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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LONG-TERM INCOME ASSISTANCE
RECIPIENTS’ ABILITIES TO BECOME EMPLOYED,
AND IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING
by
Tami O ’Meara
B.A., The University of Victoria, 1997

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in
COUNSELLING

Copyright Tami O’Meara, 2000
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA
April 2000
All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without the permission of the author.

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0-612-62488-9

Canadcî

APPROVAL

Name:

Tami O ’Meara

Degree:

Master of Education in Counselling

Thesis Title:

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LONG-TERM INCOME
ASSISTANCE RECIPIENTS’ ABILITIES TO BECOME
EMPLOYED, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING

Examining Committee:

Dean’s R p ^ r^ n ta tiv e : Dr. Kathy Lewis
Forestry Program

Supervisor: Dr. Bruno D .^um bo
Psychology and Mathematics Program

1

/
Committee Member: Dr. Alex C. Michalos, FRSC
Political Science Program

Comrmttee Member: Dr. "^m Strong
E d u c ^ o n Program

External Examiner: Glen~Schmidl7MSW
Social Work Program

Date Approved:

:■/ ^

11

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to give special thanks to Dr. Bruno Zumbo, my thesis supervisor, who
spent countless hours providing mentorship and encouraging me to “just finish the big
book report.” Without his support and expertise 1 would have foimd this project much
more difficult and less exciting. His caring, patience, and sense of humor allowed me to
carry on, even in moments of doubt.
My greatest gratitude must go to my family. To my husband, Jim, who supported
me wholeheartedly and made many sacrifices so that 1 could complete this research.
Your encouragement and love helped me in ways you will never know. To my sons,
Jared and Kyle, who had to sacrifice time with me and did so selflessly. To my father,
who was my inspiration and has taught me how to respect and honor my family, my
colleagues, and my clients. To my mother, whose care and concern always kept me
moving towards my goal. Thank you for being the most wonderful part of my life.

Ill

ABSTRACT
It is becoming increasingly recognized that there is a significant number of
Canadians who find it necessary to not only gain short-term financial support from the
income assistance system, but who also remain attached to the system for long periods of
time. This thesis is exploratory in nature. Questions were posed to 40 individuals in
receipt of income assistance for ten out of the last twelve months. The questions were
focused on gathering information regarding factors that may have helped or hindered the
participants in becoming employed and, as a consequence, eventually become
financially self-sufficient. Based on the findings, a discussion of the implications for
counselling is presented along with recommendations related to counselling practice.
A structured survey was used to gather demographic information and information
regarding helpful and hindering factors related to securing employment. The questions
were directly tied to the research questions used in conceptualizing this study in an effort
to gather relevant, useful information from the participants.
This research has found that participants perceive the primary factor that will
increase their employment opportunities is education. The majority of participants have
not completed high school and strongly believe that furthering their education will
ultimately allow them to become employed. Along with possessing a minimal level of
education, participants also reported that their sense of self-worth and self-confidence
were adversely affected by being unemployed and receiving income assistance for a long
period of time.

IV

A number of recommendations for counselling this population are identified within
the thesis. The most significant implications were are focused on meeting the
expectations of the client and a basic set of tenets from which a counsellor can work
effectively with this particular population. It is hoped that this thesis will provide
practical information about a group of people who are struggling to survive within the
Prince George region.

V

Table of Contents
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER I .............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 1
OUTLINE OF THESIS .......................................................................................................... 3
RESEARCH QUESTION ........................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER II ..............................................................................................................................5
TERMINOLOGY AND TARGET POPULATION.............................................................. 5
THE INCOME ASSISTANCE SYSTEM IN BRITISH COLUMBIA ............................... 5
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 9
DETAILED REVIEW OF ARTICLES .................................................................................. 9
SUM M ARY..............................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................... 45
RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................................................................45
Selection o f M ethodology ................................................................................................ 45
Ethics ..................................................................................................................................... 45

M ETH O D .................................................................................................................................47
Participant Selection ......................................................................................................... 47
Structured Survey .............................................................................................................. 48

CHAPTER IV ......................................................................................................................... 50
RESULTS ................................................................................................................................50
CHAPTER V .......................................................................................................................... 84
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 84
Discussion ....................................................................................................................84
Responses to Research Questions ............................................................................ 93
Implications and Recommendations ....................................................................... 96
Limitations ................................................................................................................. 99
Future Research ....................................................................................................... 100

VI

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 101
APPENDICES...................................................................................................................... 105
APPENDIX A; STRUCTURED SURVEY ..................................................................... 105

vil

Table o f Tables

TABLE 1: HELPING CATEGORIES.............................................................................. 23
TABLE 2; HINDERING CATEGORIES.........................................................................24
TABLE 3; TASK ORIENTATION AND SUPPORT OR SELF-ESTEEM
CATEGORIES......................................................................................................... 25
TABLE 4; HELPFUL FACTORS FOR BECOMING EM PLOYED........................... 52
TABLE 5; FACTORS THAT PREVENT EMPLOYMENT.........................................54
TABLE 6; BIGGEST BARRIERS TO EMPLOYMENT.............................................. 55
TABLE 7; TIME FR.AMES DESIRED FOR RECEIVING JOB SEARCH SUPPORT
AND CAREER COUNSELLING.........................................................................57
TABLE 8: EDUCATION AND TRAINING.................................................................. 58
TABLE 9: CHANGES IN THOUGHTS AND FEELINGS.......................................... 61
TABLE 10: FREQUENCY OF RESPONSES FOR SELF-RATING SCALE ON
JOB SEARCH...................................................................................................... 64
TABLE 11: FREQUENCY OF RESPONSES RELATED TO PERSONAL
CONTROL............................................................................................................. 70
TABLE 12: PRIMARY GOALS FOR UPCOMING Y EA R ........................................72
TABLE 13: FREQUENCY OF RESPONSES FOR COUNSELLING TYPES
FOUND TO BE MOST HELPFUL.................................................................... 75
TABLE 14: FREQUENCY OF RESPONSES FOR EFFECTS OF BEING
UNEMPLOYED AND RECEIVING INCOME ASSISTANCE.....................76
TABLE 15: CROSS TABULATION FOR GENDER AND RESPONSE ITEMS ... 77
TABLE 16: CROSS TABULATION FOR LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND
RESPONSE IT E M S...............................................................................................78
TABLE 17: CROSS TABULATION BETWEEN ABORIGINAL STATUS AND
RESPONSE IT E M S...............................................................................................79
TABLE 18: CROSS TABULATION FOR CHANGES IN THOUGHTS AND
FEELINGS...............................................................................................................80
TABLE 19; CROSS TABULATION FOR SHIFTS IN EM OTIONS.......................... 81

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Receiving income assistance is supposed to be a last resort for Canadians who, for
whatever reason, are unable to secure enough financial stability in order to survive.
Income assistance is Canada’s safety net for individuals who have exhausted all other
sources of income. This may include those individuals who are chronically unemployed,
have a disability, or are working for wages insufficient to support their living costs.
Income assistance provides money for the veiy basic necessities including food and
shelter. Policies, procedures and statistical data vary between provinces leaving a number
of unanswered questions open for discussion among government officials and those who
work within the system assisting income assistance recipients. To date, questions
regarding factors that help or hinder movement away from the welfare system have not
been addressed in a way that assists recipients to decrease their reliance on this particular
system.
Unfortunately, the number individuals and families who are being forced to access
this support system continues to rise, a symptom of increasing poverty rates within
Canada. As disconcerting as it is to watch the number of people on income assistance
continue to rise, it is even more alarming to note that an increasing number of individuals
remain connected to the income assistance system for long periods o f time, even
generations. For the purposes of this thesis, the term “long-term” will include all
individuals who have been in receipt of income assistance for ten (10) months or more
within the last twelve (12) months. The degree of support will vary from daycare
subsidies, a “topping up” of employment insurance, or the receipt of full income

assistance benefits.
Limited research has been conducted on what recipients find as being helpful or
hindering factors in leaving the support of the income assistance system and becoming
employed. The focus of the research literature has been on creating information that
provides government officials and support workers with a view of the characteristics of
the typical welfare recipient and potential causes for being attached to the welfare system.
There are a number of gaps within this information system that keeps support people,
such as employment counsellors from being able to develop a viable model for assisting
clients to move away from income assistance and into situations that offer increased
opportunities for finding and maintaining employment. Thus, counselling individuals in
receipt of long-term income assistance is being compromised by inconsistencies in
methodology and the effectiveness with which employment counsellors are able to assist
clients in their movement towards financial independence. “Inconsistencies in
methodology” refers to the present maimer in which client needs are assessed and the
support systems available to address these needs. Individuals who are connected to the
income assistance system must observe specific policies that outline the type and duration
of services available including assessment, job skills training and personal counselling.
The primary goal of this thesis is to examine what long-term income assistance
recipients believe are helpful or hindering factors in their efforts to move away from the
income assistance system and become employed. The secondary goal is to reflect on the
information gathered and discuss implications for employment counselling focusing on
the movement from unemployment to employment. In order to meet the goals of this

thesis a review of literature gathered from government sources, research articles and texts
was conducted and discussed. Based on the information reviewed a study was proposed.
OUTLINE OF THESIS
The primary objective of the research presented in this thesis is to assess the
perceived factors which may help or hinder individuals, who are receiving income
assistance, to secure employment. It is hoped that the findings of this research will both
support and identify factors in addition to the prevalent factors discussed within the
literature review. These findings will also offer the basis for the discussions of
implications for counselling individuals who are long-term income assistance recipients.
The manner in which counsellors support this population may be critical in terms of how
these individuals view themselves and take action to change their current life situations.
The thesis is organized in the following manner. Chapter 2 provides a detailed
literature review. Chapter 3 outlines the research methodology, procedures, and data
analysis. A theoretical rationale for the chosen research method is presented along with a
discussion of the data collection and analysis methods used for the study. Chapter 4 will
outline the results of the study and Chapter 5 will present a discussion of the implications
for counselling individuals who are long-term income assistance recipients.

RESEARCH QUESTION
This study is based on the following broad research questions, (1) “What are the
factors that affect (help or hinder) long-term income assistance recipients’ abilities to
become employed and, based on the findings, (2) “What are the implications for
counselling this group?” The focus of the thesis is on the northern British Columbia
community of Prince George. This thesis will contribute to the theory and practice of
counselling by addressing the issue that previous research has not been conducted outside
of Vancouver, and by using individuals who have been in receipt of income assistance for
ten months or more within tlie last twelve months. The program of research by Borgen
and Amundson (1988), Borgen and Amundson (1982; 1984; 1987) and Klein, Amundson,
and Borgen (1992)will inform this exploratory study of the potential factors affecting
individuals who are long-term income assistance recipients.

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
Terminology and Target Population
Individuals who access the income assistance system can become long-term
recipients for a multitude of reasons. According to a National Council of Welfare (1998)
study, lack o f work is considered to be the primary reason for accessing and remaining on
welfare in more than fifty percent of the situations. The presence of a disability is
recognized as the primary factor in approximately twenty-five percent of the situations.
Other contributing factors which may be associated with individuals remaining on
income assistance for long periods of time include: the type of family structure, gender,
levels of education, housing costs, loss of a spouse, multi-generational connection to
income assistance, immigrant status, work activity, area of residency, type of work, and
age (Fineman, 1983; Klein, Amundson & Borgen, 1992; Warr, 1983). There are
generally a combination of reasons why individuals seek support from income assistance
and these reasons may or may not remain static for the duration of time in which support
is being provided.
The Income Assistance System in British Columbia
The income assistance system is governed by the Ministry of Human Resources.
With respect to employment, the focus of this Ministry is to move people off o f income
assistance and into employment as quickly as possible. If individuals who are in receipt
of income assistance determine they must acquire more advanced education or specific
skills in order to increase their employability, they must generally find alternate sources
of financial support.

6

Alternative financial supports could include:
a.

Canada Student Loans for post secondary programs,

b.

Receipt of Employment Insurance from Human Resources Development Canada,

c.

Accessing funding support from aboriginal groups such as bands. United Native
Nations, and Métis Associations,

d.

Ministry of Social Development and Economic Security (MSDES), and

e.

Employment income.

The Ministry of Human Resources (MHR) does not support education unless there is an
approved plan that focusses returning the individual to the workplace as quickly as
possible. British Columbia has instituted a phase system based on the length of time an
individual has accessed income assistance. The Youth Works and Welfare to Work
programs, which are focussed on the age o f individuals receiving income assistance, have
also been implemented and operate using the phase system.
The phase system is an extremely controversial method for determining who can
or cannot participate in specific training and/or supported job search activities based on
the length of time one is in receipt of income assistance. Since recipients do not receive
job search or educational support in a timely manner, this system has been met with
opposition from the individuals who are accessing its support, as well as community
service agencies, and a variety of government bodies. In fact, the income assistance
system will be returning to a phase-less model on April 1, 2000.
There are three phases within the current income assistance system. Phase I
recipients include all individuals who have received financial support for a period of one

to seven months. These individuals are required to conduct unsupported job search
activities on a full time basis with limited support or access to individual and group
employment training activities or job search support.
Phase II individuals have been accessing support for up to nine months and Phase
III recipients have been receiving support for more than ten months. Phase III are then
considered to be long-term income assistance recipients since they have been in receipt of
income assistance for more than nine months. Note that Phase II and III recipients are not
necessarily unemployed. Rather, they may be the working poor and hence unable to fully
support themselves financially. Upon entering Phases II and III, any individuals who
would like to access federal, provincial, or possibly private training or education
programs are supposed to participate in a program currently called “Flashpoint” (in the
Prince George region). The title for this program varies from contractor to contractor,
however, the content remains very similar throughout the various regions. Flashpoint is
provided by the Ministry of Social Development and Economic Security (MSDES) and
consists of two half-days designed to assist participants in determining an employment
goal and subsequent plan of action to achieve that goal. Upon completion of Flashpoint
individuals must then attend one of the designated Assisted Job Search (AJS) programs
also provided by MSDES. These programs vary in length from between two to five
weeks and are designed to assist individuals to develop job search skills such as resume
writing, networking, and the elements of doing an effective job search. Once individuals
have participated in Flashpoint, an Assisted Job Search program, and have not been able
to secure employment they may be deemed eligible to participate in other federally or

8

provincially funded programs, including upgrading or post secondary education. Training
Consultants, who are MSDES employees, determine eligibility based on a number of
criteria, including the ability of clients to clearly articulate a plan that is focussed on
gaining entry into the workforce as quickly as possible, and the job search efforts that
client has expended during the first nine months o f receiving income assistance.
The Youth Works and Welfare to Work programs divide individuals in receipt of
income assistance by two age categories. Youth Works participants range in age from
nineteen to twenty four years. Individuals are generally considered to be capable and
ready to work. Therefore, the Ministry of Human Resources (MHR) expects these youths
to acquire employment as a first priority. Unattached males, in particular, are encouraged
to secure employment and do not easily gain support for furthering their level of skills or
education. Women who have children under seven years of age are not expected to seek
employment and may attend school if they have a well developed return to work plan.
There is very little support for upgrading education within this program, although the
federally and provincially funded programs offered within the phase structure may be
accessed pending approval by Financial Assistance Workers and/or Training Consultants.
Welfare to Work recipients must be over tw'enty-five years of age. These
individuals also follow the phase structure which means, regardless of age, they are
expected to engage in seven months of job search unassisted by individual or group
programs before being eligible for additional retraining, education, or job search
assistance. There appears to be an increased level of support for these individuals to
access training and education once they have entered into Phases 11 and III.

