. They found that low return
rates, longer than usual return times, and the need for frequent personal contact to ensure returns
of mailed questionnaires are factors that should be taken into account In planning applications of
th at m ethod. Their final recom m endations were that t e c a u s e the u se of mailed questionnaires
proved to be costly relative to benefit, the use of mailed questionnaires should be replaced with an
alternative method, such a s the telephone or personal interview.”^ Personal interviews rather than
telephone interviews w ere chosen to establish a more comfortable relationship with the
interview ees, and to allow the interviewer to pause and probe in order to elicit more elaborate
resp o n ses without the awkwardness associated with telephone conversations. In addition, personal
interviews gave the researcher an opportunity to visit each university, a recom m endation m ade by
W ayne Stein, who conducted a study of tribally-controlled colleges in the United S tates and found
th at reports containing much of the pertinent information were discovered a t the respective
institutions, reinforcing the need to visit each site to examine and copy documents.^^
The draw backs of this method, which influenced or may have influenced the results of this

10
study, involved the availability and cooperation of the administrators and others associated with the
Native Studies programs, the reliability of the participants’ memories, and the biases of the
interview ees. Unfortunately, there were m any within both the academ ic community and the First
Nations community who chose not to participate in this study. In the case s in which key individuals
w ere unavailable, an attem pt w as m ade to find files or records a t the university left by the person
in question. In c a se s where individuals were not available for a face-to-face interview, a list of the
interview questions was sen t to them to be answ ered via mail and followed up with phone interviews
or e-mail correspondence to clarify or expand upon responses. With regard to the biases, every
effort w as employed to ensure objectivity and accuracy. Information obtained was checked against
information from other informants on the subject. The information w as further checked, where
possible, against the written record of the sam e event or time period.
R esearch on universities and their offerings is a fairly new field. Works such a s J.A. Gerry's
Farewell the Ivory Tower: Universities in Transition^, published in 1970, and Lawrence Stone's two
volume, The University in Society^V published in 1974, were am ong the first wave of research on
the subject. T hese were followed by other works such as S.E.D. Shortfs The Search for an IdeaP^
and A.B. McKillop's A Disciplined Intelligence” , both also published in the 1970s. Collectively, this
research has encouraged contemporary scholars, like Cyril Levitt^, and Paul Axelrod and John
Reid^®, to further the study of higher education in C anada. Similar works have em erged in other
countries such a s Britain where Lowe wrote Education in the Post-W ar Years: A Social History^^
in 1988, and in the United States with the work of Clark Kerr, Troubled Times for American
Education: The 1990s and Beyond^^ published in 1994. While m ost of these studies have been
of the social history of university education in general, this study will examine it within the specific
field of Native Studies.
In the 1960s, the literature about First Nations K-12 schooling began to surface, and its
exponential growth in the 1970s created a major body of discussion and research reporting.^ The
sam e cannot be said for post-secondary education for First Nations students. This is revealed by
Tradition and Education: Towards a Vision of our Future, a study conducted by the Assembly of First

11
Nations (AFN) in 1988, in which the AFN’s review of 600 reports by the federal govemment,
provincial/territorial govem m ents, educational institutions and First Nations organizations reveals
th at 83% concern elem entary and secondary education, while only 13% concem post-secondary
e d u c a tio n .Y e t, in response to the increasing number of Native stu d en ts completing high school,
research is gradually surfacing on post-secondary opportunities for First Nations people. According
to the Assembly of First Nations’ 1988 report, the volume of academ ic literature about First Nations
post-secondary education increased over a 20 year period from only o n e report betw een 1970-74,
to 17 reports between 1975-79, and 62 reports between 1980-86.“*° D espite this growth, C anada
still d o es not have a substantial body of literature.
Som e Canadian researchers have indicated that given the similarities betw een the United States
an d C an ad a with regard to post-secondary education for First Nations students, the literature is
considered continental, with many commonalities across the borders '** According to Archibald and
Selkirk Bowman,
despite the observation that the d atab ase is inadequate, and the contextualization of
discussion about First Nations higher education is in the large context of inequity within
the general topic of minority group education, there are more published and unpublished
sources of information an d discussion about First Nations higher education in the U.S.,
and its sco p e is more com prehensive than C anada’s.“*^
N onetheless, they found that, although a more com prehensive picture of First Nations post­
secondary education in the United States is reflected in customary literature sources, it still does not
adequately docum ent the p resen t American experience.*^
Much of the American-based research has come from the University of Califomia at Los Angeles
(UCLA). The American Indian Culture and Research Joumal. published by UCLA, has m ade many
contributions to the field of Native Studies, including a 1978 volume dedicated to the issue of
American Indian Studies.** T he volume is highly relevant to the C anadian situation a s it discusses
th e types and values of stu d en t input into program and planning, the rationale for an applied
em phasis and/or an academ ic em phasis, and the importance of language instruction, all of which
have been heated issu es in determining the direction of Native S tudies program s a t the four
C anadian universities studied in this research.

12
Aside from its journal, UCLA h as a dedicated staff th at frequently publishes independent
research on American Indian Studies. Charlotte Heth and S u sa n Guyette have contributed to the
body of literature with their n e e d s a sse ssm e n t research of American Indian Studies.**® Their
research stresses institutions’ favouring of recruitment over services, a s well, they note that it is up
to the American Indian S tudies program to serve a s an advocate for new course developm ent
em phasizing Indian cultural n eed s, to encourage the developm ent of Native student support
services, and to provide the b a s e for Indian faculty recruitment. Their research also focuses on the
occupational n eed s of Indian communities. Despite the American context, th ese studies are
pertinent to Canadian-based research, a s both the importance of recruitment versus retention, and
the necessity of responding to th e needs of Native communities have been the subject of discussion
at C anadian universities with Native Studies programs.
Studies conducted on American tribal colleges are also valuable in that the m easure of control
held by Native people over th e colleges is com parable to th at held by the Federation of
Saskatchew an Indian Nations in connection with the S askatchew an Indian Federated College
(SIFC). The philosophy of service to the community, reflection of community educational needs,
and open door access to all community members, which characterize the tribal colleges studied by
W ayne Stein, are philosophies shared by SIFC and the other Canadian universities to be
examined.**® In his 1978 study, Norman Oppelt discussed the em phasis on teaching and service
activities in Indian Studies program s a t tribal colleges com pared with the scholarly activities of other
acad em ic disciplines.**^ This is another issue relevant to the C anadian sam ple exam ined in this
study.
Further review of the literature uncovered Eugene Leitka’s doctoral dissertation from New
Mexico State University, in which he studied the effectiveness of Native American Studies Programs
in universities and colleges throughout the United S tates and C an a d a.^ His study reveals a
connection between the com ponents of Native Studies programs and their holding power of Native
stu d en ts com pared with institutions with no such program s.

The value of this study to the

research er is in its exam ination of the high attrition rates of American Indians a t American

13
universities (which correspond with Canadian figures), and the responses by the universities with
Native Studies programs, which have included providing counsellors and hiring more Native staff.
In light of the current research about American Indians in higher education that is taking place
in the United States, it would be pertinent for Canadian researchers to pursue similar studies. The
late John Price, of York University, w as probably the country’s leading researcher on the topic of
Native Studies with his many contributions to the Canadian Journal of Native Studies a s well a s his
books on the topic. In a key article. Price divided curriculum into categories of General, Arts,
Preprofessional, Language and R esearch and exam ined the courses by category a t several
universities in 1982."^ This study will attem pt to define similar categories and evaluate the four
programs' offerings over the period of their existence. Price's 1978 research on Native Studies in
C an a d a and the United States is also enlightening in term s of his analysis of the impetus for
introducing the program s in C an ad a.^
Journal articles also figure prominently in the study a s there are several journals in both C anada
and the United States which are dedicated to Native Studies and Native issues related to education.
The b est Canadian examples are the Canadian Journal of Native Studies and the Canadian Journal
of Native Education, while in the United States, the Wicazo S a Review and the American Indian
Culture and R esearch Journal have both frequently published articles related to the education of
American Indians. Although th ese articles do not address the development of Native Studies at the
selected Canadian universities per se, the issues discussed in the articles can be applied to the
Canadian exam ples studied to provide insight and comparison, and they were also incorporated into
the list of interview questions asked by the researcher.
The value of studies conducted by First Nations groups was immeasurable. Not only does the
research provide insights into the issues of concem to Native peoples, it also represents one of the
influences on the design and development of Native Studies programs them selves. Indian Control
of Indian Education, a policy pap er of the National Indian Brotherhood, reveals information on key
issues to be considered on the topic of Native education, primarily at the elementary through
secondary level.^^ Its indirect influence on the development of Native Studies programs (especially

14
due to its adoption by the Federal government), make it a primary source for this study. T he sam e
can be said for the follow-up p ap er produced by the Assembly of First Nations (AFN) in 1988,
Tradition an d Education: Towards a Vision of Our Future, in which the need for special program s
to train First Nations people in the fields of socio-economic development. First Nations govemment,
and administration are expressed.^ The recommendations of this report make it a primary source
in determining the effects of First Nations dem ands on the developm ent of Native Studies programs,
and the level of satisfaction of First Nations people for the universities' efforts.
Other reports that can be categorized a s primary sou rces include those by organizations such
as the Association of Universities and Colleges of C anada which express the issues of concem to
the institutions them selves.^ Research conducted by the Department of Indian Affairs and Northem
D evelopm ent (DIAND) was also helpful in determining the level of su ccess of Native Studies
programs by providing statistics on attrition rates, employment, and enrolment. In addition, reports
by provincial bodies were utilized in determining provincial concerns with university education in
general, and with university education for First Nations in particular.
R esearch on Native Studies a s a discipline in both C an a d a and the United S tates d o es not
e n co m p ass all of the concerns of this study. Much has b een written about the higher education
needs of Natives, and many studies can be found conceming the effectiveness of the programs, but
little h as been written about the factors which determined the organization and objectives of th ese
programs since their establishm ent. T hese programs do not exist in a vacuum, and m any factors
have influenced their development. It is hoped that this study will continue where others have left
off, and start to fill the gap in the literature to answ er the questions related to how and why Native
S tudies program s in C anada have evolved to their current state. It is hoped that this study will
benefit the First Nations in reviewing how different Native Studies programs have responded to their
n eed s. It is also hoped that the study will benefit the academ ic community in determining the
environment most suitable for establishing Native Studies Program s and some of the b est methods
of creating a credible program. The study will also attem pt to change the image of universities by
dem onstrating, using Native Studies a s an example, that universities may once have b een ivory

15

towers determining the educational needs of students and society from an academ ic perspective,
but are becoming responsive to the needs of their constituents and encouraging representation of
the public within all levels of university governing bodies and in the lecture halls. Each of the Native
Studies program s exam ined have had unique experiences b ased on the times in which each
program was established, their location, and the structure of their programs, yet they have all com e
to recognize the importance of First Nations involvement to ensure accessibility, accountability and
excellence.

16
CHAPTER ONE - TRENT UNIVERSITY

W hy would a small, five year old, liberal arts, undergraduate institution in Peterborough, Ontario
be the first university in C anada to introduce a Native Studies program in 1969? According to two
of the key figures in Natives Studies a t Trent, "The initial program m e w as formulated in the late
sixties, a period when criticism of social structures and efforts to a sse rt hum an rights were creating
a ferm ent in the United S tates and stirring social consciousness in Canada."’ Organizations like the
American Indian Movement (AIM) in the United S tates and the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB)
in C a n a d a w ere forming and drawing attention to the issues affecting First Nations. This was a
period w hen d eb ate and introspection about the Canadian identity was challenging som e of the
assum ptions arising from C an ad a's colonial past.^ The new ness of the University w as another
factor contributing to its willingness to create a new program.

In addition, with Ojibway,

M ississauga, Mohawk and Chippewa communities within a 70 mile radius, Peterborough's Trent
University w as a likely choice for the first Native Studies program in C anada. Nonetheless, the
sixties environment, the new ness of the university and the proximity of so many Native communities
alone w ere not enough to support such a unique innovation.
Credit for the origin of the Native Studies Program is attributed to various individuals a t Trent.
In his history of Trent, A.O.C. Cole indicates that in the spring of 1968 Kenneth Kidd, from
Anthropology, gained the support of his colleagues to approach Tom Symons, the President of the
University, with the idea of a sep arate college or institute which would offer an interdisciplinary
program in Native Studies.^ Kidd himself supported this version of the program 's history stating,"ln
th e Anthropology Department we did talk about th ese things...the idea gradually em erged that it
might not be a bad idea to try and organize som e kind of formal instruction at Trent for Native
people....and it w as after that that we had discussions with the President and he suggested that we
form a com m ittee to consider it.”^ Others, like Harvey McCue, who w as on the original Working
Committee on Native Studies, have a different explanation. According to McCue,
It w as during my final year at Trent a s an undergraduate...which w as 1968. I had
received an invitation from Tom Symons, then President of Trent, to discuss the
possibilities around the involvement of more Native students a t the University. W e had
several m eetings, he and I, and gradually the concept of th e studies or program of

17

stu d ies which would attract Indian students and which would provide an education
relevant to their interests em erged from our discussions.” ^
McCue indicates that unlike many of the Ethnic Studies programs such a s Black Studies, Hispanic
S tudies and Native Studies that em erged a t the sam e time in the United S tates and C anada, the
Native Studies program at Trent did not develop in response to Native students, community leaders,
or Native activists, but rather owed its origins to the discussions between Tom Symons and himself,
which led directly to Indian-Eskimo Studies.® Despite the importance of his own involvement,
McCue credits Tom Symons with the initiative. He has stated, T o m Symons w as acutely aware of
th e problem s confronting Native people in C anada in the mid and late sixties and he was
determ ined, a s far a s I can tell, to do everything he could, within the limitations imposed by the
University to am eliorate those conditions, and he freely m ade a very strong commitment to make
a contribution.”^ This aw areness could be attributed to Symons’ tenure a s P resident of the IndianEskimo Association.®

Overall, Native Studies at Trent owes its origins to “Ken Kidd, as the

established academ ic, Harvey McCue, a s the innovative thinker, and Tom Symons, who could make
room ...”.®
Tom Symons indicated that “(i)nterest a t Trent in the possibility of establishing such a program
go es back to the time of the University’s foundation in 1964”, but it was not until March 20,1969 that
the Trent University S enate approved in principle the concept of an Indian-Eskimo Studies Program
at Trent University, subject to the availability of the necessary financing.’® At Trent, the program was
financed primarily with money from the University’s base budget. According to Harvey McCue, T om
(Sym ons) m ade the commitment to have anything that would em erge from our initial discussions
a s part of the University budget... Essentially it was absorbed by the existing university financial
regime.”” Hard funding w as not available to all the Native Studies programs emerging in the period
in both C an ad a and the United States. Marlene Castellano indicates, T re n t h as differed from other
program s and we’re fiercely proud of this, that Trent Native Studies has never b een funded by soft
money. The core of the teaching program has always been from the core faculty budget. You teach
a course, you get your income from fees and grants, just like anybody else.”’® From the beginning.

18

endow m ents and grants also helped with the development and growth of the program. Additional
seed m oney w as attained from the Donner Canadian Foundation in the amount of $204,000, a s well
a s the Provincial Secretary’s Indian Community Branch which ad d ed $15,000 and the Atkinson
Foundation which contributed $5,000 in the first year.’^
With financing In place, the establishm ent of the program advanced quickly under the guidance
of Ken Kidd.

The program’s early design reflected its origins a s part of the Anthropology

Department. As an anthropologist, Ken Kidd had a particular vision of the Indian-Eskimo Studies
Program . He said,
I had in mind an interdisciplinary program which would involve som e anthropology,
nam ely the survey of Indians of C anada ...the geography of C anada, to em phasize the
diversity of the cultural backgrounds, in the geographical s e n s e of the word, and
som ething about the history of the country, the progress of white acquisition of C anada,
how it affected Native peoples, and C anadian economics.^”
Kidd w as a key figure in the development of the Indian-Eskimo Studies program, and his intentions
were good, but he also em bodied the assimilationist tendencies of the late sixties and early
seventies. He thought that the “salvageable" aspects of Native life could be “blended with the useful
elem ents of the EuroCanadian society to bring up, to develop a new type of society for the Native
people, th a t would b e satisfactory to them and compatible with contem porary C anadian life."’®
Similarly, Kidd’s vision of the role of Native Studies within the University also diverged from that of
the growing num ber of Native people in the program. W hen confronted by students claiming that
the departm ent w as designed to lure Native students into the University for the purpose of
assimilating them, he answ ered, "Well, w hat did you expect? It is a Euro-Canadian institution,
teaching by approved Euro-Canadian m ethods, approved Euro-Canadian courses, and you come
expecting to learn th e se things, you’re not expecting to leam Native culture at this University."’®
Thus, in its early days, Indian-Eskimo Studies did little to go beyond the traditional university courses
that looked a t Native issues.
Significant changes to the program occurred in 1971 when Walter Currie, a Potawatami who had
been advisor to the Ontario govem m ent on Native education, w as hired to run the program. He

19
convinced S enate that to improve the status of Indian-Eskimo Studies the program should be m ade
a departm ent rather than leaving it a s an interdisciplinary program within Anthropology. In 1972 the
Native Studies Department em erged atT rent.’^ In the sam e year, the departm ent began to consider
academ ic, cultural and applied developm ent goals. A report describing the events that took place
in this period indicated that a critical issue in the developm ent of Native Studies a t Trent w as the
appropriate mix between w hat w as term ed “conventional” academ ic courses, on one hand, and
“culture” courses, on the other. Initially, the program focused on developing academ ic courses
b e c a u s e it w as considered politically unwise to reject the expectations and dem ands of the
university, which, a s an institution of higher learning, w as turned to for direction of the novel and
fledgling program.^^ By 1974 the academ ic courses had increased, an d the faculties' concem had
shifted to the need to expand an d strengthen the cultural content in the departm ental offerings.
Although faculty had different perceptions of “cultural content”, there w as a consensus that language
instruction in an Indian dialect would acknowledge and legitimize the growing interest among Indians
in preserving their language an d culture.’® Many believe that the ch a n g e s to the program in the
direction of cultural exploration w ere the result of Aboriginal people beginning to teach in the
program an d taking over the position of Chair. Som e believe this led the Department of Native
Studies to:
...split, in a very public way, from the founder, who objected very strenuously to the
bringing of Aboriginal culture into the University and using th at a s the basis for our
program, and the use of Elders a s instructors, and the use of traditional teaching in the
classroom . That was not his original vision of the University, and of Native Studies. He
w anted those very close links with Anthropology.^®
T hus, after only a few years. Native Studies a t Trent turned from Anthropology and began to find
its own niche a s a separate discipline.
W hat W alter Currie had begun in 1972, w as expanded upon by the succeeding Chairman,
J o se p h Couture, in the mid seventies. Until 1975, attem pts to include a cultural com ponent in
Native Studies focussed primarily on incorporating cultural information into traditional courses. In
1975, experiential learning techniques were introduced to integrate knowledge presented in a

20

I

I traditional Native cultural style.^^ A departmental review indicated that experiential learning
techniques were only o n e elem ent of the changes taking place in this period.

“In 1975...the

introduction of the idea of bi-cultural education as a definition of Native Studies, and the affirmation
of the Indian elder a s the highest order of Indian thought and experience becam e operating
assum ptions...”^
Incorporating a cultural com ponent into the program was not a simple task. Language w as
recognized a s a key m eans of transmitting culture, and thus the introduction of Ojibway Language
Studies was the first initiative undertaken by the department. The departm ent w as only able to
secu re money for cultural developm ent through a grant from a govem m ent agency for language
studies. But, b ecau se the federal govemment would only make language grants to Indian bands
them selves, an ag reem en t w as m ade with the Hiawatha band, just outside of Peterborough, and
they applied for the grant for language and then transferred that m oney to Trent.“ Providing the
courses was further complicated by the fact that the first Native faculty appointm ents went to
urbanized Indians who had little experience with traditional ways and no command of Native
languages.^'* Without qualified instructors from among the faculty, the departm ent was forced to go
outside in search of a suitable candidate. The issue becam e whether a Native language instructor
should have a background in linguistics, or be a native speaker. Castellano differentiates in the
following manner.
Aboriginal languages, with the deep meanings that are imbedded in them, are lost with
the more technological linguistic analysis. Linguistic analysis has its place in
documenting the history and evolution of languages, and the construction of languages,
but what Native Studies h as taken on, a s core to the language effort, is the interpretive
dimension of language, of leading people into the deep m eanings of world view.“
This perspective led to the decision to hire an Ojibway instructor who had fluency in the language,
but no skills in linguistic analysis. In 1974, Fred W heatley becam e the first Native person with
recognized alternative qualifications, specifically education in traditional culture, appointed to the
departm ent to teach Ojibway.^® W heatley was followed shortly by Chief Jacob Thom as who, in
addition to his role a s Iroquois language instructor, acted a s a R esident Elder a t the university. In

21
a report to the J.W . McConnel Foundation, which funded the initial R esident Elder position, the
University wrote:
Chief Thom as’ unique qualifications a s a teacher in the oral Iroquois tradition, his status
in C an ad a and the United States, a s a knowledgeable ceremonialist and his
accom plishm ents a s an artist have added a cultural dimension to the Native studies
programme...As well a s providing interpretations and insights into Iroquois cerem onies
for a variety of students. Chief Thom as has been a counsellor and model for many
Native students seeking support in resolving questions about their own identity and
goals
The idea of involving a Native counsellor in the Native Studies program a t Trent cam e early with
the acknow ledgem ent that the su ccess of Native students involved more than academ ic
achievement, but rather the combination of social, emotional and cultural dimensions a s well.“ The
first Native counsellor w as hired in 1974-75 with funding from the Indian Community Services
branch of the Ontario Ministry of Culture and Recreation. The role of the Native Counsellor w as to
provide social counselling and academ ic support to Native students, liaise with university
administrative system s and govem m ent administrative system s, and com m unicate with Indian
B ands and with current or potential Trent students.^® When the provincial govem m ent withdrew
funding in 1975-76, the counsellor’s salary was paid from the Donner Trust funds. This was
followed, from S eptem ber 1976 to March 1978, by subsidies from the D epartm ent of Indian and
Northern Affairs, but in March 1978 it w as determined that only one band had responded to the
billing to cover counselling costs, creating arrears extending back to Septem ber 1976.^ University
administrators did all that they could to try and gain support to allow for the continued presence of
a Native counsellor. The President, Tom Nind, wrote letters to the Ontario Advisory Council on
Multiculturalism in which he stated, “I cannot stress too forcibly the essential work that the
counsellors perform both in assisting with academ ic difficulties and in helping the native students
to adjust to a life-style a t the university that is alien and unnatural to them.”^' Despite efforts by all
levels of the University, funding was eventually withdrawn in May 1978 and counselling services
temporarily cam e to a halt.
Not everyone a t Trent agreed that a Native counsellor was essential to the program. In the first

î

22

I
'I
I

years after the services ended, som e of the administration and faculty noted that the failure rate did
not increase with the absence of a counsellor.^ Others felt that Native students needed counselling

I

and guidance, but that having a formal Native counsellor was not the way to go about it. Marlene

I

Castellano stated, “I think that if you try to institutionalize the seeking and giving of help, that you are

II

I
'I

going against the grain of culture and that you are going to shut o ut a lot of people who will simply
not label them selves as, I am a needy s t u d e n t " . S h e felt that support w as provided to students
by m eans other than a Native counsellor. S he says, "I would say that all of the professors in Native
Studies, all of the time, have placed a very high value on being accessible to students, have had
a non-authoritarian approach to relationships which have sort of raised the level of student
contacts...".^ The current Chair of the Department, David Newhouse, continues to question the role
of student services a s building too much dependence and continuing the traditional relationship that
has always existed. He believes the students should be helped, but that responsibility should
remain with them for devising their own programs, for dealing with their own problems, and
ultimately for their own success.^® N onetheless, he adds that an Aboriginal Counsellor, sep arate
from the other counsellors at the University, is necessary b ecau se “(w)e’ve tried to work with the
counselling services here, but they are not good a t dealing with people who exist outside the
mainstream.”^^ Questions a s to the effectiveness of an Aboriginal Counsellor may have existed, but
it w as the funding for the position that led to its dem ise and rebirth. Eventually Trent agreed to bear
the cost for both the Aboriginal Counsellor and a Cultural Advisor a s part of the commitment to
Native Studies.^^ Clearly, the availability of outside funding was a key determinant for the existence
of the two positions. Varying levels of support for special sen/ices for Native students m ade the
availability of an Aboriginal counsellor a t Trent inconsistent.^
Introducing culture into Native Studies led to more controversy over the appropriateness of
teaching culture in a university setting. Marlene Castellano has said.
It is th e job of the Elders in the longhouse to teach the oral tradition and to have that
treated a s sacred and authoritative. It is the job of the academ ic in Native Studies to
take w hat is appropriate to be brought from the longhouse into the classroom and to
reflect on that...I don’t think that the university is the place to transmit sacred knowledge.

23
and to indoctrinate adherence to a sacred tradition...So, this is the role that I s e e for
Native Studies with regard to sacred knowledge, not to bring it into the classroom and
secularize it, but with full respect and agreem ent of the authentic teachers of sacred
know ledge, to bring those glim pses which are appropriate to open the eyes of people
to th e fact that there is a corpus of sacred knowledge, there is secular knowledge or
practical knowledge and philosophy, which is there and it’s rooted in a sacred tradition,
but if you w ant to get the full story, you’ve got to go to the longhouse to g et that.^®
This opinion is shared by the current Chair, David Newhouse, who stre sse s that Native Studies is
a university program that focuses on the mind and noton the spiritual life of Aboriginal people which
is something that m ust be taught by Elders.*” Overall, people involved in the Trent program believe
that it h a s exposed students to culture and encouraged them to pursue further knowledge through
Eiders and the “longhouse”. There is evidence that the program h as helped Native students get a
firmer s e n s e of identity and a num ber of students have reached out to the Native community a s a
com plem ent to their academ ic experience.**^ Including culture in the curriculum is now viewed as
a necessity and David Newhouse says, “we could not do Native Studies th ese days without culture,
and without looking at cultural premises, cultural expression...lt has becom e very much the accepted
way of doing Native Studies.”**^
Although the interest in incorporating cultural content into the Native Studies program has
continued since the seventies, the program has expanded into other a re a s a s well. According to
a current Native Studies administrator, “..the communities are saying, we want people who can do
specific jobs, and we expect your institution to produce them for us.”*” Trent attem pted to respond
to this n eed a s early a s 1972 when the Native Studies Brochure w as stating, “A new p h a se in the
developm ent of Native Studies will com m ence with the introduction of an applied community
programme.”**** Harvey McCue states, “There w as an overwhelming commitment on the part of the
core group of the department, from about the mid- to late seventies on, who strongly believed that
the more applied, or in the words of a previous Chairman, Jo e Couture, experiential'. Native Studies
becam e, the more relevant and successful it would be.”^^ Interest in more practical education that
would lead to jobs w as not exclusive to Native Studies, a s w as evinced in the declining enrollment
in arts an d scien ces faculties across the nation a s students began to question the practical value

24
of a B.A. degree/® For Native students, aw are of the urgency of problems facing their communities,
th e question of relevance w as even more critical.
The participation rates of Native students in post-secondary education continued to decline in
th e 1970s, an d those students who did go to Trent expressed impatience with the irrelevance of
strictly academ ic activities. Many pressed for the incorporation of a greater deg ree of community
involvement in their program of studies.**^ With many Native students expressing more interest in
the practical than the theoretical and majoring in other disciplines. Native Studies m ade an effort to
allow stu d en ts to apply their knowledge and skills to the Native community by incorporating a
practicum into the program."® Trent was able to obtain a start up grant from the Departm ent of
Indian and Northem Affairs, and support for a three year period from the Malcolm Montgomery
e sta te ($76,000), the J.W . McConnell Foundation ($30,000), the Gilbert Monture estate ($26,000),
th e Muttart Foundation ($10,000), and the Second D ecade Fund ($5,000)."® T he practicum was
introduced in 1975 and consisted of theoretical instruction in m ethods of community service and
research , complimented by a supervised fieldwork placement. Through its career development
a sp ec ts, the practicum m et the need for students to gain employable skills that would allow them
to fit into the marketplace.™
Initial resp o n se to the developm ent of applied programs included both praise and scepticism.
O ne academ ic responded:
O ne factor that im presses me is the possibility of linking a practical commercially viable,
relevant training operation with a university studies program. T he relationship may be
som ew hat uneasy a t the beginning because universities do not have very much
experience with such projects, and the university pattem and reward system will not fit
in all respects.®’
In addition, a s in the c a se of cultural courses, not everyone in the departm ent w as in agreem ent
over th e appropriateness of applied courses in a university setting. Som e felt that the movement
tow ards the applied necessarily detracted from the academ ic integrity of the program. Harvey
M cCue, “argued quite strongly that the importance of Native Studies a t Trent w as in the a rea of
intellectual development and scholarship. I believed then that if there were practical needs that had

Trent University Courses

20
♦ --

10

—

■ ♦/—

I

0 *Academic

Cultural

Applied

26
to be met, community colleges and perhaps other post-secondary institutions w ere better positioned,
better able to provide those kinds of courses.”®^
N onetheless, the su c c e ss of the practicum led to further efforts to add applied programs to
Native Studies. In August 1980, the Donner Canadian Foundation app ro ach ed T rent with an offer
to fund a training program for Native administration and management.®® Initially Trent sought to
establish a Native Training, R esearch and Development Institute a s a n incorporated, non-profit
a g en c y governed by a council representing the University and the Native community. Such an
institute w as primarily in response to Native leaders who were calling for a com prehensive long-term
approach to Native training with Native involvement in the design and operation, an d decentralized
program delivery.®^ The desire for training reflected the growing n eed in the 1980s for Native
communities to cope with the increasing responsibilities of band control of local govemment.®® The
result was the Anigawncigig Institute, a non-profit corporation asso ciated with T rent University. In
1985, with se e d money of $225,000 from each of the Donner Foundation and the Stauffer Estate,
Trent added the Native M anagem ent and Economic Development Program to its own curriculum.
T he initial funding w as followed shortly by $495,000 in 1987 from th e federal governm ents Native
Econom ic D evelopm ent Program , a s the program met a native community need.®® The main
objective of the Native M anagem ent and Administration program w as “educating students for
particular jobs requiring special skills” especially in the a re a of econom ic and business
development.®^ This dem onstrated the continued interest am ong First Nations communities for
p o st-seco n d ary program s that would lead to jobs for Native graduates, an d for Native graduates
prepared for jobs on the reserves.
The developm ent of the Native Studies program involved more than just its course offerings and
student services. The program had several objectives, the first of which, according to several of the
early professors a t Trent, w as remedying the under representation of Native students in
universities.®® A 1972 brochure on Native Studies at Trent indicated that, “(a)ctivity in Native Studies
grew out of a concem of m em bers of Trent to try to correct th e im balance in educational

27
participation at the university level of native Canadian students.”®® In 1968 there were only 12 First
Nations students in Grade 13 in Ontario and the dropout rate for native students in Ontario schools
after G rade 8 w as 97%.®° Concem about these numbers continued after the program was
established. In 1974, Walter Currie cited statistics which showed there were only 54 Native students
in G rade 13 in Ontario, but five tim es a s many in Grade 12.®^ With so few Native students
completing grade 13 and qualifying for university, Currie concluded that the “departm ent should
investigate possible up-grading procedures to draw any students who do not now p o ssess formal
qualifications.”®^ The response by the University w as efforts to obtain funding for a Diploma
Program described a s “an affirmative action program that would open the door to students with a
non-academ ic grade 12 or m ature students...lfs a two year modified program th at develops skills
for s u c c e ss in academ ics at the sam e time a s you’re taking real university subjects.”®® Trent was
able to finance m ost of the costs with money from the Donner Foundation, the Department of Indian
and Northern Affairs, and the Indian Community Secretariat.