Literature Review
The literature review focussed on information that had a Canadian context, though
international sources were also explored. The literature review included the following
sources: ERIC, Sociofiles, PsychlitlNFO, theses at UNBC, an examination of reports
from the National Council of Welfare, other related federal and provincial government
documentation (POVNET), and a variety of texts.
After an extensive search of the literature it was concluded that only four studies
and a textbook were directly applicable to the proposed study since they focussed on the
Canadian income assistance system. Coincidentally, all four studies and the study used
for the textbook were conducted in British Columbia and focussed on factors that assist
and hinder unemployed individuals who would like to become re-employed. Since these
four studies and the textbook were the basis of the literature review they were reviewed in
detail.
Detailed Review of Articles
Borgen, W. & Amundson, N. (1987). The dynamics of unemployment.
Journal o f Counseling and Development, 66, 180-184.
Borgen and Amundson (1987) conducted this “descriptive study of the experience
of imemployment with a purpose of examining the evolution of psychological reactions
over time and to determine some of the actors that moderate or intensify the
psychological impact of the experience ”(p- 180). The goal was to map out the
experiences related to unemployment that may help to provide explanations for the
identity issues, psychological reactions, and job search stressors identified by other

10

researchers.
Borgen and Amundson reviewed a number of theoretical models that they felt had
particular relevance to the population they were studying. They focussed on the
connection between their initial model (Amundson & Borgen, 1982), which suggested
that individuals experiencing unemployment feel the effects of an “emotional roller
coaster,” and the grieving cycle suggested by Kubler-Ross (1969). Kubler-Ross
identified a number of stages involved in the grie\mg cycle including; denial, anger,
bargaining, depression, and acceptance (Borgen & Amundson, 1984; 1987). Her model
suggested that, following the death of a loved one, most individuals experience the stages
of grieving in varying levels of intensity and in a variety of sequences. Borgen and
Amundson (1984,1987) have hypothesized that the grieving that occurs after a job loss is
similar to Kubler-Ross’ model. Borgen and Amundson (1987) also stated that the
connection between the job loss cycle and the grieving stages have been validated by a
number of other researchers (e.g.. Finely & Lee, 1981).
Borgen and Amundson (1984, 1987) suggested an acceptance phase would be
experienced once the grieving cycle had been completed and hypothesized that, since
looking for a job is in itself a job without pay, this phase would likely begin with a great
deal of enthusiasm, but would soon run into trouble as people faced the realities of
repeated rejections and unsuccessful interviews. The job burnout model, which included
enthusiasm, stagnation, frustration, and apathy, suggested by Edelwich and Brodsky
(1980), was used as a possible explanation for the evolution and cycling of emotions in
Borgen and Amundson’s (1984, 1987) acceptance phase. Borgen and Amundson (1984,

11

1987) suggested that people might initially begin with some enthusiasm towards job
search, thinking that they had a chance at a new beginning and that they would be able to
work in jobs that would be challenging and interesting. Given the economic climate of
the time, however, the authors suggested that it would not take long for the harsh realities
of job search to become evident and, under such conditions, people would likely stagnate
in their job search activities and feel a sense of hopelessness and lack of progress. Within
the stagnation phase, the sense of hopelessness could be accompanied by feelings of
frustration and an increasing willingness to give up and do less in the job search area.
These authors also suggest the end point of the burnout model was apathy, characterized
by people having withdrawn from job search and having decided that the whole situation
is hopeless.
The study was conducted in greater Vancouver with participants who were
registered with Human Resources Development Canada. The final pool of 55
participants included 26 men and 29 women. O f the participants, 21(11 men, 10 women)
were under 25 years of age and thus classified as youth. The average previous yearly
income for the participants was $16,050.
The authors interviewed people who had been out o f work for a minimum of three
months so there would be a sufficient period of unemployment upon which to comment at
the time that data were gathered. Subjects were asked to complete a demographic
information questionnaire at the end of the interview regarding the participant’s age, sex,
marital status, previous occupation, and length of unemployment.
In using a phenomenological perspective to study the dynamics of unemployment.

12

Borgen and Amundson (1984, 1987) attempted to set up interview situations that would
allow each person the opportunity for self expression with a minimum of imposed
structure or interruption. The interview procedure was designed to give participants the
opportunity to talk freely about their experiences of unemployment and to focus on some
of the high and low points.
The graduate research assistants who conducted the interviews were not familiar
with Amundson and Borgen’s (1982) dynamics of unemployment model, and they were
trained to conduct interviews in a non-directive manner employing open-ended
questions. At the end of each interview (approximately 45 minutes), participants were
asked to focus on critical incidents and to depict their experience graphically, on a time
line that charted their emotions (Borgen & Amundson, 1987; 1988). They then discussed
the incidents and emotions on the time line to ensure that there was a correspondence
between the information provided in the interview and the summary graph.
Following standard phenomenological procedure, Borgen and Amundson (1984,
1987; Amundson & Borgen, 1987) began their analyses by transcribing the interviews
and then having the graduate students who conducted the interviews summarize them
using the concept of “meaning” units. Regular reliability checks (every 10"^ participant)
were made to ensure that the same meaning units were being identified by each research
assistant (Borgen & Amundson, 1984; 1987, Amundson & Borgen, 1987). The research
assistants found that the percentage of agreement in making the reliability checks was
96%. Using the summaries, the research assistants then transposed the information onto
rating sheets that focussed on the following components:

13

(a) emotional shifts experienced,
(b) time sequence involved with the occurrence o f particular emotions,
(c) events or behaviors accompanying specific emotions,
(d) coping strategies employed,
(e) job search strategies, and
(f) future expectations (Borgen & Amundson, 1984; 1987).
Reliability checks were made on every fifth rating sheet and had an agreement of 88%.
Borgen and Amundson (1987) gathered the information in groups comprised of
males, females and youth. The final phases of summarizing included a cross checking of
information on the rating sheets with the graphic representations made by the participants
and a summarization of the incidents that represented high or low points in the
unemployment experience.
Next, in each group (men, women, youths), Borgen and Amundson (1987)
examined people for similarities and by placing together those individuals who had
described similar responses to unemployment. Two research assistants independently
sorted participants’ descriptions according to similarity of experience and the percentage
agreement was 93% (Borgen & Amundson, 1987).
Borgen and Amundson (1987) found that, as a result of the sorting, a single
pattern emerged for men and for young people, whereas two distinct patterns emerged for
women. It was also found that one of the patterns for women was very similar for men,
thus these patterns were grouped together (Borgen & Amundson, 1987).
Borgen and Amundson (1987) derived three patterns of experience during

14

unemployment which included Pattern A (16 men, 13 women). Pattern B (6 women), and
Pattern C (21 young people; 10 men, 11 women).
Borgen and Amundson’s (1984, 1987; Amundson & Borgen 1987) studies used a
model that suggested that the experience o f unemployment could be described as an
emotional roller coaster. They suggested that the reactions to be expected initially in
response to job loss could closely be aligned with the stages o f grieving process described
by Kubler-Ross (1969). It was also hypothesized that the stresses incurred in the job
search would result in emotional reactions similar to those suggested by Edelwich and
Brodsky (1980) in describing job burnout. The results of each study showed that for
approximately 52% of the people interviewed, the original model was representative of
their experiences. However, the results also supported the findings of Gumey and Taylor
(1981), Rump (1983), and Warr (1983) who suggested that it is important to differentiate
among groups when considering the experience of unemployment. Borgen and
Amundson (1987) discerned three distinct patterns as described below.
Pattern A: Men, Women I
This pattern was composed of 52% of the participants involved in the study;
containing all of the men over the age of 25 and women over 25 who were primary wage
earners in their families (Borgen & Amundson, 1987). This group described shifts in
emotion fairly closely aligned to the original roller coaster model. However, the grieving
period was graphically represented to be over a time period that tended to be shorter than
the job search phase.
Borgen and Amundson (1987) found a variation that occurred for eight of the 29

15

participants in relation to their reactions to job loss. They anticipated job loss and
experienced a prolonged period of anxiety before losing their jobs and by the time they
had left their jobs, they seemed to have gone through grieving reactions and were ready to
begin a job search. It was found that these people were relieved with the termination of
the job and took short vacations before beginning to search for new jobs. Once these
participants began to search their reactions closely parallelled the other participants in
Pattern A.
Borgen and Amundson (1987) noted that enthusiasm may have some negative side
effects precipitated by the development of an unrealistic set of expectations about job
prospects and, often, an overselling of self during job interviews. This overly optimistic
attitude appeared to set some people up for a heightened sense of failure in their later job
search efforts if their expectations for employment were not fulfilled.
Borgen and Amundson (1987) found that a “yo-yo” effect that occurred during the
job search phase did not fall in line with the expected roller coaster effect. The “yo-yo”
effect was created when individuals experienced erratic and rapid shifts in emotion as a
result of repeated job rejections and the reliance upon friends and family to start thinking
positively. The authors noted that the low points o f the “yo-yo” would continue to
become lower with less pronounced high points as the job rejections persisted. This
process tended to lead people into a period of decreased job search and increased feelings
of worthlessness.
People in Pattern A did move into the predicted apathy phase of Amundson and
Borgen’s (1982) job loss model. However, this also “ushered in a phase of meaningful

16

réévaluation of their worth as people and a new consideration of changes in their career
paths” (Borgen & Amundson, 1987). People found an increased acceptance of
themselves and an acceptance of the need to set long-range career goals and to begin
activities, such as retraining, that could result in reaching these goals.
Pattern B: Women II
This group included 11% of the sample and was composed of women who were
secondary wage earners in their families or who had sufficient financial resources to cope
with a prolonged period of unemployment. Borgen and Amundson (1987) found that this
group expressed emotional reactions to job loss and job search were tied to a perceived
loss of status and were described in less severe terms than those described in Pattern A.
Borgen and Amundson (1987) found that this group experienced a “time out”
period lasting up to a year and, as the job search was unsuccessful, began a slow slide
into feelings of worthlessness, boredom, and mild depression which could be reversed as
they received support from others. As this group began a period of reassessment of
themselves and their career options, considerable satisfaction was generated and there
was a belief that the unemployment experience had provided them with an opportunity
for additional growth and development (Borgen & Amundson, 1987).
Pattern C: Young People
The people in this group constituted 37% of the sample and were mostly
secondary school graduates who had little or no post secondary education (Borgen &
Amundson, 1987). This group expected to find employment easily and became frustrated
when employment was not secured quickly. Because jobs did not seem to be readily

17

available, the participants expressed little interest in continuing with the job search and
turned instead to other leisure activities that helped to reduce their boredom. Pressure
from parents often became a problem for this group and they described situations in
which they were still in the role of “child” e.g., being ordered to do things by parents,
being unable to make decisions for themselves. Borgen and Amundson (1987) found that
the reactions of this group seemed to reflect that of a 14 year old rather than those of
young adults ranging in age from 18 to 24. These findings support the theory that work
plays an important part in the transition from adolescence to adulthood, and when young
people cannot find employment there is a greater likelihood of a slowing down in
psychosocial development (Gurney, 1980).
Summary of the Study
Borgen and Amundson (1987) concluded that, in many cases, unemployment leads
to shifts in emotions and cognitions which need to be assessed to determine intervention
options that may range from enhancing job search techniques to renewing selfconfidence. This research has also provided support for describing unemployment as an
emotional roller coaster, which requires more research involving longitudinal studies.
These authors identified two problems inherent in the design of the study
including:
(1) the use of volunteers as participants and (2) the reliance of participant recall. The
first problem seems somewhat obviated by statements from the “referring participants”
that members of the sample group seemed typical of their clients. A longitudinal or
observational design would be required to address the second problem.

18

Amundson, N. & Borgen, W. (1988). Factors that help and hinder in group
employment counseling. Journal o f Employment Counseling, 25, 104 - 114.
Amundson and Borgen conducted this “descriptive study to investigate the factors
that help and hinder members of job-search groups and the impact of these groups on the
experience of imemploymenf’(p-104). They were investigating the components of job
search support groups that make effective interventions and attempted to determine
whether or not there are critical times for a group intervention within the unemployment
experience. In two other studies (Borgen & Amimdson, 1987; Amundson & Borgen,
1987), Amundson & Borgen (1988) noted that about 25% o f the participants had taken
part in some type of group employment coimselling, and all of them reported that the
experience had been extremely positive. As stated in Amundson & Borgen's (1988)
article, group counselling has been well-documented to be effective with varied client
populations facing many diverse issues (Corey, 1995; Fisher, 1974; Gulley & Leathers,
1977; Hare, 1976; Ohlsen, 1970; Trotzer, 1977).
Research has indicated that group coimselling can be very beneficial for assisting
individuals who are unemployed to cope more effectively with the situation and to
develop the skills necessary to become re-employed (Azrin & Philip, 1979; Azrin,
Besalel, Wistozek, McMorrow, & Belchtel, 1982; Chandler, 1984; Hicks & Kelvin, 1983;
Isaacson & Brown, 1997 Trimmer, 1984). Amundson & Borgen (1988) stated that the
group approach is well suited to helping people:
(a) understand other people's points of view,
(b) develop social interaction skills.

19

(c) learn to share concerns and ideas with others who face similar problems,
(d) obtain several reactions to problems expressed,
(e) receive support and encouragement from others, and
(f) obtain relevant information.
Amundson & Borgen (1988) designed the study to investigate the specific factors
that perceived by group participants as helpful or hindering in coping with unemployment
on the basis of:
(a) the results of the Amundson and Borgen (1987) study, which indicated the
positive influence of groups,
(b) the corroboration of their results by other studies, and
(c) the indication that the influence of group interventions needed to be
investigated on a more specific level.
Some o f the major positive or helpful factors were: support of family and friends,
thinking positively, career counselling, and job search support groups (Amimdson &
Borgen, 1988).
Seventy-seven individuals participated in the research that was carried out in the
Greater Vancouver area. The 41 men and 36 women participants had an average age of
34.6 years and were unemployed for an average of 8.5 months before entering a job
search group. Their education levels varied with 42 individuals having high school
completion or less and 35 individuals with some university or college education. The
incomes ranged from less than $15,000 to 535,000. At the time of the interviews, 37
individuals were working full time and 40 individuals were unemployed.

20

Borgen & Amundson (1988) used an open ended interview approach at the
beginning o f the interview. The open ended method was used because it provides an
excellent way of conducting in depth exploration and analysis ( Amundson & Borgen,
1988; Babbie, 1995; Brenner, Brown, & Canter, 1985; Colaizzi, 1978; Fischer, 1979).
Trained graduate assistants acted as group leaders and made arrangements for the initial
interviews. In order to allow the participant the opportunity for self-expression, with a
minimum of imposed structure, the following open-ended questions were used to begin
the interview:
Would you describe in as much detail as possible your experience of being
unemployed? I would like you to include how you came to be out of work, what
you thought about when it happened and your thoughts since, any feelings you
have had during the time you have been out of work, and job-search activities that
you have tried (Amundson & Borgen, 1988; Borgen & Amundson, 1984; 1987).
Following the initial section of the interview (approximately 20 minutes)
Amundson & Borgen (1988) used the critical-incident technique was developed by
Flanagan (1954). As a final step in the interview, each person was asked to chart his or
her experience using a “life line.” The life line was a graphic representation of the
experience of unemployment for each person from the time of job loss to the time of the
interview. Questions to the participants were focussed on gathering information
regarding an overall assessment of the job search group and when this type of support
would be most beneficial as an intervention.
Critical Incidents
Trained graduate students summarized information from the interviews which
primarily focussed on the helping or hindering incidents. Upon completion of the

21

summaries, the students checked the accuracy of the summaries by contacting the
participants by telephone. Following this verification process the students then developed
a classification system based on the first 20 interviews and explored the reliability and
exhaustiveness of the system, using data from the remaining interviews.
Reliability Reliability refers to the ability of independent observers to easily
classify the incidents in the same categories as the original observers. A set of 19
categories was induced from the initial collection of 160 helping incidents (first 20
interviews) and the reliability was tested when two other graduate assistants
independently attempted to re-categorize the same set of data according to the given
system (Amundson & Borgen, 1988). Inter-rater reliability was 91% (73/80 incidents)
and 94% (75/80 incidents) for the two respective assistants, with each other .
Exhaustiveness. Exhaustiveness refers to whether or not data collection has been
sufficiently comprehensive to include all the varieties of behaviour and experience that
the critical-incident technique may be expected to cover (Amundson & Borgen, 1988). In
order to test exhaustiveness an “attempt was made to classify data from the remaining
interviews (after the initial 20) according to the category system” (p. 107). With the
exception of six hindering and two helping incidents, all of the incidents could be placed
in the existing categories, which indicates strong evidence for the exhaustiveness of tlie
category system.
Timing of the Job-Search
Group Intervention
Amundson & Borgen (1988) analysed this focus of concern by gaining an

22

understanding of the experience of unemployment through interpretations generated
through the interview process and the life line data. Stated shifts in emotion and
precipitating incidents were charted over time and compared with the life line drawn by
participants during their interviews. The autliors noted common patterns and made
composite drawings to illustrate the participants’ reactions over time. This information
was used to understand the point at which the group experience occurred in the
individual’s period of unemployment as well as the effect of the group on the individual’s
emotional reaction to unemployment. In order to determine at what point during the
period o f imemployment a group would be most beneficial, participants were asked to
indicate on the life line where a job search group would make the most sense for them.
Those individuals who were employed would natmally be responding retrospectively.
Amundson & Borgen (1988) stated that the 77 participants in the study were
extremely satisfied with their group experience and reported 501 helping and only 44
hindering incidents. Nineteen helping categories were developed as a result of this
analysis. Table 1 outlines the helping categories and the extent to which they were
mentioned.
Upon completion of the analysis of tlie hindering incidents, Amundson & Borgen
(1988) developed ten categories of which nine were the inverse of the positive categories.
Some individuals had difficulties accessing transportation to the job search group.
Therefore the one new category was focussed on the location of the job search group.

Lù

Table 1
Helping Categories
Categories

No. o f times mentioned

No. o f participants
mentioning factor

% o f participants
mentioning factor

Mutual support

58

51

66

Job search

44

39

51

Instruction

44

36

47

Positive outlook

51

34

44

Interview

46

34

44

Telephone technique

40

34

44

Belonging

33

33

43

Job leads

26

24

31

Video feedback

24

23

30

Leadership

23

20

25

Routine

18

17

22

Supplies and services

15

15

19

Absorbing enthusiasm

12

12

16

Information

16

12

16

Follow-up

11

11

15

Goal setting

7

7

9

Social comparison

5

5

6

Contribution

3

3

4

Ventilation

2

2

3

Table 2 outlines the extent to which the hindering categories were mentioned.

24

Table 2
Hindering Categories
Categories

No. o f times mentioned

No. o f participants
mentioning factor

% o f participants
mentioning factor

Leadership

8

8

10

Absorbing enthusiasm

8

8

10

Follow-up

5

5

6

Telephone technique

3

3

4

Supplies and services

3

3

4

Instruction

3

3

4

Information

3

3

4

Location

3

3

4

Job leads

2

2

3

Interview

2

2

3

Amundson & Borgen (1988) indicated that most of the helping and hindering
factors reported by participants could be grouped into two major sections which included
factors that promote support and self-esteem and factors that are more task oriented. The
support and self-esteem category encompassed those factors that focussed on
interpersonal relations and self-concept development. The task orientation category
covers any factors that related directly to job search skill building. The follow up support
and services factor was difficult to place because it seemed to apply to both task and
support. Therefore it was not included. Amundson & Borgen (1988) determined that the
remaining factor, enjoying the Job Club routine, seemed to stand on its own.
Table 3 outlines the two categories that combined seventeen of the factors.

25

Table 3
Task Orientation and Support or Self-Esteem Categories
Task O rientation

Support o r Self-Esteem

Job search strategies

Belonging

Videotape feedback

Mutual support and encouragement

Job leads

Absorbing others' enthusiasm and success

Telephone techniques

Social comparison

Interview practice and preparation

Contribution

Instruction in resumes and correspondence

Ventilating

Supplies and services

.A. positive outlook

Information

Leadership

Goal setting

Amundson & Borgen (1988) indicated that two patterns of the experience of
unemployment were identified. The major difference in the patterns was the amount of
time the participants remained positive and optimistic while engaged in the job search. It
was noted that some individuals were able to maintain a positive outlook for up to six
months while others moved more quickly into a negative cycle. This study yielded
results that con esponded closely to the description of the unemployment experience as
outlined by Borgen & Amundson (1987). The participants experienced an emotional
roller coaster as they coped with the loss and the stress associated w i± job loss and the
job search (Amundson & Borgen, 1988). The findings also indicated that the emotional
downward slide associated with job search occurred between two and six months after
the individual becomes unemployed.

26

It was also noted that involvement in a job-search group generally occurred
between the eighth and ninth month o f unemployment and this intervention resulted in a
dramatic emotional upswing, whether or not a job was found.
Amundson & Borgen's (1988) study found that, as a group, the participants in the
job search course had a striking power in halting the usual downward emotional slide,
and moving people, instead, toward more positive emotional experiences. This positive
effect was maintained for extended periods o f time after the group had ended. Even in
instances in which employment was not found, the unemployed people reported that they
were able to maintain a more effective job search and positive self-image as a result of
their participation in the group. The authors stated that early intervention may have
alleviated some of the negative emotional states attributed to being unemployed for
extended periods o f time.
Klein, H., Amundson, N., & Borgen, W. (1992). The dynamics of
unemployment for income assistance recipients. Jou rn al o f Em ploym ent Counseling.
29, 88 - 94.
Klein, Amundson, & Borgen (1992) conducted this exploratory research study to
examine the experience of unemployment and present the major factors identified by
individuals in receipt of income assistance as helpful or hindering. The authors also
discussed a number of counselling implications for working with individuals who are in
receipt of income assistance. Klein et al.(1992) discussed research tliat supports their
belief that “it is important to consider the full impact of unemployment on the lives of
those who experience if ’(p. 92). Kirsh (1983) indicated that individuals who are
unemployed face myths and stereotypes that typify them as being too lazy to work, as too

27

unreliable to hold steady jobs, or as dishonest individuals who are cheating the system.
Other authors have pointed out unemployment’s negative influence on people’s lives
(Macky & Haines, 1982; McCarroll, 1984), family relationships (Brathwaite, 1983; Fagin
& Little, 1984), mental health (Liem & Rayman, 1984), and self-concept (Bernstein,
1985; Kelvin & Jarrett, 1985; Tiggemann & Winefield, 1984).
According to Kelvin & Jarrett (1985), imemployed individuals are often defined in
negative terms based on the fact that western society’s socioeconomic structure is
predominantly defined in terms of division of labour. This means that the unemployed
are evaluated based on what they are not (which is working) as opposed to what they are
(individuals seeking employment).
Authors such as Fumham (1983), Golding & Middleton (1982), and Waxman
(1983) have indicated that this negative experience can be more pronounced for
individuals receiving income assistance since they face a greater social stigma than the
generally unemployed. In addition, this population often experiences more pronounced
financial deprivation, loss of self-esteem, and isolation (Klein et al., 1992).
Klein et al.’s study involved 20 participants (11 men and 9 women) who were
receiving income assistance and were participating in “Project Job Keep,” a project co­
funded by the Canadian Employment and Immigration Commission and the British
Columbia Ministry of Social Services and Housing. They ranged in age from 25 - 44
with an average age of 34.6 years. The average education level was 11.3 years. Ten of
the participants were divorced or separated, 5 were single, 3 were married, and 2 were
widowed.

28

Klein et al. (1992) used in-depth, structured interviews derived from the work of
Borgen and Amundson (1984). Their research methodology involved a combination of
phenomenological and critical incident approaches.
The questions used in the interviews focused on the experience of unemployment
with particular reference to the positive and negative critical incidents (Klein et al.,
1992). The interviewers gathered information from participants who discussed their entire
unemployment experiences in terms of thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Klein et al. (1992) identified 516 incidents from the transcripts of the taped
interviews, with 423 (82%) of the incidents identified as negative in nature. The negative
incidents were sorted into categories and the most frequently occurring category was that
of stress over the lack of money. Nineteen participants mentioned stress with regard to
money a total of 119 times. These authors outlined some o f the other prominent negative
categories (i.e. mentioned by at least one third of the sample) which included frustration
with job search, depression and shame due to being on welfare, marital and family
problems, feeling unmarketable, contact with the social service office, boredom, and
disenchantment with the level of available jobs.
Ninety-three (18%) of the total reported positive critical incidents were mentioned,
the most prominent category being that of joining an employment training program.
Klein et al. (1992) stated that this category was mentioned 18 times by 11 participants.
Other major positive categories mentioned by at least one third of the sample included
fulfilment through raising a family, satisfaction from working, support from friends, and
the relief that was experienced when leaving a job.

29

For the majority of respondents, the experience o f unemployment was best
described as a “flat” experience with relatively few highs and a continual, pervasive
string of lows (Klein et al., 1992). Individuals were not found to have grieved a job loss
or experienced a significant downward swing after job loss. Nor did they find that the
majority of participants experienced a typical “job loss” experience. Instead, the
participants had difficulty remembering their last “real” job, unlike those individuals who
were laid off, were fired, or had quit. In many cases, respondents had long histories of
temporary, part-time, or casual work that they had never expected to retain. The authors
also found that some respondents were forced out of employment due to circumstances
such as accidents or marital difficulties which occupied their time and attention.
The financial hardship, mentioned three times as frequently as any other category,
was the most prominent aspect of the participants’ experience of stress and tension. In
addition to being repeatedly expressed as a source of tension, it also was seen as a
catalyst for other “downward pulls” such as family friction, loss of self-esteem, inability
to provide for family, and feeling misunderstood by friends.
Although job search frustration was mentioned as a factor by those interviewed,
job search did not seem to be a primary source of emotional swings. Instead, most
respondents had, for all intents and purposes, given up on finding work and restricted
their job search to occasionally responding to newspaper ads. With respect to positive
critical incidents, findings indicated that none of the respondents reported promising job
interviews or discovering good job leads.
Klein et al. (1992) stated most respondents reported an unemplo>onent experience

30

marked by varying degrees of depression which was characterized by a continual struggle
to financially meet survival needs, pessimism regarding being able to gain employment,
low self-esteem, and negative feelings about being on welfare. Additionally, respondents
experienced a lack of lasting positive emotional shifts, with the exception of participating
in the job search group.
The results of the Klein et al. (1992) study supported Tiggeman and Winefield’s
(1984) findings which indicated a significant correlation between unemployment and low
self-esteem and high depressive affect. However, Klein et al. (1992) foimd that the
participants in their study did not experience the swings o f emotion found in the
“emotional roller coaster” reported by Borgen and Amundson (1984, 1987). Instead, the
most prominent and pervasive factor in the experience of unemployment for this group
was financial pressure which encompassed great difficulties in meeting basic survival
needs such as food, shelter, and clothing for themselves and their families. Such pressure
was contrary to the pressure felt by displaced middle or high income earners who must
adjust their standard of living and do without some of the luxuries to which they are
accustomed.
Klein et al. (1992) discussed the unique financial pressures endured by individuals
who received income assistance in the context of Maslow’s (1968) hierarchy of needs.
Maslow’s model stipulated that physiological and safety needs must be met before higher
level needs such as belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization could be fulfilled. It
was apparent that individuals on income assistance may not have been able to address and
cope with emotional and/or psychological issues. Unfortunately, if these individuals

31

wanted to meet their basic needs it was imperative that they maintained a level of selfconfidence that moved them into a job search. Klein et al. (1992) reported that sporadic
job search activities were probably evidence of low levels of self-esteem, because this
was bound to adversely affect an individual’s self-presentation to potential employers.
Amundson and Borgen’s (1988) finding that group employment coimselling was a
particularly helpful factor in working with the unemployed was verified in the Klein et al.
(1992) study which found the most prominent positive critical incident was joining an
employment training course or program. It would be beneficial to offer a group
experience that provides peer support and understanding to individuals who have reported
feelings of low self-esteem, were ashamed of being on welfare, and had feelings of being
discriminated against.
Klein et al. (1992) concluded;
1.

Group interventions need to be designed with activities that go beyond the delivery
of technical information and job finding techniques. Activities should foster a
sense of group support and raise levels of self-esteem.

2.

Respondents’ negative experiences appeared to be long-term and chronic in nature.
A follow-up component to programs in which the counsellor could maintain
contact for a long period of time thereby providing continued support is
recommended..

3.

Income assistance recipients ages 25-44 are classified as a distinct group from
other unemployed groups. Programs should build in components such as group
support, affective as well as cognitive learning objectives, career plaiming, and

long-term follow-up support.
Amundson, N. & Borgen, W. (1987). Coping with unemployment: What
helps and what hinders. Journal o f Employment Counselling, 24, 97-106.
Borgen, W. & Amundson, N. (1984). The experience o f unemployment.
Scarborough, ON: Nelson Canada
This section will combine the review of Borgen and Amundson’s (1984) book. The
experience o f unemployment, and their 1987 article entitled “Coping with unemployment:

what helps and what hinders” because both studies were conducted in the same manner
and appear to have utilized the same subject group. The results for both pieces of
literature are identical. Thus it was thought that the dual review would provide
a more comprehensive and cohesive examination of Borgen and Amundson’s work on
this particular subject.
These studies focussed on the experience of unemployment with an emphasis on
those factors that unemployed individuals foimd as being helpful or hindering during
their period o f unemployment. The authors describe the factors, the theoretical
perspectives that assist in understanding the factors, and effective interventions.
It is a fact that unemployment has always influenced people’s lives whether it
comes from a direct experience of job loss or a fear of job loss in the future (Amundson
& Borgen, 1987). Amundson and Borgen (1987; Borgen & Amundson, 1984; 1987)
describe individuals who are currently out of work as being the “new unemployed”; those
who have lost their jobs because of poor economic conditions, technological change, or
other factors that are not cormected with their motivation or ability to work. Amundson
and Borgen (1987) claimed that, not only did they find in 1984 two negative results of

unemployment were erratic mood shifts and a progressive loss of optimism about finding
employment, but several other studies have also documented the major ways in which
unemployment negatively influences people’s sense of well-being (Bratfisch, 1984;
Brenner & Bartell, 1983; Finley & Lee, 1981; Tiggemann & Winefield, 1984).
Borgen and Amundson (1984) outlined the following factors that they considered
as impinging on, and modifying, the emotional reactions to unemployment:
1.

Attachment to the job. People who are extremely attached to their jobs, and who
gain a sense of material or psychological fulfilment from their employment seem
to experience more intensely negative emotional reaction to job loss.

2.

Social status. Many people, particularly those in professional or higher paying
positions, seem to experience a substantial drop in economic and community status
through unemployment and this seems to intensify the emotional reactions.
Individual personalitv variables. Factors such as internal or external loci of
control seem to play an important role in determining reactions to unemployment.
For example, individuals who believe they have control over their employment
situation may be motivated to look for employment opportunities but those who
feel they have little control over securing employment may feel worthless and put
little effort into searching for employment.
Financial situation. People who do not have financial security in the form of
savings or support from friends/relatives often experience considerable stress. In
this regard, absolute income levels often do not seem to be as important as
previous spending patterns.

34

5.

Social support system. This is a key factor in helping people to successfully
survive the experience of unemployment. The type of supportive interaction that
is possible on a daily basis from family and friends seems to be of major
importance in helping people to cope successfully and to keep persisting in the
frustrating process of continued job search within a shrinking job market.