However, the university was

concerned that the grants provided by th e se agencies were short-term in nature and could not be
counted upon for long-term support. T he program was approved by the Ministry of Colleges and
Universities on the understanding th at no extra-formula support would b e given because, “the
activities in question, while com m endable and admittedly essential to the type of program offered
by Trent, were felt to be of a socio-cultural rather than purely educational nature.”®^ Nevertheless,
the Native Studies Diploma Program w as approved by the S en ate on May 2 4 ,1974.
T he goal of the Diploma Program w as to “broaden ac c e ss to Native Studies for students of
Native ancestry” and it successfully accom plished that goal.®® Within two years the Diploma
Program had increased Native student enrollment a t Trent from fourteen in 1973-74 to sixty-five in
1975-76.®® Yet, although the Diploma Program had the desired effect of attracting Native students
and encouraging them to pursue university studies, sorne felt that it w as not up to university
standards. Ken Kidd w as quoted a s saying, “It’s designed really to train people of fairly elementary
level, for functioning on reserves or in the communities...they can spend a couple of years in the

28

diploma course, where the competition isn’t great. They only have to take three courses .they're not
very hard courses a t thaL. They’re not rigorous, really.”®^ O thers, like Harvey McCue, felt that
introducing the Diploma Program w as a mistake b ecau se it invited a large num ber of Native
students into the University who really did not have the necessary academ ic training or background.
In his opinion the University should have concentrated on recruiting, retaining and developing quality
Native students rather than merely trying to increase the num ber of Native students.®® McCue felt
th at Trent Native students were in th e vanguard of the developm ent of communities and
organizations, and that if the departm ent did not dem and and expect Native students to produce
quality work, that young people’s abilities, potential, and analytic strengths would be compromised,
and that in tum would influence the growth and development of Native communities, leadership, and
organizations.®®
Despite the negative responses to the Diploma Program, the overall impression of the various
levels of offerings a t Trent w as quite positive. There w as a perception that offering various levels
of courses allowed students to progress. According to Kidd, "...many students have com e in order
to tak e the diploma course, and have graduated from that, and have then gone on to...a d eg ree
course....A s a feeder to the degree courses, I think it has a very fine purpose.”^® Trent continued
to se e k to increase the academ ic opportunities available to its students in Native Studies and the
applied skills em phasis of the diploma and the practicum program s w as balanced in 1978 with the
establishm ent of an Honours program, so that the Departm ent allowed for the variable academ ic
and applied interests of Native and non-Native students.^^ Eventually Trent offered Native students
w orkshops and short non-credit co urses through the Anigawincigig Institute, a three w eek pre­
session seminar, the Diploma Program of two years, a three year undergraduate degree program
in Native Studies, a four year honours degree program in Native Studies, and m ost recently a
graduate program in Canadian Studies with a focus on Natives, allowing Native students to pursue
a variety of levels of education.
Q uestions surrounding the effectiveness of the Native Studies program did not stop a t issu es

29
of design and development. Another concem w as the ability to find appropriate administrators,
faculty, and staff to run and operate the program. Ken Kidd described the early days of the program
a s follows, “Recruiting the faculty has been a difficult exercise. One of the reaso n s for th at is that
there’s been a desire to have Native people a s instructors, where possible, but finding Native people
with the proper training and skills h as not been easy. They just don’t exist, or haven’t.”^ At that time,
“proper” training and skills could more accurately described a s “traditional” training and skills. Kidd
added, “in 1970, the times were such that you still had to have paper qualifications. It w as expected.
And you were running a considerable risk, if you m ade appointments without th ese qualifications.
Now it w as becoming possible to do it, but it w asn’t common. And we felt apprehensive about
making such appointments.”^ Kidd w as willing to bring in First Nations people to participate in the
program, but in an informal way. He said,
I, for one, felt right from the beginning, and I think you’ll find in the minutes of the
meetings, that there would be a need to bring in Native Elders to stay on cam pus for two
or three w eeks or a month, each year, to talk to students, and impart their knowledge of
Native culture, to the students in an informal way. And, I didn’t think that it w as advisable
to go beyond that point at that time because of the resistance of academ ia to, what they
would consider, irregular appointments.^^
However, it did not take long for the University to accept that traditional academ ic criteria could not
be m et by the majority of Native educators. Since 1972 the departm ent h a s b een successful in
persuading the university that instructors in the area of language instruction would lack the
academ ic credentials normally associated with regular university appointm ents. It w as recognized
and accepted that som e Native people p ossessed altemative qualifications which, within the Native
tradition, were equally valid for the teaching of language and culture courses.^® Aside from the
desire to involve First Nations in the teaching of culture and language, there w as a firm commitment
from President Symons from the outset that the usual academ ic qualifications would not be required
in every case when potential Native faculty were considered. This exception w as m ade b ecau se
in C an ad a there were few Native faculty who p o ssessed PhDs and long lists of publications, and
it w as recognized that if the University insisted on those kinds of requirem ents or conditions for the
hiring of Native faculty, it w as unlikely that the program would have any.^®

30
T h o se involved in the Native Studies program a t Trent indicate that hiring Native faculty has
always been important. Ken Kidd reflected that “All things being equal, I think the administration has
tried to get Native people to staff the departm ent, but w here that hasn't been possible, of course,
they've taken white scholars, and I think it's true that we've always had a Native person a s Chairman
of the Departm ent.”^ Harvey McCue concurred, stating that
Native staff w as a priority a t Native Studies, and from 1969 to 1983, Native faculty either
represented 50% or higher in the program and I think by 1974-1975 there were eight or
nine faculty in Native Studies and over 5 or 6 w ere Native. And the purpose was
obvious, we were committed to providing students who took our courses with a unique
Native perspective and that could only be provided by Native faculty
The tradition of hiring Native faculty has continued, with the current Chairman explaining, “Right now
we have six full-time faculty and there are three Aboriginal and three non-Aboriginal. W e have a
commitment from the University for three additional tenure-track faculty, and those will m ost likely
be all Aboriginal faculty.””
This commitment first translated into hiring First Nations' people, who lacked the qualifications
normally considered n ecessary for university appointm ents, a s “special sessional lecturers”. As
su ch they w ere not eligible for the full range of university benefits such a s pensions, insurance,
medical and dental plans, special merit increments, and tenure. This continued in som e c a se s until
two individuals had been on the faculty for six and four years respectively.®® Identification of this
problem quickly led Trent to begin hiring First Nations for tenure-track positions. According to
M arlene Castellano, “Trent, a s far as I know, is the only, certainly was the first, university which
appoints faculty on the basis of education in oral tradition and language, and grants full faculty
statu s and promotion options and research grants to teach ers of Aboriginal language.”®' In the
nineties, Trent even went so far a s to articulate a s e t of criteria approved by the University S enate
for th e academ ic appointm ent of Elders, recognizing their traditional knowledge and using other
Elders a s their p e e r group.®^
T he hiring of Native faculty and the recognition of Aboriginal knowledge, symbolized the general
growth of First Nations involvement in the Native Studies program a t Trent.

Ken Kidd first

31
recognized the Importance of First Nations involvement, stating,
I think this is a point at which Native Studies varies greatly from other disciplines, in that
it d o es n eed the input from the Native community, which, ipso facto, is non-university.
And I’m very happy that the University has been willing to accep t this a s a necessity on
the part of the Department, and they have. And I think it should be expanded . l think
th ere is a need to take care that standards are not lowered, but, a t the sam e time, we
m ust m ake cognizance of the fact that departments such a s Native Studies, m ust draw
on the knowledge and the experience of the Native community in imparting their learning
to our stu d en ts.^
In 1968, m em bers of the Working Group on Indian Studies consulted with Native representatives
and organizations across C anada to determine the level of support am ong Native people.^ It w as
admirable that a s early a s the sixties academ ics recognized the importance of consulting with Native
people, but consultation in this period did not hold much weight in term s of influence on the design
of the program . According to Marlene Castellano,
W hat we would do now, in the 1990s, is requisite in participatory research. You take the
inferences that you draw from your consultation and say, "this is what it m eans for
program planning” and then you take the program plan back. That w as not done ...So,
I would say, a s betw een what w as done in 1988 and w hat we expect a s required in
1996, th ere has been a whole generation of change in term s of accountability.^
Although Indian groups, Indian and Metis leaders, and non-Indian educators were all interviewed
for input on the design of the program, according to Harvey McCue, T h e outside influence in the
developm ent of Native Studies was really quite minimal. There w as no real organized process to
en ab le the external community, either Indian or non-Indian, to contribute to Native Studies.”^
Initially, programming w as developed primarily by faculty m em bers, som e of whom were of First
Nations descent, but with little input from the broader Native community. According to Harvey
McCue, “(i)t w as really a small group of very committed and dedicated instructors, deciding am ongst
ourselves, and from our own interests, and our own perceptions, what should be included in Native
S tudies, and consequently its outlook.”®^ He added. T h e re w ere no real dem ands on the part of
Native people to influence the design and developm ent of the program.”®® As a result, the Native
community w as satisfied with its limited involvement and according to the Working Group, “it w as
widely appreciated that this University took the care to consult with the native people.”®®
Initially, the First Nations did not dem and a substantial role in the developm ent and design of

32
the program, although in som e case s they requested it. In a "Progress Report on the Indian, Eskimo
an d Metis Studies Program", the Working Committee wrote,
A significant result of th ese conversations with native leaders h as been their voluntary
offerte establish official liaison with any committee which this University may decide to
se t up to guide any program such a s is being proposed . specifically Mr. W alter Dieter,
P resident of the National Indian Brotherhood of C anada, and Dr. Adam Cuthand,
President of the Metis Association of C an a d a.^
Ken Kidd responded by suggesting to the President of the University that a formal relationship in
the form of a special liaison committee with representatives of Native organizations, groups and
com m unities be established to allow for a two-way flow of information and an exchange of ideas
betw een them and the faculty.^^ In the seventies, Harvey McCue “tried unsuccessfully to establish
a Council of Native Elders to contribute to the developm ent of Native Studies, but for a variety of
re a so n s that w asn’t accepted by the other faculty in the departm ent, and so the contributions of
Elders and spiritual leaders, certainly betw een ‘69 and ‘83, w as quite minimal.”^

The issu e

resurfaced in the early eighties in a Departmental Brief that suggested the establishment of a Native
Community Advisory Council a s a m eans to m ore adequately receive the advice and guidance of
m em bers of the Native community.” The brief recom m ended th at the advisory council draw on
Native people from diverse tribal backgrounds and constituencies including Native Elders,
representatives of Native Associations, local community leaders, and faculty from the other Native
Studies programs in Ontario. It was believed that the advisory council could assist the D epartm ent
by advising on current issues a s they affected Native people; assisting in the developm ent of a
program which accurately reflected Native values an d culture and the social and political priorities
of the Native community; helping the Department successfully establish an integration of academ ic
an d cultural com ponents; participating in such events a s symposia, conferences, and workshops;
an d providing guidance to students in the a re a of Native identity, culture, political issues, and
survival.^ This proposal w as in response to recognition that "...the alienation of native students from
the Departm ental programme, a s dem onstrated in low achievem ent, high attrition, and poor
com m unication with staff, is symptomatic of m ore far-reaching alienation of the Departm ent from

33
the native community a t large.”®®
T he D epartm ent’s legitimacy w as w eakened by its limited relationship with the Native
com m unities b ec au se Native Studies w as not understood or held in much este em by the First
Nations.®® It w as determ ined that interaction betw een the Native Studies D epartm ent and Native
com m unities w as essential to en su re that the program would reflect Native perceptions and
priorities, th at it would relate to social needs, and that it would attract Native students.®^ The
realization of the im portance of involving the Native community in the program eventually
materialized in the form of the practicum in the mid-seventies. This method w as ch o sen because
it w as believed that Native people w anted to b e involved in the developm ent of program s a t the
University, an d that they also w anted to s e e the University involved in their community. The
practicum had the desired effect of "altering the historical alienation of communities with their
survival concerns from the university with its intellectual priorities."®® As students and faculty
b eca m e m ore visibly involved in the community, the perception of Native Studies on the part of
Native people in the community improved.®®
T he s u c c e ss of the practicum may have been the first step in involving the Native community
in the program , but the Native M anagem ent and Economic Development Program (NMEDP) was
the biggest step. The NMEDP represented the first organizational program affiliation with the Native
community. From the beginning. Native representatives were involved in all facets of decision
making to ensure that the research and training were consistent with Native econom ic and cultural
priorities.’®® According to Marlene Castellano, the formal structures introduced by Trent in 1986
g uaranteed the n ecessary accountability to en su re that the perspectives on m anagem ent and
econom ic developm ent were authentic reflections of the Aboriginal reality.’®’

Lockhart and

McCaskill su g g est that the NMEDP a t Trent "provides a model of partnership in th e a re a of control
over Native curriculum a s a m eans of avoiding ‘assimilation’ and integration in the area of
knowledge sharing betw een Native Studies and mainstream faculties and a s a m ean s of avoiding
‘ghettoization’.”’®^

34
With the successful Involvement of the Native community in the NMEDP, Trent continued to
in c re ase the representation of the First Nations in the University. In Decem ber 1993 the Trent
University S en ate unanimously resolved That in the spirit of continued cooperation and
collaboration, Aboriginal peoples and Trent University jointly establish the T rent Aboriginal
Education Council (AEG) whose mission is to advance and further improve aboriginal education a t
Trent.”’“

The AEG w as modelled after the Council of Directors for the NMEDP and had

representatives from the several nations. Friendship Centres, Metis Association, and Native
W om en’s organizations, along with three students, and seven Trent faculty and staff
representatives.^"^ According to David Newhouse, the AEG becam e the main vehicle for Aboriginal
input into academ ic planning, and its recom m endations are given considerable weight by the
University.

He adds, “I can ’t imagine the University, in its current state, doing something

academ ically without the consent of the Council.”'”^ According to the Trent Aboriginal Education
Council By-law #1, the Council was established to: "Oversee and assist in the design, development,
im plem entation and evaluation of program s of study and research (which include Aboriginal and
non-Aboriginal knowledge) created to ad d ress the educational n eed s of Aboriginal peoples.’’^"®
Native Studies students also played a significant role in the development of the program. From
the beginning, the program was designed for both Native and non-Native students. Ken Kidd
indicated that "The participation of white students has not been detrimental...it has taken som e extra
time on the part of faculty...We, just as much, need to teach white students these asp ects of Indian
life, a s to teach the Native students.”’®^ According to Harvey McCue, “from the very outset, m ost
of us in the department, developed our courses with Native and non-Native students in mind. W e
w ere not setting out to create an academ ic or intellectual ghetto...”’®® At times. Native students
su g g e ste d that there should be sem inars com posed exclusively of Native students to allow them
to p u rsu e their leaming objectives without having to deal with the conflicts experienced in mixed
sem in ars.’®® Despite th ese requests, Trent continued to encourage both Native and non-Native
stu d en ts to take Native Studies courses, an effort that was enhanced by the University’s open

35
registration system ."" Early on, Ken Kidd recognized that “It’s a very explosive issue, if you start
setting up a racial deter minus for admission to a course...we talked that over, and we talked to the
President, and we decided we must not, in any circumstances, raise any racial barriers, one way or
the other.”" ’
This decision w as not always m et with enthusiasm by either the Native or the non-Native
stu d en ts in the program s. Non-Native students were asked to suspend judgem ent derived from
their own socialization and consider altemative interpretations of events from a Native perspective.
By examining the exploitative nature of much Indian-white contact in the past, non-Native students
were presented with challenges to their values and self-perception. The resultant discomfort w as
frequently expressed in accusations of bias against instructors, criticism of academ ic standards, and
suspicion of favouritism towards Native students."^ Harvey McCue agreed that in the early years
such favouritism did occur."" Yet, criticism of the program was not reserved to non-Native students.
According to Castellano,
...we used to get it in the neck, both from Native students and from non-Native students.
Native students for the first time getting a glimpse of academ ics, intellectual inquiry,
history, from an Aboriginal point of view, and saying, "we like this, and it doesn’t go nearly
far enough.' And, on the part of non-Native students saying, 'we don’t like w hafs
happening to our consciousness of ourselves and where we've com e from, and we re
having guilt trips laid on us.'"^
On the one hand, there w as resistance among Native students to the validity of non-native
perspectives, and what began a s criticism of courses and instructors sometimes led Native students
to drop out."" On the other hand, non-Native students were not enrolling in Native Studies because,
according to an evaluation by DIAND, “the general population of Trent has been noted to refer to
Native Studies a s “Negative Studies”."" In the latter case, the value of Indian culture w as not being
questioned so much a s students wanted to maintain the value of the non-Native culture that they
had large investm ents in perpetuating.
It is interesting that today non-Native students are more willing to accept that early contact with
C an a d a ’s Native population w as highly exploitative, and they take Native Studies courses which
p rese n t non-Natives in a negative light nonetheless.

The Chairman of the Native Studies

36
Departm ent describes the perceptions of the current non-Native students in different terms. He
says,
The non-Native students are quite positive, and a third of the University students take
courses in Native Studies a t som e point in their university career...but, they want Native
Studies to p resen t Native people in a certain way, and get very upset when we deviate
from that and they w ant us to reinforce the stereotypes that they have of Aboriginal
people living in p eace and harmony with nature, and having special spiritual power. they
believe now in w hat I call the eco-savage.” ^
in terms of Native students’ perceptions, he adds, “I would say a good 80% of the Native students
who com e to Trent com e here b ecau se of Native Studies, and w ant only to take Native Studies
courses. They feel much validated by it, they feel that its a place where they can leam a bit about
them selves, a bit ab o u t their own history, and a bit about their own culture.”” ®
The shift in the attitudes of non-Native students had a much more subtle influence on the
development of Native Studies a t Trent than the more obvious issue of funding. In the seventies,
Trent University had a harder time convincing the federal and provincial governm ents of the
importance of providing funding for Native Studies a s a m eans of increasing the numbers of Native
students represented in post-secondary institutions. President Nind wrote,
I have repeatedly tried to persuade Ontario’s Ministry of Colleges and Universities that
a Department of Native Studies - if it hopes to attract and retain native students - is, by
its very nature, m ore costly than other undergraduate arts and science departm ents.
Obvious requirem ents include a specialized counselling service, language courses
(bilingualism - French/English - is generously funded, yet the importance of their own
languages to th e native peoples is overlooked), and the need for “roots” (native elders
on cam pus, the preservation of native history, dance and art, and so on).” ®
Yet, when the govem m ent did respond with funding, not everyone reacted favourably. According
to Marlene Castellano, the Native student body was up in arms when the University received grants
from Indian Affairs b ecau se they did not want Indian Affairs to assu m e the sam e dominant role as
it played in band affairs.’^ Castellano indicated that the fiscal history of Native Studies show s that
since the m id-seventies there were occasional governm ent grants for research, or for something
specific, but that a s soon a s Trent determined that it wanted to maintain a program or initiative, it
w as moved into th e b a s e budget.'^^ She noted that scarcely any university programs across the
country had that d eg ree of commitment from the university, “saying this is not a frill, it’s not an add­

37
on, ifs not an option that we’ll do a s long a s w e've got soft money. This is a core function of the
University and it is financed in the sam e way a s any other core function is.”’“ In the eighties, Trent
recognized that the capacity of provincial institutions to provide Natives with an appropriate
education w as severely limited by the lingering assum ption that Native education w as a federal
responsibility. Thus, Trent functioned within the constraints of undergraduate arts and science
formula funding, sought federal grants for the developmental stages of programs and initiatives, and
secu red private support from donors.’^^
In the nineties, the priorities of the governm ents had shifted, a s had the willingness of Trent to
accep t governm ent funding. Thus, because the provincial government had an objective to attract
m ore Aboriginal students to university and it w as prepared to provide funding, the University was
able to establish a m odest target for increasing Aboriginal enrolment.’^^ As a result, in 1992, the
Native Studies Program received a grant of $262,000 from the Ontario governm ent to improve
program s and services for Native students. This w as the second largest grant in the system of
colleges and universities and was a reflection of the government’s priority with regard to educating
the First Nations.’^ The provincial government continued its commitment to improving First Nations
education by developing a Native Education and Training Strategy (NETS). NETS’ requirem ents
for funding duplicate many of Trent’s initiatives including:

the participation of Aboriginal

organizations in devising programs; and representation of Aboriginal peoples, organizations and
communities on the decision-making councils to advise the senior administration of the university.’^
F unds from various ministries, private donors, endow m ents and grants have also allowed the
Native Studies Department at Trent to expand into a variety of areas and develop a strong program.
According to David Newhouse, the Department of Native Studies currently has an operating budget
of close to $150,000.00, com pared with a typical operating budget for a departm ent of closer to
$ 8 ,000 .00 .’^^

T he Native Studies Program at Trent em erged from the interests of the Anthropology
Department, a Native student, and a supportive President. It was developed from a few academ ic

38

co u rses offered through the Anthropology Department, to an independent Native Studies
Departm ent offering a variety of levels of programming with a combination of academ ic, cultural and
applied courses. The involvement of both Native faculty and the Native community increased over
time until formal recognition of the non-academ ic qualifications of Native instructors and
representation of the Native community in the governing of the University w ere in place. Trent
constantly m akes changes to its offerings to m eet the needs of both Native and non-Native
students, and with funding from various levels of govemment, private endow m ents, and its own
b a s e budget, hopefully it will continue to do so. P erhaps the most influential a s p e c t of the Trent
program w as the intellectual, academ ic and financial support it received from successive senior
adm inistrators. T h e unwavering commitment of Trent University to the D epartm ent of Native
Studies h a s b een and remains critical for the institutional legitimation of Native Studies a s a
distinctive and viable field of academ ic inquiry.”^^° An anecdote from Marlene Castellano best
defines the character of the Trent Native Studies program:
W e w anted to have language taught a s an expression of culture by som eone who w as
proficient in the culture. W e did not w ant linguistics a s the principle approach to
teaching language in Native Studies . and w e had applications from people who had
so m e linguistic background, and we had this application for an Ojibway Language
T e ac h er position from Fred Wheatley, who w as close to 60 a t the time, who w as an
Elder in the fullest and finest sen se of the word. And the interviews were done, not only
within the Native Studies Department, but by the President (Tom Nind), and by som eone
else . And those of us in the Department, this w as in 1975, we said, "We w ant Fred.
How a re w e going to convince the academ ics on the selection committee that Fred is
absolutely the only choice?” So, we got together the selection committee an d Tom
Nind’s first words were, "Well, a s far a s I’m concerned, there’s only one candidate that’s Fred Wheatley.” And this is just an indication of the kind of support th at Native
Studies h as always had from Trent senior administration. And if you want to change the
culture of a community like Trent....you not only need to have program planners,
innovators like Harvey and Don McCaskill and myself, who were kind of a triumvirate,
who w ere guiding the development, you need to have excellent representatives of
Aboriginal knowledge, like Fred Wheatley, and you need to have people like Tom
Sym ons and Tom Nind, President of the University, going out and making a statem ent,
that this is clearly the way to go, and this is the Trent way to go.’^®
Trent's strength in all of these areas has made it one of the most respected Native Studies programs
in the country.

39
CHAPTER TWO - SASKATCHEWAN INDIAN FEDERATED COLLEGE

The differences between the Native Studies Department a t Trent and the Saskatchew an Indian
Federated College (SIFC) with its own Indian Studies Departm ent are substantial. Many factors
m ade the SIFC a possibility. The initial plans for a federated college were an immediate response
to the 1969 White P aper of the Federal Govemm ent, which advocated assimilation of the Native
population an d the end of special services for Native peoples in all areas including education. The
White P a p e r and a m em orandum of agreem ent to transfer control of all Indian education to the
Provincial govem m ent received a strong negative response from Native peoples acro ss C anada.
While provincial Native leadership responded with T ask Forces on Indian Education^ th e National
Indian Brotherhood (NIB) wrote a policy p ap er in 1972 entitled Indian Control of Indian Education
in which NIB dem anded that "Indian people have the direction and control of experimental programs
conducted in their nam es by universities.."^ On Ju n e 2 2 ,1 9 7 4 Je a n Chretien said,
I have given the National Indian Brotherhood my assu ran ce that I and my D epartm ent
are fully committed to realizing the educational goals for the Indian people which are s e t
forth in the Brotherhood's proposal. The Department desires to work constructively with
Indian communities on a partnership basis which encourages full, free an d frank
discussion and which places maior responsibilitv for educational decisions and directions
in the h an d s of the Indian communitv concem ed.^
The adoption of the policy p a p er by the federal governm ent paved the way for the SIFC.
Another factor identified a s having contributed to the successful creation of th e College is the
political unity of First Nations in Saskatchew an. Initially representing 68 reserves, the Federation
of Saskatchew an Indians (FSI) later changed its nam e to the Federation of S askatchew an Indian
Nations (FSIN) which is currently the representative body for 72 First Nations' governm ents in
Saskatchew an", and it w as this body that initiated discussion of establishing a Native College.
According to the Assembly of First Nations (AFN), b ecau se there were no factions in their political
base, they w ere able to stimulate the action needed to gain control over their College.^ Dr. Lloyd
Barber, form er President of the University of Regina, shared the opinion that th e FSI and the
solidarity of Saskatchew an Natives were the key to the creation of the SIFC. He says,
...the main influence w as the determination of the leadership of the Indian people to gain

40
control of their own lives, and education w as se e n by them a s a primary vehicle for
achieving that. Pure and simple, without the determination of people like David
Ahenekew, and Sol Sanderson, and a num ber of the other leaders, the Chiefs, women
in the bands, parents, I don't think it would have happened.^
According to the current President of the SIFC, Eber Hampton, credit should be given to both the
FSIN and Dr. Barber. He says the College owes its existence to, "the Federation of S askatchew an
Indian Nations, a very strong, well-organized Indian govemment, and President Lloyd Barber's very
strong, innovative, visionary leadership."^
Recognition of the important role played by Dr. Barber w as shared by many.

Professor

Stonechild, who h as b een involved with Indian Studies a t the SIFC for many years, says, "Lloyd
Barber...was able to accom m odate the Federation of Saskatchew an Indian Nations' plans through
the federation model a t Regina ...Barber's strong support greatly facilitated cooperation by university
officials."® The AFN h a s stated.
M ost C anadian universities have federated colleges and th e agreem ent worked out
betw een the SIFC and University of Regina was similar, but unique b ecau se it w as the
first time a university had established an arrangem ent that truly put the control into the
h a n d s of First Nations. An understanding and cooperative university President and
Board were vital."®
Professor Dempsey, from the Saskatoon cam pus, adds, "you had som e strong-willed
individuals.. Barber in particular, who saw the potential, the need, and that it w as justifiable."^®
In addition, not unlike Trent, the University of Regina w as a new institution when discussion of
a Native Studies program began in 1975. The University only becam e autonom ous from the
University of Saskatchew an on July 1,1974. Dr. Barber says,
...here, the institution w as looking for new avenues of opportunity, trying to create a
niche for itself, a reputation, so it w as probably m ore willing to em brace something a s
radical a s the idea of the Indian Federated College, than most, if not any, institution
would have been...it would be easier to g et som e kind of new and innovative program
in place, than it would be a t some more established institution that was s e t in its w ays."
Although there w as little delay by the University of Regina in federating the SIFC, the College's
history long predates its relationship with that institution.
In November of 1969, briefs were presented to the govem m ent encouraging the developm ent
of Indian Culture Centres,'® and by July of 1972 the federal govem m ent gave the authority for initial

41
funding of five centres to a total of $1,335,000." Saskatchewan wanted to have one of them. The
FSI had strong feelings about Indian control of Indian education and had already approached Dr.
Barber, then Vice-President of the University of Saskatchewan, in the late sixties about som e former
construction residences for the Squaw Rapids Dam that they had been given, which they proposed
to move to the cam pus a s the foundation of a Cultural College." Barber was approached because
of his history of involvement in Aboriginal activities in C anada, a s an appointed m em ber of the
Northwest Territories Legislative Council, and as Indian Claims Commissioner for Canada. The FSI
may also have felt that the University of Saskatchewan would be open for such a College because
th ere w as an Institute of Northern Studies and a m em ber of the Education Faculty, an Oblate
Father, Andre Renaud, who w as one of the early pioneers in cross-cultural education, and had
established the Northern T eacher Education Program, for teachers, though not necessarily of Native
ancestry, who would be teaching in northern schools."
Barber had the people in Physical Plan, Buildings and Grounds look at possibilities for locations,
but the University of Saskatchew an did little to welcome the FSI. Almost coincidentally, the Anglican
Church, which had Emmanuel College already on the campus, becam e interested in making space
available in their buildings for the enterprise, and allowed the FSI to establish an office. They later
m ade a residence facility available, and this taecame the home of the Saskatchewan Indian Cultural
C ollege." About the sam e time, the Dean of Social Work a t the University of Saskatchew an
established an Indian Social Work Program which operated together with the Cultural College."
This led the FSI to m ake a formal application to the University of Saskatchew an, Saskatoon
C am pus, to establish a federated college in 1974." They were turned down, and according to
Barber there were no ostensible reasons, but rather academ ic arrogance, academ ic conservatism,
an d the attitude that, "These people are the sam e a s everybody", or what he calls "the old
assimilation m odel"."
Nonetheless, the FSI still had an ally in Lloyd Barber. W hen the two cam puses of the University
of Saskatchew an were split, making the Regina campus an independent university in 1974, Barber

42
ag reed to take over a s President the following y ear and alm ost immediately phoned David
Ahenekew, who w as head of the FSI, and invited him to bring the proposal for a federated college
to the new University of Regina, claiming that it w as ready for an innovative idea and, to a certain
extent, a leap of faith.^° Barber said the College w as accepted by the University of Regina because
it w as a smaller, more flexible institution still young enough to adapt to original ideas.^'
Thus, on May 17,1976, the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College becam e a fully accredited
Indian controlled post-secondary institution, academically and physically part of the University, yet
financially and administratively independent, hiring its own faculty and staff, offering unique
programs and with a personalized Student Services Departm ent.^ The FSI insisted on the creation
of a college pointing out to the University of Regina Council,
..a Department or a section of the University, controlled exclusively by the University, is
not sufficient to m eet our needs. We would simply be submerged, a s we have been so
many times in the past, beneath the priorities which you and the society you represent
consider important. W e m ust retain our own distinct college and we m ust control it.^^
According to a form er President of the College, Dr. Oliver Brass,
Other universities that have Native Studies departm ents can't really claim to be offering
unique education. Usually they offer courses about Indians almost in an anthropological
mode. But to be actually taught by Indian scholars and to be subjected to Indian culture
and to have a g reat deal of leeway within the Federation agreem ent, th afs a lot more
freedom than any other departm ent in any university can ever have.^^
The Indian control characterizing the SIFC was certainly unique among Canadian universities, and
although similar to the tribal colleges in the United S tates and the Native colleges in C anada, by
offering university deg rees, it stood alone.
Among the issues that the SIFC had to consider, was quality control. In the late seventies and
early eighties, the poor record for the tribal colleges in the United States was becoming evident, and
many w ere shutting down, while the quality of those that survived w as seen a s questionable.^^ A
considerable level of skepticism plagued the SIFC in the early years of development. Skepticism
w as evident, both within the university community and within Native communities. In its fledgling
years, the SIFC w as, in many instances, heavily handicapped with doubts about its ability. Som e
Native people believed that courses offered through the College were especially designed for Native

43
people and were, therefore, inferior.^ As a result, the SIFC w as determ ined to m ake sure its
standards were high. According to Barber,
There w as concem that the standards wouldn't be high enough, and that this was a way
for Indians to get a d eg ree cheaply, that is, intellectually, academically cheaply. And
their attitude was, if this is really going to succeed we re going to have to be better than
everybody else not w orse than everybody else.'^^
Barber added,
I can recall vividly when that subject cam e up at the S enate meeting, in May of '76. when
the thing w as approved. Som e Senator asked that question, and David Ahenekew, who
was, and is, a very eloquent orator in the historical tradition of Indian orators, just stood
up, and it still almost brings tears to my eyes to think of the way he eloquently spoke and
said, 'Our standards will b e higher, sir.' I mean, it just, left everybody convinced.^
It w as clear that the Native leadership a t the time felt that the College had to b e better than
established institutions for them to be confident that they had achieved their goals and objectives.
According to Barber, if it w ere second rate, it would not satisfy the Natives themselves.^^ Thus, to
prove that it w as meeting th e standards of the University of Regina, initially a Bachelor of Arts
Degree, with a major in Indian Studies, w as granted by the University to tho se students of the
College who satisfied the adm ission requirem ents of the University a s well a s the curriculum
requirements for the D egree in Indian S tudies.^ Evidence of the su c c e ss of the SIFC to maintain
academ ic standards w as dem onstrated by its accreditation in 1994 by the Association of
Universities and Colleges of C an ad a (AUCC), made up of 87 universities and colleges from every
province.^’
It is difficult to a s s e s s the course offerings of the Indian Studies Program a t the SIFC in the
sam e m anner a s Trent b e ca u se the College offers a variety of degrees, thus placing som e of the
academ ic, cultural and applied courses outside of the Indian Studies program itself. Aside from an
Indian Studies Department, the SIFC has an Indian Languages, Literatures and Linguistics
Department, a s well as Indian Education, Science, English, and Indian Fine Arts Departm ents. In
addition the SIFC has Schools of B usiness and Public Administration, and Social Work.
N onetheless, within the College, Indian Studies is the central structure, providing b asic courses
taken by all students of the C ollege^ and often referred to a s the “core” departm ent of the SIFC.“

44
Evolving a s It did from a Cultural College offering courses in the areas of history, music, art and
language, it is surprising that SIFC did not begin with a similar framework a s the Cultural College,^
but in 1976 the Indian Studies Program, like Native Studies at Trent, was concerned with conforming
to academ ic standards and thus began with four traditional academ ic courses and only one cultural
course -- Introductory Cree.“ Yet, according to the SIFC calendar, “Culture is the heart and soul
of a nation. Language conveys culture. Art docum ents culture.”^ In 1977, the Indian Languages
Program w as introduced within the Department of Indian Studies. Plans were to offer courses in
all of the Indian languages spoken in Saskatchew an: Cree, Saulteaux (Ojibway), Dakota (Sioux),
Assiniboine, an d Chipewyan (Dene), expanding first upon the C ree 100 course already offered.^
In 1979 the SIFC began offering courses in Ojibway in addition to ten Cree courses which had been
divided into two stream s for speakers and non-speakers including Introductory, Intermediate and
Advanced levels.”