6

Future expectations. People’s notions regarding what to expect in the future are
experienced as being imder attack when they lose their jobs. If they have had high
hopes for themselves including long range career plans, then expectations undergo
a radical downward shift with accompanying emotional reactions.
Amundson and Borgen (1987) based their study on interviews of 93 imemployed

volunteers (men, women, youths, immigrants) who were clients o f the Canadian
Employment and Immigration Commission in the greater Vancouver area. The
study was undertaken with two purposes: (a) to determine people’s experience with
unemployment and (b) to isolate factors perceived by unemployed people as being a help
or a hindrance. The phenomenological and critical incident (Flanagan, 1954, 1978)
approaches were the methodology used in this study. This is the same methodology used
for a number of other subsequent studies conducted by the authors (Amundson & Borgen,
1988; Borgen & Amundson, 1984; Borgen & Amundson, 1987; Klein, Amundson, &
Borgen, 1992).
They used the data analysis technique developed by Colaizzi (1978) which
encompassed the verbatim transcription and summarization of the interviews. Three
research assistants conducted the summarizing process and made reliability checks of the

35

summary o f every 10th participant’s story to help ensure that the essence o f the original
story had not been lost (Amundson & Borgen, 1987). The second phase of summarizing
was to transfer information from the summaries to rating sheets, placing information into
the following categories:
(a) emotional shifts experienced,
(b) time sequence involved in the occurrence of each emotional shift,
(c) events or behavior that accompanied specific emotional shifts,
(d) coping strategies used,
(e) job search strategies, and
(f) future expectations
(Amundson & Borgen, 1987; Borgen & Amundson, 1984; 1987)
The final phases of summarizing included a cross checking of information on the
rating sheets with the graphic representations made by the participants and a
summarization of the incidents that represented high or low points in the unemployment
experience. Upon completion of the data summarization, participants were initially
categorized into men over 25 years old, women over 25 years old, youths, and immigrants
( those who had been in Canada for less than 2 years). Amundson and Borgen (1982;
Borgen & Amundson, 1984) then looked for similarities and differences in experience
within each of these categories and as a result derived 13 variations (subgroups) based on
the experience of unemployment of the 93 participants: Men (Variations I, II, and III);
Women ( Variations I, II, III, and IV); Immigrants (Variations I, II, III, IV, and V); and
Youths (I). After reviewing the variations across and within categories, the authors also

36

combined the experience of unemployment into six major groups (A-F).
The following paragraphs outline the six groups as identified by Amundson and
Borgen (1982; 1987) and Borgen and Amundson (1984);
Group A (Men I and III; Women I and IV; and Immigrants I). These 30 people

experienced unemployment similar to an emotional roller coaster (Amundson & Borgen,
1982). They experienced grief as an initial reaction to job loss, began their job search
with enthusiasm, and became progressively more discouraged when they could not secure
emplo>Tnent. This group also experienced emotional shifts that were extremely erratic
and more likened to an emotional "yo-yo" than a roller coaster.
Group B (Men II, Women III). These eight people had anticipated job loss prior to

termination. Therefore they went through a grie\'ing process before layoff. The authors
foimd a tendency of the participants to react with relief followed by a time out or vacation
period and then job search. Over time, reactions to the job search were similar to those
found in Group A.
Group C (Women II). This group of six women were secondary wage earners who

perceived a loss of status and some sadness. They also took a vacation period before
initiating a job search.
Group D (Immigrants II and III). The majority of the 16 people in this group were

from China or Japan. They began seeking work immediately upon job loss. Their job
search strategies were ineffective for finding work in Canada and there was a steady
decline in their emotional health due to the lack of success in finding work.
Group E (Immigrants IV and V). There were 12 participants in this group who

37

came from diverse ethnie backgrounds. They maintained the same level of persistence as
Group D. However Group E was better able to handle rejections. They were able to
maintain a sense of control and avoid the negative emotional slide. Financial support,
social support, and strong religious beliefs were key factors in enabling this group to
maintain a positive attitude.
Group F (Youth I). This group consisted of 21 men and women aged 25 and under

who had little or no post secondary education. Feelings of boredom and lack of purpose
were expressed, along with a lack of knowledge about how to look for work effectively
and extremely low levels of persistence in job search activities.
Amundson and Borgen (1982) derived themes that were significant in precipitating
either positive or negative shifts in emotions by;
(a) looking for factors in common by comparing factors in each o f the six groups,
(b) ranking the factors in order (must have been mentioned by at least 20% of the
93 participants), and
(c) the identification and separate discussion of peculiar factors (had to be
mentioned by at least 20% of the people in a specific group).
General Factors
This section contains the major factors that led to positive or negative emotional
shifts across groups. Those factors associated with emotional shifts from positive to
negative (including the number of participants out of 93 who mentioned each) are:
(a) job rejections, 60;
(b) financial pressures, 56;

38

(c) unproductive contacts with the government employment agency (no jobs listed,
poor reception by counselors and other staff members), 34;
(d) an unknown or negative future, 3 1;
(e) ineffective job search activities (interviews, telephone calls, applications), 31 ;
(f) negative thinking (negative self-messages), 27; and
(g) spouse or family problems, 26
(Amundson & Borgen, 1982).
Based on the data examined, Amundson and Borgen (1982) found tliat searching
for a job was clearly stressful and factors like job rejections and contact with the
government employment agencies reflected the increased level of stress associated with
job search activities. Stress was not only associated with job search activities but also
with the new financial pressures, family discord, the loss of self-confidence, and a
growing fear of the future. Amundson and Borgen (1982) hypothesized that these factors
worked together to create a downward spiral in which the person’s world slowly
disintegrated and he or she became less able to take advantage of any job opportunities
that emerged.
The positive factors that allowed people to slow or reverse the downward trend in
response to the negative pressures were:

(a) support from family, 54;
(b) support from friends, 38;
(c) positive thinking (positive self-messages), 34;

39

(d) career changes or plans for retraining, 34;
(e) part-time or temporary work, 28;
(f) job search support groups or vocational counselling, 25;
(g) the initial job search and making job contacts, 23; and
(h) physical activity^ 20.
The authors found that positive factors emphasized the social dimension and there
was a need for personal strength. Emotional support from family and friends tended to
alleviate some of the negative stresses associated with being unemployed. Some
participants gathered personal strength by thinking positively and giving themselves a
steady supply of positive self-messages. Amundson and Borgen (1982) found that this
positive thought process could extend into other areas and could take the form of
rethinking a career path and taking seriously the task of making job contacts. By re­
framing their concepts of self-worth and the job search process, some participants were
able to respond more positively to stress than they did before.
Specific Factors
Amundson and Borgen (1982) outlined some factors that were mentioned by at
least 20% of the people in one of the six subgroups, but the overlap with the other groups
was insufficient to have them mentioned as a general factor. These specific factors that
influenced a shift from positive to negative emotions are (by group):
(a) additional job loss, A and E;
(b) feeling they were not contributing to society or family, B and C;
(c) excessively engaging in unproductive activities (i.e., watching television.

40

drinking), B and F ;
(d) running out of job search ideas and activities, D and E;
( e) pressure from friends to find a job quickly, D;
(f) lack of proficiency in using English, D; and
(g) having training that is not recognized by employers, E.
Amundson and Borgen (1982) noted that the meaning in a person’s life that was
evident in specific factors (b) and (d) was particularly true for women who were
secondary wage earners and youths. Specific factors (d), (e), (f), and (g) represented
perceived barriers to employment including a lack of information on conducting a job
search in Canada, the lack of proficiency in using English, difficulty in obtaining
recognition for training received outside of North America, and coping with pressures
from friends to find a job quickly due to its importance in their cultural heritage.
Amundson and Borgen (1982) found that factors that caused negative shifts in
emotions were different from those that encouraged positive emotional shifts. Among the
predominant negative factors were job rejections, financial pressures, nonproductive
contacts with government agencies, ineffective job search activities, and the length of the
job search process. Once individuals reached the apathy phase of unemployment tliere
was a tendency to eliminate job search activities that were the primary precipitators of
stress. However, this phase is counterproductive to the goal of getting a job.
Amundson and Borgen (1982) described the factors that led to negative emotional
shifts (financial pressures and job rejections) as being remedial factors because the
factors caused pain by their presence but did not provide energy for problem solving by

41

their absence. Instead, participants were led into dispositions of personal helplessness,
negative thinking, and movement away from meaningful job search activities. One
wonders whether these are, in fact, remedial or more properly described as destructive.
Conversely, Amundson and Borgen (1982) identified factors that led to positive
shifts in emotion (support from family and fiiends) as being developmental factors that
promoted constructive career planning and job search activities. The overall impression
of an unemployed person influenced by positive factors was that of someone who
endured a painful experience more successfully than others by gaining access to personal
and institutional support, by maintaining a sense of personal power and control, and by
engaging in meaningful activities connected with the goal of reemplo^mient.
The identification and subsequent examination of the destructive and
developmental factors illuminated the importance of not only addressing the former, but
also incorporating opportunities to sustain and enhance the factors promoting
development while engaging in an intervention. Interventions should incorporate the
factors listed as positive or developmental if people are to move beyond reducing pain
into the positive areas of problem redefinition, awareness of personal power and growth,
and constructive action leading to the goal of re-employment. Amundson and Borgen
(1982) listed the following important points regarding effective interventions with
unemployed people;
1.

In either an individual or group setting, help unemployed people assess the
positive and negative factors that affect them. This can provide the atmosphere of
supportive understanding, promote the awareness and use of natural support

42

systems, and give both the client and the counselor a more accurate awareness of
the unemployed person’s situation.
2.

In addition to the more supportive client-centered counsellor activities needed in
the assessment phase, the intervention should teach the unemployed person to do
cognitive re-framing of his or her situation to promote positive thinking.

3.

Group intervention appears to be appropriate and evidence from this study suggest
that in addition to teaching skills, giving support for the job search and rejection
processes the group should include client-centered emotional support through
specific cognitive and other re-framing activities. Interventions also need to
address long-range career reorientation and planning as well as specific job search
activities connected with short-term goals.

4.

To avoid the withdrawal associated with the negative factors, interventions need to
be ongoing in order to promote a continuing positive and supportive involvement
with others through the period o f emotional turmoil.

5.

If unemployment rates continue to be high and interventions with people result in
no reemployment, counselors and their clients may need to seek additional goals
for the intervention. The goals could be modified to include finding short-term
survival jobs and long-term, personally satisfying volunteer activities.
With regard to points two and three above, in reference to the cognitive re­

framing, it is important to note that changes in one’s frame of mind is not sufficient for
change. Instead, one would use cognitive re-framing as a basis from which to build, for
example, stronger self-esteem.

43

SUMIVIARY
Throughout the process of conducting the literature review one question was
considered, “What are the clear overall messages being presented in the literature?” The
following general conclusions which reflect the uniqueness of the experience of
unemployment were drawn from the literature:
1.

All results supported the theory that it is important to differentiate among groups
(e.g., immigrant/non-immigrant, youth etc.) when considering the experience of
imemployment (Gumey & Taylor, 1981; Rump, 1983; and Warr, 1983).

2.

The experience of unemployment is traumatic and is characterized by dramatic
shifts in economic power, personal support, and self-esteem.

3.

Generally speaking, participants in the studies experienced emotional and
cognitive shifts from positive to negative which were influenced by financial
pressures, job rejections, and stress associated with job loss and the job search.

4.

Amundson and Borgen's (1982) original model describing the experience of
unemployment as being like an emotional roller coaster was generally supported
by the reviewed studies. However, it should be noted that many of the participants
also experienced unemployment as a “yo-yo” effect which was characterized by
erratic, rapid shifts in emotions. This “yo-yo” effect diminished the participants’
self-confidence and their ability to control their emotions.

5.

For many imemployed people, the downward slide began within the first three
months, although some individuals maintained a positive attitude for six months.

6.

It was found that the negative effects could be slowed or reversed if participants

44

received support from family members and friends, maintained positive thinking,
planned for a career change or retraining, found part-time or temporary work, and
attended a job search group. For those individuals in receipt of income assistance,
it was also important that long term follow up and continued support was part of
attending an employment group or engaging in individual employment/career
counselling.
In the author’s opinion, the methodology used to conduct the research presented
both strengths and weaknesses. In a sense, the strength of using the phenomenological
approach is also its weakness. The fact that the researchers did not impose their personal
views regarding the experience of unemployment upon the participants created an open
forum for open discussions. Participants were permitted to present their own thoughts,
feelings, and experiences of being unemployed and, in Klein, Amundson, and Borgen’s
1992 study, in receipt of income assistance.
Due to the need to conduct in depth explorations of the participants’ experiences,
the researchers may be limited with respect to the sample size that can be utilized,
particularly in Klein, Amundson, and Borgen’s (1992) study that focussed on people in
receipt of income assistance. This factor could create a situation whereby the sample
may not be representative. This project will attempt to address this limitations by using a
larger sample size.

45

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH DESIGN
Selection of Methodology
In considering research approaches for this study, a structured phone survey was
used. The reason for this selection was:
(a) the desire to use a larger sample size than reported in the literature (Klein,
Amundson, & Borgen (1992) had 20 participants),
(b) response rates are better using the telephone,
(c) a sensitivity to potentially low literacy levels of participants,
(d) the ability of both the participants and the researcher to ask clarifying
questions, and
(e) there was an opportunity for the researcher to develop a rapport with the
participants.
The survey methodology is similar to that used by statistical agencies like Statistics
Canada for the census. That is, an interviewer follows a veiy scripted (i.e., structured)
survey and in so doing completes the survey with the participant. This approach is
particularly useful when literacy is a concern.
Ethics
It was of primary concern that the research conducted in this thesis was carried out
with “respect for the people who participated and with concern for their dignity and
welfare” (Palys, 1997, p. 91). To this end, a number of ethical issues were addressed and
monitored throughout the course of the study. They included maintaining anonymity.

46

freedom to decline participation, giving informed consent, and the disclosure of potential
consequences related to participation in the study.
Maintaining the anonymity of the participants and the data collected was strictly
adhered to at all times. Participant confidentiality was maintained by the use of subject
numbers instead of names. Access to this information was restricted to the researcher and
data confidentiality was maintained by having it stored in a double-locked area that was
accessed only by the researcher.
Participants were informed in writing and at various times throughout the course
of the study that they were free to withdraw from the study at any point. They were also
assured that there would not be any reprisals or negative consequences for declining to
participate in this research. Participants were made aware that any data collected
pertaining to them would be destroyed immediately upon their withdrawal from the study.
Potential participants were provided, both in writing and over the telephone, with
information regarding the purpose of the research, how it was to be conducted, and the
potential impact on them for participating in the study. Participants were encouraged to
make any inquiries they felt would aid in making their decision to either participate or not
in the proposed study.
The researcher informed participants that there would not be any negative
consequences as a result of participating within the study. Due to the precautions being
taken to maintain confidentiality and the fact that the researcher was working
independently of government institutions and agencies that would have a vested interest

47

in the results o f the study, participants were not placed in a situation that could have been
harmful to them.
METHOD
Participant Selection
There were three criteria used for the selection of participants. Individuals had to:
(a) be in receipt of income assistance for 10 out of the last 12 months (at the time
of collecting potential participants’ names),
(b) reside in the Prince George area (local calls), and
(c) be listed in the Institutional Based Training (IBT) database being maintained in
the College Directions department at the College of New Caledonia (CNC).
College Directions is contracted by Ministry of Advanced Education, Training,
and Technology (NIAETT) to deliver the IBT Project to the community through CNC.
The service assists community members who are on income assistance to access
education and provides career and educational counselling. As a recent employee of this
department and a continuing employee of CNC, 1 am very familiar with the database and
the clientele who access the College Directions service. Thus, it was relatively easy for
me to seek access to potential participants through the database at CNC.
The process for selecting participants was as follows. From the IBT paper files at
at College Directions, the author:
(1) gathered names, addresses, and phone numbers of potential participants who
had a start date of income assistance at least 10 months prior to the time of the
search.

48

(2) Assigned subject numbers to each of the chosen names.
(3) Sent out an initial contact letter that indicated a general time frame for
subsequent phone contact that would request participation in and the completion
of the survey.
(4) Made a note of any returned letters and tried to make contact by phone along
with the other potential participants.
(5) Phoned potential participants a maximum of three times. (If I was
unsuccessful in making contact they were removed from the list of potential
participants).
(6) Upon successful telephone contact, introduced myself, answered any
questions, and sought consent to participate in the study. If consent was given I
immediately conducted the survey. The telephone survey took approximately 15
to 20 minutes to complete.
Structured Survey
The initial part of the survey consisted of a number o f demographic questions that
allowed me to develop a rapport with participants, but more importantly, provided me
with information that assisted in the development of a profile, or a number of profiles, of
the participants in this study. Following the demographic information, a series of
questions were posed that required participants to reflect on their experience of
unemployment and the factors that they have found or would find helpful or hindering to
their success in gaining employment.

49

During the survey I posed a question and awaited a response. If none was
forthcoming, the list of potential responses were read out to the participant. Responses
were placed in explicit pre-coded response categories. The survey contained both open
and closed questions in order to give participants opportunities to elaborate on areas they
may have felt required more extensive explanations. Appendix A outlines the survey
including the demographic questions, the survey questions and the rationale for each
question.

50

CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS
Forty individuals were interviewed, of which 17 were males and 23 were females.
There was no significant difference between the ages of the males and females (males,
mean = 33.4 years, SD = 7.9; females, mean = 34.4 years, SD = 34.4, t(38) = 0.329, p =
0.744). O f the 40 respondents, 18 were o f aboriginal descent including status, non-status,
and Métis.
Respondents were placed into the following categories according to their highest
levels of education; 55% (n = 22) some secondary school, 25% (n = 10) some college,
17.5% (n = 7) high school graduation, and 2.5% (n = 1) imiversity graduation.
O f the respondents with some secondary level education, 59% o f these individuals
completed grade 10 level course work and 41% completed some or all of grade 11 level
coiu'se work.
When examining the percentage of life span the participants had spent on income
assistance, it was foimd that the mean was 13.8% (SD = 12.0). The minimum time spent
on income assistance was 2.04% and the maximum was 48.57% of their life. A
t-test of the difference between genders for the percentage o f life spent on income
assistance was statistically non-significant (t(38) = 1.33, p =0.190).
With respect to the marital status o f the participants, 16 respondents were single, 7
were divorced, 4 were separated, and 1 individual was widowed. Four individuals were
married and 8 were involved in common law relationships.
O f the fort>' respondents, 13 did not have any dependents and 27 had dependents
ranging in age from birth to 18 years of age. The average number of dependents per

51

respondent was 1.15. The maximum number of dependents was 4 and the minimum
number was zero.
The balance o f the results section will be organized according to two broad
research questions and several related specific questions. The broad questions are: (1)
“What do people who are long-term income assistance recipients find helpful or
hindering when seeking employment?” and (2) “What are the implications for
coimselling them (income assistance recipients)?”
Broad Research Question 1: What do people who are long-term income assistance
recipients find helpful or hindering when seeking employment?
la.

“What would you find most helpful in trying to become fullv employed?”
The response options for this question were: support from family, support from

fiiends, maintain positive thinking, attend a group, counselling support, or other.
Respondents were permitted to choose more than one response item and the total number
of responses was sixty-eight. The frequency of responses are listed in Table 4.

52
Table 4

Helpful Factors for Becoming Employed
Response Item

N

%

Maintain positive thinking

13

19

Support from family

10

15

Counselling support

9

13

Support from friends

8

12

Other
Education
Job search
Resources
Attitude
Personal
Attending a group

16

38

2

3

Total

68

100

11.7
10.3
8.7
4.4
2.9

8
7
6
3
2

The 26 responses given in the “other” response item were categorized as follows;
resources, education, job search support, personal, and attitude. Focussing on the “other”
category, the frequency of responses were recorded in the following rank order: 31%
education (e.g., high school diploma and industiy training), 28% job search (e.g., ability
to market self, be given a chance by an employer), 24% resources (e.g., access to
transportation, affordable child care, job search resources, more opportunities afforded by
MSDES and MHR), 10% attitude (e.g., increased motivation), and 7% personal (e.g.,
shoulder operation, support with son who has a disability). Note that these percentages
are with reference to the “other” category.

Cross tabulations and chi-square analysis for the response options were conducted
on gender, age, education, and marital status, separately. None of tlie t-tests were
significant except for the t-test conducted on age comparing those who did and did not
select the counselling support factor (t(38) = 2.82, p = .008). There was a ten year age
difference between participants who found counselling support helpful (M = 41.0, SD =
6.5) and those who did not identify it as such (M = 31.9, SD = 8.9).
Overall, it was found that respondents believed that maintaining positive thinking,
receiving support from family members and receiving counselling support would be most
helpful when seeking employment. It was also found that older respondents indicated
that counselling support would be helpful more often than younger respondents,
lb.

“What has been preventing vou from getting employed?”
The response options for this question were; transportation, education, lack of

support from family/friends, don’t know what you want to do, childcare, money,
experience, economy, disability, ethnic minority, and other. Factors that participants
identified as preventing them from becoming employed are outlined in Table 5.
Twenty-five percent (N = 24) of the respondents also chose “other” as a response
either singularly or in conjunction with other responses. Within the “other” category, the
responses were grouped into five categories and put into rank order according to selection
by respondents. The results are as follows: 33% (n = 8) attitude (e.g., laziness,
motivation), 21% (n = 5) lifestyle (e.g., choosing not to work in favour of being a full
time mom), 21% (n = 5) need for training, 13% (n =3) criminal record, and 13% (n = 3)
age/health related.

54

Table 5

Factors that Prevent Employment
Response Item

N

%

Poor economy

20

28.2

Lack of support (family/friends)

10

14.1

Education

9

12.7

Money

7

9.9

Lack of experience

7

9.9

Disability

6

8.5

Don’t know what 1 want to do

6

8.5

Other

24

25.4

Attitude
Lifestyle
Training
Criminal Record
Age/health

8
5
5
3
3

8.4
5.3
5.3
3.2
3.2

Transportation

2

2.8

Reasonable child care

2

2.8

Ethnic minority

2

2.8

Total

71

100

This study found that the highest percentage of respondents felt that the poor
economy was a limiting factor in securing employment. The lowest percentage of
responses related to factors preventing employment included; a lack of transportation, a
lack of affordable childcare, and being an ethnic minority.
Ic.

“What is vour biggest barrier to becoming employed?”
The response options for this question were: transportation, childcare, experience.

55

education, money, economy, lack of support from family/friends, disability, don’t know
what you want to do, ethnic minority, and other. Factors that participants identified as
being the biggest barrier to becoming employed are listed in rank order in Table 6.
Table 6
Biggest Barriers to Acquiring Employment
Response Item

N

%

Lack of education

14

35

Other

114

27.51

Lack of experience

3

7.5

Disability

3

7.5

Child care

2

5

Economy

2

5

Money

1

2.5

Lack of support from family/friends

0

0

Ethnic minority

0

0

Don’t know what to do

0

0

Total

40

100

Transportation

For those who chose lack of education as being the biggest barrier to securing
employment, 57% of respondents had some level of secondary education. Those who
chose “other” as being the biggest barrier to gaining employment indicated issues such as:
self-esteem, age, laziness, attending school full time, health, and having a criminal record.

56

Cross tabulations with level of education and age did not show any significant
effects. A chi square test was not conducted because there were too many cells with
either one or zero entries, which made the test inappropriate.
A self-perceived lack of education was identified as the biggest barrier for securing
employment. Low self-esteem was also found to be a significant concern for the
respondents. By having a low level o f education and struggling with self-esteem issues
respondents found it very difficult to perform the job search activities required in order to
successfully secure employment.
Id.

“When do vou think job search support and career counselling should be
provided to people who receive income assistance?”
The response options for this question were: immediately, 1-3 months, 4-7 months,

8-10 months, and 11 months or more. Table 7 outlines the time frames participants had
identified.
The 28 respondents who chose “immediately” believed that support should be
offered before individuals lose hope and motivation. Lack o f self-confidence, training,
and resource knowledge were cited as being negative factors that should be resolved as
soon as an individual enters the social service system. The 10 respondents who chose “ 13 months” felt, in general, that individuals need a bit of time to regroup or, in other
words, develop a plan for securing employment which may include retraining, relocating,
or searching for a new career.

57
Table 7

Time Frames Desired for Receiving Job Search Support and Career Counselling
Response Item

N

%

Immediately

28

70

1 - 3 months

10

25

4 - 7 months

2

5

8 - 1 0 months

0

0

11 months or more

0

0

Total

40

100

Eighty-two percent of the surveyed males, versus 70% of the females, believed
that job search support and career coimselling should begin “immediately.” Eighteen
percent o f the males and 30% of the females felt support is essential after “ 1 - 3 months”
of receiving income assistance. The majority of the female respondents cited the birth of
a child or illness as being the reason for the desired delay in support. Further testing
indicated that the relationship between the number o f years respondents had spent on
income assistance and the importance of receiving job search support and career
counselling was not statistically significant.
The study found that respondents would like to have job search support and career
counselling available to them immediately after they began to receive income assistance.
All of the respondents said that, while waiting for assistance as regulated by the current
system, there was a significant decline in self-esteem, motivation, and hope.

58

le.

'‘What type of training and education do vou think would help vou get a job?''
The response options for this question were; high school graduation, industry

training, job search support, on-the-job training, certificate or diplomas, university
degree, and other. Table 8 outlines the types of training and education respondents
believed would assist them in securing employment in rank order.
Table 8
Education and Training
Response Item

N

%

Certificate or diplomas

28

30

High school graduation

20

21

On-the-job training

18

19

Industry training

15

16

University" degree

8

8

Job search support

3

3

Other

3

3

Total

95

100

Post-secondary certificates and diplomas were cited as being most important
because of high demand from employers for “pieces of paper” particularly in the trades
(e.g., carpentry, auto mechanics) and mid-range technical fields (e.g., computer
programmer or analysts). Respondents indicated that their poor financial situations
made it possible to only access training that would allow for a fairly quick return to the
workforce. Eighty-two percent of males compared to 61% of females chose this

59

response. Twenty-five percent of the respondents did have some college education but
none had received trade or technical training.
Fifty-three percent of females and 47% of males believed that high school
graduation would assist them in getting a job. Sixty-five percent of the respondents did
not graduate from high school but the majority had attended secondary school through
grade 10. Only 20% of respondents had graduated from high school.
Nearly equal percentages of males (42%) and females (48%) chose on-the-job
training as being a helpful tool for securing employment. Twenty-two percent of
respondents were high school graduates and 33% had some college education.
Industry training such as First Aid, log scaling and grading, and basic security
training were cited as being helpful in finding work. Thirty-five percent of males and
39% of females chose this response option. Sixty percent of respondents had some high
school education, 7% were high school graduates, and 27% had attended college.
Twenty-six percent of females and 12% of males chose having a university degree
as being helpful in securing work. Generally speaking, the females who chose this
response option wanted to become either Social Workers or Nurses, both fields that are
not chosen by men as often. Of the respondents who chose this response option, 50% did
not complete high school, 25% were high school graduates and 25% had some college
education. All respondents indicated that they were either in the planning process or had
already begim to attend school in order to achieve a university degree.

60

O f the three respondents who chose the response option “other,” two cited gaining
more experience and 1 individual stated having a driver’s license as being helpful in order
to gain employment.
The results indicated that the highest percentage of respondents felt post-secondary
certificates and diplomas were the most helpful in terms of securing employment. A
higher percentage of males than females felt that post-secondary education was
important. The study also revealed that the respondents who felt that way generally had
an education level with less than high school graduation. It was also found that more
males felt post-secondary certificates/diplomas and on-the-job training would be helpful
in securing employment. More females believed that ha\dng a university degree would
be important and all of them had plans to attend or were attending school at the time of
the survey.
Broad Research Question 2: In light of this research, what are the implications for
counselling individuals who are long-term income assistance recipients?
2a.

“Since becoming unemploved how would you describe changes, if anv. in vour
overall thoughts and feelings?”
The response options for this question were; positive to negative, negative to

positive, no change, and fluctuates between positive and negative. Table 9 lists the
frequency of responses in rank order.

61
Table 9

Changes in Thoughts and Feelings
Response Item

N

%

Positive to negative

26

65

Fluctuating

7

17.5

No change

4

10

Negative to positive

3

7.5

Total

40

100

The response option “positive to negative” reflects the respondents’ perceptions
that there was a downward trend towards more negative feelings and thoughts. These
include feelings of helplessness, low motivation, anger, and despair. Thirty-five percent
(n = 9) of males and 65% (n = 17) of females endorsed this question.
The response option “negative to positive” reflects the respondents’ perceptions
that there was an increase in positive feelings and thoughts. Respondents indicated that
they had more money for survival and the opportunity to go to school once they began to
receive income assistance. Sixty-seven percent of the respondents who chose this option
were females who were single parents with small children. Under the current income
assistance system those parents with children under the age of seven years do have the
option to attend school.
O f the respondents who chose “no change,” 75% (n = 3) were males. These
individuals indicated that they were making roughly the same amoimt on income
assistance as they did while working. This was interpreted as meaning these individuals

62

were the working poor who were either not benefited or harmed by being connected to
the income assistance system.
The response option that stated “fluctuates between positive and negative” was
meant to reflect the feelings and thoughts of those respondents who went through phases
in which they felt hope and confidence overshadowed at other periods of time by despair,
anger, and hopelessness. Fifty-seven percent of these respondents were males and 43%
were females. Seventy-one percent of these respondents also had dependents between the
ages of seven and eighteen years.
This study found the majority of respondents felt there was a negative change in
their thoughts and feelings since becoming unemployed. A significantly higher number
of females identified a change in thoughts and emotions from being positive to being
negative. The majority of respondents who identified the negative change were single
parents with small children.
2b.

“If there has been a change, how would you describe these shifts in emotion as
being?”
This question was used to elaborate on the previous question and determine if

emotional shifts were severe, moderate, or low in intensity. The response options were:
like a roller coaster, like a yo-yo, and flat. The frequency of responses to this question
were, in rank order: 47.5% (n = 19) indicated like a roller coaster, 30% (n = 12) flat, and
22.5% (n = 9) like a yo-yo.
The roller coaster effect was described as a phenomena in which respondents
would make gradual positive and negative emotional shifts between feelings such as

63

anger, anxiety, determination, hope, and loneliness. O f the respondents who chose this
option, 42% were males and 58% were females. Forty-two percent of respondents did
not have any children, 26% had children under the age of seven years, and 32% had
children between the age of eight and eighteen years. Fifty-eight percent of respondents
had only some secondary education.
The “flat” response option was used to describe little change in emotions. The
respondent generally felt sad or despondent. Two respondents indicated that they “take
life as it comes, so their financial situation did not impact them emotionally.” As a result
they felt generally happy and positive. Fifty-eight percent of these respondents were
male and 42% were female. Forty-two percent of the individuals did not have children
and 42% had children under the age of seven years.
The “yo-yo” response option was used to describe sudden, rapid shifts in emotion
such as feeling fine to being furious, or bursting into tears without warning. Respondents
who chose this option felt tliey had little or no control over their emotions. Twenty-two
percent of the respondents were male and 78% were female. All o f these individuals had
children between the ages of newborn to eighteen years. Fifty-six percent of the
respondents had some secondary and 22% had graduated from high school.
The results indicated that the majority of respondents described the changes in
thoughts and emotions as being much like a roller coaster. Gradual positive and negative
emotional shifts were made with a downward trend being most prevalent. Individuals
who chose this response option were generally females, did not have any children, and
possessed some secondary education.

64

2c.

“On a scale from 1 to 5. 5 meaning vou are very good at it and 1 meaning vou are
very poor at it. how good are vou at doing the following job search activities?”
The job search activities that the respondents were to rate themselves on included;

writing a resume, knowing how to search for employment, contacting employers,
marketing your skills and abilities, doing an interview, doing labor market research, and
knowing what type of job you want to do. Table 10 below outlines the frequency of
responses for each job search activity listed in the survey.
Table 10
Frequency o f Responses for Self-rating Scale on Job Search Activities
PERCENTAGE CHOSEN
Title ver\' poor 1
Writing resume
Knowing how to search for jobs
Contacting employers
Marketing skills & abilities
Doing an interview
Doing labour market research

12.5
2.5
7.5
5
5
22.5

Knowing type o f job wanted

2.5

2

3

4

v e iy good 5

20
10
20
17.5
17.5
22.5
5

30
30
12.5
32.5
22.5
20
12.5

17.5
32.5
35
27.5
35
27.5
22.5

20
25
25
17.5
20
7.5
57.5

ME.AN

S

3.13
3.68
3.5
3.35
3.48
2.75
4.28

1.
1.0
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.