In 1987 the University of Regina approved the Bachelor program s in Cree

Linguistics and Ojibway Linguistics, the first university-accredited degrees in specific First Nations
languages anywhere.” Although SIFC currently specializes in C ree and Ojibway, it h as fulfilled its
goal of offering courses in e ach of the other languages of Saskatchew an. The importance of
language to the Indian Studies Program is evinced by the requirement that to graduate with a major
in Indian Studies students m ust take a minimum of three classes in one of the five major languages
of Saskatchewan.**”
In terms of art, while Trent had merely discussed establishing a Centre for Canadian Native Art
and various diplom as and d eg rees in Native Art***, the situation a s SIFC w as quite different. With
its origins a s a Cultural College which had established an Indian Art Department in the Fall of 1972,
by 1977 the Indian Art D epartm ent had com e under the administration of the SIFC a s part of the
Indian Studies Program. By 1979, the University of Regina had approved the Bachelor of Arts
d egree in Indian Art, and the College now has a Faculty of Fine Arts offering a four year Bachelor
of Arts (Indian Art or Indian Art History), or a Bachelor of Fine Arts (Indian Art).^^
T he im portance of culture within the Indian Studies program itself w as m ade clear in the

45
original 1976 SIFC Calendar, which stated that Indian Studies was "designed to provide both Indian
and non-Indian communities with a program of higher education leading to a B.A. degree in the area
of Indian Culture.’"” Since then, although many of the cultural components have becom e separate
programs, according to Professor Stonechild, within Indian Studies, "An em phasis on studying First
Nations culture a s a foundation to learning has always been upperm ost in the program.'"” This is
dem onstrated by the Indian Studies courses on the culture and history of specific groups, in addition
to co u rses on traditional foundations, the role of women, and Indian religious philosophy and
experience. In 1993-94 Indian Studies expanded its cultural offerings substantially by altering its
course entitled “Indian Culture and Personality” into seven sep arate courses addressing the
individual culture and history of the Cree, Assiniboine, Saulteaux, Dakota, Inuit, and Metis and
offering an additional course on “Topics in Cultural Heritage”.^^
As in the case of Trent, academ ics a t the College do not try to teach all aspects of culture inside
the classroom . The Indian Studies section of the current SIFC C alendar states that
Indian Studies program s complem ent the knowledge and traditional teachings of the
Elders. C om petencies in the standard of western educational accomplishm ents are
stressed a s only one part of balanced personal development, and students are
encouraged to s e e k cultural growth a s a vital part of their education, within the broad
based meaning of university higher education.^
According to Dr. Hampton,
our academ ic departm ents vary to the extent of which the cultural com ponent is strong
within the departm ent. Indian Studies is one of our departm ents that, in the past, to
som e extent, attempted to divide the academic and the cultural barriers, and stick to the
academ ic and let the Elders deal with the culture. Other departm ents have said No, the
cultural area is the foundation of the intellectual.' So they try to integrate the cultural and
the intellectual together.^^
Professor Asikinack, the current Acting Chair of Indian Studies, says, “I usually tell my students that
they can't find everything in books. They have to go out there and experience the culture. "^
N evertheless, the SIFC h as tried to bring the traditional cultures to the students by introducing
Elders into the College. The 1984 Calendar reads.
The SIFC, in keeping with a philosophy of bicultural education, has appointed a Resident
Elder to ad d ress the traditional needs of students. The Elder is concem ed with the
integration of concepts, relevant to the Indian Nations of Saskatchewan, in conventional

46
disciplines of the behavioural sciences and educational foundations. Also, the Elder is
responsible for personal counselling in a re a s such a s value clarification, interpersonal
relationships, self-awareness, etc. Through special workshops, seminars and field trips
the Elder provides the opportunity for traditional growth and development. A reas of
significance include: drumming; singing and dancing; and participating in other
cerem onial activities.^®
T he College h as also recognized the importance of female Elders and in 1985 appointed a mothergrandm other a t the Saskatoon cam pus and another a t the Regina cam pus in 1986. The Elders on
cam p u s give support to the students and staff by sharing their traditions and applying traditional
counselling techniques such a s engaging in prayer using sw eet grass and the pipe to find answ ers
and resolutions.™
In term s of applied courses, SIFC is different from other universities offering Indian Studies a s it h as developed sep arate departm ents to offer certificates in Indian Health Studies, Indian
Com m unications Arts, and a variety of pre-professional one and two year program s to prepare
stu d en ts for work in health care, journalism, and law. The Indian Studies program itself h a s also
introduced several courses in economic planning and a Field R esearch Practicum, b ut b e c a u se of
the other offerings throughout the College, applied courses have remained limited. W hen asked
about offering practical applied courses within the Indian Studies Department, Professor Asikinack
said, “Not specifically in this departm ent...w e have other departm ents that do that practical
n eed ...o th er program s look a t certificate courses which m eet the more practical n e e d s of the
community and the more immediate short-term n eed s.”®’ Professor Stonechild adds, “Practical
co u rses tend to b e offered through SIFC's other d egree programs, e.g. education, science,
administration, social work, etc. Indian Studies d o es have som e econom ic developm ent and field
research courses.”™ Finding a balance betw een the a re a s of academ ic, cultural and applied is a s
important to the SIFC a s it is to Trent.
In an effort to m eet the needs of its constituents, the SIFC h as tried to m ake its courses
available to students in their own communities.

Distance education is an a re a that rem ains

unexplored for the m ost part a t Trent, b e cau se the university is close to many Native bands, and
being in the southern part of Ontario, relies on Lakehead University, further north in the province.

47
and with a m andate to northern and Native learners, to reach out to Native communities outside of
its im m ediate vicinity.^ But distance education has always been a key part of the SIFC. Many of
the program s offered by the Cultural College were delivered off-campus in various provincial
locations and it w as expected that, if federated, the College would continue to offer a num ber of its
program s a s an extension service to off-campus locations.®'* T he planning docum ents of the SIFC
stressed extension services a s a crucial component of the College. They proposed that the unit be
responsible for liaising with th e Indian communities of Saskatchew an to determ ine their needs,
design, or have designed, co u rses to m eet those needs, and implement the courses when and
w here requested.®®
Statistics from the 1977 fall sem ester reveal that this w as accomplished. Treaty Indian student
enrollment in on-cam pus co u rses w as 81 and off-campus enrolment w as 275, revealing the early
dem and for service provided to Indian communities.®® Nineteen-ninety-four statistics indicate that
56% of the College's students are taught a t the Regina cam pus, 26% a t the Saskatoon cam pus, and
18% through the college extension program.®^ According to Dr. Hampton, the College did a
feasibility study six years ago for the establishm ent of a northem cam pus and the result w as a
recom m endation for a Northem Operations Centre in Prince Albert. T he College followed the
recom m endation and, in the last five years, has gone from five off-campus program s to 23
off-campus programs®® throughout Saskatchew an and h as even delivered off-campus degree and
certificate program s in Manitoba, Alberta and British Columbia.®® The commitment of the SIFC to
its extension program can be credited to its being a part of the FSIN m ade up of 72 Chiefs
representing 72 different reserves, and the SIFC, a s an arm of the FSIN, h a s a m andate to offer
co u rses on a s many of th o se reserves a s it can.®® Then again, it could be the realization that
approximately half of the Native population of Saskatchew an lives in the north.®* Dr. Hampton
explains extension services in term s of practicalities;
...last year almost a third of our students were off cam pus students taking classes in their
own communities. A num ber of reasons. One, we get higher success rates for students
if they tak e their university entrance program and their first year of university in their
hom e community. And th o se students are doing well if they com e on to cam pus in

48
R egina or S askatoon to do their course work later on ...Also, its more co st effective in
th e s e n s e that the bands and tribal councils are providing the classroom facilities and
so m e stu d en t support and tutoring to the students. So that the cost for the College is
usually the instructor and the instructor's travel and then the logistics of making the
whole thing work. So, its more cost effective. And then, the northem communities have
been very strong in their need for higher education and wanting to have it closer to home
than Regina. So, we've tried to answ er that need by putting m ost of our off-campus
program s in northem communities.®^
According to Professor Asikinack, even the expense of instructors' travel can be avoided if the
College can find an instructor among the adults in the community.®^
While Professor Newhouse of Trent feels that teaching and learning are very intimate activities,
an d is not convinced that teaching can be accom plished through som e of the new technologies
becoming available®^, SIFC has embraced new technology from the beginning. In 1981 SIFC b e g a n .
to provide university classes to students living in isolated communities via teleconferencing.®® More
recently, the College began to utilize the Saskatchew an Communications Network (SCN), providing
distance education via satellite to remote First Nations communities.®® In planning the construction
of a new facility, the College plans to m eet the challenge of extension services by providing a base
of operations for the delivery of off-campus program s through satellite, video, telephone and
com puter technologies.®^
The SIFC is unique in its efforts to reach out beyond its own province and even beyond its own
country. Since 1983, the SIFC has entered into over a dozen intemational agreem ents with
Indigenous P eople's institutions in South and Central America and Asia, and hosted indigenous
students from around the world.®® SIFC has agreem ents with the University of Inner Mongolia, the
Chinghai Institute of Nationalities, the Central Institute of Nationalities in Beijing, the South American
Indian Council of Lima, Peru; Chile's Indigenous Institute of Mapuche, and the Navajo Indian-run
G anado College in Arizona.®® According to Dr. Hampton,
W e're expanding intemational programs, th afs very dependent on funding, because our
Indian and Northem Affairs funding is not for intemational, so we've had grants from
CIDA, for intemational students. W e've had about 72 students go through our
intemational program, Latin American indigenous students. This is the United Nations
d eca d e of indigenous people, w hether or not we re able to m ake headway on that.
W e re working on it, we re forming a consortium with indigenous people in Central and
South America. W e re working on the partnership betw een ourselves, a Tribal College

49
in the U.S., and a group in Mexico. A three way partnership. So the intemational a re a
w e m ay expand.^”
Through its international relationships, the SIFC m akes post-secondary education available to
indigenous people from around the world who might othenvise not have such an opportunity.
Improving the enrolment of Native students a t post-secondary institutions w as a s much an issue
in S ask atch ew an a s it w as in Ontario. In 1977, statistics revealed that "Of the more than 40,000
bach elo r of arts (BA) degrees, 3,000 m aster of arts (MA) and 1,000 doctor of philosophy (PhD)
d eg rees granted in the history of the University of Saskatchewan, only 20 BAs, a handful of MAs and
no PhDs have gone to native students", and this is despite 15% of Saskatchew an's population being
Indian o r Metis.^^ The SIFC recognized that contemporary Indian students faced greater hurdles,
to overcom e in their desire for university training than their non-Indian counterparts and therefore
the College needed to help students deficient in university entrance requirements and help students
to improve reading, research and writing skills.^^ The University Entrance Program (U.E.P.) had
been aiding students to enter university mainstream in a number of forms since its inception in 1935
at the University of Saskatchew an. The U.E.P. began a s a matriculation program when university
entrance requirements were raised to Grade XII, later becam e an adult admission policy, and finally
gave way to an open adm issions policy in which students who do not m eet the requirements for
adm ission are offered a probationary period of study during which to qualify for admission to a
facuity.^^ The SIFC offers the U.E.P. in accordance with the rules and regulations of the University
of R egina’s Entrance Program requirements.^'*

Statistics from the mid-eighties reveal the

importance of the U.E.P. for maintaining enrolment at the SIFC. In 1984, 85.6% of SIFC graduates
began in the U.E.P.^®
In the c a se of the University of Regina, increasing the enrolment of Native students did not only
benefit the First Nations. Dr. Bartier admits that like a lot of new universities, initially the University
of Regina did not have a great reputation and was not getting its share of students and it appeared
that enrolment would continue to erode. He recognized that with approximately 70% of the Native
population a t the time under 15 years of a g e and with virtually zero participation rate in post-

50
seco n d ary education, by federating the SIFC the University of Regina could reach an untapped
m arket of Native students and ensure long-term enrolment growth/®
As for non-Native students, their numbers within SIFC's Indian Studies program are lower than
in other Native Studies programs. This may be the result of a policy which encourages non-Natives
to select c lasse s in Indian Studies a s electives for degrees other than the Indian Studies degree,
or enroll in the Bachelor of Arts program in Indian Studies, but normally gives priority to students of
Indian and Inuit ancestry for adm ission.^ Nonetheless, non-Native students from the University of
Regina take courses a t SIFC. According to Dr. Hampton,
W e have an agreem ent with the University of Regina, that our students and their
students can enroll back and forth. So that we have a very large enrollment of University
of Regina students in som e of our courses. Indian Studies course is a required course
for Social Work majors, for example, at the University of Regina. They have to com e
and take an SIFC course. So there is a very strong function of the College, in term s of
exposing non-First Nations people to a First Nation institution, a s well a s First Nations
content. However, it is not the primary purpose of the College.^®
Though 15% of the students enrolled a t the College are non-Indian, Dr. Hampton believes that
"we're not trying to be all things to all people...we ought to stick with our mission in term s of First
Nations education and welcome everybody to participate, but not to dilute, the unique nature of the
College..."^®
The unique nature of the SIFC and the control maintained over it by Native peoples, make it very
attractive to both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students from across C anada.

In 1984,

approximately 20% of the on-cam pus enrollment w as accounted for by out of province students.®®
According to Professor Asikinack,
W e try to...m eet the needs of the community and of our constituency, which in this c a se
is Indian people, firstly in this province and secondly in C anada, and thirdly in North
America, in th at order. And we have students from all across C anada right now, and
we're starting to get students that want to com e in and do our Masters program from the
United States. So we've developed a good, credible, intellectual level process . we're
trying to be reactive and to be a little bit proactive in meeting the n eed s of the
constituents.®’
T he popularity of the College has m eant that for the past six years there have b een no efforts at
recruitment. According to Dr. Hampton, "We essentially have alm ost twice a s many students as we

51
are able to handle, in term s of our funding level.
Recruiting faculty m em bers is another matter. The SIFC h a s always m ade every effort to ensure
that it has Native instructors and that overall its faculty m em bers are the b est qualified. In the early
years, finding qualified Native instructors w as not always possible.

According to Professor

Stonechild,
Hiring of native faculty h as been a strong priority of Indian Studies, and those numbers
have increased overtim e ...Native staff were hired to teach full time with a minimum B.A.
degree during the early years of the program. Staff who did not have the minimum B.A.
could act a s classroom resource persons, but did not have faculty status. There were
very few natives available with advanced degrees in 1976 and no Saskatchew an First
Nations with a Ph.D.“
Uncertain funding also m ade it extremely difficult to attract the seaso n ed academ ic people,
necessary to establish a respectable academ ic presence a t SIFC, but in response to the criticism
of the academ ic staff, the college sought senior academ ics from both C an ad a and the United
States. Many of th ese faculty mem bers were highly recognized in their fields and their reputations
brought added credibility to the college.^ By 1984, the SIFC calendar boasted, "...the calibre of our
faculty (both Indian and non-Indian) is the b est anywhere. For example, the College employs seven
of the approximately one dozen Indian people in C anada with Ph.D’s.”®^ Even the Department of
Indian Affairs was im pressed, writing T h e SIFC has the m ost academically qualified Indian staff of
any organization in Canada."®® W hat is m ost amazing, is th at the SIFC w as able to attract these
qualified Native academ ics w hen throughout the eighties, faculty were the lowest paid when
com pared to other colleges and universities, tenure w as non-existent, sabbaticals were non­
existent, the College had no pension plan for its employees, and teaching loads were substantially
higher than other institutions detracting from publications and research.®^ Nonetheless, over the
years. Aboriginal staff h as increased to 65%.®® According to Dr. Hampton, "...we've got twelve
different academ ic departm ents and m ost of them are very strong in term s of Native faculty and
content...we’ve got Indian faculty in all our departm ents. W hen I cam e five years ago, the majority
of departm ent h ead s w ere non-Indian. Now the majority are Indian so, there’ve been som e
changes."®®

52
T he federation agreem ent stipulates that teaching staff a t the College must p o ssess
qualifications sufficiently high to be recognized as m em bers of the appropriate faculties, because
faculty a t the SIFC hold academ ic rank in respective disciplines a t both the College and the
University of Regina. Thus, although academ ic appointments to and promotions within the College
are m ad e by the President of the College, approval of the President of the University m ust be
secured.®” According to Dr. Barber, during his tenure a s President of the University of Regina from
1976 to 1990, he
never had to veto any...Now, in the case of people hired to teach Cree, or Saulteaux, or
one of the languages, it w as obvious to everybody that you're not going to go and find
som ebody with a PhD in Cree, you're not likely to find anybody with a M asters degree
in C ree . So, when somebody was proposed to teach Cree, with a grade three education
or a high school diploma, or whatever, there was very little argum ent, the question was,
are they capable of teaching, because everybody knew that, there w as nobody with
credentials in C ree or Indian Studies, for that matter . There w ere a lot of them with
academ ic qualifications, but none with credentials.®'
Dr. Hampton su g g ests that today.
Within the College, we try to look a t what is supposed to be done by the faculty member,
what they're teaching. W e obviously don't want som eone teaching C ree language that
can't sp eak Cree language. There are no doctorate degrees available in Cree language
anywhere in C anada. So, what we're looking for in a particular departm ent, or particular
faculty position, we have to be realistic in terms of the person's ability to teach and what
they have to teach. The educational qualifications is a very, very, blunt instrument, in
term s of determining either what a person knows, or what they're able to teach .®^
Dr. Hampton maintains that a s an educational institution giving d eg rees, it is felt that it is good
practise and good modelling for instructors to have degrees in advance of the one that they are
teaching. N onetheless, he stre sse s that degrees are no guarantees th a t the person is a good
researcher, or a good teacher.®® According to Professor Asikinack, Indian Studies, as an academ ic
program, is seeking academ ic degrees, but continues to look at the experience and knowledge of
First Nations candidates.®^
Unlike Trent, SIFC d o es not have a policy in place for hiring instructors with traditional
knowledge. Thus, although there are Elders teaching in the language department, they do not have
academ ic rank or faculty appointments.®® Professor Stonechild indicated that "Elders are not
recognized a s faculty unless they have a minimum B.A. The Elders them selves did not want to have

53
faculty appointments b ec au se they viewed the nature of their knowledge and style of presentation
a s being fundamentally different."®® According to Dr. Hampton, in som e c a s e s Elders have been
guest lecturers or instructors in courses in addition to co-teaching, but the primary role of the Elders
a t the College is an advisory role a s part of senior m anagem ent a s well a s being available for
counselling and advice to students, faculty and staff. He adds that the focus of the Eurocentric
educational system with its focus on credit hours, grading, bureaucracy and p ap er qualifications is
inappropriate in term s of traditional culture.®^
The advisory role of the Elders at the SIFC is only one way in which First Nations are involved
in the College. On the day th at the federation of the SIFC w as approved. Chief David Ahenakew
said.
It must be remembered, however, that the mandate to develop the Cultural College and
to negotiate this federation, cam e from the 68 chiefs of Saskatchew an. T hose chiefs will
retain the major role in giving the proposed federated college its direction. Our chiefs
have directed that we m ust retain control of our college.®®
This w as certainly not forgotten, but rather incorporated into the structure of the College. The
structure of the SIFC (as s e e n in Figure 2) h as the Federation of S askatchew an Indian Nations,
representing 72 First Nations' governments in Saskatchewan, a t the top, followed by a Board of
Directors consisting of ten elected Chiefs and two senators of the Federation of Saskatchew an
Indian Nations.®® Below the Board of Govemors is the President and then the Dean who is advised
by a D ean's Council of Elders and beneath him are the R esident Elders. This First Nations
representation assu res that it is First Nations that control and direct the university.^®® T he very first
SIFC Calendar in 1976 stated, "It is essential that the Indian people of Saskatchew an design,
im plem ent and m anage their own educational environments..."’®’ According to Dr. Hampton,
"...basic policy decisions a re First Nations' policy decisions. So that. First Nations s e t the direction
for the College."’®^ Former President, Dr. Oliver Brass, feels that with the political initiatives of the
FSIN, an Indian University College that responds to its constituencies and not always necessarily
or directly to the requirem ents of the academ ic community h as em erged. He says, "Our first
responsibility is to Indian people, and then we go on from there and try to m esh that together with

54

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I

55
academ ic requirements, federation with U. of R., etc."’“ Dr. Hampton adds,
th e m ost important s e t of standards, are First Nations standards for us to meet, and
th o se are the m ost challenging and the m ost difficult, both to articulate the standards
and to m eet them. The western academ ic standards are relatively easy, they're basically
articulated, so we don't have to worry about articulating the standards so much. And
they're basically discipline-based and credential, paper-based. W hereas, the standards
of our communities are more narrow, I g u ess from my point of view, are more realistic,
in term s of meeting actual needs, solving actual problems.^°^
Within Indian Studies specifically. First Nations involvement is also important. According to
Professor Asikinack, "..when we re-designed the program...we had som e Indian Elders in looking
and making sure, especially those particular parts of the program that dealt with tradition, was in fact
appropriate and accurate."^°^ In the planning stages of the College, the FSI determined that
To a ssu re that the history, values, philosophy, beliefs and world view of the Indian
people of Saskatchew an are accurately portrayed in the Indian Studies program,
provisions have been m ade for a D ean's Advisory Council of Indian Elders a s G uest
Lecturers. The Resident Elders will be available at all times to advise students and staff,
initiate and conduct extra-curricular activities based on Indian tradition and to ac t as
resource persons to the University community in general.’*
According to Professor Stonechild, First Nations were extensively consulted in meetings during the
early stag es of establishing Indian Studies.’"^ This involvement allowed the SIFC to boast in its first
calendar that ‘T h e program of the College is unique in that it is the only Indian Studies B.A. in North
America which is wholly under the jurisdiction of Indian people.”’*
The SIFC is unique in other ways including its funding. Unlike Trent and many other programs,
none of the funding for the Indian Studies program a t the SIFC com es from the University of
Regina's b ase budget. In fact, under the terms of federation, SIFC had to secure its developmental,
operational and capital funding from sources other than regular University funding.’* The College
receives funding from three sources. The federal govem m ent through the Department of Indian
Affairs and Northem Development (DIAND) currently provides funding based on the enrollment of
status students amounting to approximately 85% of operating funds. Another 12% is obtained from
the provincial govem m ent with the percentage calculated according to the number of Metis, nonaboriginals, and non-status Indians. The other source of revenue for the College is endowm ents
which provide the remaining 3% of the operating budget.” ®

56

This Is not to say the SIFC obtains its funding with ease. Initially, the major difficulty in securing
funding support for the Federated College was that it was a new concept that did not accom m odate
itself readily to existing policies and approaches of either level of govemment. With the College
incorporated under provincial legislation, and federated with a provincial institution, the Federal
Governm ent considers it a post-secondary institution and h as maintained, a s a m atter of policy,
although not totally a s a m atter of practice, that its responsibility for Indians does not extend to post­
secondary institutions. It further maintains that fiscal transfers for educational purposes have always
been on the underlying assumption that the provinces will ensure adequate opportunities for Indian
people. T hese facts all su g g est that the College is a provincial responsibility."^ On the other hand,
the province maintains that Natives are a federal responsibility. According to Dr. Barber, both were
willing to contribute money, but neither were prepared to make a real commitment to supporting the
College."^
Eventually, the province agreed to provide $275,000 for the SIFC, but in doing so, the Minister
of Municipal Affairs wrote, “The Province and your Federation consistently have held the position
that treaty Indian education is and must be a federal responsibility. Funding has nevertheless been
I

provided to develop and establish the basis for the College, pending conclusion of your negotiations
with Ottawa.""^ The Smith Report concluded that “It seem s that the province would like the federal

I

governm ent to pay the entire cost for the operation of SIFC while the federal govem m ent is used
to paying only the incremental costs (fees, etc.) for Native students a t other universities and balks

\
i
I

at paying the total cost at this particular college.“"'‘ Thus, the Indian Affairs Minister responded to
the province's position by stating, “I deplore this decision and consider that it am ounts to
discriminatory treatm ent towards Indian people on the part of the provincial government.""® The
federal government indicated that it w as not party to the agreem ent between the SIFC and the
University of Regina and that, a s with other post-secondary institutions, DIAND contributed to the
normal tuition and support costs of status Indian students enrolled at the College. It maintained that
education w as a constitutional responsibility of the provinces and that the Indian Affairs departm ent

57
had neither the funds nor the authority to establish and operate post secondary institutions such as
the SIFC, b e c a u se under the Established Program s Financing Act (EPFA) of 1977, the province
accepted full financial responsibility for post-secondary education with an annual transfer of funds
from th e federal govem m ent which took into account population including Indian people. The
federal govem m ent sited the Natives Studies program at Trent a s not seeking reimbursem ent from
the federal govem m ent and pointed out th at the province had supported other federated colleges
including Luther and Campion a t the University of Regina and, by not providing financial support for
the SIFC, w as discriminating.” ®
Perhaps w hat swayed the federal govem m ent w as its commitment to the Indian Control of Indian
Education policy paper. Professor Stonechild of the SIFC has stated that there is no doubt that the
docum ent w as influential. Stonechild believes the "SIFC was established a t a time of govem m ent
larg e sse and during a favourable political environment."” ^ Jam es Dem psey, a form er SIFC
professor, attributes the govem m enfs willingness to finance the College to it being the first. As the
current Director of the School of Native Studies a t the University of Alberta, D em psey says, “there's
been rumblings of an Indian college in Alberta, I d o n t know what the likelihood of that getting off the
ground, b ecau se I can se e the federal govem m ent saying, "We got one, we don't need anymore. "
So, I think, very strong advantage of them being first."” ®
In July of 1981, a Memorandum of A greem ent on Tuition Services w as signed betw een the
College and the Govemment of Canada. Under this agreem ent, which rem ained in effect through
the 1984/85 fiscal year, DIAND paid "inflated tuition" on behalf of registered Aboriginal and Inuit
students. Funds resulting from this agreem ent, supplem ented by funding from the Province of
Saskatchew an under a comparable agreem ent for non-status Indians and non-Aboriginals, formed
the funding b ase of the College.” ® Yet, even with federal funding, the SIFC struggled to stay afloat.
The College quickly accumulated a deficit a s a result of receiving $146 per credit hour (in 1983) for
Metis, non-status, and non-Indian students from the Govemment of Saskatchew an while operating
on a p er credit hour cost of $210.84. In addition, the College offered 18 off-cam pus c la sse s and

58

only received funding for three from DIAND.’“

Recognizing that the inflated tuition funding

m echanism w as an inappropriate, if not a temporary, method of funding the SIFC, Indian Affairs
provided an operating grant to the College in the am ount of $3,308,000 for the 1985/86 fiscal year.
In addition, the college w as allowed to charge tuition for all students in an am ount com parable to
the University of Regina. The one major restriction was that the operating grant w as for the 1985/86
fiscal year only, and future provisions were dependent on the outcom e of discussions betw een the
federal and provincial governments.’^’ Unfortunately, DIAND did not provide an operating grant to
SIFC for the 1986/87 year. As a result, the only authority under which funding could b e provided
to th e College w as the 1981 M emorandum of Agreement on Tuition Services.

U nder this

m echanism , projected funding was only $2,200,000, and a deficit of $1,300,000 w as forecast for
the 1986/87 fiscal year. The only thing that saved the College that year w as supplem ental funding
from DIAND to reduce the anticipated deficit.’^

Finally, on S eptem ber 16, 1988, the Federal

G ovem m ent signed a $4.7 million contribution agreem ent with the SIFC for the 1988-89 fiscal year
with plans to pursue, in collaboration with the Govemment of Saskatchew an, a five-year
ag ree m e n t.’^® Since that time, a five-year agreem ent was put in place, but in today’s period of
instability for post-secondary institutions in general, SIFC suffers the worst. The federal govem m ent
\

i

now provides $4,926 per student com pared with the average operating grant to non-aboriginal
universities of $7,321 per student.’^^

i

In the face of so many obstacles, the accomplishments of the SIFC are truly rem arkable. After

j

several years of unsuccessfully trying to convince the University of S askatchew an to federate the

i

S askatchew an Indian Cultural College, the FSI tumed to the newly created University of Regina and

I

within a y ear the S askatchew an Indian Federated College was established. The solidarity of the

I

First Nations in Saskatchew an, along with a supportive President a t the new University of Regina,
allowed for the innovation, while the post-W hite P aper environment of the times m ade the federal
governm ent m ore willing to back such an endeavour. As a college, the SIFC is able to offer a
variety of co u rses and d eg rees providing students with opportunities in the a re a s of traditional

59
academ ic disciplines, new cultural fields, and applied professional programs. Within Indian Studies
itself, all three types of courses are also provided. Elders were involved in the College from the
beginning a s guest speakers and for cultural support. Native students are given every opportunity
to enroll in the College through extensive distance education sen/ices and an open admission policy.
Yet, concern for standards remain high at the College which has sought out and attracted m any of
the b e st qualified Indian academ ics in C anada and from the United States. The position of the FSIN
atop the goveming structure of the College, and the involvement of other elected Chiefs and Elders
throughout a t all other levels of the College's goveming structure make the SIFC the only truly
Indian-controlled institution examined. T h e SIFC is also the only program exam ined which relies
primarily on federal money for its operation. This m akes the College the most unstable, since none
of its m oney com es from a university's base-budget in the form of hard funding. Nevertheless,
despite its financial problems, the SIFC h as developed a comprehensive program in Indian Studies
which both compliments and is complimented by the College's other faculties, schools and
departm ents. The College also continues seeking to expand its offerings in term s of co u rses and
extension services. In addition, after 20 years of renting sp ace from the University of R egina and
having many of its offices housed in portables, the College has designed its own facility. It will be
impossible to build without an aggressive fundraising campaign, therefore the College is a partner
in the University of Regina's Vision 20/20 campaign. The College's portion is $6,000,000, but
additional funding will be required.^^ It is difficult not to believe that the College will overcom e this
o bstacle a s it has the many others it has faced in order to em erge a s the unique institution that it
is today. As Dr. Hampton says, “there’s no policy basis for the existence of SIFC, no m echanism
to e n su re the continuation, but SIFC h a s continued for 20 years despite all th e se kinds of
obstacles,"^^^ and there is hope that it will continue to do so for many more years.

60
CHAPTER THREE - UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA

A 1981 report on the Trent program by the Departm ent of Indian Affairs and Northem
Developm ent indicated that the likelihood of the program being replicated in the eighties w as
minimal becau se: T h e original stimulus (i.e. popularization of Native issues a s a m etaphor for
individualistic self-actualization during the late sixties) has changed substantially.”^ In fact, a similar
program did em erge in the eighties in Alberta. Yet, although the School of Native Studies a t the
University of Alberta w as not established until 1988, in reality the m ovem ent in Alberta to start a
Native Studies program began in the sam e period a s that of Trent. Alberta has a long history of
activism am ong its Aboriginal population. T he Indian Association of Alberta w as one of the m ost
active organizations, publishing its "Red Paper" in Ju n e 1970 a s a counter-policy proposal to the
govemment White P aper of 1969. The Association's concem with education w as ap p aren t in the
"Red Paper" which stated. T h e current arrangem ent for education is unacceptable b e c a u se the
Provincial and Federal G ovem m ents can m ake arrangem ents without consulting Indian tribal
councils. Our education is not a welfare system. W e have free education a s a treaty right b ecau se
we have paid in advance for our education by surrendering our lands."^ In response, Alberta
Education gave special attention to school govem ance in Native communities; inclusion of Native
Studies in the K-12 curriculum cam e to public attention; and there was considerable increase in the
teaching of Native languages in schools.^
At the University of Alberta itself, the first interest in developing program s for Native students
began a s early a s 1965 with a group of individuals from different faculties and disciplines, calling
itself "Friends of the Indian", approaching representatives of Native communities in Alberta to
discuss ways in which the University could be of service.^ The “Friends of the Indian " organization
only operated until 1971, but in the sam e year a s its dem ise, the G raduate Students' Association
m ade a motion to the General Faculties Council (GO) executive urging the establishm ent of a
committee for incorporation of a Native Studies program within the University. The motion w as
rejected on D ecem ber 6,1971. The reason given by University President Dr. Max W om an w as that

61
it w as "presumptuous of any university group to try and tell native people what to do."^ Nonetheless,
in 1972 the University of Alberta S enate asked Dr. Jo sep h Couture, from the Indian Association of
Alberta, to sp eak about the University’s place in Native education, and he proposed that a Native
college be established. And so began the long history of the Native Studies program a t the
University of Alberta.®
The University of Alberta's involvement in promoting Native education began in earn est in the
m id-seventies. The University cooperated in a Joint venture with Blue Quills Native Education
Council in the creation of Project Morning Star, a teacher education program which operated from
1975 until 1981

In 1975, the Office of the Advisor of Native Affairs w as also established on

cam pus, a s the University of Alberta saw the need to attract m ore Native students.® Besides
providing a student support service, this office had the responsibility of serving the university
community a s a whole and w as involved in exploring within the University and with Native groups
in northem Alberta, the creation of courses and programs in Native Studies.® On February 24,1978,
a University of Alberta T ask Force on Native Students presented a report to the S enate which stated
that in reviewing the S enate recommendation that "the University of Alberta consider proposals from
native people to establish an affiliated Indian and Metis college which would b e academically
Integrated with the University and located on the University of Alberta cam pus", it had determined
that this college would be the m ost effective way of housing an academ ic program of teaching and
research in Native Studies, developing and delivering co u rses and program s of interest to Native
people and communities, both on and off cam pus, and providing support services for Native
students.^® After continued discussion and consultation by various task forces and committees, in
1983, the establishm ent of a B.A. degree program in Native Studies w as approved, but the college
concept w as not endorsed and the Native Studies Committee w as encouraged to review its proposal
and consider a less elaborate administrative and support vehicle for th e academ ic program.^^
Thus, the recommendation w as for a unit with more autonom y and visibility than a department,
but som ething less than a full-fledged faculty. The Faculty of Arts recom m ended instead, a B.A.

62

Special (Native Studies) under its a u sp ic es/^ This recommendation w as rejected and instead a
School of Native Studies w as chosen a s the appropriate vehicle b ecau se of the multi disciplinary
nature of the proposed unit. The unit would not fit neatly into the Faculties of Arts or Education, and
it w as foreseen that the n eed s of the unit would cut across many Faculties. As a School, it would
be run by a Director not a Dean, but the Director would report directly to the Vice President
(Academic) and the School would operate much like a faculty.

At that time it was also

recom m ended that the service component be established separately from the academ ic unit.^^ The
choice of separating the academ ic unit from the services for Native students w as based on the
failure of programs, particularly in the United States, which had not defined the two areas.''* In 1984,
the proposed School of Native Studies w as approved by the GC and the Board of Governors, but
it still rem ained for Advanced Education to approve the degree and provide the funding.
The Committee on Native Studies acknowledged som e responsibility for the slow process of
deliberation, describing its approach a s one of cautious discussion and cautious action.'^ One could
say that w as an understatem ent of grand proportions. The proposal to the Department of Advanced
Education was the result of fourteen years of study and discussion. The Committee attributed the
slow ness to the major move that it represented for the University and the need for the University to
m ake the move advisedly.'^ Much like the University of Saskatchewan, the University of Alberta was
a larger, established university with a good reputation to uphold, and thus, progress in adopting a
Native Studies Program w as much slower than a t Trent or the University of Regina. According to
Professor Dempsey, current Director of the School, "the U of A is considered to be one of the top
three universities in C anada. Its one of the oldest universities in C anada, and change, even if it's
additional change a s opposed to real institutional change, takes time for people to accept."'^
Professor Price, the former Director, adds, “historically this university took a long time to establish
the D epartm ent of Anthropology, and so that show s you something about the kind of cautious,
conservative nature of the Institution."'®
According to a source, herein referred to as “A", there were many reaso n s for the delay, chief

63
of which w as institutional inertia. A says. T h e middle level regulatory bodies a t the university control
change at this university. Many people at this university were reluctant to commit the university to
a course that they perceived a s academically suspect. This delay w as despite herculean, alm ost
full time effort, between 1979 and 1985."’® Professor Dempsey adds that, "the w heels can move
very slow. Even when there's strong desire." A indicates that this may not have anything to do with
opposition, but that it can take "years of going through the committees and letting everyone have
their say.“^° Evidence of the kind of bureaucracy a t the University of Alberta w as dem onstrated by
the experience of the first Advisor on Native Affairs, Marilyn Buffalo MacDonald, who resigned in
the spring of 1979, stating that she found it difficult to deal with the University's m aze of bureaucracy
and noting that, "it gets pretty political here".^’ Even the Native Studies Committee w as operating
under a political framework with one of its m em bers suggesting that "the unit should be elitist
b eca u se academ ics only understand elitist concepts, they do not fully com prehend community
needs." Another Committee m em ber added, "that in situations of this sort compromise with one's
opponents usually led to their bending over backwards to concede more than they otherwise would
be willing to do."“
Another explanation for the delay provided by A w as the social climate in Alberta. A says that
although Natives make up 5% of the population in the province, they are conceived of mostly in
term s of social problems. According to A, the way that attitude is realized on cam pus is a kind of
"presumably benign ignorance" and many academ ics share the opinion that Natives do not exist
except a s problems. To those academ ics, "Native Studies " is an anachronism , or a contradiction
in terms.®® It appears that th e se attitudes are widespread in Alberta and on cam pus. A indicates
that, “The posture of willful ignorance is the result of a very widespread, uncritically examined,
racism."®" Lois Edge, the current Aboriginal Student Advisor, relates two specific exam ples of
racism at the University,

I
I

one is a professor stating that there are no Metis people. The response of the students
is that they had to leave. And there w as considerable discussion a s to how should we
cope with this. If we sp e ak directly to the professor, will we be penalized? How do we
deal with this situation? Another situation, another example of a professor making a

64

com m ent, 'Aboriginal history? W hat history? There is no history. W e cam e. W e
conquered. End of story.' And these are not isolated incidents. They're very com m on.^
In addition, the establishm ent of Native Studies w as prolonged from 1972 to the late 1980s,
b e c a u se m any Native people were only provisionally committed to the concept of the program a t
the University of Alberta a s they waited to se e how local developm ents, such a s Cultural Colleges,
would effect the university role since they felt that the principle of Indian/Metis control of tertiary
education w as fundam ental.^ The final delaying influence, according to A, was inter-university
rivalry b e c a u se the provincial govem m ent wanted its four universities to specialize, and the
University of Lethbridge already had a Department of Native Studies and the University of Calgary's
efforts in the fields of education and social work were se e n a s meeting Native need in northern
Alberta.

It h a s b een said that the University of Calgary even actively lobbied against any

involvement by the University of Alberta in Native issues.^^
D espite all of th e se obstacles, the University gave its approval for the School, but approval of
a bachelor's degree in Native Studies by Advanced Education, and agreem ent from the provincial
governm ent to fund the operations of the School continued the delays. At a meeting of the Native
Studies Committee, m em bers discussed the delay in any formal response from the govem m ent to
the University req u est for authority to offer a B.A. degree in Native Studies. The slowdown in
en d o rsem en t of the proposal w as attributed to several senior bureaucrats reluctant to take any
action b e c a u se they believed accreditation of the d eg ree and financing were absolutely
inseparable.^® To show its good faith, the University of Alberta released som e of its limited funds
for an Acting Director to begin planning course offerings an d to hire the first full-time staff.^® The
Acting Director began hiring staff in July of 1986, the first co u rses in Cree and Native Issues were
offered in th e 1986/87 academ ic year, initial offerings for the degree itself were offered in the
1987/88 acad em ic year, and ultimate approval of the d eg ree by the Govem m ent of Alberta was
finally confirmed in late 1988. The School of Native Studies' four year Bachelor of Arts program
began accepting students in the fall of 1989.
The establishm ent of the School of Native Studies a t the University of Alberta cannot be

65

attributed to a specific individual or group of individuals. B ecause of the long process, many people
w ere involved, so m e burning out and others increasing and decreasing their involvement a s the
process continued. According to A, Dr. Joseph Couture, of th e Indian Association of Alberta, m ade
the strong subm ission to the University Senate in 1972, and Native students, a s representatives of
their com m unities, m aintained the pressure and support for th e developm ent of a Native Studies
program.^® Dr. Carl Urion, the Advisor on Native Affairs from 1982 to 1985, and Director of the
Office of Native S tudent Services for 1986 and 1987, stated th at Native organizations such a s the
Indian Association of Alberta, the Metis Association of Alberta, the Federation of Metis Settlem ents
and the D ene Nation supported the Native Studies College proposal. But, he maintained, the
University of Alberta Native Student Club was the m ost supportive advocate of Native Studies.^^
A says, "It w as a strong and continuing ~ virtually constantly reconstituting - coalition of Dene, C ree
and Metis students who formed the core of support between the period of 1975 and 1984, working
along with the Office of Native Student Services."^ Dr. Urion, w as the author, to a large extent, of
the Proposal for Native Studies b ecau se the initiative for the School cam e out of the Office of the
Advisor on Native Affairs in co-operation and collaboration with other academ ic staff and scholars
who were supportive of a program .^ A indicates that the students and Urion were joined by an
informal coalition of professors, mostly from the social sciences and medicine, who were appointed
to the GC Committee. A also gives credit to Dr. Myer Horowitz, President of the University in 1985,
who pushed through the proposal for the establishment of the Office of Native Student Services in
days, something A describ es a s "virtually unheard of in a bureaucracy like ours.""^"* More recently,
the program also had the strong support of the Vice-President Academic, J. Peter Meekison, who
indicated that, "The University of Alberta considers Native Studies to be one of its top priorities for
new programs."'^ Professor Dem psey explains that pressure for the program cam e from many. He
says,
I think originally...there w as no doubt that it cam e partly from public pressure..starting
way back in the 70s...the pressure also cam e from inside the institution and that there
w as a lot of support from Anthropology and Political S cience ...lastly and definitely not
least is the University had created the Native Student Services years earlier...to help

66
Native students adjust to cam pus life, a s m ore students cam e to the U of A. pressure
even from them to have courses that dealt with Native Studies w as also added. So, I
think a combination of things that were all happening, more or less a t the sam e tim e.^
T h e co n sen su s of those involved in Native Studies a s the University of Alberta is th at the School
o w es its creation to public pressure from Natives and non-Natives, various faculty m embers,
students, senior administrators, and the Office of the Advisor on Native Affairs, later to be called
Native Student Services.^^
In the late eighties, when the School of Native Studies was finally up and operating. Native
S tudies program s had improved their reputation from their origins in the United S tates when,
betw een 1970 and 1980, there were approximately 80 new programs in Native Studies instituted
a t various colleges and universities and alm ost all of those 80 American program s failed.^
According to Professor Dempsey, the fact that Native Studies programs a t American tribal colleges

!

were criticized for being "Mickey Mouse* w as good because it led newer programs to make every :

I
effort to en su re that standards were higher.^^ Price agrees that the School had the fortunate

i

position of starting in the eighties, having learned from the experiences of the seventies, adding that :
courses were built from the ground up with First Nations concerns put to the fore.'”’ It w as felt that !
it w as "no longer necessary to address the exploration of Aboriginal cultures and the pursuit of ;
academ ic excellence a s contradictory goals."'*’

Cultural courses had becom e accepted by ;

academ ia a s legitimate, and there w as less need to prove the academ ic integrity of the program by '
focusing on offering traditional academ ic courses. The Committee on Native Studies also pointed

I

out that "One nearly universal limitation on the program in C anada is the focus on humanities and

:

social science, probably b ecau se it h as been cultural anthropology, history and law which have

|

defined Aboriginal issu es a s subjects of study."'*^ The Committee wanted the School to have a
m andate to include other courses connected with science, agriculture, land studies and education,
therefore the program w as designed to offer students an effective combination of liberal arts and
applied studies.'*^ Professor Price indicates that the literature on Native Studies reveals a lot of
academ ic programs in the United S tates where the focus is language and culture, but that surveys

67
of the communities indicated that they also had all sorts of practical n e e d s.^ As a result, the
program also sought to develop both the research and the community developm ent skills of
students through a series of courses and opportunities for practical experience/^ Thus, the School
of Native Studies began with plans for a balance of academ ic, cultural and applied co u rses in the
four a re a s of language and culture, land and resources, self-government, and com m unity-based
research and applied skills.^
In the first area, language and culture, the authors of the Proposal for a School of Native Studies
had the ambitious intention of offering Cree, Slavey, Chipewyan, and Inuktitut a t the 100, 200 and
300 level/^ Although this has still not been accomplished, the importance of language within the
School is em phasized by the requirement that each student take 6 credits in a Native language to
obtain their degree.'^ In considering a Native Studies Department, Native language w as se e n as
the core, but there w as less certainty a s to the place of oral traditions, literature and other parts of
Native culture within the Department*^ The proposal for the School indicated that the university was
i

not the appropriate vehicle for transmission of Native tradition and that any attem pt to do so would
only trivialize it.™ It w as felt that "The teaching of Indian religious values and beliefs should be left
to Indians who transmit these to students in the natural and compatible setting of an Indian
c o m m u n ity .N o n e th e le s s , there were still students dem anding that culture an d spirituality* be
taught in the School. The President's Advisory Committee on Campus Review (PACCR) suggested
that th ese dem ands were coming from students who had grown up in an urban setting, foster
hom es, accuiturated or disorganized family situations, and others working to form a mature
Aboriginal identity.™ Thus, according to Professor Dempsey, "...cultural studies, from a Native
community, is very low priority. Unfortunately, with students its a higher priority and so, this is where
we're running into one of our controversies."™ The solution proposed w as that "respected persons
from the Nations served by the School should be sought to provide guidance a s to appropriate
cultural activities to be sponsored or housed by the School, thereby ensuring a s much a s possible
th at activities inserted into the cultural universe of Aboriginal people are validated by the

i

68
community."^
P rofessor Price indicates that, "the Elders w ere part and parcel of the program right from the
start", explaining that, a s a non-Native Director, h e w as sensitive and tried to bend over backwards
to hire a s many Native staff and involve the Native community a s much a s he could.®® Thus, in his
second year a s Director, and on the advice of Harold Cardinal and som e others. Price developed
a Committee of Elders.®® The Elders Committee of twelve to fifteen w as used to help develop the
program and develop procedures for the involvement of Elders working with the School in the
courses.®^ According to Professor Dempsey, Elders were never given any formal equivalence in
term s of qualifications, but they suggested keeping belief system s out of the classroom and
expressed their concerns about what the School should be dealing with and w hat it should not be
dealing with in the cultural sense.®® It was determ ined that a program of Elders-in-Residence was
the b e s t m eans of involving Elders and, on a part-time basis, three Native Elders (2 men and 1
wom an) were selected to be available a s g u e st lecturers in all Native Studies classes, a s well as
offering advice to students and faculty.®® Native Student Services also recognizes the need for
Elders to m eet the cultural needs of students. T he Director says, “I think there's a huge number of
students who com e looking for their identity and they go into Native Studies programs or they come
to this office and they want to know. And so, w e need to be able to provide som e kind support for
them In that search."®® In response, the Native Student Services Office introduced a cultural
reso u rce person in 1995 who cam e in one d ay a w eek to b e available for students and invited
students to his ceremonies.®’
Aside from the cultural components, the School h as tried to respond to Native community
representatives on the School Council who strongly em phasized the need to move beyond pure
theory into a better balance of theory and practical or applied skills. This resulted in the School
offering co u rses such a s M anagem ent Issues in Native Communities, Community Development
Processes, and Native Communication and Negotiation Strategies.®^ According to Professor Price,
"...our program, if you look at the course offerings, its probably a little bit more applied oriented and

69
skills oriented than would be your straight Bachelor of Arts.““ Recently the PACCR Committee
indicated that it had heard strong representations from the Aboriginal community "either criticizing
th e usefulness of a university degree for community purposes o r making a bid for applied
education."^ The response h as been discussion of a cooperative education program that would
m ake possible practical field placem ents in combination with the community b ased research part
of the program of study.®® In addition to the courses offered within the School of Native Studies,
b ecau se of the size of the University of Alberta, many of the courses in the applied areas are offered
outside the School, for example an Indigenous Law Program, a Native Health Care C areer Program,
and a new Graduate Program in First Nations Education. Students in Native Studies can also take
minors in a variety of disciplines that is very difficult for other universities to match.®® In general it
is felt that the University m eets the need s of Aboriginal people who look to the University to help
them acquire practical skills attainable through mainstream programs of study a s well a s extending
and reflecting on unique understandings of Aboriginal history, language, culture, and the natural and
social environments through Native Studies.®^
Providing the courses desired by students led to early plans to offer a B.A. degree a t the
general, special and honours level.®® The School is in the process of having an honours degree
approved, but it is strongly felt that with more students in Native Studies obtaining undergraduate
degrees, a graduate degree program in Native Studies a t the University of Alberta is needed for the
advanced training of much needed researchers, and for facilitating the kinds of research that Native
com m unities are determining to be appropriate for their developing cultural social and political
needs.®® According to Professor Price,
it takes a critical m ass of faculty members to do certain things, and so for us, we feel that
we can expand into an Honours program, but not yet into a M asters, because we don't
feel that we have enough perm anent faculty m embers...we feel th at we re running hard
now to keep the existing program going, a s it were, that we'd be spread too thin and our
quality would start to slip if we went too quickly into a M asters program.^®
Given the history of the program. Professor Dempsey questions whether a Masters program will be
established during his lifetime.^^

70
At the other end of the scale, the University of Alberta h a s been providing a university transfer
program for many years. The Coordinated University Transfer (CUT) was initiated and administered
solely by the office of Native Student Services in 1984 to provide Aboriginal students with an
altemative a c c e s s route into the University of Alberta.^ The CUT program evolved into the
Coordinated University Transfer Program (CUTP) in 1988, with higher entrance requirements in an
attempt to lower attrition r a t e s T h e 1989/90 year saw a jump in the number of participants from
5 students the previous year to 31, and the desire to attract younger, more academically prepared
students led to the lowering of the ag e limit for the program from 24 to 18 and only the more
motivated and qualified students were admitted.^^ R enam ed the Transition Year Program (TYP),
the program is currently a university credit access program administered by Native Student Sen/ices
to students of Aboriginal ancestry. TYP provides study skills, personal support, counselling, smaller
classes, and tutorials for all courses in the program, with enrollment limited to 95 students.^^
Through TYP, Aboriginal students complete three full-term credit courses in their first year of studies
and these courses later apply towards a degree, if and when, the student is admitted to a Faculty.^^
According to A, the TYP has a dismal retention rate and a graduation rate of less than 10%. A
elaborates that there is a 30% attrition from the TYP during the first year; another 30% a t the end
of the year; and another 30% attrition during the students' first year in the established faculties, with
only about 10% of the students continuing.^ Nonetheless, since its inception, this one year program
h as been the a c c e s s route for approximately 70% of the University of Alberta's Native student
population.^®
Improving the overall enrollment of the University w as not an issue a s it had been a t the
University of Regina.

In 1984, when the School of Native Studies w as being approved, the

University of Alberta w as revising admission requirements and imposing faculty restrictions because
of overcrowding on the campus.^® According to Professor Dempsey, at the time of the original
proposal, Alberta w as booming, so everyone had a job and fewer people were going to school, but
by the time the School actually opened, the University of Alberta w as experiencing enrollment

71

inflation.™ Yet, despite its high overall enrolments, Native students were conspicuously absent. The
proposal for the School of Native Studies pointed out that “there were fewer Native students on this
cam pus each year than could b e counted on the fingers of one hand. Two hands would account
for the total number of Native people who have ever been granted a degree from this institution."®’
Overall, Alberta w as not successful in educating its First Nations people. A registry, maintained by
the Federal govem m ent an d listing Treaty and Registered Indians who had completed post­
seco n d ary training, show ed Alberta to lag dramatically behind the other regions of Canada.®^ By
establishing a School of Native Studies, planners hoped that enrolment of Native students would
increase throughout the University. The Proposal for a School of Native Studies indicated that in
nearly every university or college where a Native Studies program had been established, the effect
had been realized in a dram atic increase of registrations by Native people in other faculties and
units. This was credited to such a unit demonstrating that Native people's place in academ ia is not
simply a s objects of study, th at Native issues have som e pride of place, and that Native people are
welcome.®® Professor D em psey feels that remedying the under representation of Native students
in the University w as not so much a consideration for the School of Native Studies a s it w as a

j

consideration for the University a s a whole.®^
The combination of the transition programs and the effects of having a School of Native Studies

i

w ere not enough to bring the Native student enrollment of the University up to 5%, which is

i com parable to the Aboriginal population in the province. This led the University of Alberta to
: implement the Aboriginal S tudent Policy on Septem ber 2 4 ,1 9 9 0 . The policy outlined a framework
I within which the University would create an environment to encourage full a c c e ss and participation
I of Aboriginal students in all Faculties. The objective is to m eet a 5% Aboriginal quota in the total
I University enrollment. This am ounts to preferential a c c e s s for Aboriginal applicants to a defined
I num ber of places, provided they m eet minimum adm ission standards and that they are ranked

I am ong them selves by the usual criteria.®® Reinhild Boehm, former Director of Native Student

I

I Services felt that the policy, "redresses a situation that h a s historically disfavoured native people.

72
and is balancing the scale."®®
Despite their small num bers, Native students have always been involved within the University
of Alberta. T he 1978 report of the Task Force on Native S tudents recom m ended that “Indian
students should be encouraged by the university to form an active Indian Students' Association."®^
The Aboriginal Student Council (ASC) was formed soon after to act a s a peer support and advocacy
group for any Aboriginal stu d en t on cam pus enrolled in any program.®® The ASC w as viewed a s
"the Aboriginal Community on Campus" and with many of the Native students a t the University being
mature students, they were also leaders in their own communities.®® In the 1990-91 academ ic year,
the students in Native Studies created a Native Studies Student Association (NSSA) which includes
Native and non-Native degree students and other students registered in a t least one Native Studies
course.®® T he formation of the Native Studies Student Association led to a conflict with the
Aboriginal Student Council b a se d on fear by the ASC that the NSSA would com pete and splinter
the voice of Native stu d en ts on cam pus. This fear was increased by a suggestion by the Director
of the School that the ASC give one of its two seats on the School Council to the NSSA. This
controversy eventually resulted in each of the two groups receiving three seats®\ but not before the
ASC sent a letter to the Vice-President requesting an external review of the School, indicating that
the School w as accountable to neither the School Council nor to th e wider Aboriginal community
and that more Native instructors were needed.®^
Representation of the Aboriginal population in the faculty of the School of Native Studies has
b e en a s much an issu e a t the University of Alberta, a s it h as a t both Trent and SIFC. It w as
recognized by the 1978 T ask Force that som e Canadian and American universities were
"compromising" academ ic standards to som e degree to provide for teaching roles for Indian
instructors who held less than the traditional, esteem ed PhD.®® N onetheless, it w as expected that
the staff would have both academ ic credentials and the experience of learning to understand, from
Elders and Native leaders, a particular Indian, Metis or Inuit way of life.®^ From the beginning,
students raised questions concerning the qualifications and com petence of non-Indian professors

73
and instructors to function a s teachers in relation to Indian language and culture. The 1978 T ask
Force recommended that, "Indian instructors are b est equipped to develop courses regarding Indian
culture, history, education, etcetera, and such opportunities should be afforded them."^ As a result,
it w as determ ined that "Creative solutions will have to be found, such as long-term sessional
appointm ents, team teaching, Elder-in-residence appointments etc.."^ Thus, teachers in Native
languages are considered for tenure and promotion based on the quality of the instructor's work and
the p o ssessio n of an advanced degree having equal importance. But, according to Price, there
w ere som e problem s in locating and retaining Native instructors for the School. He says, "We
couldn't always hold onto som e of our best (Native) instructors. T hese people are much in dem and.
There are not too many in the area; they can nam e their ticket."^^ Therefore, the School brought in
Elders and used them a s guest instructors in all of the classes.
Unfortunately, this w as not satisfactory to the Aboriginal community which expressed concerns
about the lack of perm anent Aboriginal faculty m em bers and a desire for a t least a 50% ratio of
Aboriginal instructors.