As is evidenced by Table 10, respondents felt that they were quite poor at doing
labour market research. Sixty-five percent of the respondents believed that their abilit>^ to
conduct labour market research was at a mean of 2.75. Writing a resume was also
considered to be a skill that was rated “poor” or “very poor” by 62.5% o f the respondents.
As Table 10 also shows, the mean score for “knowing what type o f job I want”
was 4.28 out of a possible 5. Eighty percent of respondents rated themselves as good to
very good on this item. The respondents also identified the types o f jobs that they were
trying to secure including Auto-mechanic, Teacher, Social Worker, and Disc Jockey.

1.0

65

In sunimar>% respondents rated themselves lowest on conducting labour
market research (M = 2.75) and highest on knowing what type o f job they wanted (M
4.28). The mean scores for the remaining job search activities ranged from 3.13 to 3.68.
These results may reflect the perception of respondents that their abilities to conduct job
search activities is, on average alright, but they do not possess a tremendous amount of
confidence in participating in these activities.
2d.

“For your poorest skill, whv do vou think vou are poor at it?”
This was an open ended question designed to define the most prominent problem

areas for this population in relation to the previously discussed job search activities. The
intent was to utilize this information to develop new or reaffirm current counselling
approaches when working with this client group. The responses were categorized into
four distinct groups which included: poor communication skills, don’t do it, lack of
knowledge and/or skills, and low self-confidence. A frequency of responses was then
calculated and reported in percentages for the 40 responses to this question. The
frequency of responses were, in rank order: 52.5% (n = 21) lack of knowledge and/or
skills, 22.5% (n = 9) low self-confidence, 17.5% (n = 7) don’t do it, and 5% (n = 2) poor
communication skills.
Respondents indicated that job search activities such as conducting labour market
research and writing a resume were areas in which they either had never had practice or
did not have any idea as to how to go about each activity. For those individuals who
indicated they had low self-confidence, words such as being shy, uncomfortable, nervous,
or having low self-esteem were commonly used to describe themselves. Responses that

66

were placed into the “don’t do it” category included those in which individuals indicated
they had the knowledge and skills for the job search activities but did not choose to
perform the activities. Lack of motivation or a dislike for the activity were cited as
reasons for not following through on specified job search activities. The “poor
communication skills” category included deficits in both written and oral skills.
The results indicated that respondents believed a lack of knowledge and/or skills
led to their poor performances when conducting job search activities. Thus, further
training and opportunities to practice the required skills was suggested by the
respondents. It was also found that low self-confidence, lack of motivation, and a dislike
for job search activities were the main contributing factors for why, even with the
knowledge and skills, respondents did not carry out job search activities.
2e.

“For vour best skill, whv do vou think you are good at it?”
This was an open ended question designed to define the most prominent areas of

self-perceived strength for this population in relation to the previously discussed job
search activities. The intent was to utilize this information to develop or reaffirm current
counselling approaches when working with this client group. The responses were
categorized into six distinct groups which included: good communication skills,
confidence, training/education, good knowledge and/or skills, experience in the field, and
knowing the job I w an t. A frequency of responses was then calculated and reported in
percentages for the 48 responses to this question. The frequency of responses were, in
rank order: 22.9% (n = II) knowing the type of job 1 want, 20.8% (n = 10) experience in
the field, 20.8% ( n = 10) good knowledge and/or skills, 16.7% (n = 8) good

67

communication skills, 12.5% (n = 6) training/education, and 6.3% (n = 3) confidence.
Responses that were categorized into “knowing what type of job 1 want” were
occupations the respondents identified as being desirable for them. The occupations cited
included: Disc jockey, Sheriff, Long Term Care Aid, Social Worker, Auto-mechanic,
Pharmacy Technician, and Teacher. Except for the Disc Jockey, all other types of
occupations required post-secondary education with the minimum level of education
being a one year certificate to a maximum of five years.
For those individuals who indicated that they had experience in their field of
choice it was foimd they consistently were also seeking further education that would
formally qualify them to continue in the occupation for which they had experience.
Respondents indicated they had experience in the following fields: computer repair,
social work, and auto-mechanics. Other respondents who chose “experience in the field”
cited experiences related to job search activities such as resume development, labour
market research, and participating in interviews.
When respondents described themselves as having good skills and/or knowledge
they were generally referring to the development of a resume and knowledge or resources
available to assist in the job search process. These resources included institutions that
offered job search skills workshops, academic upgrading, and post-secondary
programming.
Good communication skills were cited when individuals believed that they were
comfortable talking to others in order to ask questions and network with employers.
These respondents found it easy to talk to other people and felt they were able to sell

68

themselves in a positive manner. A number o f these individuals believed they had been
successful in the work force due to their ability to convince an employer they should be
hired on the spot. Some of these respondents had never found the need to hand in a
resume or fill out an application form for a job.
It was found that respondents who believed that training and education was a
strength had either recently completed a job search training course or were currently
attending some type of academic programme (e.g., attending college towards a degree in
teaching and social work). For those who were not currently attending a training or
education program, they were in the planning process with the hope of beginning school
within the next year.
Respondents who cited having confidence as being their best skill (actually this is
a personal characteristic and not a skill, per se), believed that they were the type of
individual who made a decision about what they wanted and then pursued the goal. They
also reflected that they knew confidence was a strength because of the positive feedback
received from other individuals including employers and coworkers.
The results indicated that respondents felt they were good at job search activities
because they knew what types of jobs they wanted, had experience in the field, and
maintained good knowledge and/or skills. The education requirement for the types of
jobs listed by respondents required a minimum one year certificate and it was found that
respondents were seeking to upgrade their level of education in order to become formally
qualified for the job in which they had experience.

69

2f.

A. “Describe the amount of control vou believe vou have over your employment
situation.” B. “Has this always been the case?” C. “How much control do vou
think vou have over the other areas in vour life?” D. ‘“Can vou describe what
areas you are thinking of?”
This was a four part question that was intended to provide information to be used

as points of reference when discussing counselling implications. The premise was, if
individuals feel they have a certain degree o f control over their situation, they will be
better able to handle it in an effective and positive manner. Parts A, B, and C were
questions with structured responses. Part D was open ended so that it allowed
respondents to freely identify answers specific to their own situation.
In part A, the respondent was asked to describe the amount of control they
believed they had over their employment situation. The four response options were:
none, very little, some, and total. Part B, which asked if the respondents’ level of control
had always been as it currently was, had the following response options: no, sometimes,
and yes. Part C asked about the degree of control the respondents felt they had over other
areas in their lives. It had the following four response options: none, very little, some,
and total. Part D asked respondents to describe the areas of their lives to which they
were referring when they responded to Part C of the question. The responses for this
section were categorized into the following eight areas: behaviour/thoughts/emotions,
relationships, daily activities, leisure, school, location of residence, health, and finances.
Table 11 outlines the frequency of responses for parts A, B, C, and D.

70

Table 11
Frequency of Responses Related to Personal Control Over Employment Situations
Response Item

N

%

Some

17

42.5

Very little

10

25

Total

9

22.5

None

4

10

40

100

No

16

40

Yes

15

37.5

Sometimes

9

22.5

40

100

Some

18

45

Total

14

35

Very little

7

17.5

None

1

2.5

40

100

Relationships

21

33.9

Daily activities

9

14.5

Behaviour/thoughts

8

12.9

Leisure

7

11.3

School

7

11.3

Health

4

6.5

Location of residence

3

4.8

Finances

3

4.8

62

100

Part A - Over employment

Total
Part B - Always this way

Total
Part C - Other areas

Total
Part D - Describe areas

Total

71

The most frequently listed area in which respondents felt they had control was
within relationships. These relationships most often involved children and significant
others such as spouses or girlfriends/boyfriends. Respondents also stated that they had
total control over whether or not they chose to develop a personal relationship with
another individual. They had little control, however, when it came to engaging in a
relationship forced by financial need (e.g., individuals who were connected to support
services such as the Ministry of Human Resources).
Daily activities such as grocery shopping, cleaning the house, making
appointments with professionals, and doing laundry were cited as areas in which the
respondents had total control. Other activities such as leisure and attending school were
reported as areas in which the respondents generally had some control, except for barriers
such as finances and contingencies placed on them by the Ministry of Human Resources.
Some respondents indicated that they would circumvent some barriers if they felt there
was a greater likelihood of getting what they wanted by doing so.
The individuals who chose “behaviours/thoughts/emotions” as an area they were
considering when answering Part C felt strongly that they had total control over this area.
They also felt that their behaviours/thoughts/emotions were impacted by the fact that they
were unemployed and receiving income assistance. So, although they had total control
over how these behaviours/thoughts/emotions were experienced and demonstrated, the
respondents felt that much of the negativity in their lives was due to being financially
destitute and unable to secure employment. These individuals also indicated that they felt
devalued and humiliated by being tied to the income assistance system.

72

O f the three remaining categories which included health, location of residence, and
finances, respondents felt that they had some control but expressed frustration at not
being in total control due to financial struggles exacerbated by the lack of employment.
As indicated by the results, respondents generally felt they had some control over
their employment situations, which may or may not have always been the case for them.
Respondents also felt they had some control over other areas in their lives. The most
often considered aspect was relationships. These relationships included that with their
spouses, their children, and their friends.
2g.

“What is your primary goal for this year?”
The response options for this question were: employment, school, have a child, get

married, get off income assistance, health, and other. O f the forty respondents, 28 chose
only one primary goal and 12 chose two primary goals for the year. Table 12 presents the
frequency of responses for the two sets of data.
Table 12
Primary Goals for Upcoming Year
Primary A

Primary B_____ ________

N

%

N

%

Employment

14

0

0

Attend school
Have a child
Get married

19
0
0

35
47.5
0
0

8
0
0

66.7
0
0

Get off LA
Health

3
0

7.5

1

8.3

0

Other

4

10

1
2

8.3
16.7

Total

40

100

12

100

73

For those respondents who chose one primary goal, 47% of males and 26% of
females stated that securing employment was most important to them. Twenty-nine
percent of males and 61% of females chose going to school as their primary goal for the
year. The respondents who chose two goals had the following results according to
gender: 80% of males and 57% of females chose “going to school” ; 14% of females and
no males chose “getting off of income assistance”; 20% o f males and no females chose
“health”; and 29% of females and no males chose “other”.
A cross tabulation conducted between the respondents’ levels of education and
their primary goals revealed that those individuals with some high school education were
the most interested in attending school as either their first or second primary goal. Fortytwo percent (n - 8) of the respondents who chose attending school as the only goal for
the year had some high school education. For those respondents who chose attending
school as their second primary goal, 75% (n = 6) had some high school education.
The results clearly indicated that attaining a higher level of education was the
number one goal for the respondents. For those individuals who chose employment as
the primary goal, they also indicated that attending school would be occurring
simultaneously. It was found that the number of females was double the number of males
who indicated that attending school was the primary goal for the upcoming year.

74

2h.

“Describe the type of counselling vou would find most helpful while vou are
trying to secure employment.”
The response options for this item were personal, educational, and career

counselling. Each type o f counselling was accompanied with a brief definition in order to
ensure all respondents had the same perception of the listed counselling types. The
definitions were as follows;
A.

Personal - addresses issues such as relationships, stress, and health,

B.

Educational - program planning, upgrading, course selection, and funding, and

C.

Career - interest inventories, skill assessment, job training, and job search.
Sixty-seven and a one-half percent of the respondents chose only one of the three

coimselling categories, but 32.5% chose multiple categories which may have included
two or three counselling types. Table 13 presents the frequency of responses for each
category and the various combinations that were chosen by respondents.
The results indicated that there was an almost even split between the number of
respondents who chose just personal coimselling, educational counselling, career
counselling, and a combination of the three types of counselling. These choices were
made dependent on the individual’s current circumstance, emotional status, and past
experiences with counselling. These results lead to the conclusion that there is no single
type of counselling that is better or worse, only that the type of counselling must fit the
self-perceived needs of the client.

75
Table 13

Frequency of Responses for Counselling Types Found to be Most Helpful.
Counselling Type

Frequency

Percentage

Personal

9

22.5

Educational

9

22.5

Career

8

20

Personal + Educational

2

5

Personal + Career

2

5

Educational + Career

1

2.5

Personal + Educ. + Career

9

22.5

Total

40

100

2i.

“How has your personal life been affected by being unemployed and receiying
income assistance?”
The response options for this question were; drug abuse, alcohol abuse, poor self­

esteem, relationship problems, health, financial difficulties, and other. Respondents were
permitted to choose any items that they felt were appropriate, resulting in 94 responses
recorded. Table 14 outlines the frequency of responses to the questioned posed regarding
the effects on the respondents’ personal lives by being unemployed and receiving income
assistance.

The “other” response item had 19 respondents and was categorized into the

following groups and percentages: 63% (n = 12) negative emotions, 16% (n = 3) no
change, 10.5% (n = 2) increased stress, and 10.5% (n = 2) being on income assistance has
been helpful.

76

Cross tabulations between the response items and gender, education levels, and
aboriginal status were also conducted. Table 15 presents the results of the cross
tabulation between gender and the response items. Table 16 outlines the results of the
cross tabulation between the level of education of the respondents and the response items.
Table 17 presents the results of the cross tabulation between aboriginal status and the
response items.
Table 14
Frequency of Responses for Effects of Being Unemploved and Receiving Income
Assistance
Response Item

N

%

Financial difficulties

26

27.6

Poor self-esteem

19

20.2

Other

19

20.2

Relationship difficulties

14

14.9

Health

8

8.5

Alcohol abuse

4

4.3

Drug abuse

4

4.3

Total

94

100

77

Table 15

Cross tabulation for Gender and Response Items
Gender
Item

Gender

Male N=17

%

Female N=23

%

Drug abuse

2

12

2

9

Alcohol abuse

2

12

2

9

Poor self-esteem

9

53

10

44

Relationship

5

29

9

39

Health

2

12

6

26

Financial issues

9

53

17

74

As the results in Table 15 indicate, 53% of males and 74% of females chose
financial difficulties as being most affected by being unemployed and receiving income
assistance. Poor self-esteem was also cited as being a side-effect of being unemployed
and receiving income assistance by 53% of males and 44% o f females. Similarly, the
least chosen responses by both genders included drug abuse, alcohol abuse, and health
issues. Females (26%) reported an impact on health double the number of the males
( 12%).

Table 16 outlines the results of the cross tabulation between the education levels
of respondents and the affects of being unemployed and receiving income assistance has
had on their personal lives. As shown by the results in Table 16, all three groups
identified having financial difficulties and poor self-esteem as having the greatest impact
on their personal lives. Respondents with some high school or some college education

78

identified “financial difficulties” as having the most effect on their personal lives.
Respondents with high school graduation identified having “poor self-esteem” as having
the greatest effect on their lives. Fifty percent (n = 11) of the individuals who were
placed in the “secondary” category identified issues with relationships as being the
second most prevalent affect within their personal lives.
Table 16 indicates that respondents felt that abuse o f alcohol had the least impact
on their lives. Respondents within the “high school graduate” and “college” categories
did not identify drug abuse as being an issue but 22% (n = 3) of respondents from the
“secondary” category indicated that drug abuse did have an impact on their personal
lives.
Table 16
Cross tabulation for Level of Education and Response Items
N=7

N = 22

N = 10

Secondary

%

High school
grad

%

College

%

Drug abuse

4

22

0

0

0

0

Alcohol abuse

3

14

0

0

1

10

Poor self-esteem

8

36

5

71

6

60

Relationship

11

50

1

14

2

20

Health

4

18

1

14

3

30

Financial issues

14

64

4

57

8

80

Response Item

Table 17 outlines the results of the cross tabulation conducted between aboriginal
status and the response items. These results indicate the aboriginal respondents chose

79

response items that were similar to those of the other survey respondents. Sixty-one
percent of the aboriginal respondents felt that financial hardship was most prevalent in
their lives, in addition, 56% of aboriginal respondents believed their self-esteem had been
affected by being unemployed and receiving income assistance.
Table 17
Cross tabulation between Aboriginal Status and Response Items
Aboriginal Status
Response Item

Selected

N = 18

Percentage

Drug abuse

4

10

Alcohol abuse

2

11

Poor self-esteem

10

56

Relationship

7

39

Health

5

28

Financial issues

11

61

Two final cross tabulations were conducted in order to examine the relationship
between any changes that may have occurred in the respondents’ thoughts and feelings
and how the respondents’ described these shifts in emotion since becoming unemployed
and in receipt of income assistance. Table 18 presents the results of the cross tabulation
between the changes in the respondents’ thoughts or feelings and the response items.
Table 19 outlines the results of the cross tabulation between the respondents’ descriptions
of the shifts in emotion and the response items.