The community also wanted to be more involved in the selection of the

Director and the teaching staff based on its own criteria.^ W hen asked for their com m ents, the
three Elders-in-Residence expressed disapproval of hiring "whites with papers" for culture
workshops.®® The PACCR Committee recommended,
that priority be given to the recruitment of Aboriginal persons to fill positions in the
School of Native Studies, in accord with the University's commitment to achieving
equitable representation of Aboriginal people among faculty and staff, to enhance the
incorporation in academ ic life of perspectives derived from immersion in Aboriginal
culture and community, and to provide role models for Aboriginal students aspiring to
advanced academ ic achievem ent levels.^®®
The Com m ittee elaborated that, “Given the limited pool of Aboriginal candidates for faculty
appointm ents who currently hold PhD qualifications, we recom m end that the University recruit
candidates who dem onstrate scholarly promise and offer support and incentives for appointees to
pursue professional developm ent and higher degrees."'®' The School responded by pointing out
that such procedures were already in place and that the School m ade use of the Future D ean's
Recruitm ent Fund for minorities to assist candidates and to encourage obtainment of a PhD.'®®

74
Despite th e se Incentives, it continues to be difficult for new programs to attract Native academ ics
b ecau se of competition with other established programs, federal, provincial and band governments,
and private enterprises.
Efforts to ensure the academ ic qualifications of the faculty of the School still continue to be
important. Of the four academ ics currently in the program, one h as a PhD, two have M.A.s, and
only the C ree language professor h as less than a high school diploma.^*” For its m ost recent hiring,
the School advertised for a minimum M.A., recognizing that there are few Native people with
PhDs.^°^ Even with the sessionals, the School tries to find Native people with advanced d egrees,
w hether at the M asters degree level, a law degree, or an M.B.A.’°® Interestingly, concern about
qualifications is not limited to am ong academ ics. O ne of the Native School Council m em bers
pointed out that there are people teaching Cree who have an Education degree, but th at th e Cree
instructor a t the School did not have any degree.'*^ In the case of the C ree language instructor,
tenure w as given on the basis that in the area that sh e works, sh e is very knowledgeable and her
experience a t Blue Quills College dem onstrated her proven ability to teach.^°^
Another factor a t the University of Alberta is getting faculty numbers up to the point w here the
School can m eet the n eeds of its constituents and students. Currently, required courses are offered
every year, but other courses are often only available every other year, making it essential for
students to plan ah ead to take the courses they want.'°° Initially, many courses w ere taught by the
one full-time academ ic staff member, while the Director of the School offered a single course. The
remainder of the courses were taught by part-time and sessional staff m ade up of graduate students
from other programs, and people from other universities or businesses, all with the participation of
three Elders.^'” Most Native Studies departm ents at other Canadian universities have five or six
faculty members, thus, the University of Alberta's program, even with the increase from two to three,
and later four, faculty m em bers, w as operating under severe limitations."" T he PACCR Report
indicated that, "the School of Native Studies with its current faculty com plem ent and m ode of
operation is not viable a s an autonom ous academ ic unit, analogous to a Faculty, offering a

75
d eg ree.”^^^ Professor Dempsey points out that the ability of the School to provide courses in the four
a re a s designated by the program d ep en d s on the full-time instructors. He says,
T he first one w as Emily Hunter, the C ree instructor, so the language took a boost over
the other three right off. Then, Richard Price w as hired so you have the political-legal
going off. And then the community-based research h a s caught up with that. So, those
are the three that are probably in the forefront. Then we hired P at McCormick, so that
gave another boost to the culture and language side and its probably the one th a ts in
th e lead with community-based research second, political and legal third, and that's
b ec au se we're working on the legal right now, and unfortunately the econom ic and
resource m anagem ent is fourth.” ^
Professor Price adds that in the language area, the School had tried to teach other languages, like
Slavey or Inuktituk, but h as not always had the continuity of instructors, a s it h as with C ree.” ^ He
say s that “each faculty m em ber h as to play their own strength and develop the courses they think
they can b est teach."” '* Professor Dem psey indicated that the job advertisement for the m ost recent
hiring w as for all four area s and fitting into more than one of the a re a s w as stressed . The decision
to advertise that way w as to allow the School to find the b est person, regardless of a specific focus
on any one of the four areas.**®
Throughout the many years of discussions about the School of Native Studies, there w as long
term and continuing consultation with the Indian Association of Alberta, several different Indian
b a n d s in Alberta, particularly those in Northern Alberta, with the Metis Association of Alberta, the
Federation of Metis Settlements and the Dene Nation.**® At the February 2 8 ,1 9 7 7 meeting of the
G FC, close co-operation and consultation with Native groups in developing Native Studies was
suggested.**^ The original Committee on Native Studies w as m ade up of six individuals of whom
o n e w as a Native Elder. In D ecem ber 1978, the Committee w as expanded to 20 including five
m em bers of the Native community.**® Among the objectives listed in the proposal for a School of
Native Studies w as "to promote the inclusion of Native people in the study of Native people and
Native issues."**® A summary proposal w as produced and distributed to the Native and academ ic
communities for response. Consultation w as the watchword. As the proposal took shape, Native
organizations and Native people who had worked to improve educational opportunities were
consulted and asked for opinions and advice. Even the Elders were consulted a t every important

76
decision point.’“ The Committee recognized that
T here a re two constituencies that the School m ust appeal to in general terms, the
academ ic community of the university and the Native community. The interests of those
constituencies are not opposed-the School of Native Studies is a vehicle for seeing the
coincident n eed s of the two are met...ultimate responsibility is not only for academ ic
integrity and academ ic excellence, but for ensuring that program s and courses are
consistent with Native ethos and Native needs, and that the School does not perpetuate
any on e ethnocentric perspective.’^’
W hen there were still plans for a College, a College Council w as envisioned with the usual terms
of reference and composition a s those of other Faculties, but with provision for representation from
the Native community. The membership of the Council was expected to be primarily Native so that,
through the Council, Native organizations would have an active opportunity to sh ap e and guide the
developm ent, growth and operation of the College.’^ Although a College w as never formed, in
1987 a School Council w as established, consisting of m embers of the University community and the
Native community and exercising all the powers, duties and functions of a faculty council.’^^ The
Council is responsible for academ ic decision-making and consists of six Native Studies faculty or
outside faculty com petent in Native Studies, six perm anent academ ic staff appointed by other
faculties, six Native community members, six student m em bers (three from the Native Studies
Student Association and three from the Aboriginal Student Council), and ex-officio members include
the Director of the School, the Registrar, the President, and the Dean of Student Services, while
Elders-in-residence are invited to attend Council m eetings.’^“
The School Council provides for strong Native representation, but it still h as som e problems.
T he PACCR Committee expressed som e concern with the School Council indicating that "Native
Studies Council meetings are not held with the frequency of other Councils on cam pus, due to the
time commitments and costs associated with bringing the Native community representatives to the
University.’^ This can be attributed to the fact that Council m em bers com e not only from across
Alberta, but also from the Northwest Territories and the Yukon.’“ Problems have also arisen as a
result of the School's choice of representatives. According to Professor Price, when the School was
trying to find School Council representatives, it often asked the Native community organizations to

77
nom inate people who had an educational Interest or had been to the University of Alberta to give
th a t person a better chance to participate without becoming overwhelmed by professors, and to
allow community representatives to have the most impact/^^ The resp o n se of the Aboriginal
community revealed that,
T he aboriginal representative organizations are the only acknowledged bodies directly
accountable to the com m unities thru elections and annual assem blies. It is therefore,
vital that upon selection of aboriginal representatives, that the School recognize and
resp ect this fact, and utilize th e se organizations for proper appointm ents, instead of
grasping nam es out of thin air.’^®
Along with the problems of selecting representatives. It was also felt th at the precise role of the
Aboriginal representatives on the Council needed further definltion.^^ The PACCR Report Indicated
that,
many Native organizations and communities, particularly In central and northern Alberta,
w ant a much stronger relationship with the University. They s e e In It a t least a partial
solution to many problems facing them. Individually and collectively. Many of the very
highest expectations of th e University In general and the School of Native Studies In
particular derive from the Aboriginal population. Som e of th ese expectations may be
unrealistic, but most are grounded In practical realities and are directed to the University
b e c a u se of the existence of the School of Native Studies. O ne could say that the
establishment of the Native Studies program represents the attainm ent of a benchm ark
for the Native community in an Institution which they s e e a s having, potentially, an
essential contribution to their future.^”
A say s that the design of the program Involved Elders and Native scholars, but that realization and
Institutionalization was controlled by University administration. A adds th a t a clear demonstration
of this was the grand opening of the School - a wine and ch eese reception attended by several of
the Elders -- who stood outside the building.’®’
Aside from bringing First Nations Into the School, as In the case of the SIFC, distance education
w as another Important Issue for the University of Alberta. According to the 1984 Proposal for a
School of Native Studies, five Native communities had approached the University to request offcam pus courses.’®® Although the Division of Special Sessions w as meeting the dem ands of th ese
five Native communities. It w as doing so only by severely straining Its resources’®®, and the proposal
s u g g e ste d that because of the high dem and for off-campus activity, the position In the Faculty of
Extension In the Indian Educational Services Unit be changed from part-time to full-time.’®^

78

Professor Dempsey indicates that there are two positions regarding off-campus offerings, one, that
everyone who Is going to get a university degree should experience the university cam pus, and the
other, that the university should not remain so elitist, dem anding that students com e to It, but that
it should go to them. He say s th a t other universities have taken the latter approach, am ong them
A th ab asca University and the University of Calgary, and now the University of Alberta h a s to
com pete and go with the tim es'.’^ According to Dempsey, In the last ten years, the University of
Alberta has expanded off-campus and In som e c a s e s has done so with the aid of technology much
like the SIFC.^^ The University now offers courses a t M askwachees Cultural College In Hobbema,
a t the Yellowhead Tribal Council university program In Spruce Grove, a t Blue Quills School operated
by the Tribal Chiefs of Treaty 6; and In the Sunrise Project In Slave Lake and Grouard.’^ The
School of Native Studies Is especially active In providing language courses. Professor Dempsey
Indicates that along with the four Native Institutions, the School also brokers courses to Grand
Prairie Community College, A thabasca University, and Mount Royal College, but because of the
School's limited faculty, community m em bers capable of teaching are sought and approved by the
School and many are g raduates of the Native Studies program.’^ Among the aspirations of the
School Is to exist not only on th e University cam pus, but In the Aboriginal communities throughout
Alberta, the Yukon, and the Northwest Territories.’^
For the School of Native Studies, funding has been by far Its biggest obstacle to developm ent
an d growth.

The belief In the Importance of Native education may have been strong In the

seventies, with the Minister of Advanced Manpower writing on April 3 ,1 9 7 8 , "I can assu re you that
Improving Native education In Alberta Is one of my priorities. "’^ But the University of Lethbridge was
first to establish a Native Studies Departm ent In Alberta In the seventies and by the mid-elghtles,
when the School w as on the verge of becoming a reality, provincial funding had dried up. Initially,
b ecau se the School w as Independent from any other department or faculty and had no sponsoring
unit, the University proposed to give Its moral support, but required Advanced Education to sign the
cheque. Vice-President R.G. Baldwin said In 1984,

79
Three years ago. a program would alm ost certainly have received a sympathetic hearing
from govemment, but this might not b e so today. However, th e n eed for the program is
more urgent than ever. This proposal would likely be classified under a special category.
While other proposals would involve som e university funding, this proposal would require
full, special funding by govem m ent.’^’
The proposal w as presented deliberately a s "subject to govem m ent funding" because the School
did not belong to one particular University unit, nor could it be funded by readily identifiable vested
interest groups. It w as hoped that the Native Studies Program would receive funding according to
previous govem m ent policy, special earm arked funds for five years and then the addition of such
funding to the University's regular operating budget.’^^
In term s of approaching the D epartm ent of Indian Affairs for funding, unlike the SIFC, the
University of Alberta chose not to, b ecau se it was felt that by doing so, the School of Native Studies
would be in competition with applications from the Bands and Cultural Colleges.''” Yet, according
to Price,
The fact that from the 1970s onward, the federal govem m ent did start to assist the
students more a t the university, and you started to s e e the ch an g es in demographics,
like from the early 60s up to the 80s and 90s, there's been quite a dramatic increase and
that I'm sure would give the university som e assurance that there would be a number of
First Nations people who wanted to attend and it might get funding to support them, and
so on.'"''*
A indicates that the seed money for the program was not taken from the First Nations or the federal
govem m ent on principle b ecau se it w as felt that the University had an obligation to address Native
issues a s a commitment within its m andate to sen/e Albertans, not a s "extra".'^^
Thus, while waiting for funding and approval from the Provincial Govemment, the University
provided Budget Adjustment Fund monies to aid in the establishm ent of the School.'“® By the time
the four year B.A. program w as approved by Advanced Education, the University of Alberta had
committed $212,000 in hard dollars to the operation of the unit. By 1990, no further funding from
the Budget Adjustment Fund w as possible and the University indicated that it was essential for the
School to obtain additional govem m ent funding.'*^ Unfortunately, approval by the provincial
governm ent for the degree w as contingent upon the University maintaining its funding level a t "at
least" the level in place in the fall of 1988. As a testam ent to the University's commitment to the

80
program , the m oney w as found and the School's b a se operating budget from the University for
1991 -92 w as $333,315. Additional money came from outside sources including $25,000 from Indian
Affairs, applied to sessional instructor stipends; $10,000 from the Secretary of State, for curricuium
development; and $6,400 from the Alberta Law Foundation for a course on Aboriginal Legal Issues.
Although supplemental funds have added up to a s much a s 20% of the School's budget in a given
year, they are tied to specific expenditures and are short-term in nature.’"*® Meanwhile, Alberta's
D epartm ent of Advanced Education continues to state that there are no funds available due to
budgetary constraints.’"*® Despite its commitment, the University does not w ant to add to the

i
I

School's operating budget and give the impression to the provincial govem m ent that the University

I

does not need additional funds for the School.’®® Meanwhile, the provincial govem m ent indicates

J

that jurisdictional wrangling, whereby provinces are extremely reluctant to act in an a re a which they
consider to be a federal jurisdiction, continue in the field of Aboriginal post-secondary education.’®’
According to Professor Dempsey, the provincial govem m ent feels that the School is part of the
I

University which already receives funding, although he says unofficially support has increased with

j

the creation of Aboriginal Affairs in the provincial govem ment. He adds that the School is not

I

eligible for federal money becau se it is not a Native-run institution like the SIFC or other Native

I

colleges, and that with devolution to local control of education by the bands. First Nations leadership

I

is spending its m oney on the educational needs of secondary and elem entary school Native

i

ii

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students and has nothing to spare for post-secondary education.’®^ While the different govemments

1

try to p a s s on the funding responsibility, the survival of the School of Native Studies hangs in the

I
balance. Budgetary constraints for the University a s a whole led, in 1991, to discussion of creating
an administrative structure for the School within the Faculty of Arts.’®® Professor Dem psey says that
"...when the proposal cam e back in 1991, from the accountants, to put us back in the Faculty of Arts,
the support that cam e from the Vice President, and academ ics was very strong not to m ake that
decision based on money. Luckily it wasn't. It w as rejected."’®* Nonetheless, D em psey feels that
the School will always have to deal with the accountants saying, 'You could save $200,000.00 a year

81
if you put the School in with the Faculty and Arts and m ake it a Department.'’®®
Although the integrity of the School w as maintained by funds from the University, growth in
faculty num bers and course offerings are impossible without additional monies. Even the renewal
of so m e grants is questionable including the m odest grant of $25,000 from Indian and Northem
Affairs C an a d a (INAC). As the principle agency distributing educational funding, INAC channels
80% to 90% to student support. Within the confines of tight budgets, redirection of funds from
stu d en t support to institutional support is very unpopular with the Aboriginal community.’®®
According to Professor Dempsey, as a separate School, Native Studies does not have to com pete
with other departm ents for its share of a faculty budget, but a s the smallest in budget, support staff,
academ ic staff, and student population per faculty, justifying increases is difficult. He say s that in
the last three years the University has undergone 12.75% cuts each year, but during those years
the School actually got an increase, followed by a 3% cut, and then last year rem ained the sam e.
He says that having a small budget has helped b ecau se it could not be cut any more, but that it has
prevented growth.’®^ Dempsey adds, "...how the School w as originally pictured in 1986 is not the
way that it is ten years later. And really the num ber one reason for that change is financial. Its that
they were living in a time when the province was increasing the budget every year, on th at level we'd
be five times m ore than we are today - which w e re not."’®®
The School of Native Studies at the University of Alberta has long been plagued with obstacles.
Although discussion of incorporating Native Studies into the University began in the early seventies,
it w as not until 1989 that students could enroll in a Bachelor of Arts program through th e School of
Native Studies. The slowdown has been attributed to a variety of factors, not the least of which were
the hesitancy of the University to risk hurting its established reputation, the size of th e University's
bureaucracy, and the racism in Alberta and at the University. The School of Native Studies has also
run into problems in hiring First Nations faculty. Although with Native Studies program s spreading
acro ss the country there are more Native people earning advanced degrees, the competition for
First Nations with these qualifications has also increased, and it is more difficult for new programs

82

to attract Native faculty. The School h as also had problem s with finding resources to hire enough
faculty. Designing a well-balanced program of academic, cultural and applied courses w as relatively
easy, but with its limited faculty, the School finds it difficult to offer all of th ese co u rses or to begin
offering a M asters degree. As the program se e k s to reach out further into the north, it has also
becom e more costly and complicated to consult with Aboriginal Council m em bers who com e from
a s far afield a s the Yukon and Northwest Territories. T he struggle of th e School to satisfy its First
Nations constituents is compounded by the provincial government's unwillingness to provide
additional funds to the University for the School and the overall cutbacks experienced by the
institution. Despite th ese setbacks, the School provides a well-rounded academ ic d eg ree with the
support of Elders and input from the First Nations community. In addition, the School reaches out
to the First Nations community by offering many co u rses through Native colleges and other
organizations. At the sam e time, the University of Alberta continues to work towards increasing the
enrollment of Aboriginal students throughout the institution.

83

CHAPTER FOUR - UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA

B ecause the University of Northem British Columbia was established with First Nations Studies
already em bedded in its structure, the history of the program and the institution are inextricably tied
together. W hen northem British Columbian communities first began to lobby the govem m ent for
a new northem university, First Nations leaders worked in active partnership with other community
leaders to form the Interior University Society which worked to build a public co n sen su s in support
of the venture.^ In describing the political history of the University, Margaret Anderson, the first Chair
of First Nations Studies, says.
The support by First Nations for establishing the University was very strong, and it was
a political animal from the get-go. People knew right from the outset that they needed
to have support across the north. They needed support that was politically potent, and
the First Nations in northem B.C. had some of that. There was a concerted effort m ade
by the people who were organizing the cam paign to develop the University, to involve
First Nations. And there was a very active response, so that there were (First Nations)
people who were very active in the campaign to establish the institution.^
T he current Chair of First Nations Studies, Jim McDonald, adds “...the community groups and
interest th at led to the formation of the University included Aboriginal communities and Aboriginal
interests and they were part of the lobbying for the University and part of the developm ent of the
University concept and they wanted to have First Nation Studies.”^
The Carrier Sekani Tribal Council (CSTC) was involved in the push for a northem university from
the beginning and had very specific expectations of how the university would m eet First Nations
n eed s if it cam e into being. The CSTC foresaw a Faculty of Aboriginal Studies similar to that of the
SIFC in the distant future, but it recognized the impossibility of such a faculty a t the outset and
initially recom m ended a School of Aboriginal Studies similar to the University of Alberta's.'* The
Council felt that in order to inspire the respect and loyalty of First Nations people, an Aboriginal
S tudies com ponent had to be seen a s having a high profile stature and authority within the
University. They envisioned strong linkages to First Nations community leaders and a high d eg ree
of autonom ous control over its own policies, programs and resources. The CSTC felt th at a School
of Aboriginal Studies was the m ost viable vehicle for delivering university programs to the northern

84

Native population b eca u se it would have the freedom to design its own program s, obtain course
accreditations from the university, acquire its own faculty, establish specialized programs at selected
locations throughout the university service area, and enter into brokerage arrangem ents with the
other institutions. Most importantly, the Council wanted it to be able to adopt a governance structure
that would incorporate a healthy m easure of direct participation by Native community
representatives.® The CSTC hoped that the creation of a northem university would provide "a rare
ch an ce to involve aboriginal leaders directly in making the policies and m anagem ent decisions
under which Native higher education will operate."®
As the University of Northem British Columbia (UNBC) cam e closer to becom ing a reality, an
Implementation Planning Group (IPG) w as formed and it defined the mission statem ent of the
University a s "to serve the citizens of Northem British Columbia. The University will play a leading
role in the educational, cultural, social, and the economic life of the North." According to the I.P.G.,
it w as impossible to fulfil that mission without including a strong, viable, program of Aboriginal
S tudies in the University.^ Thus, m em bers of the I.P.G. toured the program s a t two other
institutions, SIFC and the University of Lethbridge, and determined that the structure of the Native
American Studies departm ent a t the University of Lethbridge stood out a s the preferable m ode of
organization a s it allowed for better "two-way" communication and service betw een Aboriginal
Studies and other disciplines.® The first President of the University, Geoff Weller, agreed with this
decision a s he did not want First Nations Studies to be ghettoized into a sep arate unit. According
to Margaret Anderson, “He wanted to insure that it would be something that would interact [with] and
enliven the rest of the institution."® An additional reason given for not adopting the proposal for the
Faculty of Aboriginal Studies w as that such a body w as seen to be too prone to exotic and fragile
funding arrangem ents outside of the core funding for UNBC which would render it financially
vulnerable.^® In the end, when the Prince George Cam pus opened in S eptem ber 1994, a First
Nations Studies Department was in place and UNBC had an institutional m andate to promote First
Nations knowledge and First Nations leam ing."

85
In term s of those individuals responsible for th e establishm ent of the Department, the Interior
University Society must be acknowledged for its recognition of the importance of involving the First
N ations in the earliest sta g e s of discussion. M argaret Anderson feels that the leadership am ong
First Nations in northem British Columbia w as very important and gives special credit to Chief
Jo sep h Michell of the Carrier Sekani Tribal Council and Edward John, a lawyer and also a Chief of
the CSTC.’^ She feels that both "wanted to ensure that they were seen as founders of the institution
an d a s partners in the institution."’^ First Nations involvement w as not limited to the Carrier and
S ekani. Attached to the brief submitted to th e British Columbia C abinet on behalf of the Interior
University Society on O ctober 13, 1988, w ere letters of support from 12 bands and tribal
organizations. This type of support from the regional First Nations added to the legitimacy of the
brief and conveyed the collective desire of all northem British Columbians for a local university.
Although there w as support am ong senior administrators, this support w as not the result of
experience with First Nations, a s it had been with both Tom Symons of Trent and Lloyd B arber of
the University of Regina. According to Anderson, there was strong support from the President, but
for the m ost part he did not have any specifics in mind.’* Among those with experience working with
First Nations, Anderson credits Dennis Macknak, Director of Regional Operations, with having a
good s e n se of perspective, and a s one of the very first people a t UNBC, having a hand in making
su re things moved in the right direction.’® According to Anderson, one of the issues in th e early
y ears w as that m ost of the people who w ent to work at UNBC knew little about northern British
Columbia, knew less about First Nations in northem British Columbia, and in many c a se s, did not
know anything about First Nations, so that there were som e problems a s people found their way to
w ork with protocol.’® N onetheless, an overall recognition of the importance of providing First
N ations Studies and a willingness to involve First Nations in the institution pervaded the new
University.
The development of UNBC with its First Nations m andate w as also well timed to coincide with
the concem s of the provincial govem m ent with the poor participation and completion rates of First

86

Nations students in post-secondary education. In the late eighties, the Ministry of Advanced
Education had created a Provincial Advisory Committee on Post-Secondary Education for Native
Learners. The statem ent to guide its activities and recommendations was a s follows: "That British
Columbia, with the free consultation and involvement of the First Nations, bring the participation and
completion rates of the First Nations post-secondary learners to at least the national average by
1995, and th at this p ro cess recognize and incorporate the unique cultural traditions of the First
N ations' peoples."^^ T he Committee realized quickly that its original goal w as too ambitious, and
revised it to “reaching the national average by increasing native participation by 50% per year."'°
T he Advisory Committee recognized that the participation rate for all learners varied greatly from
region to region and that in general, urban rates of participation are much higher than rural rates,
while participation in British Columbia's north is about half the provincial average.'^ In 1989, the
participation rate for Native learners in post-secondary education in British Columbia, a s a whole,
w as 15% of Native high school graduates, while in northem British Columbia the Native participation
rate w as 0.5% of Native high school graduates.^" Demographically, the Native population is more
concentrated in the northem region of British Columbia than elsewhere. There are approximately
30,000 registered status Indians north of 100 Mile House, belonging to 56 Indian Bands in addition
to substantial num bers of non-status and Metis people.^^ Anderson adds, "one of the goals of
establishing the University w as to deal with the low rates of participation of First Nations people in
the region that the University saw a s its specific service area. And First Nations Studies w as seen
a s a program that would contribute to that."“
A Transition Year Program was one of the early recommendations for increasing First Nations
students' participation, but such a program w as not established when the University opened. As a
result, the University quickly ran into problems with retention and experienced a very high attrition
rate am ong first-year First Nations students.^^ In response, the issue of a Transition Y ear Program
resurfaced and in May 1995 the S enate supported in principle the idea of a transition program for
First Nations students and directed the S en ate Committee on Academic Policy and Planning to

87
develop a proposal.^'* The University is now in the process of implementing w hat it calls the
Northern A dvancem ent Program which will make UNBC one of only three universities in C an ad a
that will be running a first year studies-type of program, fully credited throughout the University, that
will still allow students to complete their degree in any major in the University within four y ears.^
The program will begin in Fall 1997 and is designed to be more supportive to First Nations students
with the objective of reducing attrition, but also to increase GRA rates and graduation rates for First
Nations students.^® Like the University Entrance Program at the University of Regina / SIFC, the
Northern A dvancem ent Program is not reserved for First Nations students, but in the c a s e of the
UNBC program, it is reserved for students from a rural background.^^ One explanation for this more
open admission policy is that, as in the ca se of the University of Regina, UNBC is concerned with
enrolment.
The developm ent of special admission procedures and special entry criteria for First Nations
applicants were also am ong the early recommendations for th e program coming from the First
Nations com m unities.^ This recommendation has persisted and in 1996 the First Nations T ask
Force Committee (FNTFC) suggested that UNBC establish a Program Access Policy to adm it First
Nations Students to programs based on their academic performance and not an artificial grade entry
celling like the quota system s established for high dem and programs a t other universities.^^
Essentially this policy would be similar to that of the University of Alberta, allowing First Nations
students who met the minimum admission requirement into quota programs, but a s of yet the policy
has not been implemented.
Many of the First Nations students who enter the University enroll in the First Nations Studies
Program. The long range goals of the program included developing offerings in First Nation
cultures, First Nation languages. First Nation issues, and the theory and methodology of First
Nations S tu d ies.^

As a result, the

program w as designed with three stream s; Aboriginal

languages, cultures, and contemporary issues. According to Margaret Anderson, the choice of the
three main stream s w as intended to allow “some of the courses to be taught from other parts of the

88

institution, so Politics would have a First Nations politics course, and History and G eography and
Natural Resources, and so on, would each have courses that they would bring into the mix and their
programs would similarly include courses from First Nations Studies.*^' Anderson says the program
could have been conceptualized many other ways, but that languages and cultures w ere chosen
a s stream s b eca u se those were the priorities that people expressed very loudly in parts of the
region, and contem porary issues was chosen b ecau se land claims, politics, governm ent, and
justice, are crucial issu es and creating a stream is a m echanism for the program to b e able to
contribute to developing the discourse about them .^
Two central tasks in the UNBC First Nations Studies m andate are the developm ent of specific
cultural and linguistic courses for each of the different First Nation groups within the UNBC a re a .“
The University calendar indicates that courses at various levels are available each se m e ste r in one
of the languages of the First Nations of northem British Columbia. Among those languages, Haisla,
Tsim shian, Nisga'a, Gitksanimx, Haida, TIingit, W efsuw efen, Carrier, Sekani, Beaver, Kaska,
Slavey, Tahltan, Ts'ilhquofin, or other A thabascan language, or Shushw ap are listed.^ Many of
th e se lan g u ag es have not yet been offered, or are only available to students in the regions.
N evertheless, a s a program, it is felt that growth m ust be towards offering multiple course listings
for several cultures and languages in order to service the region in the m anner appropriate to the
m andate. In particular, it is felt that the nature of language and cultural courses is such th at they
can only be taught culture by culture and language by language. For this reason, in Prince George,
where there is dem and for Carrier and Cree language and culture, that is the focus of the language
and culture offerings, while in the northwest, where there is dem and for Tsimshian, Nisga’a. Gitskan,
and Haisla, the University has tried to comply by offering courses in those languages, and som e
cultural courses, regionally.^
Originally, aside from language and culture courses (including courses on languages, culture,
history, and philosophy), the CSTC also recommended that courses be offered in social science and
hum an services (including health education and social work), and government an d public

89
administration (including politics, economics and m anagem ent).^ The First Nations were concem ed
with the developm ent of self-goveming Native communities which they felt created a growing
dem and for Native professionals in education, social services, administration, an d b u s i n e s s F o r
them, the social issues, community developm ent n eed s, and environmental concerns of northem
First Nations needed to be priority concerns of the University.”

Although First Nations Studies has

not attem pted to incorporate courses in all of th ese a re a s, Anderson says.
T he University’s education with a First Nations perspective is broader than the First
Nations Studies program or the courses that would be called FNST. W e don’t just offer
undergraduate education, certainly Social Work and Nursing and graduate education all
s e e First Nations perspectives a s crucial to w hat they’re doing, b e cau se they’re trying
to develop program s that work in northem B.C. specifically.”
In other a rea s, the University has tried to respond to First Nations requests for m ore applied
offerings. The I.P.G. recommended that professional and applied program s m ake provision for
meaningful involvement with the native communities including cooperative education in Native
communities.'” Within First Nations Studies, special em phasis is placed on creating opportunities
for UNBC students to learn from and about the First Nations of the north including courses taught
in First Nations communities, intemships, and community-based research projects for graduate
students."^
The Aboriginal Programs Branch of the Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, seem ed to be
attuned to the interests of the First Nations, suggesting that
new programs are required in order to prepare Aboriginal people with the occupational
com petencies and skills needed for today's labour market. Program s offered in post­
secondary institutions must extend beyond the traditional social science an d public
administration focus to areas such a s technology and commerce, natural resources and
environmental science, and rural health. In addition, them e units relevant to th e history,
culture, and social experience of Aboriginal people should be integrated into
programming that is flexibly structured and provides students with entry and exit options
which lead from certificate, to diploma and baccalaureate degrees.^^
; The northem First Nations were also requesting that courses be developed to allow for progressive
I credentials, e.g. Certificate Level — Diploma Level — Degree Level - M asters L evel." Initially the
University w as even more ambitious, planning teaching projects for First Nations Studies which
I
1 included developm ent from certificate and diploma program s up to a P h D ." Although the PhD

90
rem ains a long-term goal, unlike most of the other universities examined, UNBC’s First Nations
Studies did begin by offering an M.A. program from day one. In this respect, it is unique b ecau se
although the SIFC provides graduate studies in Indian Studies, and Languages, Literatures and
Linguistics, both are Special C a se .^ Trent also offers a special M.A. with a focus on Native Studies
through its C anadian Studies program, but only UNBC h as a Masters program firmly established
within First Nations Studies.
According to the Status Report of the Office of First Nations, "Since the First Nations education
philosophy is on e that is b ased on holistic leaming, healing and personal developm ent are
indistinguishable from the leaming process. Em phasis is placed on developing student support
networks for personal growth a s well as to help students deal with personal issues that impede their
academ ic success.'"^ From the beginning, the CSTC recommended that Student Counselling and
P erson al G uidance Service be adapted to the n eed s of Native students and involve both
professional counsellors and Native Elders.'*^ The I.P.G. followed this idea through by suggesting
that the "Elders Program" of the SIFC be used a s a model for the inclusion of selected Elders to b e
resid en t on the cam puses of the University on a rotating basis to allow a s e n se of continuity
betw een the First Nations communities and the University.^ Today, the University does provide an
Elders-in-Residence program through which several Elders and spiritual people are available on an
on-call b asis for students who need individual attention. Elders and healers also conduct pre­
program m ed Talking Circles, and other spiritual and cultural activities such a s Smudging and Sw eat
Lodges which take place throughout each week."*® Although the University of Northem British
Columbia Planning Committee placed a strong em phasis on the service of First Nations people a s
a crucial elem ent for the success of UNBC, it was never intended that First Nations Studies would
take on th o se responsibilities.^ Margaret Anderson indicates that

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for Native and non-Native students alike, we need a lot of support sen/ices and there are
so m e very specific n eed s for First Nations students, so they should be specifically
organized to deliver those. My sen se early on w as th at we had the academ ic program
and the other programs which would do the academ ic things, and then the other part of
th e job would do support services, would do transition years, and counselling, and
writing skills and all of those things, and negotiate with the communities and develop and

91
increase our presence.®’
According to Anderson, in the beginning the lines betw een the First Nations Studies Program and
the services for First Nations students w ere blurred, a s the Chair of the academ ic program and the
Coordinator/Director of the service program were a t times the sam e person. Fortunately, now there
is a sep a ra te Chair of First Nations Studies and a Director of First Nations Programming.®^
Interestingly, a s a program, UNBC's First Nations Studies is most similar to the program a t Trent
University, and like Trent's early Indian-Eskimo Studies program. First Nations Studies is chaired
by the sa m e person a s the Anthropology Departm ent who devotes half his time to each . In other
ways. First Nations Studies is similar to the School of Native Studies a t the University of Alberta in
I

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that, although a full, established com plem ent of 6 faculty was identified a s n ecessary in the
inaugural UNBC faculty teaching model, the First Nations Studies teaching faculty stan d s a t only
3.5 full time professors.®® In addition to its full time faculty, UNBC relies heavily on a series of
appointm ents on the co-instructional model.