80
Table 18

Cross tabulation for Changes in Thoughts and Feelings
Item

Fluctuating
N = 7

Total

1
14.3%

4

0

4

0

3
42.9%

19

2

I
14.3%

14

0

2
28.6%

8

2
50.0%

6
85.7%

26

Positive to negative
N = 26

Negative to
positive N = 3

Drug abuse

3
11.5%

0

Alcohol abuse

2
7.7%

1
33.3%

Poor self-esteem

14
53.8%

2
66.7%

Relationships

10
38.5%

1
33.3%

50.0%

6
23.1%

0

18

0

Health

Financial problems

69.2%

N = 4

25.0%

As Table 18 indicates, except for those respondents who felt there were positive
changes since becoming unemployed and receiving income assistance, respondents in the
other three change categories felt financial difficulties and poor self-esteem were the
primary ways in which their lives had been affected. These results coincide with the
cross tabulations between the response items and gender, levels of education, and
aboriginal status.
The results also indicated that the least influence on the respondents’ lives for all
four “change” categories were drug and alcohol abuse. Although it is difficult to
determine whether or not respondents were willing to disclose drug and/or alcohol abuse,
these findings oppose a stereotype sometimes applied to those individuals who are either

81

unemployed or receiving income assistance, or both. The respondents do not perceive
themselves as having difficulties with the consumption of alcohol or drug usage partially
due to the fact that they do not have any money to spend on it. Basic survival takes
precedence over luxuries such as drinking alcohol or maintaining expensive drug habits.
Additionally, respondents who have children stated that tliey used whatever money they
had to feed and clothe their children.
As Table 19 indicates, the primary effect of being unemployed and receiving
income assistance remained to be financial difficulties regardless o f which “shift of
emotions” categoiy^ the respondents have chosen. The second major effect identified by
the respondents within the “roller coaster” and “flat” categories was poor self-esteem.
This was consistent with the other cross tabulations previously outlined. However, the
“yo-yo” category respondents maintained that relationship difficulties were more
prevalent. Since the sample size was so small, there were not any significant statistical
differences found between the three categories.
Table 19
Cross tabulation for Shifts in Emotions
Flat
N = 12

Roller eoaster
N = 19

Yo-vo
N =9

Drug abuse

3
15.8%

0

Alcohol abuse

3
15.8%

0

I
8.3%

Poor self-esteem

12
63.2%

4
44.4%

3
25.0%

Relationships

6
31.6%

55Î6%

3
25.0%

Health

3
15.8%

4
44.4%

1
8.3%

Financial problems

14
73.7%

6
66.7%

6
50.0%

Item

8.3%

82

A number of statements can be made regarding the results in this section. In
general, all of the results indicated that experiencing financial difficulties and struggling
with poor self-esteem were the major problems of being unemployed and in receipt of
long-term income assistance. More specifically, it was found that between genders,
levels of education, aboriginal stams, and changes in thoughts and feelings, the most
common affects were financial difficulties and poor self-esteem. Exceptions to these
findings included those respondents who just had some secondary level of education and
those respondents who had identified the “yo-yo” category when describing their shifts in
emotions. These two groups identified having relationship difficulties as being the
second major result of being unemployed and in receipt of income assistance.
2j.

“If vou went to see a counsellor, what would vou expect him or her to do?”
This open ended question was designed to gather information regarding the

respondents’ perceptions of the roles of the coimsellor. The 102 responses were
categorized into 5 areas that are listed in the following rank order; 41% (n = 42)
supportive, 20% (n = 20) respectful, 17% (n = 17) provide direction and guidance, 12%
(n = 12) knowledgeable, and 11% (n = 11) good listener.
Respondents identified items such as being encouraging, friendly, kind, and
providing positive feedback as being elements of a counsellor who was supportive. The
responses that were placed into the “respectful” category included statements such as:
“treat me like a person and not a number,” “don’t treat me like I’m defrauding the
system,” “honesty,” and “treat me with dignity.” Respondents who expected a counsellor
to provide them with direction and guidance identified the following items for

83

consideration: help to explore career and educational options, give suggestions for good
resumes and cover letters, and give directions on how to access community resources.
For those respondents whose responses were placed in the “knowledgeable”
category, they expected counsellors to be knowledgeable about resources regarding job
search strategies, education options, and how to meet the Ministry of Human Resources
expectations. The “good listener” category included the expectations a counsellor would
listen to a client’s story without bias and be empathetic to his/her situation. Sometimes
respondents would identify their experiences with other counsellors which always
included either Social Workers or Financial Assistance Workers. The most common
statements regarding this group of service providers involved around not being afforded
basic respect or support.
The study has found that respondents expect counsellors, including Ministry
persoimel such as Financial Assistance Workers and Social Workers, to be first and
foremost, supportive. Supportive was a term used to accompany behaviours that
included active listening, compassion, and honesty. Respondents wished to be treated as
human beings who are trying to make adjustments in their personal lives and careers.
They adamantly challenged the idea that they were trying to stay on income assistance
instead of going to work. “We don’t receive enough money to survive as it is!”

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CHAPTER 5 - DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter contains a discussion of implications of the research findings and
recommendations for further research. The information will be presented within the
context of other studies that have been conducted on the impacts of being unemployed.
Klein, Amimdson, & Borgen’s (1992) study will be the primary context for the discussion
relating to individuals who are not only unemployed but also receiving income assistance.
Discussion
Klein, Amundson, and Borgen’s (1992) study using participants who were
receiving income assistance foimd that, for the majority of respondents, there was not any
evidence of an “emotional roller coaster” as described in tlieir earlier studies. This study
does not support BClein et al.’s (1992) findings. Conversely, it has foimd that there is
strong evidence of an “emotional roller coaster” as described by Borgen and Amundson
(1984, 1987), which demonstrated the phenomena of respondents gradual positive and
negative emotional shifts. Respondents for this study almost matched the mean age and
education level of Klein et al.’s (1992) study. However they were dissimilar in the fact
that they were not participating in any formal job find program at the time the survey was
conducted and the participants were from the Prince George area.
The participants in this study do experience the swings of emotion categorized as
an “emotional roller coaster” as reported by Borgen and Amundson (1984, 1987) even
though the respondents are not of the same subgroup. The “yo-yo” effect findings are
also supported by this study and found to be consistent with the findings of Borgen and
Amundson (1984, 1987) showing that respondents had little control over their emotions.

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It should be emphasized that the majority of these respondents are females who indicated
they are struggling with relationships and the frustration of trying over and over to find
work. These respondents report that a lack of education and support are the key factors
in the rapid shifts of emotions.
This study does support Klein et al.’s (1992) findings that a “flat” experience of
unemployment is described by some individuals. It is found to be the second most
prevalent response within this study and is generally reported by respondents who state
that there has been little emotional change since becoming unemployed and receiving
income assistance. Such participants feel generally sad or despondent and exhibit
behaviours consistent with Peterson, Seligman, and Vaillant’s (1988) findings that after
extended periods of time of unemployment and sustained unproductive job search people
experience a loss of personal power and develop pervasive feelings o f helplessness.
A number of studies (Amundson and Borgen, 1987, 1988; Borgen and Amundson,
1987; Klein, Amundson, and Borgen, 1992) reported that the respondents’ experiences of
being unemployed and receiving income assistance were negative and appeared to be
long-term and chronic in nature. This study found an extremely high percentage of
respondents feel that their overall thoughts and feelings experienced a downward trend
from being positive to negative.
Respondents state that financial difficulties have the most negative affect on their
lives since the time they became unemployed and began to receive income assistance.
Poor self-esteem and the increase in negative emotions also have had a significant impact
on their lives. These effects perpetuate the downward cycle of emotions and negatively

86

affect the respondents’ abilities to take positive action with respect to seeking
employment and successfully attaining a position.
The consequences for individuals who have had to struggle with these types of
negative impacts include the need to have fairly long-term interventions and supports put
into place beyond what just being employed can do for an individual. The long-term
effects of despair, low self-esteem, and helplessness create the need for support that
entails addressing the entire person, not just compartmentalizing segments of an
individual’s life.
In three other studies (Amundson and Borgen, 1987,1988; Borgen and
Amundson, 1987) it was found that about 25% of participants had taken part in some type
of group counselling and all of them reported that the experience had been extremely
positive. In this study, only 3% of the participants indicate that attending a group would
be helpful. Instead, participants prefer individual coimselling primarily for personal and
educational issues. Career counselling can be done on either an individual basis or in a
group depending on the level of self-confidence of the individuals.
O f group counselling, Klein et al. (1992) stated “it is essential that the activities go
beyond the delivery of technical information and job finding techniques...there should be
a number o f activities designed to foster a sense of group support and to assist clients in
raising their levels of self-esteem and hopefulness.” The findings o f this study support
that statement based on the perceived need of the respondents who identify support from
family and friends, and maintaining a positive attitude, as being important to successfully
finding employment. Additionally, it has been found that respondents rate their ability to

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perform labour market research and developing resumes as being very poor. The primary
reason for rating themselves poorly is a lack of knowledge and/or skills. Fortunately,
these activities can be adequately addressed within a group setting with the added bonus
of making coimections with others and developing a support network for job search
activities.
Although group counselling has had proven positive effects on participants, this
population must be approached with a number of factors in mind. The most notable
factor was that all of the respondents have already been mandated to attend at least two
groups which focussed on goal setting and job search activities. The majority of the
respondents do not feel the groups help them to secure employment and have a negative
view of them which, in turn, creates a lack of interest in attending other group sessions.
It is also felt that the mandated nature of the groups are disrespectful and humiliating.
Thus, respondents do not wish to be put in such a situation again. As found by Kirsh
(1983), these individuals are faced with myths and stereotypes that typify them as been
too lazy to work, too unreliable to maintain a steady job, or as dishonest individuals who
are trying to defraud the income assistance system.
Respondents also want to sort out issues which affect their self-confidence before
feeling comfortable within a group setting. It has been clearly established that by being a
long-term income assistance recipient much of an individual’s sense of self-worth and
pride is stripped away the longer one remains unemployed and on income assistance.
Forty-two and one-half percent of respondents feel they only have some control over their
lives, mostly in relationships. The strain of financial difficulties and the impact it has on

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all facets of an individual and family tends to increase the loss of a sense of control. It
has been found that people who were struggling to buy food and clothing, pay for utilities
and rent, feel they have little control over how to make ends meet from month to month.
The most frequently mentioned factor that would assist people to become
employed and be self-sustaining is education. The majority of respondents feel that
upgrading their education including high school graduation, post secondary certificates or
diplomas, industry training, and on-the-job training are most helpful in securing
employment. Respondents state that their primary goal for the upcoming year is to attend
school, followed by gaining employment. Overall, the males want to secure employment
and the females are interested in completing some level of education (usually a high
school diploma) in order to better meet the needs of employers.
It has been found that the higher the level of education of the respondents the more
likely it is that they want to attend school. There is a sense that the female respondents
want to gain the skills and knowledge required to secure employment that provides
opportunities for advancement and increased earnings. The male respondents are
concerned with earning money immediately in order to support themselves and their
families. They do recognize that receiving additional training is critical but lack the funds
to do so. If financial and emotional support were available all respondents would like to
attend school or training in order to make themselves more marketable. So, even though
the primary focus by MHR for individuals who are in receipt of income assistance is to
secure employment, it is felt by the recipients that steady work can only be acquired due,
in large part, to increasing their level of education. This is where the system and its

89

clients have a difference of opinion which could be inadvertently tying people to the
income assistance system for indefinite periods of time. The mandate for MHR is for
individuals to secure employment, not to attend school. Thus, often there is a conflict
between what the client feels is needed to become employable and the policies of the
system which do not necessarily recognize the importance of advancing one’s level of
education.
These results contradict the document Profiles o f Welfare: Myths and Realities
(1998) which indicate that lack of work is the primary reason for remaining on income

assistance in more than fifty percent of the situations. In this study, twenty five percent
of respondents cite a poor economy as being an impacting factor and fifty percent of the
respondents state lack o f an adequate level of education is causing them to remain on
income assistance. Profiles o f Welfare: M yths and Realities (1998), did not have any
information on the current level of education for individuals receiving income assistance
in British Columbia. This study foimd that the majority of participants have a grade 10 or
11 level o f education which makes it very difficult for them to secure employment.
Employers within the Prince George area are demanding that applicants and current
employees have the minimum of a high school diploma in order to be considered for an
interview, promotion, or in some cases, to maintain current employment. Thus, it is very
difficult for individuals who have not graduated to even have an opportunity to discuss
employment possibilities with potential employers. This perpetuates the feelings of
finistration, low self-esteem, and hopelessness which typically accompany being
unemployed and receiving income assistance.

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This study has found that eighty percent of respondents know exactly what type of
job they want to do and are in the process of seeking out ways to access the education
and training they desire. Respondents state they are confident in their employment
choices based primarily on past experience either in the field or one closely related to it.
Once again, financial constraints often hinder the individual’s ability to access education.
Issues such as the lack of transportation and access to affordable day care are commonly
discussed. Respondents are concerned that these issues are not adequately addressed by
the current system since the focus has been on employment, not access to training and
education.
Amundson and Borgen (1988) found that the downward emotional slide associated
with job search occurred between 2 and 6 months after the individual became
unemployed, and job search support would be most effective in curtailing the downward
trend if provided between 1 and 3 months after becoming unemployed. The results of
this study support the idea that job search support should be offered almost immediately.
This study found that the vast majority of respondents want to receive job search support
and career counselling immediately upon being in receipt of income assistance. It should
be noted that individuals who apply for income assistance must have exhausted all of
their financial options and have spent a period of time looking for work already. Income
assistance is not granted to people who have accumulated assets. They must be destitute
before any ongoing assistance is provided. Respondents believe they would be more
effective with their job search if support was provided more quickly. By the time
assistance is offered respondents already are suffering from low self-esteem, helplessness.