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This model creates a co-operative relationship

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betw een the University and community-based cultural or language experts, allowing th e program

I

to appoint, for example, a native speaker to co-teach language courses with a linguist. T he model

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is developmental, training the community expert in university teaching and curriculum a t the sam e

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time that the linguist is assisted in curriculum development. The model will allow the program to
develop courses in certain languages and their associated cultures to a degree that instruction can

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be shifted more fully to the First Nation co-instructor. To accomplish this, the University aims to

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develop adequate curriculum in each course and develop the skills of the First Nation instructor for
the requirements of university context, viewing this a s a matter of articulating First Nation teaching
with university requirement.®^
From the beginning the Native community felt that universities reflected a fundam ental bias

!

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toward educational qualifications and that the community-based characteristics of collaborative

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decision making, empowerment and relevance were fundamentally at odds with this concept of

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hierarchy.®® The CSTC felt that.

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To e n su re the cultural authenticity of Aboriginal Studies, credentials for instructors in
so m e courses will have to be b a se d more on aboriginal cultural knowledge and
experience than on formal academ ic training. This will require flexible accreditation of
Native instructors and direct participation of First Nations representatives in the
recruitment, screening and selection of instructors.^
The First Nations Task Force Committee responded by suggesting that program s need to be able
to hire First Nations people who do not have a PhD to teach a s regular, tenure stream faculty.^ it
further su g g ested that community people should be hired in a consistent m anner that recognizes
their expertise, even though th at expertise lays outside of the traditional academ ic pattern.™
According to Anderson, the conditions of appointment provide a procedure through which First
Nations instructors who do not have the traditional credentials can b e given tenure-stream
appointm ents, but this policy d o e s not apply to co-instructors.™ N onetheless, s h e say s that for
faculty positions particularly, it is very difficult to transcend credentials and find a way to evaluate
knowledge that is independent of credentialism. S he adds that universities are much better geared
to deal with credentials than with knowledge, but that the program and the faculty have done very
well with working with the Nisga’a in term s of recognizing the expertise th at people have to teach
language and culture. With the Tsimshian and the Haisla, who did not put people fonvard a s having
all the skills they needed, but preferred the co-instruction model, the co-instructors are getting closer
to the point w here they will b e able to teach the first level courses on their own.™ Yet, in term s of
finding qualified Native staff who already p o s se s s advanced degrees, UNBC is having the sam e
problem a s the University of Alberta. Anderson say s it is difficult to attract Native scholars "because
people who have talent and expertise are hugely pressured to do a dozen different jobs."^^ Most
of the First Nations instructors involved in the program a t UNBC teach language and culture courses
in the regions, with only one of th e four on-cam pus faculty m em bers being of Aboriginal descent.
At UNBC, the problems of hiring First Nations extends beyond the First Nations Studies
D epartm ent and into the University a s a whole due to its m andate.

The num ber one

recommendation of the First Nations T ask Force Committee to the Planning Committee w as “The
University develop and implement a proactive recruitment policy and action plan to ad d ress the

93
hiring of First Nations people to Faculty, staff and administration positions within UNBC

In the

past, the University h a s had som e problems differentiating betw een employing people with First
Nations ancestry and faculty m em bers with a research interest in First Nations. M argaret Anderson
says the University h as hired people with excellent interests, expertise, and experience working with
First Nations, but not enough faculty m em bers have been hired who are of First Nations descent.^
According to Anderson, hiring people of First Nations descent is an issue for First Nations Studies,
but the University a s a whole h as been lax in hiring First Nations em ployees.^

The

recom m endations of th e follow-up committee established a t a First Nations forum included the
promotion of hiring Native people in all fields and that in recognition of a severe under­
representation of First Nations em ployees, the Human R esources departm ent devise ways to
correct this.^^ The First Nations T ask Force recommended that the University's goal should be to
hire faculty and staff who can b e s t serve the northem community and therefore its hiring practices
should incorporate a goal to en su re that roughly 10% of the faculty and staff are of First Nations
decent.®® The University now h as a goal of developing, by July 1,1997, a plan, policy framework,
an d implementation sch ed u le to support hiring of First Nations people to faculty, staff, and
administrative positions.®^ This position is supported by the provincial governm ent which feels
"Institutional hiring practices m ust also reflect a sensitivity to employment equity for Aboriginal
people within the institution."®®
W hen discussions of the establishm ent of a university in northem British Columbia began, the
necessity of addressing the n eed s of the widest possible cross-section of northem communities with
a special focus on First Nations w as key. Thus, the initial discussion group included a respected
leader from the First Nations of the region.®® As the discussions proceeded and the new University
cam e closer to becoming a reality. Aboriginal representation on the early governing bodies
continued and there were three First Nations on the first Interim Governing Council. But problems
aro se given that the th ree First Nations representatives were all very high profile people involved
in a variety of projects. Thus, there were few meetings attended by all three an d many when none

94
of them w ere th e re /° Anderson stresses that they were trying valiantly to participate and that in
so m e c a s e s it w as the immense distances that prevented attendance. Although expenses were
paid by the University's Board, the time lost for m em bers trying to run their own business, or trying
to m ake a living, due to the extra day of travel each way, m ade it difficult for them to attend
m eetings. S he ad d s that it was a busy period, with summits and land claims c a s e s requiring
m em bers to travel to Ottawa, Victoria, or elsew here and making it difficult for them to monitor the
process a t UNBC. According to Anderson, “..this w as way beyond Just ordinary volunteer work, in
term s of som ebody with that kind of a schedule."^^
Early on, the CSTC feared th a t, “A Division of Aboriginal Studies adm inistered a s any other
division within the Faculty of Arts and Sciences will be appropriated by non-Native academ icians
and bureaucrats, and will be irrelevant to the goals and aspirations of northem B.C. First N ations.'^
According to Doug Brown, who sa t in on meetings a s a representative of the CSTC, that is exactly
w hat happened. He says.
W hen UNBC began hiring staff many of those, including myself, who had b een active
in its creation receded into the background. There w asn’t (sic.) m any structured
opportunities for the UNBC newcomers and founders to dialogue a s equals...A gendas
were driven by the personal preferences of imported academ ics, even though the formal
m echanism of consultation meetings w ere present.^^
Although M argaret Anderson would deny that the program ignores the goals and aspirations of
northern First Nations, sh e does admit that sh e alone designed much of the program, stating
ironically,
I would have to say that I did most of the writing of the program and structures and you
still find it in the documents, and what I knew w as that there needed to be a really strong
First Nations ownership and control, and that you needed to find a m echanism for First
Nations knowledge to be taught in the University. So, I think those two things com e
through, and they were certainly part of subm issions from everywhere, I didn't invent
them out of the blue, they were taught to me for a long time by people.^^
Although her experience with First Nations taught Anderson the importance of First Nations
ownership and control, because First Nations Studies was designed by a non-Aboriginal academic,
som e of the First Nations in the region feel that they had little ownership or control over the program.
According to Anderson, there w as no context in which to weigh reports and recom m endations by

95

First Nations becau se so much developm ent w as done without going through the S en ate process,
in which people would have been given the documentation. S he says the program w as developed
in an environment of "hurry up and write som e curriculum for the next meeting because the calendar
copy h as to be at the printers." S he recognizes that, "people tried very hard to listen, but you always
listen with your old ears."^^ In this way, Anderson's experiences doing extensive research in Hartley
Bay am ong the Tsimshian and her work with First Nations in Ontario, gave h e r a good s e n se of what
the issues were for Native people, but, for the m ost part, the First Nations surrounding UNBC had
little input into the design of the First Nations Studies program.^®
This is not to sa y that UNBC did not consult with the First Nations. Prior to the opening of the
University, fora were organized to s e e k input and direction from the Native community with regards
to First Nations Program delivery at UNBC.^ According to Margaret A nderson, the first of the First
Nations fora was unsuccessful b ecau se many Native representatives did not com e prepared to
direct the University, but rather to find out what was going on. They were not the political leadership
that had been involved at the formative stages, but rather the education coordinators, who felt that
they were not decision-makers, but had to go back and check with their Elders. S h e say s "things
were so rapidly developing at the University, that it was very difficult to continue to have meetings
and not come up with any sort of decisions and plans..."^®

At su b seq u en t meetings,

recom m endations included a consultation process with representatives of the tribal organizations
and bands, the maximization of a s e n s e of ownership and participation through input from First
Nation people, that there be som e a sp e c t of control of the Aboriginal S tudies program by the First
Nations in collaboration with UNBC, an d that the First Nations leadership b e encouraged to state
the types of policies and services th at will be necessary and what will b e meaningful to the First
Nations community n eed s.^ Unfortunately, by this point the University had gone ah ead with much
of the planning®®, and the Native community responded to the fora with a clear m essag e that "First
Nations people no longer wish to be involved in consultation with UNBC unless such consultation
results in perceivably agreed upon outcom es and m echanism s for collaboration on initiatives of

96

importance to First Nations people.”^' T hese sentim ents dem onstrate the changes that have taken
place since 1968 when the Native community around Trent w as pleased merely to be consulted,
regardless of the outcom es.
According to Anderson, a s a m eans of making the fora go away, a T ask Force on First Nations
w as form ed.^ Deborah Poff, Vice-President Academic and Chair of the First Nations T ask Force,
indicates that discussions revolved around "ensuring that the task force would not merely be another
consultation w here opinions were asked but actions did not follow.”” One of the main focuses of
early discussions by the Task Force was the question of representation. While twenty-two people
w ere ask ed to serve, m em bers argued that representation had to com e from First Nations
communities. There w as discussion about the difficulty of inclusivity since UNBC is located in the
territories of 16 tribal councils and 77 bands” , and constituent groups define them selves differently
(e.g. Bands, rural/urban, non-treaty/treaty), and all of them wish to be represented in discussions
around First Nations issues in curriculum and research a t UNBC.” M echanisms for communication
betw een

communities

and

the

university and

m echanism s

for getting

First Nations

recom m endations on the intemal agenda of the internal com m ittees of UNBC were other major
issu es surrounding the unhappiness of the First Nations.”
The inability of the T ask Force to satisfy the First Nations in term s of both representation and
accomplishments led to the raising of a S enate motion in 1994, “T hat given the serious difficulties
in UNBC’s relations with First Nations communities; that S en ate establish a committee with
substantial extra-university representation from First Nations communities across the regions.””
This motion w as withdrawn, and replaced by a motion “That S en ate request that the Office of the
Vice President Academic establish appropriate m echanism s a s soon a s possible to address issues
of UNBC’s short and long term relationships with the First Nations students and the First Nations
Communities; and that the Vice President Academic report monthly to S enate on this matter.”” The
S enate approved the proposal to create a S en ate Standing Committee on First Nations (SCFN) in
Ju n e 1995. A call for nominations was sen t to tribal councils, friendship centres and other First

97
Nations groups an d five representatives were selected to the S enate Committee in November of
1995. T h ese included representatives from: The W est Moberley First Nations, Wilp Wil)&'oskwhil
Nisga’a, North C o ast Tribal Council, Carrier Sekani Tribal Council, and the Nechako Fraser Junction
Metis Association.®® The other membership consisted of the Vice President Academic, seven
faculty, and one stu d en t from the First Nations Student Association.®® The m andate of the S en ate
Committee is to look a t all academ ic issues related to program delivery to First Nations students.®'
In addition to the new S enate Committee on First Nations, the University has general Regional
Advisory Councils in e ac h of its three sub regions which include First Nations, a s well a s an
independent First Nations advisory body, the N ortheast First Nations Regional Advisory
Committee.®® With the p a ssa g e of the University of Northem British Columbia Act, the involvement
of the First Nations community w as also assured through the nam ed se a t on the Interim Governing
Council and on both th e Board of Govem ors and S enate when formed.®® According to Jim
M-Donald, having a First Nations person on the Board of Govem ors is a legislated requirement,
becau se the govem m ent w as responding to community lobbying.** The University h a s responded
to community lobbying by vowing to increase representation of First Nations peoples on University
Committees.®®
P erh ap s b e c a u s e of the growth and progress of Native Studies programs over the p ast two
decades, the expectations of the Native communities around UNBC are higher than other programs
have experienced in the p a st and this has led to the failure of fora, task forces, and advisory
councils to satisfy the First Nations in northem British Columbia. Yet, Anderson points out that the
resp o n se to UNBC differs with the different First Nations depending on their interest and
participation. S he says that the Carrier-Sekani still feel that there needs to be work done on insuring
governance, partially b e c a u se the University is physically in their region and b ecau se they have
been consulted a great deal with frustrating results.®® The CSTC had built up high expectations of
the University from the beginning. An early letter from Chief Edward John stated, “the Tribal Council
strongly supports the creation of a university in north central British Columbia...our support.

98
however, in not entirely unconditional.” He then listed more than three pages of expectations on
behalf of his people.^^ Anderson says that, in general, the Carrier-Sekani and the Prince George
Friendship Centre have high expectations because of their proximity and consultation.” S h e adds
that UNBC's constituents include a very diverse group of First Nations with very different histories
and different ag e n d as.”

S he illustrates this by pointing out the Nisga'a interest in creating a

Nisga'a-controlled institution, whereas others would have b een happy with a s e n se of control.’”
The Nisga’a approached UNBC early, stating that they had qualified people in the N ass Valley
who could realize meaningful programs by working along with UNBC.’°’ The difficult for adults with
children to relocate to attend university or college outside of the N ass Valley contributed to the
desire of the Nisga’a to establish a facility within their own community.’®^ Yet, the Nisga'a estimated
that approximately 200 Nisga’a students were attending post-secondary institutes outside the Nass,
indicating the potential registrants for such a facility.’” In 1993 a protocol w as signed between
UNBC and the Wilp Wil^o’oskwhl Nisga’a (WWN), a s the new facility was nam ed. T he protocol
stated "UNBC will work to establish and maintain the autonom y and credibility of WWN a s a postsecondary educational institution mandated to serve the Nisga’a Nation. WWN will work to support
UNBC in developing a sensitive and effective relationship with Aboriginal people and First Nations
around the world.”’°^ UNBC agreed to offer the B.A. degree in First Nations Studies with a Nisga’a
em phasis and in the fall of 1994 an undergraduate degree program in Nisga’a Studies began at the
WWN with 138 students. The WWN and UNBC plan to offer a full se t of courses for undergraduate
program s in Nisga’a Studies and Linguistics (within First Nations Studies), Anthropology and
Archaeology, and First Nations History, to allow students to attend full time in the N ass Valley.’"^
The Wilp Wil)£o’oskwhl Nisga’a, operates primarily out of a renovated church in New Aiyansh, but
delivers courses in all of the Nisga'a communities, a s well a s delivering both language and culture
courses in relation to dem and in Vancouver, Prince Rupert and Terrace.’” The WWN is the final
authority on all N isga’a curriculum and research and m ust approve all Nisga’a curriculum and
research undertaken by UNBC faculty or students.’” Thus, the WWN has a curriculum committee

99
to work with the First Nations Studies Program Chair to develop co u rses in N isga'a language and
culture in accordance with Nisga’a and western principles of scholarly integrity/°^ It should also be
noted that the WWN exists to do more than offer UNBC d eg rees. It also articulates with the
Northwest Community College, the O pen Leaming Agency, and other institutions. It is a house of
higher learning which includes UNBC courses.’”
In the late 1980s, the conception of UNBC included an important m andate to contribute to the
interests and need s of people in northem British Columbia, and particularly sen/e Aboriginal people
in the area. Also, one of UNBC’s proposals w as decentralized studies. T h ese recom mendations
cam e from both the First Nations community and the provincial govem m ent. According to the
CSTC, "Regionalized program delivery will help to em phasize the importance of Aboriginal Studies,
provide a sensitive resp o n se to local priorities, and make program s accessible to First Nations
communities."” ” In addition, among the recommendations coming out of the First Nations Fora was
com m unity-based education, or on-reserve program s.’” T he Provincial Advisory Committee on
Post-Secondary Education for Native Leamers also encouraged participation in remote and isolated
a re a s through distance education/outreach program s in rem ote com munities.” ^ Thus, the first
courses, course descriptions and course numbers, were created in resp o n se to a request from the
I

Gitskan, near Hazelton, who had been delivering their own teach er training program for language
teachers, and indicated th at they wanted accreditation. Although the group in question ended up
proceeding independently from UNBC, the University organized a s e t of courses, of which First
Nations Language 101 and Culture 101 were the first. UNBC developed those courses so that First
Nations could add their own knowledge and deliver them locally, and they w ere well-received by the
communities.” ”
W hen all the First Nations in the north were contacted in July of 1992 and invited to discuss how
UNBC could work a s their partner, it w as expected that several Nations would want to pursue a
partnership, but only the N isga’a responded.” ^ Anderson attributes the lack of interest by others
to very specific reasons. In the c a se of the Carrier-Sekani, sh e believes they saw UNBC a s their

100
university b ec au se it w as so close. For the Gitskan, s h e believes they were too involved in the
Delgamuukw land claims case, while for the Tsim shian. sh e thinks that b ecau se Tsim shian
educators play a central role in the northwest Tribal Council Education Centre, which delivers
education through Simon Fraser University, there w as less interest.^A ccording to Anderson, while
First Nations Studies is not a program th at responds to the n eed s of all of the First Nations, the
N isga'a protocol is a symbol that the University is willing to work with the aspirations of the First
Nations.” ® Anderson adds that most of what the program is doing is through partnerships with the
First Nations who actually deliver the courses in their hom e communities. S he says the protocol
with the Nisga’a is probably the most fully developed example, but First Nations Studies also offers
H aisla language in Kitimat Village, and Tsimshian language in Prince Rupert.” ^ The province
continues to support th ese endeavours and en co u rag es increased activity in regional course
offerings and further work with First Nations communities.” ®
The major restriction on the University's desire to expand on its regional offerings to First
Nations communities, or in First Nations Studies, is financial. Even in the c a se of the N isga'a
protocol, it w as not p asse d until the eleventh hour, th e y ear before the University opened, not
b e c a u se people did not want the Nisga’a to be able to exercise their ownership and control and
deliver education in their communities, but b e cau se people felt that there were not enough
resources.” ® Anderson says there were many "people who cam e in all creative and full of ideas and
things they wanted to do, who inevitably found that there w eren't enough resources to do w hat they
felt w as absolutely essential and crucial to their own particular a re a of interest, and who therefore,
just simply didn’t place a s high a priority on things like the ag reem en t with the Nisga’as."'®° In the
end, th e University committed $375,000 to the WWN in e ach year of its operation, but costs
increased in relation to the number of students from approximately $600,000 in 1994/95 to over
$600,000 in 1995/96 and it w as predicted that the program would require over $700,000 in
1996/97.^^’ Fortunately, in addition to the money provided by the University, the WWN receives
$250,000 from the provincial Ministry of Education, Skills an d Training through Nisga’a Economic

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Enterprises In c ./^ th e Federal governm ents Indian Studies Support Program (ISSP) provides som e
funding, along with the Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs and Northwest Community College/^^
N onetheless, UNBC is in the process of exploring the possibility of affiliation with th e WWN a s an
autonom ous. Aboriginal post-secondary institution so that it can be funded under th e term s and
conditions of the British Columbia govemment policy for Aboriginal Post-Secondary Institutions, and
this is the model that the University hopes to use for any further work with com munity-based
accredited facilities/^'*
First Nations Studies itself is funded through the University's b ase budget. Yet, according to
Anderson, one of the problems that aro se w as people saying, the Indians can raise money
separately for that, or th e govemment will give us m oney for that, leading som e people to believe
th at it did not need to be a part of the b ase budget.*^ Anderson says there is no large pool of
m oney se t aside in the Federal govemment for First Nations education that universities can access.
S h e say s m ost of the money is in the ISSP and that is largely sen t to First Nations-controlled
institutions, so the Nisga'a get some, but the University does not. She says a very small proportion
g oes to British Columbia relative to the percentage of people from British Columbia who are of First
Nations descent.*^^ S he adds that the large am ount that goes to the SIFC w as intended a s a one
time, or se e d money grant, but that the College would like that to becom e b ase funding, while the
other Nations that do not have any degree of control over the SIFC resist, demanding that their own
institutions be given their share of the funds.*^^ In the federal context, sh e says funding is mostly
for pilot projects, or short term funding, not b a se budget.*“ In the provincial context, a s in Alberta,
it is felt that First Nations are a federal responsibility, and therefore the province h as resisted
targeting funding to First Nations directly, and their funding all goes through institutions, like colleges
and universities.*^ The province has se t among its objectives, "the securing of Federal Govemm ent
com m itm ent to maintain financial contributions for post-secondary education and training for
Aboriginal people."*”
Yet, recently the provincial govem m ent has taken a stronger position on education for First

102
Nations. A draft of the new policy framework for the Ministry of Education, Skills and Training states,
"Funding will be provided to projects, on a matching dollar basis, that create opportunities for
Aboriginal learners to participate in bridging or transition programs..."’^’ In addition, the policy
indicates that institutions will be required to dem onstrate a commitment to increasing acc e ss for
Aboriginal people by allocating resources within the institution's b a se budget.^^^ Although this will
not increase the provincial budget allocation to the University, it should benefit First Nations Studies
by ensuring th at the program is given its share of the base budget. In the m ost recent budget
allocation, the Ministry requested that UNBC apply $700,000 of the 1996-97 funding to develop
innovative and cost effective approaches to regional. Aboriginal and other identified institutional
priorities including expanded service to First Nations in northem British Columbia.'” Several First
Nations and Aboriginal organizations have also stated they would be willing to look at providing their
own funding for First Nations Studies program development and delivery, should the province fail
to do so. Som e exam ples include the N isga'a contribution through the WWN, the Prince George
Native Leaming Centre has indicated that it would fund Cree courses, the Tsimshian Tribal Council
h as funded culture courses, and the CSTC has provided logistic support, which has a significant but
hidden funding c o st.'^ UNBC h as also sought extemal financial support for activities such a s the
i

introduction of the Northem A dvancem ent Program and a First Nations Co-operative Work Program,
but the University has m ade a verbal commitment that the programs will continue after a two or three
year pilot phase subject to a favourable program evaluation.'”
Nonetheless, according to Jim McDonald, current Chair of First Nations Studies, reductions in
th e budget, have translated into less money for community-oriented travel, both going out to the
communities and bringing people from the communities into the classroom , and a d ecre a se in the
num ber of sessionals in the program .'” In general, McDonald feels that First Nations Studies has
had relatively more cuts than other departm ents which prevent the program from doing som e of the
things that were originally intended and that he feels the program should be doing.'”

Both

Anderson and McDonald point out that the program was intended to have many more faculty than

103
it ended up with. According to Anderson, when sh e first arrived sh e w as told to draft a hiring plan
for eight people.’^

Today the program h as only three and a half. Both feel th at not enough

resources have been provided to build th e program, but they also recognize that this Is In the context
of th e University experiencing cutbacks generally.’^ This Is reflected In the req u est to the First
Nations T a sk Force Committee to develop "an ambitious strategy th at reflects the financial
constraints under which the university currently operates."’^
As the n ew est of the universities exam ined, UNBC has the furthest to go In meeting Its
com m itm ent to the Aboriginal community. Nevertheless, It has the foundations of a strong First
Nations Studies program In place a s well a s a separate Office of First Nations Programming. With
the implementation of Its Northem Advancem ent Program, recruitment and retention of First Nations
students should Improve. With Aboriginal co-instructors gaining the qualifications n eed ed to take
over providing courses. First Nations Studies will soon Increase Its Aboriginal representation on
faculty. With First Nations representation assured on Its regional advisory com m ittees. Board of
Govem ors and the Senate, a s well a s a S enate Standing Committee on First Nations In place and
plans to en su re First Nations representation on many more com m ittees, UNBC will soon have
Native people on all of its governing bodies. The WWN represents th e willingness of UNBC to
reach out to the community, and the University's m andate to serve First Nations throughout the north
is further met by its activities In other communities. Financially, the new university struggles and this
translates into limited resources for First Nations Studies, but the willingness of the University to
fulfill its m andate to the First Nations Is dem onstrated by Its motto, 'En c h a Huna', a saying of Carrier
Elders, with a direct translation h e/sh e h a s life'. The saying would b e used by an Elder when
reminding somebody, critical of another, that the person was a living being, with a voice and a view
point. The motto encapsulates much of the spirit of academ ic freedom, of resp ect for others, and
the willingness to recognize different perspectives.’^’

104

CONCLUSION

Among the com ponents which differentiate th ese four programs are the tim es they were
established, their location, and their structure. Trent encountered few obstacles in establishing its
program in 1969 during a period of protest by Native activists and revolution within the academ y.
The President of the University, who w as familiar with Native issues, through his involvement with
the Indian-Eskimo Association, supported the efforts of many well-intentioned academ ics who
wanted to do something about the "Indian problem*. The result w as the creation of Indian-Eskimo
Studies which, a s a part of the Anthropology Department, allowed for a conservative "solution*. The
federal governm ents W hite P ap er of 1969, with its plan to transfer control over education to the
provinces, received an angry response from the First Nations and was soon withdrawn, but it led
the Federation of Saskatchew an Indians to formulate an ambitious plan to establish a Nativecontrolled college affiliated with a university. The established university in the province was
unwilling to take a ch an ce with such an innovative proposal, and the FSI w as forced to turn to the
newer, more receptive University of Regina with a supportive President like his counterpart a t Trent.
Yet, it was difficult to find a niche for the SIFC because, as a degree-granting college administered
by a Native organization, it neither fit neatly into the departmental mold of preceding Native Studies
programs, nor could it be classified am ong the Native colleges offering diplomas and certificates.
The two newer Native Studies programs examined both faced their own obstacles. Establishing
a Native Studies program a t the University of Alberta required overcoming the m ost impediments.
As one of the oldest universities in C anada, the University of Alberta w as decidedly conservative
and, in the 1970s, when the suggestion of a Native Studies program was first raised, w as reluctant
to rush into establishing a relatively untested program. Intemal and extem al politics, along with
multiple layers of bureaucracy and an atm osphere of muted racism in the University and the
province, undermined the urgency of the situation and prolonged the establishm ent of a Native
S tudies program for fourteen years. W hen the University finally did recognize the need for a
program, the desire of the Native community for a college similar to the SIFC w as challenged by

105
conservative m em bers of the academ ic community who recommended a departm ent within the
Faculty of Arts and Science similar to that which had eventually em erged a t Trent. A compromise
w as reached, and the School of Native Studies was established with autonomy similar to a Faculty,
but a Director rather than a Dean. Finally, it w as not difficult to convince the public and later the
early adm inistrators a t UNBC of the importance of having a First Nations Studies Program a t the
new university situated among many Native communities. In the late 1980s, Native Studies had also
been accepted within academ ia a s a respected discipline, and the provincial govem m ent had postsecondary education for Native leam ers high on its agenda, leading UNBC to incorporate a program
into its initial plans. But, in an e ra of financial restraint and fear of cutbacks, the new est university
in C anada, and one of the smallest, w as reluctant to be too ambitious in its planning, and thus
desig n ed neither a Department, a College, nor a School, but rather a Program of First Nations
Studies.
Although the influences and structures of the programs differ, these aspects have little affect on
the su c c e ss of the programs. The key factor which determines the su c c e ss of a Native Studies
program is the ability of the institution to respond to the needs and desires of the First Nations.
Within the four programs examined, ch an g es to the curriculum to incorporate cultural and applied
courses have been in response to the interests of the Native community. Altering hiring practises
to allow Elders and other Natives without PhDs to teach has been another effort to respond to
Native constituents. Attracting Native students to post-secondary institutions h a s also required the
institutions in question to make changes, including the provision of bridging program s and the
implementation of affirmative action policies. Finally, meeting the needs of Native people has
required First Nations representation throughout the institutions’ governing structures.
T he ch an g es to the curriculum of Native Studies is characteristic of all of the programs
examined. In the late sixties and early seventies, administrators of Native Studies programs allowed
their course offerings to be dictated by academ ics from the more established disciplines. Thus, the
programs initially focused on developing traditional academ ic courses b ecau se it w as considered

106
politically unwise to reject th e expectations and demands of the universify. The result w as a Native
Studies curriculum b ased on traditional courses such a s Anthropology and History which focused
on Native peoples. It w as only later th at Native Studies began to shift its attention to its Native
constituents who were dem anding that cultural courses be provided to reflect their concern with the
decreasing use of Native languages. By the late seventies, cultural courses had becom e accepted
a s legitimate and there w as less need to prove the academ ic integrity of the program by focusing
on offering traditional academ ic courses. At the sam e time, Arts and Science Faculties acro ss
C an ad a were experiencing declining enrolment as students began to dem and applied co u rse s to
prepare them for the job market. Native Studies responded by offering practicums, field research
and co u rses in Business, Administration, Negotiation Strategies, etc. Today, each of the Native
Studies program s studied try to balance academic, cultural and applied course offerings.
With the introduction of culture to the curriculum, the need for appropriate conveyors of culture
also em erged.

As a result, each of the universities exam ined have Elders acting a s cultural

advisors, either within the Native Studies programs or through Native student services facilities.
Trent w as the first in the mid seventies to introduce both a resident Elder and a Native counsellor.
At that time, there w as so m e scepticism a s to the effectiveness of either, and it w as a struggle to
fund the positions. N evertheless, the importance of having Elders to work with staff and students
w as recognized by succeeding program s, and SIFC began in 1976 with Resident Elders in place,
and their num bers and involvement have only increased over time.
In the planning sta g e s of the University of Alberta and the University of Northem British
Columbia, the involvement of Elders w as considered a requirem ent for student s u c c e ss an d a
requirem ent for credibility within the Native community. In 1991, the C anadian Journal of Native
Education w as able to report that in the c ase of universities with Native Studies, "..elders are usually
Involved in som e consultative role in shaping the priorities and ethos of the institution, an d are
generally regarded a s the culture-bearers with regard to the practice and transmission of traditional
values, beliefs, knowledge, skills, and customs."^ The acceptance of Elders a s a n ecessary part

107

of any Native Studies programs has m eant that the four program s examined are fairly equal a t this
level.
While Native Studies programs have been involving Elders a s counsellors and g u est lecturers
since the early seventies, hiring Native faculty to teach in the programs w as not a s e a sy to
accomplish. It w as the general consensus that "far too few Native students have contact with Native
faculty who are attuned to their culture and who can serve a s models of educational achievement."^
Unfortunately, there were few Natives with advanced d eg rees available in the seventies, and in the
early days at Trent, a faculty m em ber indicated that "times w ere such that you still had to have paper
qualifications..and you w ere running a considerable risk if you m ade appointm ents without th ese
qualifications."^ Nonetheless, it w as soon recognized that instructors in the a re a of language would
lack the academ ic credentials normally associated with regular university appointments. Therefore,
Native language instructors were hired at Trent a s "special sessional lecturers". W hen the SIFC
em erg ed on the sc e n e in 1976, standards were still an issue, but there continued to b e very few
Native scholars available. Nevertheless, the SIFC had the m ost su ccess in attracting Native faculty
with PhDs and w as able to require that faculty have the minimum of a B.A. and staff who could not
I

m eet those stan d ard s acted a s classroom resource people, but did not have faculty status. Even

II

today, in the a re a of language, although in many c a s e s the c la s se s are taught by Elders, they are

I

given neither academ ic rank nor recognized a s faculty unless they have a B.A. Clearly the SIFC

3

d o es not w ant the academ ic integrity of its programs questioned.