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and are in extreme financial difficulties. If individuals are to have increased chances in
securing employment they must be in a frame o f mind and have the resources available to
effectively market and present themselves in a marmer that will encourage employers to
hire them. When an individual is maintaining negative and self-defeating feelings and
thoughts, there is little likelihood that they will be able to market themselves to an
employer. This rejection, in turn, not only continues but also reinforces the negative
downward cycle of the individual.
Within the current system, individuals must be in Phase II (7 to 9 months on
income assistance) in order to access any type o f job search support. This study, along
with Amundson and Borgen (1988) and others, has found that immediate intervention is
critical if the pervasive negative effect of being unemployed and on income assistance is
to be minimized. The longer individuals are left on their own to struggle through job
search activities, coping with the emotional upheaval that accompanies job loss and
subsequent financial difficulties that lead to receiving income assistance, and the career
planning ± a t needs to be an integral part of becoming employable again, the more
difficult it becomes for their currently existing supports to be effective and the greater the
cost to the them financially and emotionally. It becomes a vicious circle in which some
people cannot separate themselves and may require support from professionals such as
personal, career, and educational counsellors.
This study has found that all respondents believe that receiving either personal,
educational, career counselling, or a combination of all three, is helpful. There is an even
split between the four categories which indicates that their belief is dependent on the

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length of time a person was receiving income assistance, personal issues, and the level of
education of an individual. A number of studies (Amundson & Borgen, 1987, 1988;
Borgen & Amundson, 1987; Fumham, 1983; Klein, Amundson, & Borgen, 1992;
Waxman, 1983), have reported that group and individual counselling in these areas can
slow down and even reverse the negative effects of being on income assistance and
increase an individual’s self-perception as well as their ability to conduct job search
activities. This study has confirmed the findings of the other studies which stated that
people who receive income assistance face a greater social stigma than individuals who
are just unemployed. The perception that these individuals are “defrauding the system”,
are “too lazy to get a job”, and are “just another number” reflect the type o f treatment
which has been reported by respondents. This treatment further ostracizes individuals
and reinforces their sense of worthlessness. It also is not conducive to developing a
supportive relationship between the service provider and the individual which, in turn,
nullifies any positive effects from receiving personal, educational, or career counselling.
In this study, respondents frequently refer to the negative experiences they
encounter when dealing with government workers or counsellors within the public sector.
If individuals are to work with a counsellor on any issue, they expect the counsellor to be
supportive and respectful. They want to be treated with dignity while being given
guidance with respect to educational planning and career exploration. Respondents are
adamant that they do not choose to be in receipt of income assistance and ask for help in
working within a system that they feel is not addressing their best interests.

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Respondents have a plan that they feel will lead to employment but can not secure
either the emotional or financial support to carry it out. For many, they also have to deal
with deeply entrenched personal issues before they can feasiblely carry out either an
educational plan or effectively conduct job search activities. Unfortunately, people who
are emotionally destitute appear to fall between the cracks within the current income
assistance system. These individuals are incapable of seeking or maintaining
employment due to their emotional fragility, yet they are in a situation in which they must
continue to try to gain employment. Allowances can be made for individuals who are
able to prove they are mentally or physically incapable of working but this is for a limited
period o f time. Sometimes it takes longer than a few months to sort out and deal with
potentially years of poor self-esteem and negative beliefs about oneself.
Responses to the Research Questions
This study was conducted in order to answer two broad research questions: (I)
What do people who are long-term income assistance recipients find helpful and
hindering when seeking employment? and (2) What are the implications for counselling
income assistance recipients? The results of the structured survey have created a
framework within which responses to each of the research questions can be organized as
follows.
The overwhelming answer to what respondents find most helpful is education.
Access to a higher level o f education has been deemed to be most helpful and the lack of
education has been identified as being the greatest hindering factor when trying to secure
employment. It has been found that attaining post-secondary certificates and diplomas

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are the most helpful types of education when looking for employment. The majorit>' of
respondents have completed some secondary school, usually around a grade 10 level, and
this has proven to be a limiting factor that is not easily corrected.
Poor self-esteem has also been found to be a very powerful hindering factor that
impacts the respondents’ ability to conduct effective job search activities which,
consequently, impedes their successful acquisition of employment. Respondents feel that
low self-confidence is a product of being chronically unemployed and struggling
financially for a long period of time. Further, they see themselves as worthless human
beings who can not compete with the working people o f society.
Respondents feel strongly that job search support and career counselling should
start immediately after an individual has begun to receive income assistance. Currently,
individuals receiving income assistance must wait for a specified period of time before
such aid is approved. Respondents feel this is a hindering factor that increases the degree
with which poor self-esteem, low motivation and depression occurs in their lives.
Respondents believe that immediate job search support and career counselling helps
provide them with the skills and planning required to successfully secure employment
more quickly than if they have to struggle on their own. Thus, securing employment is
not just a matter of being at the right place at the right time. It is a matter of receiving the
type of support necessary to break down the barricades such as a lack of education and
poor self-esteem fostered by being unsuccessful in securing stable employment.
The results indicate a number of implications for counselling individuals who are
long-term social assistance recipients. The findings show that a vast majority of

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respondents describe changes in their thoughts and feelings from being positive to
negative and that these changes are much like a roller coaster. This information gives
counsellors an understanding of the general attitudes and the nature of the severity with
which the experience of being chronically unemployed and being in receipt of income
assistance might have on an individual.
The results that show respondents perceive that they only have some control over
their employment situations and other areas of tlieir lives also have counselling
implications. A counsellor will be able to take the perception that clients may feel like
they do not have control over their employment situation and teach them how to take
command of their job search activities.
It has been found that respondents have the most difficulty completing job search
activities such as conducting labour market research, writing a resume, and marketing
themselves. Having this knowledge suggests that counsellors should investigate a client’s
job search skills and be able to provide access to resources that will increase the client’s
ability to conduct an effective job search. Additionally, the information gathered in this
study encourages counsellors to examine an individual’s level of self-confidence and
assist in improving the client’s view of themselves and their abilities.
The results also clearly indicate that the respondents’ primary goal for the year is
to increase their level of education. Counsellors working with this population need to be
able to either gain access to educational information or be able to refer clients to the
appropriate resources so that this option can be explored.

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In summary, this study has successfully gathered information that answers both
research questions and allows for recommendations to be formulated in relation to
counselling individuals who are unemployed and have been receiving income assistance
for a long period of time. The following section will discuss the implications for
counselling and offer recommendations in a more specific marmer
Implications and Recommendations
This research has provided information for working with individuals who have
been on income assistance for a long period of time. It has confirmed some findings of
specific studies and contradicted others. In conclusion, the following is a presentation of
some implications and recommendations for counselling individuals who have been
chronically unemployed and in receipt of long-term income assistance.
It is important to recognize the diversity of individuals’ experiences of being
unemployed and receiving income assistance for a long period of time. These individuals
may be dealing with multiple issues on financial, personal, and emotional levels.
Affording them emotional support and respect will lay the foundation for further
development of self-esteem and an ability to not only create a career/educational plan but
also to follow through with it. A variety of approaches will need to be used to address
negative self-statements, lack of self-confidence, and a new sense of hope. Counsellors
who focus on the needs of the client and provide guidance, not directives, will encourage
them to try new ideas and focus on trying to expand positive experiences within their
lives.

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In the author’s opinion, if counsellors wish to be able to address the needs of the
client, it is critical for them to be familiar with counselling theories that are applicable to
their roles with clients and are consistent with their personal beliefs and style of
counselling. A counsellor’s theoretical stance reflects his/her conceptual framework for
understanding and examining factors which influence career choice(s) and career
development, how and why people make the choices they do, how and why they react to
changes, as well as when and how to provide meaningful interventions (Crozier, Dobbs,
Douglas, & Hung; 1999). The same concept applies to those counsellors who are also
addressing personal and educational issues.
The provision of job search support and career counselling may be an invaluable
tool but the readiness of participants must be assessed prior to their involvement. If an
individual is overly reticent or emotionally unprepared to function within a group setting
it will be another negative experience that will be cause an increased feeling of despair.
Sometimes individuals will require one-one work with a counsellor prior to being
introduced to a group process. It should be acknowledged that, depending on the
individual, continued one-one support should also be offered and maintained if it is
deemed necessary.
Job search support and counselling should be introduced to individuals as soon as
possible after beginning to receive income assistance. The counselling may include
personal, career, and educational components. These components are interrelated and
will most likely be part of the counselling process. It is important to address personal
issues either prior to, depending on the degree of severity for the individual, or during the

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job search, educational planning, and/or implementation stages.
Due to the pervasiveness of personal problems associated with the unemployment
experience and receiving income assistance, counsellors should receive training in
addressing specific issues such as low self-esteem, depression, and negative self-thoughts.
An integral part of the training should be communication skills, primarily effective
listening practices. Clients need to be allowed to describe their experiences to someone
who will listen and respect their situation.
Counsellors should consider themselves to be advocates for the individuals with
whom they are involved. Issues such as; access to education and training, transportation,
and affordable daycare for students are critical for those individuals who require
additional education and training in order to be more marketable in the workforce.
Counsellors should assist potential students with choosing career paths, identify
appropriate training, alternate funding sources, and other resources that will encourage
academic and personal success.
In order to ensure an individual is taught the necessary job search skills, the
counsellor needs to either possess sufficient knowledge and skills or at least be
knowledgeable regarding community resources. Having the ability to conduct labour
market research, develop a strong resume, and market one’s skills and abilities during an
interview are imperative if an individual is to successfully secure employment. The
counsellor must stay current, especially when attempting to assist clients in developing a
resume. The resume must suit the job and present the skills of the individual in the most
comprehensive and appealing manner.

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Limitations
A number of limitations have been noted within this study. Although the sample
size in this study is larger than the study done by Klein et al. (1992), interviewing more
individuals would allow for a more representative sample.
A second limitation lies in the type of population being targeted. It is often
difficult to contact individuals due to the lack of access to a telephone and the possible
frequent movement from one location to another. It has been noted that individuals who
are in receipt o f income assistance will choose to not have a telephone due to the inability
to pay the bills. For this population, having a telephone is often considered to be a
luxury.
This study was interested in people who were both unemployed and receiving
income assistance on a long-term basis. Due to the population being studied and the
design of the survey questions, it was not possible to separate individuals into those who
were just unemployed and those who were just receiving income assistance.
There could have been an effect of methodology because this study was comparing
across methodologies. The literature reviewed utilized a phenomenological and critical
incident methodology which were largely qualitative. This study used a structured survey
that was quantitative in nature. A limited number of open-ended questions were included
in order to allow the respondents the opportunity to elaborate on responses or discuss
issues that were specific to their circumstance. The answers were then categorized
according to themes and quantified from that point.

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Future Research
Within this field of research there are an unlimited number of questions that can be
answered. The following is a list of questions that may be posed in other research related
to individuals who are long-term income assistance recipients:
a)

How old were you when you had your first child?

b)

How has being on long-term income assistance affected your success in
training/educational settings?

c)

What is the relationship between the initial effect of job loss and prolonged
periods of unemployment?

d)

What makes it easier for an individual to stay on income assistance instead of
securing employment? What are the implications for an individual’s self­
perception and feelings about society?

e)

There is a need to conduct a study that is able to separate impacts of
unemployment from receiving income assistance. Perhaps a study on just those
individuals who are unemployed would provide some helpful information for
career counsellors.

f)

Is there a gender effect on unemployment? Do women and men experience
unemployment differently? What does employment mean to each individual?

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Appendix A - Structured Survey
The following demographic information was obtained;
1.

Date of birth: month, day, year

2.

Gender: Male, Female

3.

Marital status: single, married, separated, divorced, common law, widowed

4.

Number of dependents (18 years and under): 0, 1, 2, 3, 4+

5.

Ages of dependents: 1 - 7 years, 8 - 1 8 years (Parents who have children under 7
years, can go to school if they have an acceptable plan).

6.

Highest level of education: elementary, secondary, high school graduate, college,
trade/technical, imiversity

7.

Start date of receiving income assistance

8.

Disability (describe)

9.

Type of work done (open ended)

10.

Aboriginal: Metis, non-status, status

11.

Activities in the past year: employed (part time, full time), school (part time, full
time), seeking employment, other (describe)

The following questions were posed.
1.

Since becoming unemployed and receiving income assistance, how would you
describe changes, if any, in your overall thoughts and feelings?
- positive to negative, negative to positive, no change, fluctuates between positive
and negative

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Rationale: To see if there has been a downward slide as identified in literature and to gain
an understanding o f the general attitude about being unemployed.
2.

If there has been a change, how would you describe these shifts in emotion? Were
they:
- like a roller coaster - shifting between anger, anxiety, determination, hope,
loneliness?
- like a yo-yo - sudden, rapid shifts in emotion like feeling fine to being furious, or
bursting into tears, no control of your emotions?
- flat - little change in emotions, feel sad or upset as a general rule?

Rationale: To find out if participant can identify feelings in terms of language used within
the literature and determine if emotional shifts are severe, moderate, or low in intensity.
3.

What would you find most helpful in trying to become employed?
- support from family, support from friends, maintain positive thinking, attending a
group, counselling support, other

Rationale: A pointed way of answering the “helpful” part of my research question, get a
sense of what is important to the participant.
4.

What are factors that have been preventing you from getting employed?
-transportation, childcare, experience, education, money, economy, lack of support
from family/friends, don’t know what you want to do, disability, ethnic minority,
other (describe)

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Rationale: Answered, in a basic way, the “hindering” part of the research question,
become aware of sources of stress for participant and set the stage for additional
questioning.
5.

What is your biggest barrier to becoming employed?
- transportation, child care, experience, education, money, economy, lack of
support from family/friends, disability, don’t know what you want to do, ethnic
minority, other (describe)

Rationale: Pinpointed participant’s largest barrier and point of contention; informed my
recommendations in the discussion section (counselling implications).
6a.

On a scale from 1 to 5, 1 being very confident and 5 being very unsure, how
confident do you feel about doing the following job search activities:
- writing a resume
- how to search for employment
- contacting employers
- marketing your skills and abilities
- doing an interview
- doing labour market research
- knowing what type of job you want to do

6b.

For your poorest skill, why do you think that you are poor at it?

6c.

For your best skill, why do you think you are good at it?

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Rationale: Literature indicated there were difficulties in this area for specific groups such
as immigrants, youth, and women entering the workforce. Therefore I wanted to identify
patterns for this group which are more complicated due to being long-term income
assistance recipients. I also wanted to know where participants feel they have difficulties
in seeking employment so I could discuss this situation with respect to counselling this
group.
7a.

Describe the amount of control you believe you have over your employment
situation.
- none, very little, some, a lot, total

7b.

Has this always been the case?
- no, yes, sometimes

7c.

How much control do you think you have over other areas in you life?
- none, very little, some, total

7d.

Can you describe the areas you are thinking of ? (List them)

Rationale: If I know how much control they believe they have it will give a point of
reference when discussing the results and counselling implications. Feeling like you have
control over a situation tends to enable you to handle it in a more effective and positive
manner.
8.

What is your primary goal for this year?
- employment, school, have a child, get married, get off of income assistance,
health, other

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Rationale: I wanted to know if they are even able to see into the future and how related
the goal was to securing employment. This, in conjunction with the question about the
best timing for support, feelings of confidence in Job search etc. allowed me to make
observations on how being on long-term lA effects one’s ability to plan for the future.
9.

When do you think job search support and career counselling should start to be
provided to people who receive income assistance?
- immediately, 1 - 3 months, 4 - Tmonths, 8 - 1 0 months, 11 months or more

Rationale: How well have the participants’ job search and career development needs been
met by the current system? Do their perceptions match the literature’s view that support
should be put into place within the first three months?
10.

What type of training and education do you think would be most helpful to you?
- high school graduation, industry training, job search support, on-the-job training,
certificate or diplomas, university degree, other (describe)

Rationale: What do participants think they need to become employable? Their
experience in looking for work will inform them so it will be helpful for me to know what
is experienced when this group seeks employment. I wanted to know if their perceptions
are the same as what I perceive is needed (from an employment counsellor’s perspective).
11.

Describe the type of counselling you would find the most helpful while you are
trying to secure employment.
- personal, educational, career

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Rationale: Is there one type of counselling this group acknowledges as being helpful for
seeking employment? 1 was curious to see if participants perceived there was a
connection with a particular type of counselling and employment.
12.

How has your personal life been effected by being unemployed and on income
assistance?
- drug abuse, alcohol abuse, poor self-esteem, relationship problems, health,
financial difficulties, other (describe)

Rationale: What personal factors effect participants’ ability to seek and secure
employment? Which factors appear most often in responses? This may indicate
“flags” to watch for when counselling. In order to successfully secure and maintain
employment some of these issues must be addressed prior to or simultaneously with
employment.
13.

If you went to see a counsellor, what would you expect them to do? (open
ended)

Rationale: I wanted to know their expectations in order to discuss what may be
expected of counsellors. I wanted a clarification on these expectations so I could
identify realistic roles of the counsellor when working with this population. Does what
the client wants match up with what the counsellor actually does?