1I

I

Newer program s have experienced the greatest difficulty in attracting Natives with advanced
degrees. The School of Native Studies a t the University of Alberta recognizes that th ese people are
much in dem and and, a s a result, gives appointments to Aboriginal candidates without PhDs and
encourages them to pursue professional development, while in the area of language, tenured faculty
have b een hired without any degrees. Overall, the School of Native Studies h as not had the
su c c e ss of the SIFC in attracting Native instructors with traditional academ ic credentials, and the
sa m e can be said of UNBC.

As a result, UNBC h as also used Natives without academ ic

108

qualifications through a series of appointments on the co-instructional model, with plans to
eventually shift instruction more fully to the First Nations co-instructor. Among the program s
exam ined, the SIFC h as b een the m ost successful a t attracting Native scholars with advanced
degrees, while Trent h as gone the furthest to accept Native faculty with alternative qualifications by
articulating a s e t of criteria in the 1990s for the academ ic appointm ent of Elders, recognizing their
traditional/indigenous knowledge and using other Elders a s their peer group in assessm en t. For
each of the program s, every effort is being m ade to balance First Nations teaching with university
requirem ents.
Representation of Native students in Native Studies programs is a s important a s Native faculty
representation, but equally important h as been the need to attract Native students to universities
in general. Offering a Native Studies program is se e n a s a way of making universities more
attractive to Native students by demonstrating that the place of Native people in academ ia is not
simply a s objects of study, that Native issues have som e pride of place, and that Native people are
welcom e. Although the program s have had som e su ccess in attracting more Native students to
universities, First Nations’ enrolment is still not representative of provincial Native populations. The
response by the universities in question has been the introduction of alternative a c c e ss routes for
Native students who may not otherwise m eet the minimum requirements for admission. At Trent,
a Diploma Program w as introduced to prepare students for entrance into the university. At the SIFC,
the University Entrance Program was already in place a t the University of Regina when the College
becam e federated, and at the University of Alberta, a Transition Year Program was also introduced
prior to the opening of the School of Native Studies. Although UNBC functioned for several years
without an alternative a c c e s s route, it plans to introduce the Northem Advancem ent Program in
S eptem ber 1997.
The above initiatives dem onstrate that much h as been done for the First Nations, but reveals
little about the opportunities afforded them to participate in making decisions about their education.
The four institutions exam ined, have each recognized that credibility within the Native community

109

requires involvement of that community, and have thus attem pted to involve First Nations in their
Native Studies programs and throughout their university’s governing bodies. For Trent, it took
several years, with the establishment of a Council of Elders first suggested in the 1970s, resurfacing
in the eighties in a proposal for a Native Community Advisory Council, but only fully implemented
in 1993 when Trent established the Trent Aboriginal Education Council (AEC). Today, the AEC is
the main vehicle for Aboriginal input into the design, development, implementation and evaluation
of programs of study and research. On the contrary, a t SIFC, First Nations have always controlled
the College through the Board of Govem ors consisting of ten elected Chiefs and two sen ato rs of
the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations. In terms of govem ance by First Nations, the SIFC
has b een the m ost successful. According to the current President of the College, Dr. Eber
Hampton, "basic policy decisions are First Nations policy decisions, so that First Nations s e t the
direction for the College.""*
Credibility am ong the First Nations h a s also been important to the new er programs. Like the
SIFC, the School of Native Studies has institutionalized Native representation in its governing body.
The School Council is responsible for academ ic decision-making, and representation on the Council
allows for approximately half of the governing body to be Native. With regard to the institutional
involvement of First Nations, the Office of Native Student Services and the Aboriginal Student
Council en su re that the Native community is included. UNBC learned from the experience of its
predecessors, and solicited input from the Native community from the beginning, initially with First
Nations Consultation Fora, later with a First Nations Task Force and finally with a S en ate Standing
Committee on First Nations. In addition, the University has different Regional Advisory Councils
which include First Nations, a s well as Native se a ts on both the Board of Govemors and the Senate.
Although UNBC has been the least successful in this area, it continues to make every effort to
improve.

Currently, First Nations involvement in Native Studies h as signalled a shift in the

acceptance of cooperative curriculum development a s a model versus an exception^ and hopefully
this accep tan ce will soon transcend all levels of university decision making.

110
C oncom itant with bringing the First Nations community into the universities h as been the
outreach by the universities into the First Nations community. D istance education h a s been
explored by m ost Native Studies program s. Trent is one of the exceptions. Trent h a s limited offcam p u s offerings becau se the University is situated near several First Nations communities, and
can rely on the many other universities in Ontario to reach out to the Native communities outside
of its immediate vicinity. On the other hand, distance education h a s always been an integral part
of SIFC b ecau se, a s an arm of the FSIN, it h as a responsibility to reach out to a s many of
S askatchew an's 72 reserves a s possible. With a second cam pus in S askatoon and an office of
Extension and Northem Operations in Price Albert, the College h a s a p resen ce throughout
Saskatchew an and even offers classes in Manitoba, Alberta and British Columbia making it the m ost
successful of the four programs in this area. Similarly, the School of Native Studies at the Universify
of Alberta offers courses at First Nations Colleges throughout Alberta a s well a s brokering Native
1

Studies courses to non-Aboriginal post-secondary institutions in the province. At UNBC, distance
education is a mandate of the institution a s a whole and First Nations Studies h as b een very active

i
i
<

in this area. The program h as reached out through partnerships with First Nations, allowing them

;

to deliver the courses in their hom e communities, but given the num ber of b ands within its region
an d their widespread locations, UNBC faces a challenge in responding to the n eed s of its many

'

constituents. Each of the programs believes that availing First Nations students of the opportunity

>

to take university credit courses from their own communities has contributed to the increased
participation and su ccess of Native students in post-secondary education.
While First Nations involvement is the key factor in determining the s u c c e ss of any Native
Studies program, limited funding is the major deterrent to achieving su ccess b ecau se it restricts the
ability of the program s to provide the n ecessary elem ents in term s of accessibility, accountability,
and excellence. Not surprisingly, in the a re a of funding, the programs once again differ. As the first,
T rent benefitted from generous donors an d a responsive govemment. With the adoption of the
National Indian Brotherhood's Indian Control of Indian Education in the early seventies, the FSI

111
pressured the federal govemment to put its m oney where Its mouth was, but th e SIFC's dependence
on soft funding from the federal govem m ent m ake It the m ost unstable. The School of Native
S tudies a t the University of Alberta Is a close second, as It struggles to convince the provincial
govem m ent to provide additional funding to the University to finance the School. UNBC, a s the
new est program, emerging In a time of cutbacks to Canadian universities. Is also experiencing
difficulty In getting the funding needed to provide the program that w as Initially envisioned.

The

response of the various govemments to funding Issues have been predictably contradictory. Both
UNBC and Trent have the advantage of provincial govemments which support efforts to Increase
Native enrollment In post-secondary education, but only In the latter c a s e did this translate Into
Increased funding.

In general, despite the verbal support for efforts to Increase educational

opportunities for the First Nations, the financing of Native Studies program s Is the c a u se of debate
betw een the federal and provincial govem m ents.

The federal govem m ent Insists that the

responsibility for the post-secondary education of Natives resides with the province through
legislation regarding public post-secondary education and training.^ The provinces have tended to
respond with their own position that they are not responsible for Native education b ecau se Natives
are a federal responsibility. In the end, universities are pressured to u se money from their base
budgets to support Native Studies program s without necessarily receiving supplem ents to that
budget. In times of financial restraint and cutbacks throughout universities, this places Native
S tudies program s In a precarious position. As for outside sources, Trent has been the most
successful In procuring endowm ents and grants, while the other program s attribute only a small
portion of their funding to th ese sources. Thus, m ost Native Studies program s struggle on with
insufficient funding and uncertainty a s to their financial futures.
T he future was equally uncertain In 1972, when the Indian Control of Indian Education policy
p aper of the National Indian Brotherhood recomm ended the Introduction of Indian Studies programs.
Aboriginal language courses. Native professors and counsellors, flexible entrance requirements,
and representation on goveming bodies of Institutions of higher leaming.^ Yet, today It appears that

112
th ese recom m endations have finally com e to fruition.

Each of the Native Studies programs

exam ined have had unique experiences b ased on the times they w ere established, their location,
and th e structure of their programs, yet they have all com e to recognize the im portance of First
Nations involvement to ensure accessibility, accountability, and excellence. C anadian universities
are gradually realizing that to be a fully credible institution within Native communities, mainstream
society, an d the university a t large, in term s of both W estem academ ic and traditional Native
knowledge system s, it is critical that they not se e credibility in one of th ese areas a s more important
than another.^ In the c ase of Native Studies, Canadian universities are no longer the "germ-free
sterilized environment" that Harold Cardinal identified in the late sixties.^ Evidence of the changes
to the previously elitist institutions is apparent in the attem pts by Native Studies program s to make
university education accessible to Native students through transition year program s and affirmative
action. In addition. Native Studies involves m em bers of the Native community in the developm ent
and delivery of programs through recognition of indigenous knowledge a s equivalent to academ ic
credentials, or the hiring of First Nations a s instructors and co-instructors.

By requiring

representation of First Nations on Boards of Govemors, Senates, Councils and Committees,
universities are also making First Nations an integral part of post-secondary education and
discontinuing what Foucault term s "the indignity of speaking for others."’® Aside from welcoming
the Native community into the university, the university is also reaching out to the communities by
offering distance education courses and collaborating with local agencies to offer programs.
According to Paul Axelrod and John Reid, "Those who se e the university a s merely an ivory tower,
som ehow levitating above the hard realities of Canadian society, will be surprised a t how directly
and powerfully the world h as impinged upon university life."”

It is hoped that this study

dem onstrates that Native Studies programs are attempting to respond to the needs of First Nations
com m unities and descending from the ivory tower.

NOTE TO USERS

P ag e(s) m issin g in n u m b er only; tex t follow s. P ag e(s) w ere
m icrofilm ed a s received.

113

This rep ro d u ctio n is th e b e s t co p y available.

UMI*

114
ENDNOTES

Introduction
’ E ugene Leitka, “A Study of Effectiveness of Existing Native American Studies
Program s In S elected Universities and Colleges", Doctoral dissertation, New Mexico S tate
University (1973), p. 11.
^ Jo-ann Archibald and S h een a Selkirk Bowman, eds., C anadian Joum al of Native
Education Vol. 21, No. 1 (1995), p. 166.
^ Eber Hampton, Towards a Redefinition of Indian Education (Vancouver: UBC Press,
1995), p. 25.
University of Regina, Council Minutes, Appendix VIII (May 17, 1976), p. 1.
®Robert M. Peregoy, T h e Role of University Native American Studies Program s in
Facilitating Tribal Educational and Economic Development: Problem s and Prospects for the
1980s", Spring C onference on Contem porary American Indian Issues (4th), American Indian
Issues in Higher Education (Los Angeles: University of California, 1980), p. 37.
®John A. Price, Native Studies: American and C anadian Indians (Toronto: McGraw-Hill
Ryerson Ltd., 1978), p. viii.
I
i
j

^ W. Roger Buffalohead, "Native American Studies Program s:Review and Evaluation",
Indian Voices: T h e First Convocation of American Indian Scholars (San Francisco: The Indian
Historian P ress, 1970), p. 162.

I
®Mike G. Charleston. Tradition and Education: Towards a Vision of Our Future. Vol. 2,
I (Assembly of First Nations, 1988), p. 81.
I

®Patrick C. Morris, "Native American Studies; A Personal Overview", Wicazo S a
Review. Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 9-16 (Fall 1986), p. 10.

I

R oxanne D unbar Ortiz, "Developing Indian Academic Professionals", W icazo S a
Review. Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 5-10 (Spring 1985), p. 6.

I

I

i
” Clara S u e Kidwell, "Native American Studies: Academ ic C oncerns and Community
: Service" American Indian Culture and R esearch Journal. Vol. 2. No. 3 & 4 (Los Angeles:
I University of California, 1978), p. 8.
i
1

Russell Thornton, "American Indian Studies a s an Academic Discipline", American
Indian Culture and R esearch Journal. Vol. 2. No. 3 & 4 (Los Angeles: University of California,
1978), p. 14.

Vine Deloria Jr., “Indian S tudies-O rphan of Academia", W icazo S a Review. Vol. 2, No.
I 2, p. 1-7 (Fall 1986), p. 3.
Arthur W. Blue, “Reflections on the Direction of Native Studies Departments in
I C anadian Universities", Canadian Joum al of Native Studies. Vol. 1, No. 1, (1981), p. 181.
I

Price, p. 3.
Price, p. 14.
Don McCaskill, “Native Economic Development and Small B usiness M anagem ent
C ourse: An Experimental Partnership Between a Native Association and a University",
C anadian Journal of Native Studies, vol. 3. No. 2. (19831. p. 377.
Eber Hampton a s quoted by Sheila Te H ennepe, "Issues of R espect: Reflections of

115
First Nations S tudents' Experiences in Postsecondary Anthropoioav Classrooms". Canadian
Journal of Native Education Vol. 20, No. 2, (1993), p. 198.
rRonald
t w l l O i U N.
I %» IMcGlvern,
VI
V w l 1 1 | "Communities
I I I I l U i l l i l w O wof
l L Learners:
»w C il I I d 0 »
/V
i u u y wof
l
Ao study
Models of Brokerage and
Affiliation betw een Native Organizations and Public P ost Secondary
Institutes", A Report
Report'
'nstitutes",
prepared for the Joint Steering Committee of Secw epem c Cultural Ed ucation Society
'
and Simon
F raser University (May 1990), p. 5.

Charlotte Heth, and S u sa n Guyette, Issues for the Future of American Indian Studies:
A N eeds A ssessm ent and Program Guide. (Los Angeles: American Indian Studies Centre,
UCLA, 1985), p. 66.
Stuart L. Smith. Commission of Inouirv on Canadian University Education. (Ottawa:
Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 1991), p. 84.
“ National Archives of C anada, Indian Eskimo Education, RG 22-1, Vol. 324, File No. 4010-7. Dr. E.R. Daniels, Chief, Education and Cultural Development DIAND, Universitv-Level
Education for Indian People (Ottawa: 1976), p. 33.
Smith, p. 86.
Heth and Guyette, p. 63.
Daniels, p. 10.
National Archives of C anada, Indian Eskimo Education, RG 22-1, Vo.. 324, File No.
40-10-7. Andrew B ear Robe, “Native People Lookiriq to the Future: A survey of Indian and
Metis Statem ents of Opinion and Policy Relating to Education in General" (Decem ber 15,1977),
p. 63.
Heth and Guyette, p. 65.
Archibald and Selkirk Bowman, p. 154.
“ W ayne J. Stein, Tribaljy Controlled Colleges: Making Good Medicine (New York:
P eter Lang Publishing Inc., 1992), p. 153.
J. A. Corry, Farewell the Ivory Tower: Universities in Transition (Montreal and London:
I McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1970).
I
Lawrence Stone, ed.. T he University in Society (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
i P ress, 1974).
i
]
S.E.D. Shortt, The Search for an Ideal: Six Canadian Intellectuals and their
1 convictions in an ag e of transition. 1890-1930 (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press,
I 1976).
I

A.B. McKillop, A Disciplined Intelligence: Critical Inquiry and C anadian thought in the
Victoria Era (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1979).
^^Cyril Levitt, Children of Privilege: Student Revolt in the Sixties (Toronto, Buffalo,
London: University of Toronto P ress, 1984).
Paul Axelrod and John Reid, eds.. Youth. UniversiN and Canadian Society: E ssavs in
the Social History of Higher Education. (Kingston, Montreal, London: McGill-Queen s University
P ress, 1989), p. xi.
1988).

Roy Lowe, Education in the Post-W ar Years: A Social History (London: Routledge,

116
Clark Kerr, Troubled Tim es for American Higher Education: The 1990s and Bevond
(Albany: S tate University of New York Press, 1994).
^ Archibald and Selkirk Bowman, p. 181.
Charleston, p. 18.
Charleston, p. 20.
Archibald and Selkirk Bowman, p. 134.
Archibald and Selkirk Bowman, p. 174.
^ Archibald and Selkirk Bowman, p. 173.
American Indian Culture and R esearch Journal. University of California, Los Angeles,
Vol. 2, No. 3 & 4, 1978.
Heth and Guyette.
Stein.
Norman T. Oppelt, The Tribally Controlled Indian Colleges: The Beginnings of SelfDetermination in Amencan Indian Education fTsaile. Arizona: Navajo Community College Press.
1990).
48

Leitka.

John A. Price, “R ecent Shifts in Native Studies Program s and Joum als from Practical
Issues to the Arts and Humanities”, Canadian Journal of Native Studies. Vol. 2, No. 2,1982.
50

Price.

National Indian Brotherhood, Indian Control of Indian Education. Policy Paper
presented to the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, D ecem ber 21,1972.
^ Charleston.
“ Smith.
C hapter O ne
’ M.J. Castellano and D.N. McCaskill. Native Studies: An Emerging Discipline fTrent
University, Peterborough, Ontario, May, 1979), p. 7.
^ National Archives of C anada, Indian Education General Ontario, RG 10-104,25-1.
D epartm ent of Indian Affairs and Northem Development (Regional Directorate Ontario) "Native
Studies Programme, Trent University, Evaluation", (Markham, Ontario: McKenzie-Sanders
Communications Limited, May 12, 1981), p. 2.
^ A.O.C. Cole, Trent: The Making of a Universitv 1957-1987 (Peterborough: Trent
University Communications Department, 1992), p. 122.
“ Trent University Archives, File No. 81-007, Interview 5, C assette 6. "Kenneth Kidd,
Professor of Anthropology at Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, personal inten/iew with
Mary Anne Haney", (March 21, 1980).
®Harvey McCue, A ssociate Professor at Trent University from 1969 to 1983, Ottawa,
Ontario, personal interview, O ctober 6, 1996.

117

®McCue Interview.
^ McCue Interview.
®Kidd Interview.
®Marlene Castellano, retired Professor from Trent University, Tyendinaga, Indian
R eserve No. 38, Mohawk Territory, Ontario, personal interview, A ugust 28,1996.
Trent University, S en ate Minutes, (Thursday March 2 0 ,1969), p. 11.
” McCue Interview.
Castellano Interview.
Cole, p. 123.
Kidd Interview.
Kidd Interview.
Kidd Interview.
Cole, p. 122.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "Departm ent of Native Studies Review, Departmental Brief ", (November 24,1980), p. 8.
Ibid., p. 8.
20 David Newhouse, Chair of the Native Studies Departm ent a t Trent University,
Peterborough, Ontario, personal interview, August 20,1996.
Castellano and McCaskill, p. 20.
^ Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. “D epartm ent of Native Studies Review, Departmental Brief ", (November 24,1980), p. 10.
^ C astellano Interview.
McCue Interview.
Castellano Interview.
Castellano and McCaskill, p. 17.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "Report to J.W . McConnel Foundation Incorporated on Applied Community Programme
of the D epartm ent of Native Studies", p. 5.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "Report on Native Counsellor Services, Department of Native Studies, Trent University,
1977-1978", p. 3.
Ibid., p. 1.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "M.J. Castellano, Notes re: Native Counselling Services", (July 18, 1978).
Trent University Archives, File No. 80-030. "Letter to Dr. G eorge Korey, Chairman,

118
Ontario Advisory Council on Multiculturalism, from T.E.W. Nind, President and Vice-Chancellor
of T rent University", (June 24,1976), p. 2.
Kidd Interview.
“ C astellano Interview.
^ Castellano Interview.
N ew house Interview.
N ew house Interview.
Trent University, S en a te Minutes. “Comprehensive Plan on Aboriginal Education for
Trent University", Exhibit 4, p. 7.
Ibid., p. 5.
C astellano Interview.
N ew house Interview.
Castellano and McCaskill, p. 1.
N ew house Interview.
N ew house Interview.
** Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "1972/73 Native Studies Brochure", Applied Community Program m es, p. 4.
McCue Interview.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File from President Theall's Office.
"Departm ent of Native Studies Brief on Support Services for Native Students", (1974), p. 11.
Ibid., p. 11.
Cole, p. 124.
49

Ibid., p. 124.

50

N ew house Interview /T rent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from
P resident Stubbs' Office. “Brief to Trent University, Department of Native Studies", (June, 1981),
p. 2.
Trent University Archives, File No. 80-013. "Letter from J R. Kidd, Department of Adult
Education, The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education to Professor J. Couture, Chairman,
D epartm ent of Native Studies, Trent University", (January 9,1978).
McCue Interview.
“ Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "Letter from Donald S. Rickerd, President, Donner C anadian Foundation to Professor
Ian D. C hapm an, D epartm ent of Administration and Policy Studies, Trent University", (August
2 2 , 1 9 8 0 ).
^ V »
^ Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "A Proposal for an Institute for Native Training, R esearch and Development at Trent
University", (January 1983), p. 1.

119
“ Ibid., p. 2.
Cole, 125.
^ Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs’
Office. “An Outline for a program in Native M anagement and Administration", (December 1980).
i

McCue Interview / Castellano Interview / Kidd Interview.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
; Office. "1972 Native Studies Brochure", p. 1.
;

GO Cole, p. 122.

I

Gi Trent University, S en ate Minutes,(May 24,1974), p. 6.

I

I

G2 Trent University, S enate Minutes."Academic Development Committee, 6.1 Native
Studies", (D ecem ber 16,1971), p. 4.
63

Castellano Interview.

^ National Archives of C anada, Indian Education General Ontario, RG 10-104,401/25-1.
"Letter to Mr. D. Cooke, M.P. from Bette Stephenson, M.D. Minister of Colleges and Universities,
Ontario", (July 9, 1979).
GGTrent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs’
Office. "Department of Native Studies Review, Departmental Brief ", (November 24,1980), p.
10 .
GGTrent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. Richard J. Preston, "Program Review: Department of Native Studies, Trent University ”,
(Decem ber 18, 1980), p. 2.
G^ Kidd Interview.
GGMcCue Interview.
GGMcCue Interview.
Kidd Interview.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs’
Office. Richard J. Preston, "Program Review: Department of Native Studies, Trent University ”,
(Decem ber 18, 1980), p. 2.
'G Kidd Interview.
Kidd Interview.
Kidd Interview.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs’
Office. "D epartm ent of Native Studies Review, Departmental Brief ", (November 24,1980), p. 9.
^GM cCue Interview.
^ Kidd Interview.
^GM cCue Interview.

120
N ew house Interview.
®° Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "D epartm ent of Native Studies Review, Departmental Brief", (November 24,1980), p.
20.
C astellano Interview.
N ew house Interview.
“ Kidd Interview.
Cole, p. 122.
C astellano Interview.
M cCue Interview.
M cCue Interview.
M cCue Interview.
Trent University Archives, File No. 80-030. "Kidd report from Working Group on Indian
Studies", p. 2.
Ibid, p. 2.
Trent University Archives, File No. 80-030. "Letter from Kenneth Kidd, Chairman of the
Working Group on Indian Studies, to Tom Symons, P resident and Vice Chancellor of Trent
University", (March 20,1969).
M cCue Interview.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "Brief to Trent University, "Native Community Advisory Council", Departm ent of Native
Studies", (June, 1981), p. 2.
Ibid., p. 2.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File from President Theall's Office.
"Department of Native Studies Brief on Support Services for Native Students" (1974), p. 10.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. Richard J. Preston, "Program Review: D epartm ent of Native Studies, Trent University ",
(December 18, 1980), p. 11.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File from President Theall's Office.
"Department of Native Studies Brief on Support Services for Native Students" (1974), p. 13.
Ibid., p. 22.
== ibid., p. 15.
A lexander Lockhart and Don McCaskill, T o w ard an Integrated, Community-Based,
Partnership Model of Native Development and Training: A C ase Study in P rocess” in Canadian
Journal of Native Studies (Vol. 6, No. 1,1986), p. 171.
C astellano Interview.
Lockhart an d McCaskill, p. 166.

121

T rent University, S en ate Minutes, (D ecem ber 14,1993), p. 2.
T rent University, Departm ent of Native Studies. "Proposed Board and S enate
Resolution concerning the Trent Aboriginal Education Council revised: O ctober 13,1993", p. 4.
N ew house Interview.
T rent University, D epartm ent of Native Studies. "Proposed Board and S enate
Resolution concerning the Trent Aboriginal Education Council, revised: O ctober 13,1993", pp.
1- 2 .

Kidd Interview.
M cCue Interview.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File from President Theall's Office.
"Department of Native Studies Brief on Support Services for Native Students" (1974), p. 5.
M cCue Interview.
Kidd Interview.
Trent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File from President Theall's Office.
"Department of Native Studies Brief on Support Services for Native Students" (1974), p. 4. /
Castellano an d McCaskill, p. 11.
Cole, p. 124.
C astellano Interview.
Cole, p. 124.
DIAND, p. 9.
N ew house Interview.
N ew house Interview.
T rent University Archives, File No. 80-026. "Letter from President and ViceChancellor T.E.W. Nind, to The Honourable J. H. Faulkner, M.P., Minister of Indian and Northern
Affairs", (July 20, 1978).
C astellano Interview.
C astellano Interview.
C astellano Interview.
T rent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'
Office. "Trent University, Native Studies Department", (November 1986).
T rent University, S en ate Minutes, (D ecem ber 14,1993).
T rent University, S en ate Minutes, (April 7, 1992), p. 3.
’26 C astellano Interview.
N ew house Interview.
T rent University Archives, RG 1- Native Studies File 1 of 4 from President Stubbs'

122
Office. "Department of Native Studies Review, Departmental Brief ", (November 24,1980), p. 3.
Castellano Interview.
C hapter Two
’ Federation of Saskatchew an Indians, Indian Education in Saskatchew an.Volume II,
(Saskatoon: Saskatchew an Indian Cultural College, 1973), p. 89.
^National Indian Brotherhood, Indian Control of Indian Education. Policy Paper
presented to the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northem Development (D ecem ber 21,1972), p.
24.

^ Federation of Saskatchew an Indians, Local Control of Indian Education in
S ask atch ew an . (February 1975), p. 2.
Mike G. Charleston, Assembly of First Nations, Tradition and Education: Towards a
Vision of O ur Future.Volume 2 (1988), p. 63.
=lbid., p. 69.
^ Lloyd Barber, President of the University of Regina 1976-1990, Regina, Saskatchew an,
personal Interview, July 25, 1996.
^ Eber Hampton, Current President of the Saskatchewan Indian F ederated College,
Regina, Saskatchew an, July 31, 1996.
° Professor Blair Stonechild, Executive Director, Planning and Development,
Saskatchew an Indian F ederated College, written response to interview questions, August 27,
1996.
®Charleston, p. 67.
Ja m e s D e m p s ^ , former Professor a t the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College,
Saskatoon Campus, 1987-1992, Edmonton, Alberta, personal interview, July 16,1996.
" Barber Interview.
University of Regina Archives, File No. 90-29. "How the Saskatchew an Federated
Indian College Came to be", Lloyd Barber notes for Fall 1977 lecture series.
Federation of Saskatchew an Indians, Local Control of Indian Education in
S ask atch ew an . (February 1975), pp. 197, 208 / Stonechild Interview.
Barber Interview.
Barber Interview.
B arber Interview.
B arber Interview.
University of Regina Archives, File No. 90-29. "How the Saskatchew an Federated
Indian College Came to be", Lloyd Barber notes for Fall 1977 lecture series.
B arber Interview.
Barber Interview.
"Indian college lauded", Canadian P ress Clippings Service, Clippings Collection,
University of Regina Archives (February 23,1978).
“ University of Regina, Council Minutes, Appendix VIII (May 17,1976), p. 3.
^ Ibid., p. 3.

123
Dr. Joel Demay, Interview with Dr. Oliver J. B rass "Moving Toward an Indian
University", SIFC Journal. (Vol. 3, No. 1,1987), p. 27.
“ D em psey Interview.
“ Charleston, p. 67.
Barber Interview.
™Barber Interview.
Barber Interview.
University of Regina, Executive of Council Agenda, "Revised Terms for the Federation
A greem ent of the Saskatchew an Indian Federated College and the University of Regina",
Appendix A, (May 16, 1977), p. 3.
T he Leader-Post "SIFC gets first accreditation" (March 29, 1994), p. A3.
SIFC Calendar, 1976, “Nature of Program”
^ SIFC C alendar 1995-97, “Department of Indian Studies”.
^ University of Regina, Council Minutes, (May 17,1976), p. 11.
SIFC C alendar 1976, “C ourses”
SIFC C alendar 1989-90, “Department of Fine Arts"
^^SIFC C alendar 1977, “The Indian Languages Program"
“ SIFC C alendar 1978, “Indian Languages”
SIFC C alendar 1995-97, “Department of Indian Languages, Literatures, and
Linguistics”.
Bill Asikinack, Professor a t the Saskatchew an Indian Federated College 1982-1996,
Regina, Saskatchew an, personal Interview, July 29,1 9 9 6 .
Trent University Archives, File No. 80-026. "Proposal For a C entre For Canadian
Native Art a t Trent University", p. 2.
SIFC C alendar 1995-97, “Department of Indian Fine Arts”
SIFC C alendar 1976, “Nature of Program”
‘"‘Stonechild Interview.
University of Regina C alendar 1993-94, “Indian Studies”
‘®SIFC C alendar 1995-97, “Department of Indian Studies”
Hampton Interview.
‘*®Asikinacklnterview.
SIFC Calendar 1984, “Counselling Services”
“ Charleston, p. 69.
Asikinack Interview.
Stonechild Interview.
“ Ronald N. McGlvern, “Communities of Learners: A study of Models of Brokerage and
Affiliation betw een Native Organizations and Public P o st Secondary Institutes", A Report
prepared for the Joint Steering Committee of Secw epem c Cultural Education Society and Simon
Fraser University (May 1990), p. 21.

124
54

University of Regina, Council Minutes. (May 17,1976), p. 12.

SIFC Archives, File No. 92.13/032. “Development, Research, Planning and
O perations Budget for The Saskatchew an Indian Federated College a t the University of Regina",
(Novem ber 1976), p. 23.
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.12/124. "University of Regina Board of G ovem ors Agenda,
Sum m ary Report to the Board of G ovem ors, University of Regina", (D ecem ber 1 3 ,1977), p. 5.
^ Hampton, Eber and Steven Wolfson, "Education for Self-Determination" in John H.
Hylton (ed.) Aboriginal Self-Government in C anada: Current Trends and Issues. (Saskatoon:
Purich Publishing, 1994), p. 96.
“ Hampton Interview.
SIFC, Office of the President. "The SIFC Facility Proposal", (March 1994), p. 2.
Dem psey Interview.
National Archives of C anada, Saskatchew an Indian Cultural College, RG 6-46, File No.
3270-190/S 106. Federation of Saskatchew an Indians, Indian Education in Saskatchew an.
Volume II, (Saskatoon: Saskatchew an Indian Cultural College, 1973), p. 90.
Hampton Interview.
“ Asikinack Interview.
^ N ew house Interview (see C hapter One).
SIFC C alendar 1981-83, “D istance Education Program”
“ SIFC, Office of the President. The SIFC Facility Proposal (March 1994), p. 2.
Ibid., p. 5.
“ Ibid., p. 2
Will Chabun, "Signings link Indian college to China", The Leader-Post. (Saturday July
14, 1984.
Hampton Interview.
Ken Cuthbertson, "Indian F ederated College lauded by U of R president".T he LeaderPost. (Thursday, O ctober 13,1977) Section 3, p. 29.
SIFC, Archives, File No. 92-13/032. "Development, Research, Planning and
O perations Budget for The Saskatchew an Indian Federated College a t the University of Regina",
(Novem ber 1976), p. 3.
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.12/023. "The SIFC: Its Uniqueness and R elevance a s an
Indian P ost Secondary Educational Institution", (November 21,1984), p. 8.
SIFC 1995-97 Calendar, “University Entrance Program”
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.12/023. "The SIFC: Its Uniqueness and R elevance a s an
Indian P ost Secondary Educational Institution", (November 21,1984), p. 8.
Barber Interview.
^ University of Regina, Executive of Council Agenda. "Revised Term s for th e Federation
A greem ent of the Saskatchew an Indian Federated College and the University of Regina",
Appendix A, (May 16, 1977), p. 3.
Hampton Interview.
Hampton Interview.

125
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.12/023. "The SIFC: Its Uniqueness and R elevance a s an
Indian P o st Secondary Educational Institution", (November 21, 1984), p. 16.
Asikinack Interview.
^ Hampton Interview.
“ Stonechild Interview.
Charleston, p. 67.
“ SIFC Calendar 1984, “SIFC is the F astest Growing College in North America”.
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.22/282. "Briefing Notes for Mr. Dan Goodleaf, Director
G eneral, Saskatchew an Region D epartm ent of Indian and Northem Affairs".
^ SIFC Archives, File No. 92.12/023. "The SIFC: Its Uniqueness and R elevance a s an
Indian P o st Secondary Educational Institution", (November 21, 1984), p. 3.
Charleston, p. 67.
Hampton Interview
^ University of Regina, Executive of Council Agenda. "Revised Term s for the Federation
A greem ent of the Saskatcnew an Indian Federated College and the University of Regina",
Appendix A, (May 16, 1977), p. 3.
Barber Interview.
Hampton Interview.
Hampton Interview.
Asikinack Interview.
Asikinack Interview.
^ Stonechild Interview.
Hampton Interview.
University of Regina, S e n ate Minutes. "Remarks m ade by Chief David Ahenakew,
Federation of Saskatchew an Indians", Appendix II, (May 27, 1976), p. 2.
Charleston (Volume 1), p. 121.
Charleston, p. 63.
SIFC Calendar 1976, “Objectives”
Hampton Interview.
Dr. Joel Demay, p. 28.
Hampton Interview.
Asikinack Interview.
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.13/032. "Development, Research, Planning and
O perations Budget for The S askatchew an Indian Federated College a t the University of Regina",
(November 1976), p. 8.
Stonechild Interview.
SIFC Calendar 1976, “Nature of Program”
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.13/032. "Development, Research, Planning and
O perations Budget for The S askatchew an Indian Federated College at the University of Regina",
(November 1976), p. 1.

126

Charleston, p. 65.
University of Regina. Board of Govem ors Minutes. "A Possible Resolution of Funding
Problems A ssociated with Saskatchew an Indian Federated College", (March 13,1979).
Barber Interview.
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.22/267. "Letter to Chief Albert Bellegarde, FSI from
Gordon MacMurchy, Minister of Municipal Affairs", (March 16, 1979).
Stuart L. Smith, Commission of Inquiry on C anadian Universitv Education (Ottawa:
Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 1991), p. 98.
DIAND Ottawa, Septem ber 21, 1978.
Ibid.
Stonechild Interview.
D em psey Interview.
Charleston, p. 64.
SIFC Archives, File No. 92.22/282. "Briefing Notes for Mr. Dan Goodleaf, Director
General, S askatchew an Region Department of Indian and Northern Affairs."
Charleston, p. 64.
Ibid., p. 64.
’23 SIFC Archives, File No. 92.22/289. "Notes for remarks by the Honourable Bill
McKnight, P.C., M.P., Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development on the Occasion of
the Signing of a Contribution Agreement with the SIFC, Regina, Saskatchewan", (Septem ber 16,
1988).
’2-1 SIFC, Office of the President. "The SIFC Facility Proposal", (March 1994), p. 6.
’2= Ibid., p. 15.
Hampton Interview.
C hapter Three
’ National Archives of C anada, Indian Education General Ontario, RG 10-104, File No.
25-1. "Native Studies Programme, Trent University, Evaluation", (May 12, 1981), p. 13.
^ National Archives of Canada, Indian Eskimo Education, RG 22-1, Vol. 324, File No. 4010-7. "Native People Looking to the Future: A Survey of Indian and Metis Statem ents of
Opinion and Policy Relating to Education in General", (D ecem ber 15, 1977), p. 2.
®University of Alberta, Office of the Schooi of Native Studies. "History of the Proposal",
p. 2.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Proposal for a School of
Native Studies and Expansion of Services Oriented to Native Students at the University of
Alberta, Submitted by: GFC Committee on Native Studies", (February 16,1984).
®Elsie R oss, The Gateway. University of Alberta, Vol. LXII, No. 25 (December 9,1971),
p. 3.
®History of the proposal, p. 1.
^ Proposal, p. i.
®The Universitv of Alberta Native Affairs News. Vol. 1, No. 2 (Edmonton: October 2,
1978).

127
®University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “The S enate of the
University of Alberta, Report of the Task Force on Native Students”, (February 1978), p. 23.
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. T .C . Pocklington, Chairman of the Native Studies
Committee. Annual Report of the GFC Committee on Native Studies, 1981 -82".
” University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “Native Studies
Committee Minutes", (June 2,1983).
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “Native Studies
Commitee, re: Native Studies College Proposal", (May 25,1982), p. 2.
University of Alberta, Executive Minutes. “Proposal for a School of Native Studies, and
for Expansion of Services Oriented to Native Students", (February 6,1984), p. 53.
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. “Proposal for a School of Native Studies, and for
Expansion of Services Oriented to Native Students", (Februay 27,1984), p. 96.
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. “Appendix 'E', GFC Committee on Native Studies,
1977 Year End Report", (April 24,1978), p. 294.
Proposal, p. 28.
Ja m e s Dempsey, current Director of the School of Native Studies, Edmonton, Alberta,
personal interview, July 15,1996.
Richard Price, Director of the School of Native Studies 1986-1992, Edmonton, Alberta,
personal interview, July 17, 1996.
A, an academ ic involved in Native issues a t the University of Alberta for m any years,
Edmonton, Alberta, e-mail response to interview questions, Septem ber 22, 1996.
“ D em psey Interview.
"Together T o d ^ For Our Children Tomorrow", The Universitv of Alberta Native Affairs
News. Vol. 2, No. 4 and 5, Spring and Summer Issue (Edmonton: Ju n e 25,1979).
“ University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Native Studies
Committee Minutes", (March 12,1983), p. 6.
^ A Interview.
A Interview.
Lois Edge, current Aboriginal Student Advisor with Native S tudent Services,
Edmonton, Alberta, personal interview, July 19, 1996.
A Interview.
A Interview.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Native Studies
Committee Minutes", (January 17, 1986), p. 2.
^ Albert Crier, "Native Studies School waits funds". Aboriginal Multi-Media Society of
Alberta. Vol. 3, No. 34 (November 1, 1985), p. 11.
A Interview.
Albert Crier, "U of A to decide on Native College", Alboriqinal Multi-Media Society of
Alberta. Vol. 1, No. 10, (May 20,1983), p. 10.
A Interview.
^ Ja n e Martin, Acting Director of Native Student Services, personal interview, Edmonton,
Alberta, July 17, 1996.

128

^ A Interview.
“ University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies, "inter-department
C orrespondence from Vice-President Academic J. P eter M eekison to Professor Richard Price,
Director of the School of Native Studies, January 10, 1990, re: Funding for the School of Native
S tudies".
D em psey Interview.
Price, Dempsey, an d A interviews.
“ Proposal, p. 10.
D em psey Inten/iew.
Price Inteview.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "President's Advisory
Committee on Curriculum Review (PACCR) Report, University of Alberta", (D ecem ber 1991), p.
16.
'* 2 Proposal, p. 9.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Native Studies
Committee Minutes", (June 2, 1983), p. 6.
Price Interview.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "BA (Native Studies)
Program Sum m ary. Office of the School of Native Studies".
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "BA (Native Studies)
Education an d Employment Objectives".
Proposal, p. 43.
^ D em psey Interview.
"2 University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Native Studies
Committee Minutes", (June 2, 1983), p. 3.
“ Proposal, p. 9.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “ The Report of the T ask
Force on Native Students, University of Alberta, Recomm endation 3.2 and 3.3"", (February
1978), p. 135.
“ PACCR, p. 2.
“ D em psey Interview.
^ PACCR, p. 29.
Price Interview.
Price Interview.
57 Bev Findlay, Administrative A ssistant to the School of Native Studies, Edmonton,
Alberta, personal interview, July 16,1996.
58

D em psey Interview.

59 University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Director's Annual Report
to the President and Vice-Presidents, Planning Docum ent (1990-91), School of Native Studies.
University of Alberta", (May 30, 1991), p. 3.
60
Martin Interview.

129

Martin Interview.
“ University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Inter-departmental
C orrespondence from Richard Price, Director School of Native Studies, to Dr. Diane Kieren,
Assoc. V ice-President (Academic), re: Native Secretariat Concerns with th e School of Native
Studies", (August 10, 1988), p. 3.
Price Interview.
PACCR, p. 6.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “School of Native Studies
Self-Study", (Septem ber 1991), p. 35.
Price Interview.
^ PACCR, p. 5.
Proposal, p. 39.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "R esponse to the PACCR
Unit Review Committee’s Report", p. 2.
Price Interview.
D em psey Interview.
Cora Voyageur, "An Analysis of the Transition Year Program a t th e University of
Alberta, 1985-1992", Thesis for M aster of Education, Edmonton: U of A, (1993) p. 28.
Voyageur, p. 37.
Voyageur, p. 41.
University of Alberta, Office of Native Student Services. "Aboriginal Students
Handbook 1995-96", p. 30.
University of Alberta, Office of Native Student Services. "Transition Year Program:
University A ccess Program for First Year Aboriginal Students", October 1995..
Interview.
Voyageur, p. 6.
Jeannine Laboucane, "U of A Native Studies approved". Aboriginal Multi-Media
Societv of Alberta. Vol. 2, No.4 (April 8,1984), p. 13.
Dem psey Interview.
Proposal, p. i.
^ Proposal, p. i.
^ Proposal, p. 12.
D em psey Interview.
1992 GFC Policy Manual, Section 91, 91.8 Recommendations Arising from the
Quinquennial Review of Quotas.
W arren Ferguson, "Guaranteed place for aboriginal students". T he Gateway
(Edmonton: S eptem ber 12, 1991), p. A3.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "The Report of the Task
Force on Native Students, University of Alberta, Recommendation 4.1", (February 1978), p. 135.
University of Alberta, Office of Native Student Services. "Aboriginal Students
Handbook 1995-96", p. 6.

130
Self-study, p. 17.
“ Ibid., p. 9.
Self-study, p. 54.
Craig Lee, "Native Students doubt schooling". The Gateway (Edmonton; February 5,
1991), p. 1.
“ University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “The Report of the T ask
Force on Native Students, University of Alberta, Roles of Professors and Indian Instructors and
Elders", (February 1978), p. 137.
^ University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "University of Alberta
Native College, Sum m ary Description", p. 11.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "The Report of the T ask
Force on Native Students, University of Alberta, Recommendation 3.2 and 3.3", (February
1978), p. 135.
“ University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "University of Alberta
Native College, Sum m ary Description", p. 16.
W arren Ferguson, "Review of Native Studies program progressing". The G atew ay
(Edmonton: March 1z, 1991), p. 4.
Self-study, p. 64.
Self-study, p. 81.
PACCR, p. 12.
PACCR, p. 12.
R esponse to the PACCR Unit Review Committee's Report, p. 2.
D em psey Interview.
D em psey Interview.
Price Interview.
Findlay Interview.
D em psey an d Price Interviews.
D em psey Interview.
Self-study, p. 8.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “Director's Annual Report
to the President and Vice-Presidents, Planning Document (1990-91), School of Native Studies,
University of Alberta", (May 30,1991), p. 3.
PACCR, p. 11.
D em psey Interview.
Price Interview.
Price Interview.
D em psey Interview.
Proposal, p. 57.
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. Motion II, by Associate Vice-President Allen,
(February 28, 1977), p. 52.

131
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. "Committee on Native Studies: Proposal for
Expanded Composition", (D ecem ber 4,1978), p. 937.
Proposal, p. V.
History of the proposal, p. 3.
^ 2 1 Proposal, p. 31.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "University of Alberta
Native College, Sum m ary Description", p. 16.
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. "Proposal for a School of Native Studies, and for
Expansion of Services Oriented to Native Students , (February 27, 1984), p. 94.
Self-study, p. 24.
'2= PACCR, p. 23.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Inter departmental
C orrespondence from Richard Price, Director School of Native Studies, to Dr. Diane Kieren,
Assoc. V ice-President (Academic), re: Native Secretariat C oncerns with the School of Native
Studies", (August 10, 1988), p. 1.
Price Interview.
Self-study, p. 66.
Self-study, p. 32.
PACCR, p. 4.
A Interview.
132 Proposal, p. 3.
133 Proposal, p. 6.
13-» Proposal, p. 35.
D em psey Interview.
D em psey Interview.
A Interview.
D em psey Interview.
Self-study, p. 38.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. “Report of the Follow-up
Committee T ask Force on Native Students for the S enate of the University of Alberta", (February
1979).
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. "Proposal for a School of Native Studies, and for
Expansion of Services Oriented to Native S tudents', (February 27,1984), p. 97.
’“2 Ibid., p. 97.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Native Studies
Com m ittee M inutes', (D ecem b er2 0,1984), p. 6.
Price Interview.
A Interview.
University of Alberta, GFC Minutes. "BA in Native Studies: Recommendation from
the GFC Academ ic Developm ent Committee (ADC)", (Septem ber 26, 1988), p. 819.

132
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Inter-department
C o rrespondence from Vice-President Academic J. P eter Meekison to Professor Richard Price,
Director of the School of Native Studies. January 10. 1990. re: Fundino for the School of Native
S tu d ies".
--------------------------------Self-study, p. 22.
University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies. "Director's Annual Report
to the P resid en t and Vice-Presidents, Planning Document (1990-91), School of Native Studies,
University of Alberta", (May 30, 1991), p. 3.
Self-study, p. 23.
PACCR, p. 30.
D em psey Interview.
Self-study, p. 18.
D em psey Interview.
D em psey Interview.
PACCR, p. 31.
D em psey Interview.
D em psey Interview.
C hapter Four
^ UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.05/86. "Discussion
P ap er #10, Aboriginal Studies in a New Northem University", p. iii.
^ M argaret Anderson, former Chair of First Nations Studies, personal interview. Prince
G eorge, British Columbia, Novem ber 12,1996.
^ Jim M-Donald, Chair of First Nations Studies, personal interview. Prince G eorge, British
Columbia, D ecem ber 6, 1996.
“ Brown, p. 10.
®Ibid., p. 11.
®Ibid., p. 6.
^ UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.02/45. “A Proposal for
Aboriginal Studies at the University of Northern British Columbia", (Decem ber 10, 1990), p. 8.
®Ibid., p. 6.
®A nderson Interview.
C harles J. McCaffray, UNBC: A Northern C rusade. (Duncan, British Columbia: Charles
J. McCaffray, 1995), p. 251.
UNBC, S en ate Minutes. "Memorandum, from Deborah Poff, V ice-President Academic,
to M em bers of S en ate, Re: First Nations T ask Force Recommendations background
Information for Item 4.3.1, Motion S-199505.07".
A nderson Interview.
A nderson Interview.
A nderson Interview.

133
Anderson interview,
Anderson Interview.
UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.04/68. "Building a
Future of Excellence, A University for Northern B.C.”, (October 10,1989), p. 37.
UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.01/143. "Letter from
Dr. Les Bullen, Chairman, Provincial A ccess Committee to Chief Gordon Antoine, Coldwater
Band and Dr. Peter Jones, President, F raser Valley College Re: Som e Suggestions Arising out
of the Discussion of a Goal S tatem ent a t the August Meeting”, (August 30,1989), p. 1.
Ibid., p. 3.
“ Stewart, p. 37.
Brown, p. 6.
^ Anderson Interview.
Lee Morrison, Director of First Nations Programming, personal Interview, Prince
G eorge, British Columbia, D ecem ber 11,1996.
UNBC, S en ate Minutes. "Memorandum from Deborah Poff, Chair, S en ate Committee
on First Nations to Senate, Re: Annual Report to S en ate”, (May 8,1996).
“ Morrison Interview.
Morrison Interview.
M-Donald Interview.
28 UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Report of the follow-up committee
established a t the First Nations Forum on November 3-5 1994".
Final Report of First Nations Task Force Committee, Submitted to Dr. Charles Jago,
President/Chair UNBC Planning Committee (August 14,1996), p. 10.
8° UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Status Report, First Nations Studies
Programme", (February 5 ,1 996), p. 4.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
“ UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Status Report, First Nations Studies
Programme", (February 5,1996), p. 3.
^ UNBC C alendar 1996-97, "Course descriptions".
88 UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Status Report, First Nations Studies
Programme", (February 5 ,1 9 9 6 ) p. 4.
“ Brown, p. 11.
UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.02/89. “Information
Bulletin #12, Aboriginal Studies in the University of Northern B.C.: First Nations Concerns",
(February 1990), p. 2.
^ Ib id ., p. 2.

134
A nderson Interview.
Holtby, p. 1.
UNBC, Office of First Nations Programmes. “Status Report, First Nations Studies
Programme", (February 5, 1996), p. 3.
42
Ministry of Education. Skills and Training, Universities and Aboriginal Program s
Branch,I, “Draft - Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy Framework", p. 11.

UNBC, Office of First Nations Programm es. "Status Report, Office of First Nations
Program m es", (February 5, 1996), p. 6.
Ibid., p. 2.
SIFC C alendar 1995-97, "Department of G raduate Studies”.
^ UNBC, Office of First Nations Programmes. "Status Report, Office of First Nations
Program m es", (February 5,1996), p. 6.
UNBC Archives, Interior University Society P apers, File No. 92.02/89. "Information
Bulletin #12, Aboriginal Studies in the University of Northern B.C.; First Nations Concerns", p. 4.
Holtby, p. 8.
Morrison Interview.
™ Final Report of First Nations T ask Force Committee, Submitted to Dr. Charles Jago,
President/Chair UNBC Planning Committee (August 14,1996), p. 5.
Anderson Interview.
“ Anderson Interview.
“ UNBC, Office of First Nations Programmes. "Status Report, First Nations Studies
Programme", (February 5, 1996), p. 3.
54

Ibid., p. 5.

UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.01/126. “Adult
Education for First P eoples - Discussion Paper", p. 5.
UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.02/89. "Information
Bulletin #12, Aboriginal Studies in the University of Northem B.C.: First Nations Concerns", p.
^ Final Report of First Nations Task Force Committee, Submitted to Dr. Charles Jago,
President/Chair UNBC Planning Committee (August 14,1996), p. 14.
“ Ibid., p. 15.
“ Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
“ Final Report of First Nations Task Force Committee, Submitted to Dr. Charles Jago,
President/Chair UNBC Planning Committee (August 14,1996), p. 6.

135
^ Anderson Interview.
^ Anderson Interview.
UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. “Report of the follow-up Committee
established a t the First Nations Forum on November 3-5,1994".
Final Report of First Nations Task Force Committee, Submitted to Dr. Charles Jago,
President/Chair UNBC Planning Committee (August 14, 1996), p. 6.
^ "Planning for Growth: P art 2", The Report of the University Planning Committee
[Online]. January 3, 1997. Available: www.unbc.edu/reports/uniplan3.htm#D, pp. 8-9.
™Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, Universities and Aboriginal Program s
Branch, "Draft - Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy Framework", p. 10.
McCaffray, p. 36.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
UNBC Archives, Interior University Society P apers, File No. 92.02/89. “Information
Bulletin #12, Aboriginal Studies in the University of Nortnern B.C.: First Nations Concerns", p. 7.
McCaffray, p. 251.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
^ Final Report of First Nations T ask Force Committee, Submitted to Dr. Charles Jago,
President/Chair UNBC Planning Committee (August 14,1996), p. 2.
A nderson Inten/iew.
Holtby, p. 3.
Anderson Interview.
UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Status Report, Office of First Nations
Program m es", (February 5,1996), p. 3.
Anderson Interview.
^ UNBC, S en ate Minutes. "Memorandum from Deborah Poff, Acting Vice-President
Academ ic to M embers of the S enate, Re: Report from the Office of the Vice-President
Academic", (March 8 ,1 9 9 5 )
UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Status Report. First Nations Studies
Programme", (February 5,1996), p. 2.
UNBC, S en ate Minutes. "Memorandum from Deborah Poff to M embers of the S enate,
re: Report of the First Nations T ask Force", (April 11, 1995), p. 1.
Ibid., p. 2.
UNBC, S en ate Minutes. Motion S-199410, (October 15,1994), p. 10.

136

“ UNBC, S en ate Minutes. Motion S-199411, (November 23, 1994), p. 10.
™ UNBC, S en ate Minutes. Motion S-199511, (November 11, 1995), p. 4.
^ UNBC, S en ate Minutes. Motion S-199506.17, UNBC Memorandum to Members of
S en ate from S en ate Committee on Organization and Rules (May 31,1995).
UNBC, S en ate Minutes. "Memorandum to C. Jago, President from Dennis Macknack,
Director of Regional Operations and University/College Relations, Jim McDonald, Chair First
Nations Studies, Lee Morrison, Director, Office of First Nations Programmes, Re: Status Report
of First Nations", (January 17,1996).
Ibid.
“ Holtby, p. 2.
M-Donald Interview.
"Planning for Growth: P art 2", The Report of the University Planning Committee
[Online]. January 3, 1997. Available: www.unbc.edu/reports/uniplan3.htm#D, p. 8.
A nderson Interview.
McCaffray, p. 111.
“ A nderson Interview.
A nderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Michiyo Kiwako Okuma, "Aboriginal Education a s a Decolonizing Method - The
NIsga’a Experience" (M.A. Thesis, UNBC, August 1996), p. 71.
Okuma, p. 75.
Okuma, p. 77.
University of Northem British Columbia and Wilp WUxo’oskwhl Nisga’a Protocol
A greem ent (1993), p. 1.
Ibid., p. 2.
UNBC, S en ate Minutes. "Memorandum to C. Jago, President from Dennis Macknack,
Director of Regional O perations and University/College Relations, Jim McDonald, Chair First
Nations Studies, Lee Morrison, Director, Office of First Nations Program m es, Re: Status Report
of First Nations", (January 17,1996).
UNBC and WWN Protocol, p. 1.
Ibid., p. 1.
109

M-Donald Interview.

UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers, File No. 92.02/89. "Information
Bulletin #12, Aboriginal Studies in the University of Northem B.C.: First Nations Concems", p.
10 .
UNBC, Office of First Nations Programmes. "Report of the follow-up Committee
established a t the First Nations Forum on November 3-5,1994".

137
” 2
UNBC Archives, Interior University Society Papers. File No. 92.01/143. The
Provincial Advisory Committee on Post-Secondary Education for Native Learners, "Consultation
Paper", p. 2.

Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
UNBC, Senate Minutes. Motion S-199604, (April 11,1996), p. 2.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
UNBC, Senate Minutes. "Memorandum to C. Jago, President from Dennis Macknack,
Director of Regional Operations and University/College Relations, Jim McDonald, Chair First
Nations Studies, Lee Morrison, Director, Office of First Nations Programmes, Re: S tatus Report
of First Nations", (January 17,1996).
Okuma, p. 72.
Anderson Interview.
"Planning for Growth: Part 2", The Report of the University Planning Committee
[Online]. January 3, 1997. Available: www.unbc.edu/reports/uniplan3.htm#D, pp. 8-9.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Inteview.
Anderson Interview.
Anderson Interview.
Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, Universities and Aboriginal Program s
Branch. "Draft - Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and Training Policy Framework", p. 1.
Ibid., p. 11.
’"2 Ibid., p. 10.
UNBC, S enate Minutes. "Senate Committee on the University Budget Minutes, Item
4.5", (Septem ber 11, 1996).
UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Status Report, First Nations Studies
Programme", (February 5,1996), p. 8.
UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. "Status Report, Office of First Nations
Program m es", (February 5,1996), p. 5.
136

M-Donald Interview.

138

M-Donald Interview.
A nderson Interview.
139 M-Donald and Anderson Interviews.
Final Report of First Nations T ask Force Committee, Submitted to Dr. C harles Jago,
President/C hair UNBC Planning Committee (August 14,1996), p. 2.
UNBC, Office of First Nations Program m es. “First Nations Students Handbook, 19961997", p. 1.
Conclusion
^ Ray Barnhardt, "Higher Education in the Fourth World: Indigenous People Take
Control", Canadian Journal of Native Education. Vol. 18, No. 2, (1991), p. 225.
^ Eber Hampton, 1995, a s quoted in Final Report of First Nations T ask Force Committee,
Subm itted to Dr. Charles Jag o , President/Chair University of Northern British Columbia Planning
Com m ittee (August 14, 1996), p. 5.
^ Kidd Interview.
“ Hampton Interview.
^ Archibald 1995, a s referred to in Final Report of First Nations T ask Force Committee,
Subm itted to Dr. Charles Jago, President/Chair University of Northem British Columbia Planning
Com m ittee (August 14, 1996), p. 14.
^ B.C. Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, Universities and Aboriginal Program s
Branch. "Draft - Aboriginal Post-Secondary Education and training Policy Framework", p. 3.
'' National Indian Brotherhood, Indian Control of Indian Education. Policy P a p e r
presen ted to th e Minister of Indian Affairs and Northem Development, (D ecem ber 2 1 ,1 9 7 2 ), pp.
10-18.
^ University of Alberta, Office of the School of Native Studies, "School of Native Studies
Self-Study", p. 37.
®John A. Price, Native Studies: American and Canadian Indians (Toronto: McGraw-Hill
Ryerson Ltd., 1978), p. 14.
Michel Foucault, The Historv of Sexuality. New York: Vintage Books, 1978.
” Paul Axelrod and John Reid (Eds.) Youth. Universitv and Canadian Societv: E ssavs in
th e Social Historv of Higher Education (Kingston, Montreal, London: McGill-Queen's University
P ress, 1989), p. xxiii.

139
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Levitt, Cyril. Children of Privilège: Student Revolt In the Sixties. Toronto, Buffalo, London:
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Barnhardt, Ray. “Higher Education in the Fourth World: Indigenous People Take Control”,
C anadian Journal of Native Education. Vol. 18, No. 2, 1991.
Basran, G .S. “History and Rationale of Affirmative Action Program, College of Arts and Science,
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Blue, Arthur W. “Reflections on the Direction of Natives Studies Departm ents in C anadian
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Boothroyd, Peter. “Enhancing Local Planning Skills for Native Self-Reliance: The UBC
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Ciemmer, Janice White. “Native American Studies: A Utah Perspective”, Wicazo S a Review.
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Conchelos, Gregory, Donald McCaskill, and John Milloy. “The Role of Universities in Native
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Deloria, Vine, Jr. “Indian Studies: the Orphan of Academia”. Wicazo S a Review. Vol. 2, No. 2,
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Demay, Dr. Joel, Interview with Dr. Oliver B rass, "Moving Toward an Indian University", SIFC
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G ibbons, Roger and J. Rick Ponting. "Faces and Interfaces of Indian Self-Government",
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Guyette, S usan. “Responsibility of the University in a Multiethnic Society: A Pragm atic
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Hedley, M.J. “Community B ased R esearch: T he Dilemma of Contract", Canadian Journal of
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Johnston, Eric and Diane Longboat, “Sovereignty, Jurisdiction an d Guiding Principles in
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Kidwell, C lara S ue. “Native American Studies: Academic Concem s and Community Service”,
American Indian Culture and R esearch Journal. Vol. 2, No. 3/4,1978.
Leavitt, Robert M. “Confronting Language Ambivalence and Language Death: The Roles of the
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1985.
Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr. “The American Native P ress and American Indian Studies” Wicazo S a
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Lockhart, Alexander and Don McCaskill. “Toward an Integrated, Community-Based, Partnership
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McCaskill, Don. “Native Economic Development and Small Business M anagem ent Course: An
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Ortiz, Roxanne Dunbar. “Developing Indian Academic Professionals”, Wicazo S a Review. Vol.
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Pace, Jacqueline and Daniel O'Brien. "The Role of Empowerment in Social Work Degree
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Price, John A. “C anadian Native Studies by Europeans”, Canadian Journal of Native Studies.
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Price, John A. “Native Studies in Canadian Universities and Colleges”, Canadian Journal of
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Price, John A. “Native Studies Versus Academic Establishm ent, Canadian Journal of Native
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Price, John A. “R ecent Shifts in Native Studies Program s and Journals from Practical Issues to
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Price, John A. “A Survey of Native Studies Programs in the U.S.A.”, Canadian Journal of Native
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Wright, Bobby. “American Indian Studies Programs: Surviving the ‘80s, Thriving in the ‘90s”,
Journal of American Indian Education. Vol. 30, No. 1, October 1990.

Papers, Theses, and Dissertations:
Archibald, Jo-ann. "Locally Developed Native Studies Curriculum: An Historical and
Philosophical Rationale" A special project submitted in fulfillment of the requirem ent for
education 881 in the Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University, 1984.
Baydock, Alice Rose. "Evaluating University Services for Aboriginal Students* M.A.
Dissertation, University of Calgary, 1992.
C ross, S uzanne Lynn. “A Cross-Sectional Study of Selected Four-Year Public and Private
Colleges and Universities in the United States with American Indian S tudent Support
Programs." Doctor’s Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1993.
G uyette, S usan and Charlotte Heth. American Indian Higher Education: N eeds and Proiections.
P ap er presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational R esearch
Association, Montreal: April 11-15, 1983.

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Leitka, E ugene. "A Study of Effectiveness of Existing Native American Studies Program s in
S elected Universities and C olleges.” Doctor's dissertation, New Mexico S tate University,
1973.
Locke, Patricia. Indian Post-Secondarv Education and the Law. Delivered a t Flaming Rainbow
University Without Walls, April 1978.
Okuma, Michiyo Kiwako. "Aboriginal Education a s a Decolonizing Method • The N isga'a
Experience", M.A. Thesis, UNBC, August 1996.
Voyageur, Cora. “An Analysis of the Transition Y ear Program a t the University of Alberta, 19851992." Thesis for M aster of Education. Edmonton: University of Alberta, 1993.